Extension Bulletin E-1431 • Major Revision April 1988 85C

STORED GRAINMANAGEMENT

Roger C. Brook and Dennis G. WatsonDepartment of Agricultural Engineering

Michigan State University

P roper storage facilities

and good management

practices are important for

successful short-term or year-

round grain storage. Mold

growth and insect infestation

are the most common causes

of spoilage in stored grain.

The growth of these orga-

nisms is often the result of

improper management of

grain moisture content and

temperature. This publication

covers structural considera-

tions in grain storage, grain

aeration equipment, potential

grain storage problems and

proper stored grain manage-

ment practices.

POTENTIAL GRAINSTORAGE PROBLEMS

A grain manager needs tounderstand potential grain stor-age problems and their causes.Mold growth and insect infesta-tion are the causes of grain spoil-age. Both these problems can beaggravated when moisture migra-tion results in pockets of warm,moist grain.

Mold growth andinsect infestation

The starch in the grain kernel isa food source for grain storagemolds and insects. Broken ker-nels are more susceptible to moldgrowth than whole, undamagedkernels. Grain storage moldsgrow rapidly in 80 to 90 degree Ftemperatures; temperaturesbelow 55 degrees F substantiallyreduce mold growth. Most stor-age molds require the presenceof moisture at greater than nor-mal levels for storage (greaterthan 17 percent for corn, forexample). An important excep-tion is the mold responsible forblue-eye damage, which can grow

on corn with moistures as low as14 percent if the com tempera-ture is high enough. Other stor-age molds will generally not be aproblem if the grain is properlydried and the grain moisture doesnot increase during storagebecause of moisture migrationand/or water leaks.

Storage insects attack wholeand broken kernels. Grain storageinsects thrive in 80 to 85 degreeF temperatures. Keeping graintemperatures at 55 degrees F orlower greatly reduces the rate ofinsect growth and the risk ofinsect infestation in stored grain.Low storage temperatures will notkill all insect adults and larvae inthe stored grain but will force theinsects into dormancy and pre-vent their reproduction.

Though the average moisturecontent of stored grain may be ata safe level, pockets of highermoisture grain will develop stor-age problems. These wet spots,often the result of moisturemigration, can become sites of

COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE • MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

mold and insect activity. Moldactivity raises grain temperature,which increases and spreadsmold development and fostersinsect infestation.

Moisture migrationMoisture migration can occur

in grain storage facilities whenthe temperature differencebetween the grain and the outsideair is greater than 15 degrees F(see Fig. 1). As the outside airtemperature drops in the fall,grain near the external wall of thestorage facility cools. The cooled,dense air along the outside of thegrain mass flows downward andwarm air in the center rises.When the rising warm air encoun-ters cold grain at the top of thegrain mass, the air cools andmoisture condenses on the grain.The moisture accumulation nearthe top center of the grain massresults in mold growth and insectinfestation. Similar air currentsoccur if the grain is too cold dur-ing warm weather. Moisturemigration is a slow process,becoming noticeable only after aperiod of weeks. The key to con-trolling moisture migration is tocontrol grain temperature.

FIG. 1. Sharp differences in outsideair and grain temperatures cause airmovement and moisture migrationthrough grain. (A) In winter, cool airpushes warm air up through thecenter of the grain mass. When thewarm air reaches the cool grain ontop, moisture condenses andaccumulates on grain just below thetop of the grain mass. (B) In summer,a reverse air movement occurs.Proper grain aeration is essential tocontrol moisture migration.

p^PL

''•'Z'rVif: COLD AIR/££;S\ SETTLES

STRUCTURAL CONSIDERATIONS

Grain storage structures mustbe capable of holding the grainand protecting it from deteriora-tion by weather, pests and otherdestructive agents. Locate stor-age structures on high groundwith adequate drainage to avoidflooding.

Grain stores most easily in spe-cially constructed grain bins (seeFig. 2). Silos or buildings used forgrain storage will require some

modification of the floor, side-walls and/or roof. (Contact yourlocal Extension office for copiesof bulletins AEIS-258 andAEIS-478, which describerequired modifications of silosand buildings, respectively.)

