TUGAS

MANAJEMEN PEMASARAN DAN

PEMASARAN INTERNASIONAL

STRATEGI PEMASARAN DI NEGARA

AMERIKA SERIKAT, BELANDA, DAN ARAB SAUDI

BERDASARKAN HOFSTEDE MODEL

DISUSUN OLEH

DIAN SUNANDAR

0661201004

INSTITUT BISNIS dan INFORMATIKA INDONESIA

MAGISTER MANAJEMEN

Content :

The Countries Surveyed With The Hermes Questionnaire And The Languages Used

Power Distance Index ( PDI) Values

Antecedents And Consequents Of 4 Concepts As Measured Among Male Students

A Summary Of Connotations Of Power Distance Index Differences

The Power Distance Societal Norm

Origins Of Power Distance Norm

Consequences Of National Power Distance Index Differences

Country Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI)

Connotations Of Uncertainty Avoidance Index Differences

Origins Of National Uncertainty Avoidance Index Differences

Consequences Of National Uncertainty Avoidance Index Differences

Country Individualism Index (IDV)

Connotations Of Individualism Index Differences

The Individualism Societal Norm

Consequences Of National Individualism Index Differences

Origins Of National Individualism Index Differences

Country Masculinity Index

Summary Of Connotations Of Masculinity Index Differences

Origins Of National Masculinity Index Differences

Consequences Of National Masculinity Index Differences

Connotations Of The 4 Combinations Of Power Distance And Uncertainty Avoidance Levels

Strategi Pemasaran pada negara USA, Belanda, & Arab berdasarkan Hofsted ModelDaftar Pustaka

I. POWER DISTANCE INDEX (PDI) VALUES

Power Distance

Power Distance has been defined as the extent to which the less powerful members of organizations and institutions (like the family) accept and expect that power is distributed unequally. This represents inequality (more versus less), but defined from below, not from above. It suggests that a society's level of inequality is endorsed by the followers as much as by the leaders. Power and inequality, of course, are extremely fundamental facts of any society. All societies are unequal, but some are more unequal than others.

I.

Table 1Ten Differences Between Small- and Large- Power Distance Societies

Small Power Distance Large Power Distance

Use of power should be legitimate and is Power is a basic fact of society antedating good or

subject to criteria of good and evil evil: its legitimacy is irrelevant

Parents treat children as equals Parents teach children obedience

Older people are neither respected nor feared Older people are both respected and feared

Student-centered education Teacher-centered education

Hierarchy means inequality of roles, established for convenience

Hierarchy means existential inequality

Subordinates expect to be consulted Subordinates expect to be told what to do

Pluralist governments based on majority vote Autocratic governments based on co-optation and

and changed peacefully changed by revolution

Corruption rare; scandals end political careers Corruption frequent; scandals are covered up

Income distribution in society rather even Income distribution in society very uneven

Religions stressing equality of believers Religions with a hierarchy of priests

Table 1 lists a selection of differences between national societies that validation research showed to be associated with the Power Distance dimension. For a more complete review the reader is referred to Hofstede (2001) and Hofstede et al. (2010). The statements refer to extremes; actual situations may be found anywhere in between the extremes, and the association of a statement with a dimension is always statistical, never absolute.In Hofstede et al. (2010) Power Distance Index scores are listed for 76 countries; they tend to be higher for East European, Latin, Asian and African countries and lower for Germanic and English-speaking Western countries.

A SUMMARY OF CONNOTATIONS OF POWER DISTANCE INDEX DIFFERENCES

Low PDI Countries■ Parents put less value on children's■ Students put high, value on independent■ Authoritarian attitudes in students are ■ Managers seen as making decisions after consulting with

subordinates.■ Close supervision negatively evaluated by subordinates.■ Stronger perceived work ethic; strong

disbelief that people dislike work.■ Managers more satisfied with participative superior.■ Subordinates' preference for manager'; decision-making

style clearly centered on consultative, give-and-take style■ Managers like seeing themselves as practical and

systematic; they admit a need for support■ Employees show more cooperativeness■ Employees less afraid of disagreeing with their boss.■ Managers seen as showing more consideration.■ Students have positive associations■ Mixed feeling about employees'■ Mixed feelings among managers about the distribution of

capacity for leadership and initiative.■ Informal employee consultation participation.■ Higher-educated employees hold much less authoritarian

values than lower-educated ones.

High PDI Countries■ Parents put high value on children's obedience. obedience.■ Students put high value on conformity■ Students show authoritarian a matter of personality.

attitudes as a social norm■ Managers seen as making decisions autocratically and

paternalistically.■ Close supervision positively evaluated by subordinates.■ Weaker perceived work ethic; more

frequent belief that people dislike work.■ Managers more satisfied with directive or persuasive

superior.■ Subordinates' preference for manager's decision-making

style polarized between autocratic-paternalistic and majority rule.

■ Managers like seeing themselves as benevolent decision makers.

■ Employees reluctant to trust each other.■ Employees fear to disagree with their boss.■ Managers seen as showing less consideration.■ Students have negative with "power" and "wealth."

associations with "power" and "wealth"■ Ideological support for participation in management.

employees' participation in management.■ Ideological support among managers for a wide

distribution of capacity for leadership and initiative.■ Formal employee participation possible without formal

possible without informal consultation.■ Higher- and lower-educated employees show similar

values about authority.

THE POWER DISTANCE SOCIETAL NORMLOW PDI

■ Inequality in society should be minimized.

■ All should be interdependent.

■ Hierarchy means an inequality of roles,established for convenience.

■ Subordinates are people like me.

