Strategic Equipments and Thermonuclear devices

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ContentsArticlesUser:Rajah2770 Strategy Missile Intercontinental ballistic missile Submarine Nuclear submarine Radar Communications satellite Unmanned aerial vehicle Cryptography Simulation Nuclear weapon Pinch (plasma physics) Hall effect thruster Variable Specific Impulse Magnetoplasma Rocket PlateauRayleigh instability Nuclear weapons testing Earthquake Tsunami Weapon of mass destruction Strategic Defense Initiative 1 5 8 14 20 45 51 68 75 89 103 121 131 142 147 153 156 165 179 189 202

ReferencesArticle Sources and Contributors Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 220 227

Article LicensesLicense 232

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User:Rajah2770Dr.A.B.Rajib HazarikaDr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika[[File:File:Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika & his two kids.jpg||alt=]] Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika with Laquit(son) and Danisha(daughter) Born Residence Nationality Ethnicity Citizenship Education Alma mater Azad Bin Rajib HazarikaJuly 2, 1970Jammu, Jammu and Kashmir, India Nagaon, Assam, India Indian AssameseMuslim India PhD, PDF, FRAS University of Jodhpur Jai Narayan Vyas University [1] Institute of Advanced Study in Science & Technology [2] Kendriya Vidyalaya [3] Poona College of Arts, Science &Commerce Assistant Professor(Lecturer), Diphu Govt. College , Diphu,Assam,India 2004- onwards Diphu Government College Government of Assam,Assam Education Service Lecturer ,Assistant Professor,Mathematician,Academician,Fusion,Astronomy Nagaon, Assam, India Rs 40000 per month 6 feet and 2 inches 100 kg Doctorate, Dr., FRAS (London), Assam Education Service, AES Member of Scientific and Technical committee & Editorial review board of Natuaral and Applied sciences World Academy of [4] Science ,Engineering & Technology Sunni Islam, Helmin Begum Hazarika Laquit Ali Hazarika(son), Danisha Begum Hazarika(daughter) Rosmat Ali Hazarika@Rostam Ali Hazarika@Roufat Ali Hazarika and Anjena Begum Hazarika Drabrh or Raja Website [5] [6] [7] [8] [9]

Occupation Years active Employer

Knownfor Home town Salary Height Weight Title Board memberof Religion Spouse Children Parents Call-sign

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Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika with Laquit (son) and Danisha(daughter)

Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika (born July 02, 1970, in Jammu, Jammu and Kashmir, India) is Assistant Professor(Lecturer) Diphu Government College ,Diphu in Karbi Anglong district , Government of Assam [10] , [11] , Karbi Anglong,Assam's largest conglomerate by Government of Assam . He is also the Fellow of Royal Astronomical Society[12] ,London ,Member of International Association of Mathematical Physics, World Academy of Science ,Engineering & Technology, Focus Fusion Society, Dense Plasma Focus, Plasma Science Society of India, Assam Science Society, Assam academy of mathematics,International Atomic Energy Agency,Nuclear and Plasma Sciences Society,Society of Industrial and Applied Mathematics,German Academy of Mathematics and Mechanics,Fusion Science & Technology Society,Indian National Science Academy,Indian Science Congress Association,Advisory Committee of Mathematical Education,Royal Society,International Biographical Centre.

Early lifeDr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika was born into the famous Hazarika family, a prominent family belonging to Dhing's wealthy Muslim Assamese community of Nagaon district. He was born to Anjena Begum Hazarika and Rusmat Ali Hazarika. He is eldest of two childrens of his parents younger one is a Shamim Ara Rahman(nee Hazarika)daughter .