Install a temperature monitor-ing system for storage facilitiescontaining over 30,000 bushels.A monitoring system consists of

temperature-sensing cables and aconveniently located monitor fortemperature display. The primaryadvantages of grain temperaturemonitors are convenience and theability to measure temperatureswhere probing is difficult. Temper-ature monitoring systems arebest used to determine the statusof aeration cycles. They do notreplace a grain inspection pro-gram during storage.

FIG. 2. An adequate grain storagestructure consists of: (A) sidewallscapable of withstanding grainpressure, (B) leak-proof roof,(C) exhaust vents, (D) aeration fan,(E) aeration distribution system,(F) unloading auger and (G) sweepauger.

AERATION EQUIPMENT

Provide sufficient airflow forproper grain temperature control.The common airflow designationis cubic feet of air per minute perbushel (CFM/bu) of grain in stor-age. Dry, farm-stored grainsrequire a delivered airflow of 1/10to 1/5 CFM/bu. Clean grain-grain with broken kernels andtrash removed—at an acceptablestorage moisture stores well withan airflow of 1/10 CFM/bu. Grainstored at higher than recom-mended moisture or poor qualitygrain requires an airflow of 1/5CFM/bu for adequate tempera-ture control.

Aeration typesAeration systems use either

upward (pressure) or downward(suction) airflow. From a man-agement perspective, the best air-flow system uses upward airflowor pressure aeration. An upwardairflow system exhausts air at thetop of the storage where you caneasily observe airflow patternsand cooling rates. The comple-tion of cooling is easily monitoredby measuring the temperature inthe grain near the top. Anotheradvantage is that heat from warmgrain added to the storage willnot warm previously cooled grain.Upward airflow is desirable dur-ing cooling because it conditionsgrain on the bottom, whereinspection is difficult, the longest.Heat from the fan in an upwardairflow system raises the temper-ature and lowers the relativehumidity of the air, so aerationcan proceed at times when airconditions would be too cool orhumid. Upward airflow provides

more uniform distribution of airthrough the shallow layers ofgrain served by long aerationducts in flat storage.

A downward airflow or suctionaeration system expels air outsidethe storage, where moisture can-not condense on cold surfaces. Adownward airflow can be used ina ducted aeration system in par-tially filled storages if you coverthe exposed ducts and shallowdepths of grain with plasticsheets. A similar approach to air-flow management can also helpto direct aeration air to troubleareas or hot spots in the grainmass when using plastic coversover part of the grain surface.

Aeration distributionand fans

Various aeration distributionsystems can be successfully usedto maintain proper grain tempera-tures. A totally perforated metaldrying floor offers the best distri-bution system for flat-bottomgrain bins. It also provides theflexibility to use the storage forin-bin drying or dryeration.

A partially perforated floor isthe next best alternative. Install asquare section of perforatedmetal in the center of the binfloor with side length equal toone-half of bin diameter. A below-surface duct supplies air to thiscenter area for distributionthroughout the grain.

Ducts are commonly used asdistribution systems for aerationin buildings. Ducts set below floor

level (flush-floor ducts) are not ahindrance during grain removal.Round or half-round ducts placedon the floor (on-floor ducts)hinder unloading of the storage.

Either axial or centrifugal fanswill provide sufficient airflow ingrain drying and aeration sys-tems. An axial fan is suitable forstatic pressures of up to 4 inchesof water. The primary advantageof axial fans is lower cost; theprimary disadvantage is the highnoise level. The primary advan-tages of centrifugal fans are theirquiet operation and their ability tooperate at static pressures above4 inches of water; the primarydisadvantage is the higher costthan axial flow fans for the samedelivered airflow.

Provide sufficient exhaust areato remove moist air from the stor-age facility. Inlet or exhaust area iscritical, regardless of airflow direc-tion, and should be at least 1square foot per 1,000 CFM of airsupplied. The inlet or exhaustarea must be evenly distributedaround the perimeter of thestorage.

Aeration system components,including ducts and fans, must belarge enough to provide properairflow for the type and conditionof the stored grain. Multiply thenumber of bushels of grain in stor-age by the required airflow inCFM/bu to determine the total air-flow needed. The condition of thegrain and the size of the storagefacility determines the numberand size of ducts required. (Con-tact your local Extension officefor more details on fan and ductsizing for grain storage.)

GRAIN MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

Proper management practicesare essential to successful stor-age of grain in bins, silos or otherbuildings. Grain should be clean,dry and cool to help prevent lossin quality during storage. Storedgrain management responsibili-ties consist of storage prepara-tion, grain aeration and graininspection.