■ Superiors are people like me.

■ The use of power should be legitimateand is subject to the judgment betweengood and evil.

■ All should have equal rights.

■ Powerful people should try to look lesspowerful than they are.

■ Stress on reward, legitimate and expert

■ The system is to blame.

■ The way to change a social system is by redistributing power.

■ People at various power levels feel less threatened and more prepared to trust people.

■ Latent harmony between the powerful and the powerless.

High PDI

■ There should be an order of inequality in this world ;n which everyone has his rightful place; high and low are protected by this order.

■ A few should be independent; most should be dependent.

■ Hierarchy means existential inequality.

■ Superiors consider subordinates as being of a different kind.

■ Subordinates consider superiors as being of a different hind.

■ Power is a basic fact of society which antedates good or evil. Its legitimacy is irrelevant.

■ Power holders are entitled to privileges.

■ Powerful people should try to look aspowerful as possible.

■ Stress on coercive and referent power, power.

■ The underdog is to blame.

■ The way to change a social system is by dethroning those in power.

■ Other people are a potential threat to one's power and rarely can be trusted.

■ Latent conflict between powerful and the powerless.

■ Cooperation among the powerless can be based on solidarity. ■ Cooperation among the powerless is difficult to bring about because of low faith in people norm.

ORIGINS OF POWER DISTANCE NORMLOW PDI

■ Moderate to cold climates

■ Survival and population growth more dependent on intervention with nature

■ More need for technology

■ Historical events: early legislation applied to rulers; one-son inheritance

■ Less traditional agriculture, more modern industry, more urbanization

■ More need for education of lower strata (literacy, mass communication)

■ Greater social mobility and strong development of middle class

■ Greater national wealth

■ Wealth more widely distributed

■ Political power based on system of representation

■ Strong will to be independent: smaller size of population

■ Historical events: independence, federalism, negotiation

■ Less centralization of political power

■ Faster population increase in wealthy countries

■ Technological momentum of change

■ Children learn things which elders never learned: less dependent

■ Some teaching is two-way

■ More questioning of authority in general

High PDI

■ Tropical and subtropical climates

■ Survival and population growth less dependent on intervention with nature

■ Less need for technology

■ Historical events: early legislation not applied to rulers; divided inheritance

■ More traditional agriculture, less modern industry, less urbanization

■ Less need for education of lower strata

■ Less social mobility and weak development of middle class

■ Less national wealth

■ Wealth concentrated in hands of elite

■ Political power concentrated in hands of oligarchy or military

■ Little popular resistance to integration into a large slate: large size of population

■ Historical events: occupation, colonialism, imperialism

■ Centralization of political power

■ Slower population increase in wealthy countries

■ More static society change

■ Children dependent on parents and elders

■ Teachers omniscient, teaching is one-way

■ Less questioning of authority in general

CONSEQUENCES OF NATIONAL POWER DISTANCE INDEX DIFFERENCES

Consequences for Political Systems

LOW PDI

■ Pluralist governments based on outcome of majority votes

■ No sudden changes in form of government (evolution and stability)

High PDI

■ Autocratic or oligarchic governments

■ Sudden changes in form of government (revolution and/or instability)

■ Political parties exist and tend to be in the center 'with relatively weak left and right wings

■ Government is frequently led by parties stressing equality, usually social democrats

■ Tax system aims at redistributing wealth

■ Free labor unions exist arid tend to bepragmatically oriented

■ If political parties exist, there is a polarization between left and right with a weak center.

■ If government is based on election results, it tends to be led by parties not stressing equality (rightwing).

■ Tax system protects the wealthy

■ If free labor unions exist, these tend to be ideologically based and involved in politics.

Consequences for Religious Life and Philosophical and Ideological Thinking

LOW PDI

■ Success of religions stressing equality

■ Ideologies of power equalization

■ Pluralist theorists about society

■ Non-zero-sum theories of power

■ "Foxes" approach is seen as leading tostability

■ More, Marx, Weber, Mulder.Tarnnenbaum

High PDI

■ Success of religions stressing stratification

■ Ideologies of power polarization

■ Elitist theories about society

■ Zero-sum theories of power

■ "Lions" approach is seen as leading to stability

■ Machiavelli, Mosca, Pareto, Michels

Consequences for Organizations

LOW PDI

■ Less centralization

■ Flatter organization pyramids

■ Smaller proportion of supervisory personnel

■ Smaller wage differentials

■ High qualification of lower strata

■ Manual work same status as clerical work

High PDI

■ Greater centralization

■ Tall organization pyramids

■ Large proportion of supervisory personnel

■ Large wage differentials

■ Low qualification of lower strata

■ White-collar jobs valued more than blue-collar jobs

II. COUNTRY UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE INDEX (UAI)

Uncertainty Avoidance

Uncertainty Avoidance is not the same as risk avoidance; it deals with a society's tolerance for ambiguity. It indicates to what extent a culture programs its members to feel either uncomfortable or comfortable in unstructured situations. Unstructured situations are novel, unknown, surprising, and different from usual. Uncertainty avoiding cultures try to minimize

the possibility of such situations by strict behavioral codes, laws and rules, disapproval of deviant opinions, and a belief in absolute Truth; 'there can only be one Truth and we have it'.

III.

