storey: electrical & electronic systems © pearson education limited 2004 oht 25.1 digital...
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Storey: Electrical & Electronic Systems © Pearson Education Limited 2004 OHT 25.1
Digital Components
Introduction Gate Characteristics Logic Families Logic Family Characteristics A Comparison of Logic Families Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor Transistor-Transistor Logic
Chapter 25
Storey: Electrical & Electronic Systems © Pearson Education Limited 2004 OHT 25.2
Introduction
Earlier we looked at a range of digital applications based on logic gates – at that time we treated the gates as ‘black boxes’
We will now consider the construction of such gates, and their characteristics
In this lecture we will concentrate on small- and medium-scale integration circuits containing just a handful of gates– typical gates are shown on the next slide
25.1
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Typical logic device pin-outs
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Gate Characteristics
The inverter or NOT gate– consider the characteristics of a simple inverting
amplifier as shown below– we normally use only the linear region
25.2
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We can use an inverting amplifier as a logical inverter but using only the non-linear region
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– we choose input values to ensure that we are always outside of the linear region – as in (a)
– unlike linear amplifiers, we use circuits with a rapid transition between the non-linear regions – as in (b)
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Logic levels– the voltage ranges representing ‘0’ and ‘1’ represent
the logic levels of the circuit– often logic 0 is represented by a voltage close to 0 V
but the allowable voltage range varies considerably– the voltage used to represent logic 1 also varies
greatly. In some circuits it might be 2-4 V, while in others it might be 12-15 V
– in order for one gate to work with another the logic levels must be compatible
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Noise immunity– noise is present in all real systems– this adds random fluctuations to voltages representing
logic levels– to cope with noise, the voltage ranges defining the
logic levels are more tightly constrained at the output of a gate than at the input
– thus small amounts of noise will not affect the circuit– the maximum noise voltage that can be tolerated by a
circuit is termed its noise immunity, VNI
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Transistors as switches– both FETs and bipolar transistors make good switches
– neither form produce ideal switches and their
characteristics are slightly different
– both forms of device take a finite time to switch and
this produces a slight delay in the operation of the gate
– this is termed the propagation delay of the circuit
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The FET as a logical switch
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Rise and fall times– because the waveforms are not perfectly square we
need a way of measuring switching times– we measure the rise time, tr and fall time, tf as
shown below
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The bipolar transistor as a logical switch
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– when the input voltage to a bipolar transistor is high the transistor turns ON and the output voltage is driven down to its saturation voltage which is about 0.1 V
– however, saturation of the transistor results in the storage of excess charge in the base region
– this increases the time taken to turn OFF the device – an effect known as storage time
– this makes the device faster to turn ON than OFF– some switching circuits increase speed by preventing
the transistors from entering saturation
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Timing considerations– all gates have a certain propagation delay time, tPD
– this is the average of the two switching times
)t(tt PLHPHLPD 21
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Logic Families
We have seen that different devices use different voltages ranges for their logic levels
They also differ in other characteristics In order to assure correct operation when gates are
interconnected they are normally produced in families The most widely used families are:
– complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS)– transistor-transistor logic (TTL)– emitter-coupled logic (ECL)
25.3
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Logic Family Characteristics
Complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS)– most widely used family for large-scale devices– combines high speed with low power consumption– usually operates from a single supply of 5 – 15 V– excellent noise immunity of about 30% of supply voltage– can be connected to a large number of gates (about 50)
– many forms – some with tPD down to 1 ns
– power consumption depends on speed (perhaps 1 mW)
25.4
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Transistor-transistor logic (TTL)– based on bipolar transistors– one of the most widely used families for small- and
medium-scale devices – rarely used for VLSI– typically operated from 5V supply– typical noise immunity about 1 – 1.6 V– many forms, some optimised for speed, power, etc.– high speed versions comparable to CMOS (~ 1.5 ns)– low-power versions down to about 1 mW/gate
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Emitter-coupled logic (ECL)– based on bipolar transistors, but removes problems of
storage time by preventing the transistors from saturating
– very fast operation - propagation delays of 1ns or less– high power consumption, perhaps 60 mW/gate– low noise immunity of about 0.2-0.25 V– used in some high speed specialist applications, but
now largely replaced by high speed CMOS
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A Comparison of Logic Families 25.5
Parameter CMOS TTL ECL
Basic gate NAND/NOR NAND OR/NOR
Fan-out >50 10 25
Power per gate (mW) 1 @ 1 MHz 1 - 22 4 - 55
Noise immunity Excellent Very good Good
tPD (ns) 1 - 200 1.5 – 33 1 - 4
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Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor
A CMOS inverter
25.6
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CMOS gates
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CMOS logic levels and noise immunity
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Transistor-Transistor Logic
Discrete TTL inverter and NAND gate circuits
25.7
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A basic integrated circuit TTL NAND gate
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A standard TTL NAND gate
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A TTL NAND gate with open collector output
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Key Points
Physical gates are not ideal components Logic gates are manufactured in a range of logic families The ability of a gate to ignore noise is its ‘noise immunity’ Both MOSFETs and bipolar transistors are used in gates All logic gates exhibit a propagation delay when
responding to changes in their inputs The most widely used logic families are CMOS and TTL CMOS is available in a range of forms offering high speed
or very low power consumption TTL logic is also produced in many versions, each
optimised for a particular characteristic