Storage preparationStart by thoroughly cleaning

the storage and grain-handlingequipment. Remove trash anddebris from the storage andequipment (see Fig. 3). Take spe-cial care to clean under the aera-tion floor. A worthwhile preven-tive measure to deter insectdevelopment is to use an insectspray on the interior of the stor-age facility before filling it withgrain. This is particularly impor-tant if you cannot thoroughly

Table 1. Recommended moisture content for storageof good quality grain.

Through winter(Until April)

Throughsummer

Shelled cornSoybeansEdible beansWheat, rye, barley, oatsSunflower seeds

1514181410

141216138

clean under the false floor orwithin the aeration ducts. Use agrain protectant for insect controlon grain stored through thesummer and for grain stored formore than one year. (Contactyour local Extension office forcopies of bulletin E-934, "Protect-ing Stored Grains from Insects,"and CISDA marketing bulletin 72,"Grain Protectants for InsectControl," for more information oninsect control.)

Proper harvest is the first stepin obtaining clean, high qualitygrain. Follow the manufacturer'srecommendations for combineadjustments and check themregularly. Maintain the recom-mended ground speed to avoidoverloading the combine andcausing grain breakage. Brokengrain is more susceptible to moldgrowth than whole grain and hasgreater resistance to airflow. Theresulting decrease in airflow dur-ing aeration will increase the fanoperating time for proper temper-ature management.

Grain must be of uniform mois-ture content and quality whenloaded into storage. Table 1shows recommended moisturecontents for storage of good qual-ity grain. Reduce moisture con-

FIG. 3. Storage facility and grain-handling equipment must bethoroughly cleaned before you placegrain in storage. (A) Be sure to cleanunder the floor and within the sump.(B) Spray the interior of the facilitywith an approved insecticide to deterinsect development.

PEAK

COREOF FINES

3 — GRAIN

FALSEFLOORING

tent by 1 percent for any of thefollowing conditions: poor grainquality (BCFM content over 5percent); non-aerated storagefacility; or flat storage facility. Donot determine the moisture con-tent by averaging a wet load withdry loads of grain. The wet load, ifplaced in one location, may spoiland cause problems for the sur-rounding dry grain.

Gse a grain cleaner to removefines and foreign material beforeplacing grain in storage. Gse acenter fill method when loadingthe grain into storage. The finesand small pieces will congregatein the center of the bin, forming aspoutline. Withdraw the spoutlineand level the grain for even air-flow distribution through all thegrain (see Fig. 4). A level grainsurface allows even airflow distri-bution through all the grain andreduces the surface area exposedto insect infestation.

Do not depend on a grainspreader as a tool for effectivelydealing with grain containingfines and foreign material. Agrain spreader will provide a levelgrain surface. However, a grainspreader often causes an accu-mulation of broken kernelssomewhere other than at the cen-ter of the bin.

Cool grain to the desired stor-age temperature before loading anon-aerated structure. This maymean waiting to fill the non-aerated storage until late fall.Remember that grain from adryer may be 10 degrees Fwarmer than the outside tempera-ture. Grain storage in a non-aerated structure should notexceed 3,000 bushels or bestored more than three months.

FIG. 4. With center filling of a grainbin, fines accumulate in the center,forming a spoutline. Unload thespoutline and level the grain for evenairflow through the grain.

Grain aerationProper temperature manage-

ment is very important for suc-cessful grain storage and helps toprevent moisture migration. Stor-age molds and insects are dor-mant in cool grain.

After harvest or drying, coolgrain to 50 to 60 degrees F. Asthe outdoor temperaturedecreases, cool grain to 30 to 35degrees F for winter storage. Donot cool the grain below freezingbecause this will cause storageproblems during warm periods inthe winter.

Gse two or three aerationcycles to cool grain to the desiredtemperature (see Fig. 5). The firstaeration cycle should begin dur-ing, or immediately following, fill-ing of the storage. Begin addi-tional aeration cycles when theaverage of the daily high and lowoutdoor temperatures havebecome 15 degrees F cooler thanthe grain. Run the fan continu-ously during an aeration cycle. Afan providing 1/10 CFM/bu willcool grain in 5 to 8 days. It is veryimportant to operate the fan longenough to sufficiently cool all thegrain. See Table 2 for approxi-mate fan operation hoursrequired for a temperaturechange of 15 degrees F. Inade-quate aeration time will result insharp temperature differenceswithin the grain mass, which willcause moisture migration andcreate the potential for moldgrowth (see Fig. 6).