Table 2Ten Differences Between Weak- and Strong- Uncertainty Avoidance Societies

Weak Uncertainty Avoidance Strong Uncertainty Avoidance

The uncertainty inherent in life is accepted and The uncertainty inherent in life is felt as a

each day is taken as it comes continuous threat that must be fought

Ease, lower stress, self-control, low anxiety Higher stress, emotionality, anxiety, neuroticism

Higher scores on subjective health and well-being Lower scores on subjective health and well-being

Tolerance of deviant persons and ideas: what is Intolerance of deviant persons and ideas: what is

different is curious different is dangerous

Comfortable with ambiguity and chaos Need for clarity and structure

Teachers may say ‘I don’t know’ Teachers supposed to have all the answers

Changing jobs no problem Staying in jobs even if disliked

Dislike of rules - written or unwritten Emotional need for rules – even if not obeyed

In politics, citizens feel and are seen as In politics, citizens feel and are seen as

competent towards authorities incompetent towards authorities

In religion, philosophy and science: relativism In religion, philosophy and science: belief in

and empiricism ultimate truths and grand theories

Research has shown that people in uncertainty avoiding countries are also more emotional, and motivated by inner nervous energy. The opposite type, uncertainty accepting cultures, are more tolerant of opinions different from what they are used to; they try to have fewer rules, and on the philosophical and religious level they are empiricist, relativist and allow different currents to flow side by side. People within these cultures are more phlegmatic and contemplative, and not expected by their environment to express emotions. Table 2 lists a selection of differences between societies that validation research showed to be associated with the Uncertainty Avoidance dimension.In Hofstede et al. (2010) Uncertainty Avoidance Index scores are listed for 76 countries; they tend to be higher in East and Central European countries, in Latin countries, in Japan and in German speaking countries, lower in English speaking, Nordic and Chinese culture countries.

CONNOTATIONS OF UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE INDEX DIFFERENCES (1)Low UAI Countries

■ Lower anxiety level in population■ Greater readiness to live by the day■ Lower job stress.■ Less emotional resistance to change■ Less hesitation to change employers■ Loyalty to employer is not seen as a virtue■ Preference for smaller organizations as employers.

High UAI Countries■ Higher anxiety level in population■ More worry about the future, day.■ Higher job stress.■ More emotional resistance to change■ Tendency to stay with the same employer■ Loyalty to employer is seen as a virtue■ Preference for larger organizations

■ Smaller generation gap.■ Lower average age in higher level jobs.■ Managers should he selected seniority■ Stronger achievement motivation■ Hope of success.■ More risk-taking.■ Stronger ambition for individual advancement■ Prefers manager career over specialist one■ A manager need not be an expert in the field he manages.■ Hierarchical structures of organizations can be by-passed for

pragmatic reasons.

as employers.■ Greater generation gap.■ Higher average age in higher level jobs

gerontocracy■ Managers should be selected on other . criteria than on the

basis of seniority.■ Less achievement motivation.■ Fear of failure.■ Less risk-taking.■ Lower ambition for individual

advancement■ Prefers specialist career over manager one■ A manager must be an expert in the field he manages.■ Hierarchical structures of organizations should be clear and

respected.

CONNOTATIONS OF UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE INDEX DIFFERENCES (2)

■ Preference for broad guidelines.

■ Rules may be broken for pragmatic reasons.

■ Conflict in organizations is natural

■ Competition between employees cam be fair and right.

■ More sympathy for individual and authoritative decisions.

■ Delegation to subordinates can be complete.

■ Higher tolerance for ambiguity in perceiving others (higher LPC)

■ More prepared to compromise with opponents.

■ Acceptance of foreigners as managers

■ Larger fraction prepared to live abroad

■ Higher tolerance for ambiguity in looking at own job (lower satisfaction scores).

■ Citizen optimism about ability to control politicians' decisions.

■ Employee optimism about the motives behind company activities

■ Optimism about people's amount of initiative, ambition. and leadership skills.

■ Preference for clear requirements and instructions.

■ Company rules should not be broken

■ Conflict in organizations is undesirable

■ Competition between employees is emotionally disapproved of.

■ Ideological appeal of consensus and of consultative leadership.

■ However, initiative of subordinates should be kept under control.

■ Lower tolerance for ambiguity in perceiving others (lower LPC).

■ Lower readiness to compromise with opponents.

■ Suspicion toward foreigners as managers

■ Fewer people prepared to live abroad

■ Lower tolerance for ambiguity in looking at own job (higher satisfaction scores).

■ Citizen pessimism about ability to control politicians' decisions.

■ Employee pessimism about the motives behind company activities

■ Pessimism about people's amount ofinitiative, ambition, and leadership skills

ORIGINS OF NATIONAL UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE INDEX DIFFERENCESLOW UAI

■ Advanced modernization

■ Older democracies

■ Dense populations in poor countries sparse populations in wealthy countries

■ Tolerant religions stressing relativity

High UAI

■ Beginning modernization: high rate of change in society

■ Younger democracies

■ Sparse populations in poor countries dense populations in wealthy countries

■ Intolerant religions stressing absolute certainties, the hereafter, and sin

■

■ Historical events: less legislation, more settlement of disputes by negotiation and/or conflict

■ Low mean age of population leaders

■ Smaller organizations

■ Historical events: inheritance of developed system of legislation

■ High mean age of population leaders

■ Larger organizations

CONSEQUENCES OF NATIONAL UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE INDEX DIFFERENCES

Consequences for Society at Large

LOW UAI

■ Slower economic growth after WW II

■ Weaker nationalism

■ Less aggressiveness versus other nations

■ "Looser" societies

■ Stronger feelings of citizen competence

■ More tolerance for citizen protest

■ Civil servants positive toward politics

■ More casuistic approach to legal

■ Lower speed limits and fewer fatal road accidents

■ Stronger accent on lay competence more nurses per doctor

High UAI

■ Faster economic growth after WW II

■ Stronger nationalism

■ Greater aggressiveness

■ "Tight" societies

■ Greater dependence of citizenson authorities

■ Less tolerance for citizen protest

■ Civil servants dislike politics

■ More elaborate legal system issues

■ Faster car-driving admitted and morefatal road accidents

■ Stronger accent on expertise:fewer nurses per doctor

Consequences for Religious Life and Philosophical and Ideological ThinkingLOW UAI