Early careerDr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika completed his PhD degree in Mathematics from J N Vyas University of Jodhpur in 1995 with specialization in Plasma instability, the thesis was awarded best thesis by Association of Indian Universities in 1998 and the Post-Doctoral Fellow Program from Institute of Advanced Study in Science & Technology [13] in Guwahati Assam in 1998 as Research Associate in Plasma Physics Division in theory group studying the Sheath phenomenon. As a Part-time Lecturer in Nowgong college, Assam before joining the present position in Diphu Government College ,Diphu in Karbi Anglong district[14] ,[15] He is a member of the wikipedia[16] , [17] . He is Fellow of Royal Astronomical Society[18] ,member of International Association Mathematical Physics[19] , member of World Academy of Science,Engineering & Technology [20] ,[21] , member of Plasma science Society of India [22] , [23] ,member of Focus Fusion Society forum [24] ,member of Dense Plasma Focus [25] , Member of Assam Science Society [26] , Member of Assam Academy of Mathematics [27]

User:Rajah2770 He joined the Diphu Government College in July2004 as Lecturer in Mathematics (Gazetted officer), through Assam Public Service commission [28] in Assam Education Service [29] , AES-I. [30] now redesignated as Assistant Professor.

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CareerIn May 1993, Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika was awarded Junior Research Fellowship,University Grants Commission, National Eligibility Test and eligibility for Lecturership ,Govt. of India and worked as JRF(UGC,NET) in Department of Mathematics and Statistics of J N Vyas University in Jodhpur. Later on in May 1995 got Senior Research Fellowship(UGC,NET) and continued research for completion of PhD on 27th Dec 1995 .From 1993 onwards taught in Kamala Nehru College for women, Jodhpur and in Faculty of Science in J N Vyas University in Jodhpur up to the completion of PhD .In 1998 May joined Plasma Physics Division of Institute of Advanced Study in Science & Technology in Guwahati as Research Associate for PDF in theory group to study the sheath phenomena of National Fusion Programme [31] of Govt. of India . Then joined Nowgong College as a part-time Lecturer after which in 2004, July joined the present position of Lecturer in Diphu Government College which is redesignated as Assistant Professor.

ResearchDuring PhD [32] [33] [34] [35] [36] The research was based on Astronomy,Astrophysics, Geophysics , for plasma instability with the title of thesis as Some Problems of instabilities in partially ionized and fully ionized plasmas which later on in 1998 was assessed as best thesis of the year by Association of Indian Universities in New Delhi. He is known for Bhatia-Hazarika limitResearch at Diphu Govt. College [37] , [38] [39] [40] [41] [42] [43] [44] Applied for patent in US patent and trademarks office [45] [46] Research guidance is given to students in Mathematics for MPhil. He has written six books entitled Inventions of Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika on future devices and Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika's Pattern recognition on fusion ,Application of Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika's conceptual devices , Green tecnology for next genration , Invention of Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika's devices ,VASIMR DANISHA:A Hall Thruster Space Odyssey ,[47] , [48] , [49] He has derived a formula Hazarika's constant for VASIMR DANISHA as Hazarika constant Ch=1+4sin3 sin -2sin -2sin the value is 2.646

Personal lifeDr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika has a metallic Scarlet red Tata Indigo CS of Tata motors make and loves to drive himself.He is married to Helmin Begum Hazarika and have two chidrens Laquit(son) and Danisha(daughter).

Quotes "Fakir(saint) and lakir(line) stops at nothing but at destination" "Expert criticizes the wrong but demonstrates the right thing" Intellectuals are measured by their brain not by their age and experience Two type of persons are happy in life one who knows everything another who doesnt know anything Implosion in device to prove every notion wrong for fusion Meditation gives fakir(saint) long life and fusion devices the long lasting confinement

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Awards and recognitionDr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika got Junior Research Fellowship,Government of India Senior Research Fellowship,Government of India Research AssociateshipDSTGovernment of India Fellowof Royal Astronomical Society [50] Member of Advisory committee of Mathematical Education Royal Society London Member of Scientific and Technical committee & editorial review board on Natural and applied sciences of World Academy of Science ,Engineering &Technology [51] Leading professional of the world-2010 as noted and eminent professional from International Biographical Centre Cambridge

References[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] http:/ / www. iasst. in http:/ / www. kvafsdigaru. org http:/ / www. akipoonacollege. com http:/ / www. waset. org/ NaturalandAppliedSciences. php?page=45 http:/ / www. facebook. com/ Drabrajib http:/ / in. linkedin. com/ pub/ dr-a-b-rajib-hazarika/ 25/ 506/ 549