FIG. 5. Diagram of aeration cycletiming to cool grain as average dailytemperature decreases in the fall.

Grain removed from storage bylate spring or early summer canbe successfully held withoutwarming. Grain held through thesummer months requires specialconsideration during the spring.Grain stored at temperaturesbelow 35 degrees F during thewinter requires warming to nomore than 45 to 50 degrees Fduring the spring. Grain stored attemperatures above 35 degrees Fduring the winter will store suc-cessfully during the summer.Watch closely for insect infesta-tion, particularly during August.Do not warm the grain to highsummer temperatures (80 to 90degrees F).

During an aeration cycle, moni-tor the grain temperatures byholding a good thermometer inthe exhaust airflow. The tempera-ture change will be completewhen the exhaust temperature isnearly equal to the outsidetemperature. For upward airflow,check grain temperatures about 6inches down from the top surfaceof the grain. For downward air-flow, check the air temperatureas it leaves the fan. Be sure tocheck around the outside edge ofthe fan rather than near thecenter—the motor of an axial fanwill slightly heat the air flowingover it.

Cover the mouth of the aera-tion fan when it is not running toprevent a chimney-effect draftback through the grain.

70

Ul

§60<

&50

I GRAIN TEMPERATURE FIRST COOLING CYCLEFAN OPERATES 150 HRS.

230

stc

SECOND CYCLE 150 HRS.

THIRD CYCLE 200 HRS.

Table 2.

Airflowrate

(CFM/bu]

1/201/101/51/41/31/23/4

11 1/41 1/2

Approximate grain cooling or warming times for fall,winter and spring aeration cyclesof 10 to 15 degrees F temperature changes.

Fallcooling

I hours

3001507560453020151210

Wintercoolinghours

40020010080614027201613

Adapted from MWPS AED-20, "Managing Dry Grain in Storage."

Springwarming

hours

240120604836241612108

FIG. 6. Sufficient aeration time iscritical to maintaining grain quality.(A) Start an aeration cycle to coolgrain from 50 degrees F to 35 degreesF. (B) If the aeration fan is shut offjust one day too early, a layer of grainwill be left at 50 degrees F. This largetemperature difference will lead tomoisture migration and grainspoilage.

Grain inspectionA key component of successful

grain storage is regular inspec-tion to help detect problemsbefore they become serious.These inspection procedures areapplicable regardless of the typeof storage facility. Regular inspec-tion is most critical for grainstored in a building because ofthe greater potential for non-uniform air distribution throughthe grain.

Weekly inspections of storedgrain (see Fig. 7) are critical inthe fall and spring when the out-side temperature is changingrapidly. Check grain at least everytwo weeks during the winter andweekly during the summer. Estab-lish a regular time of the week forinspection to avoid forgetting.Inspect grain from inside the stor-

FIG. 7. Conduct weekly graininspections within the storagestructure. (A) Look for signs ofcondensation and leakage on theroof. (B) Examine the grain forcondensation, crusting, hot spots andodors. (C) Probe the grain to detectwet spots, measure grain temperatureand collect samples for moisturetests.

age facility, preferably while walk-ing the grain surface.

LOOK at the grain, especiallynear the top surface where con-densation and crusting are mostlikely to occur. Inspect the roofand grain surface for signs ofcondensation or leakage.

FEEL or probe for any hotspots that may be developing.Trouble spots are likely to be 1 to3 feet beneath the surface andwill normally be near the center ofthe storage. Use a steel rod orgrain probe to check for wetspots. When the probe hits a wetspot, it will be much harder topush through the grain. Use agrain probe to measure graintemperature and collect moisturesamples at various points in thegrain bulk. Any consistentincrease in temperature suggestsa problem, unless the outdoor

temperature is warmer than thecrop. Check samples for signs ofinsect infestation, particularly inmid-August.

SMELL for any odors. Run thefan during the inspection andsniff the exhaust for any off-odors.This procedure helps detect anyproblems that may be developingin the center of the bin. Brieflyrunning the fan during the inspec-tion will not create anytemperature-associated problems.