■ Either no slate religions or more de facto religious tolerance

■ Pragmatic or introvert, meditative religions

■ Relativism

■ Practical contributions to knowledge

■ Empiricism in social sciences

■ Pragmatic thinking popular

High UAI

■ More intolerant state religions

■ Activist religions

■ Search for absolute truth

■ Theoretical contributions to knowledge

■ Theoricism; n social sciences

■ Ideological thinking popular

Consequences for Organizations

LOW UAI

■ Less structuring of activities

■ Fewer written rules

High UAI

■ More structuring of activities

■ More written rules

■ More generalists or amateurs

■ Organizations can be pluriform

■ Managers more involved in strategy

■ Managers more interpersonal oriented and flexible in their style

■ Managers more willing to make individual and risky decisions

■ High labor turnover

■ More ambitious employees

■ Lower satisfaction scores

■ Less power through control of uncertainty

■ Less ritual behavior

■ Larger number of specialists

■ Organizations should be asuniform as possible (standardization)

■ Managers more involved in details

■ Managers more task-oriented and consistent in their style

■ Managers less willing to make individual and risky decisions.

■ Lower labor turnover

■ Less ambitious employees

■ Higher satisfaction scores

■ More power through control of uncertainty

■ More ritual behavior

III. COUNTRY INDIVIDUALISM INDEX (IDV)

Individualism

Individualism on the one side versus its opposite, Collectivism, as a societal, not an individual characteristic, is the degree to which people in a society are integrated into groups. On the individualist side we find cultures in which the ties between individuals are loose: everyone is expected to look after him/herself and his/her immediate family. On the collectivist side we find cultures in which people from birth onwards are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, often extended families (with uncles, aunts and grandparents) that continue protecting them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty, and oppose other in-groups. Again, the issue addressed by this dimension is an extremely fundamental one, regarding all societies in the world. Table 3 lists a selection of differences between societies that validation research showed to be associated with this dimension.

IV.

Table 3Ten Differences Between Collectivist and Individualist Societies

Individualism Collectivism

Everyone is supposed to take care of him- or People are born into extended families or clans

herself and his or her immediate family only which protect them in exchange for loyalty

"I" – consciousness "We" –consciousness

Right of privacy Stress on belonging

Speaking one's mind is healthy Harmony should always be maintained

Others classified as individuals Others classified as in-group or out-group

Personal opinion expected: one person one vote Opinions and votes predetermined by in-group

Transgression of norms leads to guilt feelings Transgression of norms leads to shame feelings

Languages in which the word "I" is indispensable Languages in which the word "I" is avoided

Purpose of education is learning how to learn Purpose of education is learning how to do

Task prevails over relationship Relationship prevails over task

In Hofstede et al. (2010) Individualism Index scores are listed for 76 countries; Individualism tends to prevail in developed and Western countries, while collectivism prevails in less developed and Eastern countries; Japan takes a middle position on this dimension.

CONNOTATIONS OF INDIVIDUALISM INDEX DIFFERENCES

LOW IDT Countries

■ Importance of provisions by company (training, physical conditions).

■ Emotional dependence on company

■ Large company attractive.

■ Moral involvement 'with company.

■ More importance attached to training and use of skills in jobs.

■ Students consider it less socially acceptable to claim pursuing their own ends without minding others.

■ Managers aspire to conformity and orderliness

■ Managers rate having security in their position more important.

■ Managers endorse "traditional" points of view, not supporting employee initiative and group activity

■ Group decisions are considered better than individual decisions.

■ Duty in life appeals to students.

■ Managers choose duty, expertness, and prestige as life goals.

■ Individual initiative is socially frowned upon; fatalism.

■ More acquiescence in responses to "importance" questions.

■ People thought of in terms of in groups and out groups;

High IDT Countries

■ Importance of employees' personal life (time).

■ Emotional independence from company

■ Small company attractive.

■ Calculative involvement with company.

■ More importance attached to freedom and challenge in jobs.

■ Students consider it socially acceptable to claim pursuing their own ends without minding others.

■ Managers aspire to leadership and variety

■ Managers rate having autonomy more important.

■ Managers endorse ™' modern" points of view on stimulating employee initiative and group activity.

■ However, individual decisions are considered better than group decisions.

■ Enjoyment in life appeals to students.

■ Managers choose pleasure, affection, and security as life goals.

■ Individual initiative is socially encouraged.

■ Less acquiescence in responses to "importance" questions.

■ People thought of in general terms; universalism.

particularism

■ Social relations predetermined in terms of in groups

■ More years of schooling needed to do a given job

■ Need to make specific friendships.

■ Fewer years of schooling needed to do a given job

THE INDIVIDUALISM SOCIETAL NORMLOW IDT

■ In society, people are torn into extendedfamilies or clans "which protect them in

■ exchange for loyalty.

■ "We" consciousness.

■ Collectivity-orientation. *

■ Identity is based in the social system.

■ Emotional dependence of individual on organizations and institutions.

■ Emphasis on belonging to organization; membership ideal.

■ Private life is invaded by organizations and clans to "which one belongs; opinions are predetermined.

■ Expertise, order, duty, security provided by organization or clan.