When a problem develops,prompt action can reduce theamount of grain spoilage. Use air-flow supplied by the aeration sys-tem to correct minor wet or hotspots by cooling grain. Removeany grain with serious spoilage

problems from the storage, dry it,if necessary, and clean it thor-oughly. Table 3 summarizes prob-lems observed during regularinspection, the probable causesand recommended actions orsolutions. Use it as a guide forhandling any problem that isdeveloping. (Contact your localExtension office for a copy of bul-letin E-934, "Protecting StoredGrains from Insects," for addi-tional information about dealingwith insect infestations.)

SAFETY TIPS

Safety considerations areessential when working around agrain handling facility. Moldygrain can produce an allergicreaction and may cause respira-tory problems. If you must workin or around moldy grain, wear agood, tight-fitting dust mask (seeFig. 8 and refer to AEIS-467,"Coping With Agricultural Moldsand Dusts," for more information).

NEVER enter a bin of flowinggrain (see Fig. 9). Flowing graintraps an adult in 5 seconds andcompletely covers him/her after22 seconds. Flowing grain traps achild even quicker! Be aware ofthe hazards of flowing grain—YOUR LIFE MAY DEPEND ON IT!

FIG. 8. Wear a tight-fitting dust maskwhen working in or around moldygrain. Moldy grain can cause anallergic reaction and respiratoryproblems. Check the Yellow Pagesunder "Safety Equipment" to findsources of masks.

FJG. 9. (A) Turn off and lock out theunloading equipment before walkingon the grain surface. (B) Flowinggrain traps an adult in 5 seconds andburies an adult in 22 seconds.

10

•/ '•i-.-f-'̂ ''. v-iyj''jij"j'\:'-:v~'J.•"'•'• J'~ii-^-^uii/:-J-r^--^

DO NOT enter a bin withoutknowing its previous unloadinghistory. Moldy grain can form abridge at the top of the bin. Par-tial unloading of a bin can thenresult in an air pocket beneath thebridge. If you walk on the bridge,it will give way under you andyou'll be trapped in the grain (seeFig. 10).

If you must enter a bin, the fol-lowing safety measures can helpprotect you:• Install safety ladders inside and

outside of all bins.• Lock out the unloading equip-

ment control circuit.• Gse a rope and a safety har-

ness when entering a poten-tially dangerous bin. Have twoadults standing by to help you.

• If you should become trappedin a grain bin when unloadingstarts, stay near the outer walland keep moving until the binis empty and flow stops.

• In any rescue attempt, avoidbecoming a second victim ofthe force of the flowing grain.

FIG. 10. Always know a bin's previousunloading history before entering.Moldy grain can form a bridge.(A) Partial unloading creates a voidunder bridged grain. (B) A person caneasily collapse the bridge by walkingon or probing the grain and becometrapped instantly.

n

Table 3. Observations, probable causes and recommended actions for problemsin dry stored corn.

Observation Probable cause Solution/recommended action

Musty or spoiled grain odor. Heating, moistureaccumulation in one spot.

Run the fan, smell the exhaust while in the binor in front of the exhaust fan. Run the fan tocool any hot spots. Severe damage:remove grain.

Hard layer or core belowgrain surface.

High moisture or spoiled,caked grain mass.

Run aeration or drying fan, check to see ifcaked or compacted mass blocks airflow. Coolout and dry if airflow is adequate; otherwise,unload to remove all spoiled grain.

Warm grain below the topsurface.

Moisture content too high. Run the fan, irrespective of weather conditions,until exhaust air temperature equals thedesired grain temperature.

Slight skiffs of grain on binsurface sticking together,dragging on shoes.

Early signs of moisturemigration, often noticeableonly 1-2 weeks after binning.

Run aeration fan. Cool grain until exhausttemperatures equal desired grain temperatureor outside air temperature.

Hard surface crust, caked andblocking airflow, possiblystrong enough to supportan adult.

Severe moisture migrationand condensation in the topsurface.

Remove the spoiled layer. Wear a dust mask tofilter mold spores. Run the fan to cool grainwhen spoilage is removed. Sample grain withprobe to determine condition throughout centermass below the crust. Consider marketinggrain to arrest further spoilage.

Under-roof condensation,drip-back, surface wetting.

Warm grain in cold weather;severe convection circulationand moisture migration.

Run the aeration until exhaust air temperatureequals desired grain temperature or approxi-mate cooling air temperature at beginning ofaeration cycle.

Wet or spoiled spots on grainsurface outside center point.

Condensate drip from bolt endor under-roof fixture thatfunnels condensate flow;possible roof leak.

Check grain for heating. Check roof under-surface at night for condensation. Check forcaulking around roof inlets, joints.

Wet or spoiled spot directlyunder fill cap.

Leaking roof cap. If gravityspout, condensate from spout.

Check bin cap seal, hold-down. Block ordisconnect gravity spout so air from bin andgrain cannot flow up tube. Marginal solution:hang bucket under spout inlet, check bucketfor water accumulation.

No airflow through grain withaeration fan running.

Moldy, caked grain massblocking flow; possible moldygrain layer immediately aboveperforated aeration duct orfloor on pressure system.

Try to determine location and scope ofspoilage. Unload storage and market, or re-bingood grain.

White dust visible whenevergrain is stirred.

Mold on grain but in sufficientspoilage to seal top surface.

Evaluate grain condition throughout bin,if possible. Observe caution in continuedstorage because grain condition hasdeteriorated to some degree.

Cooling time required muchlonger than usual.

Increased fines in grainresisting and reducing airflow.Increased fines can causeairflow resistance 2-4 timesas great as that in clean grain.

Run the fan longer; operate fan until grain andexhaust air temperature readings indicate grainis at desired temperature, irrespective of thefan time required.

Exhaust air temperatures incenter of bin surface warmerthan exhaust air temperaturesaway from center.

Fine material accumulation instorage center resisting airflow;airflow through center massgrossly reduced comparedwith relatively clean grainaround outside of storage.

Run the fan sufficient time to cool the center,irrespective of the outside grain temperatures.Draw down the bin center to remove fines anddecrease the grain depth for easier airpassage in the center core.

Unknown grain conditionsin the bin center.

Too deep to probe; bin too fullto access; no temperaturesensing cables installed.

Withdraw some grain from all bins and feed ormarket. Observe (look, feel, smell) first grain toflow in each withdrawal because it was restingin the center core. Withdraw any storage filledabove level full as soon as possible followingharvest to reduce moisture migrationtendencies and permit access for observationand sampling.

Adapted from MWPS AED-20, "Managing Dry Grain in Storage"

The Cooperative Extension Service has many other publications available on grain storage andother related subjects. Call or write your county Cooperative Extension Service office for a catalogof available publications, or write to: MSU Bulletin Office

P.O. Box 6640Michigan State UniversityE. Lansing, Ml 48826-6640

Following is a partial listing of some of the items available:AM 50, Deadly Gases: Danger Signs ($3.00)E 934, Protecting Stored Grains from Insects, 16 pp (70 cents)E 1670, How to Handle Moldy Feed Problems, 4 pp (free)

These items are available from the Plan Service Secretary, 217 Farrall Hall, AgriculturalEngineering Dept., MSU:AEIS 258, Using Silos for Grain Storage (free)

AEIS 391, Aeration Systems for Dry Grain (free)

AEIS 467, Coping with Agricultural Molds and Dusts (free)

AEIS 478, Using Buildings for Grain Storage (free)

AEIS 558, Temporary Corn Storage in Outdoor Piles (free)

USDA Marketing Bull. 72, Grain Protectants for Insect Control (free)

MSU is an Affirmative Action/Equal Op-portunity Institution. Cooperative Exten-sion Service programs are open to allwithout regard to race, color, national

origin, sex, or handicap.

Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extensionwork in agriculture and home economics, acts ofMay 8, and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with theU.S. Department of Agriculture. W.J. Moiine,Director, Cooperative Extension Service, MichiganState University, E. Lansing, Ml 48824.

This information is for educational purposes only.Reference to commercial products or trade namesdoes not imply endorsement by the CooperativeExtension Service or bias against those not men-tioned. This bulletin becomes public property uponpublication and may be reprinted verbatim as aseparate or within another publication with creditto MSU. Reprinting cannot be used to endorse oradvertise a commercial product or company.

New-5:88-3M-KMF-SP, 85c,For Sale Only

FILE: 18.15 or 22.07 (Field Crops-General)

12