■ Friendships predetermined by stable need for prestige "within these relationships.

■ Belief in group decisions.

■ Value standards differ for in groups andout groups; particularism.*

High IDT

■ In society, everyone is supposed to latecare of him or herself and his or herimmediate family.

■ "I" consciousness.

■ Self-orientation.*

■ Identity is based in the individual.

■ Emotional independence of individual from organizations or institutions.

■ Emphasis on individual initiative and achievement; leadership ideal.

■ Everyone has a right on a private life and opinion.

■ Autonomy, variety, pleasure, individual financial security.

■ Need for specific friendships, social relationships; but

■ Belief in individual decisions.

■ Value standards should apply to all;universalism. *

CONSEQUENCES OF NATIONAL INDIVIDUALISM INDEX DIFFERENCES Consequences for Society at Large

LOW IDV Countries

■ For wealthy countries, a relatively low IDV helps economic growth,

■ Unbalanced power political systems

■ Less occupational mobility.

■ Income inequality between sectorsof the economy.

■ Less press freedom.

■ Repression potential.

■ Labor movement more united.

■ Labor unions more interested in sharing management responsibility appeal of worker self-management

High IDV Countries

■ After a certain level of wealth has been obtained., slower economic growth.

■ Balanced power political systems.

■ Greater occupational mobility.

■ Income equality between sectorsof the economy.

■ More press freedom.

■ Protest potential.

■ Labor movement more atomized.

■ Labor unions less interested '

■ In sharing management responsibility

■ More road accidents. ■ Safer driving.

Consequences for Religious Life and Philosophical and Ideological Thinking

LOW IDT Countries

■ Collective conversions.

■ Jen philosophy of man.

■ Stress on identity and roots.

■ Traditionalist ethic.

High IDT Countries

■ Individual conversions.

■ Personality philosophy of man.

■ Worship of the independent actor.

■ "Protestant" (modernist) ethic.

Consequences for Organizations

LOW IDT Countries

■ Involvement of individuals 'withorganizations primarily moral.

■ Employees expect organizations to look after them like a family and can become very alienated if they dissatisfy them

■ Organization has great influence on members' well-being.

■ Employees expect organization to defend their interests.

■ Policies and practices based on loyalty and sense of duty.

■ Promotion from inside. (localism)

■ Promotion on seniority.

■ Less concern 'with fashion in management ideas.

■ Policies and practices vary according to relations, (particularism)

High IDT Countries

■ Involvement of individuals with organizations primarily calculative.

■ Organizations are not expected to look after employees from the cradle to the grave

■ Organization has moderate influence on members' well-being.

■ Employees are expected to defend their own interests.

■ Policies and practices should allow for individual initiative.

■ Promotion from inside and outside.(cosmoloitism)

■ Promotion on market value

■ Managers try to be up-to-date and endorse modern management ideas

■ Policies and practices apply to all (universalism)

ORIGINS OF NATIONAL INDIVIDUALISM INDEX DIFFERENCESLOW IDV

■ Less economic development.

■ Less social mobility and weak development of middle class.

■ Tropical and subtropical climates.

■ Survival less dependent on individual initiative.

■ More traditional agriculture, less modern industry, less urbanization.

■ Extended family or tribal structures.

■ More children per nuclear family.

■ Traditional educational systems, for minority of population.

■ Historical factors: tradition of collectivist thinking and action.

■ Smaller, particularist organizations.

High IDV

■ Greater economic development.

■ Greater social mobility and strong development of middle class.

■ Moderate to cold climates.

■ Survival more dependent on individual initiative.

■ Less traditional agriculture, more modern industry, more urbanization.

■ Nuclear family structure.

■ Fewer children per nuclear family.

■ Pragmatic educational systems, for majority of population.

■ Historical factors: tradition ofindividualist thinking and action.

■ Larger, universalist organizations.

VI. COUNTRY MASCULINITY INDEX (MAS)

Masculinity – Femininity

Masculinity versus its opposite, Femininity, again as a societal, not as an individual characteristic, refers to the distribution of values between the genders which is another fundamental issue for any society, to which a range of solutions can be found. The IBM studies revealed that (a) women's values differ less among societies than men's values; (b) men's values from one country to another contain a dimension from very assertive and competitive and maximally different from women's values on the one side, to modest and caring and similar to women's values on the other. The assertive pole has been called 'masculine' and the modest, caring pole 'feminine'. The women in feminine countries have the same modest, caring values as the men; in the masculine countries they are somewhat assertive and competitive, but not as much as the men, so that these countries show a gap between men's values and women's values. In masculine cultures there is often a taboo around this dimension (Hofstede et al., 1998).

VII.

Table 4Ten Differences Between Feminine and Masculine Societies

Femininity Masculinity

Minimum emotional and social role differentiation Maximum emotional and social role differentiation

between the genders between the genders

Men and women should be modest and caring Men should be and women may be assertive and ambitious

Balance between family and work Work prevails over family

Sympathy for the weak Admiration for the strong

Both fathers and mothers deal with facts and feelings

Fathers deal with facts, mothers with feelings

Both boys and girls may cry but neither should Girls cry, boys don’t; boys should fight back, girls

Fight shouldn’t fight

Mothers decide on number of children Fathers decide on family size

Many women in elected political positions Few women in elected political positions

Religion focuses on fellow human beings Religion focuses on God or gods

Matter-of-fact attitudes about sexuality; sex is a Moralistic attitudes about sexuality; sex is a way

way of relating of performing

Taboos are based on deeply rooted values; this taboo shows that the Masculinity/Femininity dimension in some societies touches basic and often unconscious values, too painful to be explicitly discussed. In fact the taboo validates the importance of the dimension. Table 4 lists a selection of differences between societies that validation research showed to be associated with this dimension.In Hofstede et al. (2010) Masculinity versus Femininity Index scores are presented for 76 countries; Masculinity is high in Japan, in German speaking countries, and in some Latin countries like Italy and Mexico; it is moderately high in English speaking Western countries; it is low in Nordic countries and in the Netherlands and moderately low in some Latin and Asian countries like France, Spain, Portugal, Chile, Korea and Thailand.

SUMMARY OF CONNOTATIONS OF MASCULINITY INDEX DIFFERENCESLOW MAS Countries

■ Relationship with manager, cooperation friendly atmosphere, living in a desirable area and employment security relatively more important to employees

■ Managers relatively less interested in leadership, independence, and self-realization.

■ Belief in group decisions.

■ Students less interested in recognition

■ Weaker achievement motivation.

■ Achievement defined in terms of human contacts and living environment

■ Work less central in people's lives.

■ People prefer shorter working hours to more salary.

■ Company's interference in private life rejected.

■ Greater social role attributed to other institutions than corporation.

■ Employees like small companies

■ Entire population more attracted tosmaller organizations.

■ Lower job stress.

■ Less skepticism as to factors leading to getting ahead.

■ Students more benevolent (sympathy for the weak).

■ Managers have more a service ideal

High MAS Countries

■ Earnings, recognition, advancement, and challenge relatively more important to employees

■ Managers have leadership, independence and self-realization ideal

■ Belief in the independent decision maker

■ Students aspire to recognition(admiration for the strong).

■ Stronger achievement motivation.

■ Achievement defined in terms ofrecognition and wealth.

■ Greater work centrality.

■ People prefer more salary to shorter working hours.

■ Company s interference in private life accepted.

■ Greater social role attributed to corporation.

■ employees like large corporations

■ Entire population more attracted tolarger organization.

■ Higher job stress.

■ Skepticism as to factors leading togetting ahead.

■ Students less benevolent.

■ Managers relatively less attracted by service role.

■ "Theory X" strongly rejected.

■ more women in jobs with mixed sex composition.

■ "Theory X" (employees dislike work) gets some support.

■ fewer women in jobs with mixed sex composition.

THE MASCULINITY SOCIETAL NORM

LOW MAS

■ People orientation.

■ Quality of life end environment is important

■ Work to live.

■ Service ideal.

■ Interdependence ideal.

■ Intuition.

■ Sympathy for the unfortunate.

■ Leveling: don't try to be better than others

■ Small and slow are beautiful.

■ Men need not be assertive but can alsotake caring roles.

■ Sex roles in society should be fluid.

■ Differences in sex roles should notmean differences in power.

■ Unisex and androgyny ideal.

High MAS

■ Money and things orientation.

■ Performance and growth are important.

■ Live to work.

■ Achievement ideal.

■ Independence ideal.

■ Decisiveness.

■ Sympathy for the successful achiever.

■ Excelling: try to be the best.

■ Big and fast are beautiful.

■ Men should behave assertively andwomen should care.

■ Sex roles in society should be clearly differentiated

■ Men should dominate in all settings.

ORIGINS OF NATIONAL MASCULINITY INDEX DIFFERENCESLOW MAS

■ More necessary in colder climates in which more equal partnership of men and women improves chances of survival and population growth.

■ More necessary if country is very poor.

■ More easily maintained if country is very wealthy

■ Controlled family size: relatively small when country is poor, relatively large when country is wealthy.

■ Stronger position of the mother in the family

■ Both father and mother used as models by boys and girls.

■ Same as high MAS.

High MAS

■ More easily maintained in warmer climates in which survival and population growth are less dependent on man's intervention with nature; women can be kept ignorant.

■ Less likely if country is very poor or very wealthy.

■ Uncontrolled family size: relatively large when country is poor, relatively small when country is wealthy.

■ Weaker position of the mother in the family

■ Father used as model by boys; mother by girls.

■ Traditions going back several generationsreinforced or weakened by historical events

CONSEQUENCES OF NATIONAL MASCULINITY INDEX DIFFERENCESConsequences for Society at Large

Low MAS Countries

■ Trying to be better than others is neither socially nor materially rewarded

■ Social adaptation-oriented school system

■ More benevolence versus the third world

High MAS Countries

■ There are rewards in the fomm of wealthor status for the successful achiever

■ Performance-oriented school system

■ Less benevolence versus the third world

■ Conservation of the environment is seen as a more important problem than economic growth.

■ Small-scale enterprises, projects. etc. popular.

■ Men and women follow the same types of higher education.

■ Men and women can both be breadwinners.

■ Less occupational segregation: e.g., male nurses.

■ Slower car driving, fewer accidents

■ Economic growth is seen as a more important problem than conservation of the environment.

■ Large-scale enterprises, projects, etc. popular.

■ Men and women follow different types of higher-level education.

■ Men are breadwinners, women are cake winners.

■ Some occupations are considered typically male, others female.

■ Faster car driving, more accidents

Consequences for Religious Life and Philosophical and Ideological Thinking

LOW MAS Countries

■ In Christianity, greater affinity toProtestantism.

■ Appeal of "tender" religious currents, philosophies, and ideologies

■ Belief in equality of the sexes.

■ More moderate women's liberation movements.

High MAS Countries

■ In Christianity, greater affinity toCatholicism.

■ Appeal of "tough" religious currents, philosophies, and ideologies

■ Belief in inequality of the sexes.

■ Aggressive women's liberationmovements.

Consequences for OrganizationsLOT MAS Countries

■ Some young men and women wantcareers, others do not.

■ Organizations should not interfere with people's private lives.

■ More women in more qualified and better-paid jobs.

■ Women in more qualified jobs not particularly assertive.

■ Lower job stress.

■ Less industrial conflict.

■ Appeal of job restructuring permitting group integration.

High MAS Countries

■ Young men expect to make a career; those who don't see themselves as failures

■ Organizational interests are a legitimate reason for interfering with people' s private lives

■ Fewer women in more qualified and better-paid jobs.

■ Women in more qualified jobs are very assertive.

■ Higher job stress.

■ More industrial conflict.

■ Appeal of job restructuringpermitting individual achievement.

CONNOTATIONS OF THE 4 COMBINATIONS OF POWER DISTANCE AND

UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE LEVELS(4)Small Power DistanceWeak Uncertainty AvoidanceCountries: Anglo, Scandinavian, NetherlandsOrganization type:implicitly structured 1

Implicit model of organization:market

(1)Large Power DistanceWeak Uncertainty AvoidanceCountries: Southeast Asian Organization type:personnel bureaucracyImplicit model of organization:family

(3)Small Power DistanceStrong Uncertainty Avoidance

(2)Large Power DistanceStrong Uncertainty Avoidance

Countries:German-speaking, Finland, IsraelOrganization type:Workflow bureaucracyImplicit model of organization:Well-oiled machine

Countries:Latin, Mediterranean, Islamic, Japan, some other AsianOrganization type:full bureaucracyImplicit model of organization:pyramid

Strategi Pemasaran pada negara USA, Belanda, & Arab berdasarkan Hofsted Model

NEGARA IDV PDI UAI MAI

USA 91 40 46 62

BELANDA 80 38 53 14

ARAB 38 80 68 53

Dengan penjelasan mengenai Individualisme Index (IDV) yang telah diuraikan pada awal makalah

mempunyai pengertian bahwa Orang-orang dari masyarakat IDV tinggi yang independen, mereka berfokus

pada diri sendiri dan menekankan kepatuhan terhadap norma-norma pribadi dan tujuan. Orang-orang di

masyarakat IDV yang rendah, di sisi lain, menekankan saling ketergantungan antara mereka dan kelompok

mereka atau masyarakat. Mereka merasa berkewajiban untuk mengikuti tugas sosial, harapan, peran, dan

pengaruh-pengaruh sosial lainnya (Triandis 1995, 1996;. Triandis et al, 1998).

Franke dan Nadler (2008) menunjukkan bahwa orang-orang dalam budaya IDV yang rendah akan

mendukung dalam kelompok dengan mengorbankan keluar-kelompok, menyebabkan ketidakpekaan etika

terutama ketika tindakan tidak etis diuntungkan dalam-kelompok. Sebaliknya, sikap etis dari orang-orang

dari budaya IDV tinggi mencerminkan sebuah''tegas orientasi diri yang membatasi kesesuaian'' (Franke dan

Nadler 2008, hal 256). Selain itu, Hofstede (2001) menggambarkan orang-orang dari budaya IDV tinggi

sebagai menempatkan penekanan yang tinggi pada hak-hak individu dan perlakuan yang adil, dan dengan

demikian mereka sangat menyadari perilaku tidak etis orang lain dan diri mereka sendiri

Menurut de Mooij (1998) budaya kolektivis lebih menekankan pada pembangunan dan

pemeliharaan hubungan dengan orang lain pada sebuah masyarakat atau kelompok dibandingkan dengan

budaya individualis. La Ferle et al. (2002) dalam penelitian yang berkait dengan aktifitas pemasaran online

menemukan bahwa kecepatan adopsi Internet berhubungan positif dengan tingkat individualisme. Hal ini

mungkin dijelaskan dengan fakta bahwa hubungan personal akan mulai terkikis dengan hadirnya teknologi

Internet, sehingga muncul semacam penolakan budaya.

Strategi marketing untuk negara dengan IDV tinggi seperti USA & Belanda adalah dengan cara

menyampaikan pesan/iklan berupa informasi langsung dari produk, nilai yang terkandung dalam pesan

merupakan gaya hidup atau life style, produk yang ditawarkan yang sifatnya private atau lebih pribadi.

Media bisa melalui above the line seperti TV, Internet, Majalah, Koran dan lain-lain.

Strategi marketing untuk negara dengan IDV rendah seperti Arab Saudi, penyampaian informasi

bisa dilakukan dengan orang/public figure umumnya berkelompok yang menyampaikan tentang value dari

suatu produk, nilai yang terkandung dalam pesan dapat berupa senang secara berkelompok. Media bisa

melalui above the line & below the line seperti TV, Internet, Majalah, Koran dan lain-lain.

Dapat diketahui bahwa negara dengan nilai PDI yang tinggi menunjukkan adanya jarak [distance]

antara atasan dengan bawahan, adanya kesenjangan antara yang atas dan bawah, yang dinilai dari mereka

yang ada di bawah. Yang bawah merasa adanya kekuasaan yang tidak seimbang dan mengharapkan adanya

keseimbangan atau kesetaraan.

Power tidak merata di antara anggota masyarakat PDI tinggi, dan orang yang kurang kuat adalah

takut bertentangan berwenang. Mereka harus menerima kenyataan bahwa kekuasaan dan manfaat yang tidak

merata, dan bahwa kekuasaan dan manfaat yang dikendalikan oleh beberapa orang yang kuat (Hofstede

1984). Orang-orang di masyarakat PDI rendah memiliki kontrol lebih atas hidup mereka, dan otoritas dalam

budaya ini bersedia untuk mendengarkan dan menerima pendapat yang berbeda dari orang lain sebelum

membuat keputusan, terutama bila keputusan memiliki dampak yang besar pada masyarakat.

Blodgett et al. (2001) menemukan bahwa PDI lebih rendah terkait dengan peningkatan sensitivitas

etis dalam transaksi bisnis terhadap stakeholder, seperti pelanggan, pesaing, dan rekan. Mereka yang

membuat keputusan bisnis yang penting dalam budaya PDI tinggi biasanya kuat dan kaya, dan

mempertimbangkan kepentingan mereka sendiri untuk menjadi lebih penting dibandingkan dengan

stakeholder lain (Blodgett et al, 2001;. Hofstede 2001).

Menurut Hebig dan Miller (1991), budaya yang menunjukkan jarak kekuasaan yang tinggi akan

menjadi kurang inovatif. Menurut La Ferle et al. (2002), inovasi menjadi terhambat karena orang pada

budaya jarak kekuasaan yang tinggi akan sangat menghargai otoritas, mengikuti pentunjuk, dan

mengihindari untuk berpendapat yang melawan pendapat umum. 

Dengan demikian untuk negara dengan PDI tinggi seperti Saudi Arabia dalam menyampaikan pesan/informasi

suatu produk tidak menunjukkan suatu hubungan atau relation antar sebuah jabatan, tidak menggunakan suatu jabatan

atau kedudukan politik yang tinggi sebagai tema.

Sedangkan untuk negara dengan nilai PDI rendah seperti USA & Belanda, suatu pesan/informasi boleh

menggunakan hubungan antara kedudukan tinggi & rendah (high tolerance).

Orang-orang di masyarakat UAI tinggi memiliki toleransi yang rendah terhadap ambiguitas, relatif

konservatif, memiliki keinginan yang kuat untuk mematuhi sistem sosial yang ada dan praktek manajemen,

dan takut hal-hal asing atau eksternal. Mereka takut ketidakpastian. Orang-orang di negara-negara peringkat

UAI rendah lebih bersedia untuk menerima perubahan dan mengambil risiko yang lebih besar, karena

mereka merasa bahwa mereka memiliki kontrol lebih atas hidup mereka, otoritas, dan bahkan dunia

(Hofstede 1984).

Penghindaran ketidakpastian (uncertainty avoidance) adalah keadaan dimana anggota sebuah budaya

merasa terancam dengan situasi yang tidak pasti atau tidak diketahui (Hofstede, 1997). Orang dengan tingkat

penghindaran ketidakpastian yang tinggi akan sulit menjadi orang yang mengadopsi inovasi sebelum sebuah

inovasi tersebut banyak diadopsi oleh banyak orang lain (de Mooij, 1998). Pengenalan sebuah inovasi pada

masyarakat dengan budaya penghindaran ketidakpastian yang tinggi akan lebih sulit daripada pada

masyarakat dengan budaya penghindaran ketidakpastian yang rendah.

Pemasaran produk yang inovatif akan mudah dilakukan pada negara dengan nilai UAI rendah seperti

halnya negara Amerika, sedangan Belanda mempunyai nilai sedang sehingga dapat diartikan pemasaran

produk inovatif tidak ada kendala. Sedangkan untuk Arab Saudi kemungkinan menerima suatu produk

inovatif perlu usaha ekstra dalam menyampaikan informasi/pesan dari suatu produk.

Pria dan wanita diperlakukan berbeda dalam masyarakat MAI tinggi, dan orang-orang dalam

masyarakat yang berorientasi pada ego (Hofstede 2001).Orang-orang cenderung untuk menjadi tangguh

dalam masyarakat seperti itu, dan laki-laki didorong untuk bersikap tegas dan ambisius. Mereka harus lebih

tangguh daripada perempuan, yang seharusnya lembut dan penuh perhatian. Secara umum, orang-orang

dalam masyarakat MAI tinggi menekankan tantangan, pendapatan, pengakuan, dan kemajuan (Hofstede dan

Hofstede 2005).

Menurut Hofstede (1997), budaya yang maskulin cenderung memisahkan secara jelas peran laki-laki

– yang diharapkan lebih tegas – dan perempuan – yang seharusnya lebih halus. Pada budaya seperti ini, laki-

laki biasanya aktif pada peran-peran publik sedang perempuan aktif pada peran domestik. Sebaliknya, pada

budaya yang feminin tidak ditemukan pemisahan peran jender yang sangat jelas; peran laki-laki dan

perempuan dianggap sejajar.

Startegi pemasaran suatu produk pada negara dengan nila MAI lebih tinggi seperti halnya negara

Arab Saudi & Amerika Serikat dapat ditekankan pada produk yang berorientasi ego pria seperti halnya

Mobil, Senjata, Rokok dan lain sebagainya. Sedangkan untuk negara belanda dengan indeks MAI rendah

tidak dapat dilakukan pesan/informasi yang sama, tetapi harus dikemas lebih halus.

Daftar PustakaGeert Hofstede, Dimensionalizing Cultures: The Hofstede Model in Contexthttp://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/orpc/vol2/iss1/8/

http://www.fsa.ulaval.ca/personnel/vernag/EH/F/cause/lectures/hofstede.doc.html#RTFToC12

http://sakurahime-teara.blogspot.com/2012/01/dimensi-budaya-sensitivitas-etis-dan.html

Cateora (MGH), Pemasaran Internasional 1 (ed. 13)

http://jarotsuroso.wordpress.com/ict/