[7] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Special:Contributions/ Drabrh [8] http:/ / www. diphugovtcollege. org [9] http:/ / www. karbianglong. nic. in/ diphugovtcollege. org/ teaching. html [10] http:/ / www. karbianglong. nic. in/ diphugovtcollege/ teaching. html [11] http:/ / www. diphugovtcollege. org/ DGC%20prospectus%2008-09. pdf [12] http:/ / www. ras. org. uk/ member?recid==5531 [13] http:/ / www. iasst. in [14] {{cite web|url=http:/ / www. diphugovtcollege. org/ DGC%20prospectus%2008-09. pdf [15] http:/ / karbianglong. nic. in/ diphugovtcollege/ teaching. html [16] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ User:Drabrh [17] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Special:Contributions/ Drabrh [18] http:/ / www. ras. org. uk/ member?recid=5531, [19] http:/ / www. iamp. org/ bulletins/ old-bulletins/ 201001. pdf [20] http:/ / www. waset. org/ NaturalandAppliedSciences. php?page=45 [21] http:/ / www. waset. org/ Search. php?page=68& search= [22] http:/ / www. plasma. ernet. in/ ~pssi/ member/ pssi_new04. doc [23] http:/ / www. ipr. res. in/ ~pssi/ member/ pssidir_new-04. doc [24] http:/ / www. focusfusion. org/ index. php/ forums/ member/ 4165 [25] http:/ / www. denseplasmafocus. org/ index. php/ forum/ member/ 4165 [26] http:/ / www. assamsciencesociety. org/ member [27] http:/ / www. aam. org. in/ member/ 982004 [28] http:/ / apsc. nic. in [29] http:/ / aasc. nic. in/ . . . / Education%20Department/ The%20Assam%20Education%20Service%20Rules%201982. pdf [30] (http:/ / www. diphugovtcollege. org/ DGC prospests 08-09. pdf) [31] http:/ / nfp. pssi. in [32] http:/ / www. iopscience. iop. org/ 1402-4896/ 51/ 6/ 012/ pdf/ physcr_51_6_012. pdf [33] http:/ / www. iopsciences. iop. org/ 1402-4896/ 53/ 1/ 011/ pdf/ 1402-4896_53_1_011. pdf, [34] http:/ / www. niscair. res. in/ sciencecommunication/ abstractingjournals/ isa_1jul08. asp [35] http:/ / en. wiktionary. org/ wiki/ Wikitionary%3ASandbox [36] http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 1996PhyS. . 53. . . 578 [37] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Special:Contributions/ Drabrh/ File:Drabrhdouble_trios_saiph_star01. pdf [38] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ File:Drabrh_bayer_rti. pdf [39] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ File:Columb_drabrh. pdf [40] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ File:Drabrh_double_trios. pdf [41] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ File:Drabrhiterparabolic2007. pdf [42] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ File:Drabrh_mctc_feedbackloop. pdf [43] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ File:Drabrh_tasso_07. pdf

User:Rajah2770[44] [45] [46] [47] [48] [49] [50] [51] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ File:Abstracts. pdf?page=2 http:/ / upload. wikimedia. org/ wikipedia/ en/ 5/ 50/ EfilingAck5530228. pdf http:/ / upload. wikimedia. org/ wikipedia/ en/ c/ c4/ EfilingAck3442787. pdf http:/ / www. pothi. com http:/ / i-proclaimbookstore. com http:/ / ipppserver. homelinux. org:8080/ view/ creators/ Hazarika=3ADr=2EA=2EB=2ERajib=3A=3A. html http:/ / www. ras. org. uk/ members?recid=5531 http:/ / www. waset. org/ NaturalandAppliedSciences. php?page=46

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External links (http://www.diphugovtcollege.org/) Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika's profile on the Linkedin Website (http://in.linkedin.com/pub/dr-a-b-rajib-hazarika/25/ 506/549=) (http://www.facebook.com/Drabrajib) Rajah2770 (talk) 18:12, 7 February 2011 (UTC)

StrategyStrategy, a word of military origin, refers to a plan of action designed to achieve a particular goal. In military usage strategy is distinct from tactics, which are concerned with the conduct of an engagement, while strategy is concerned with how different engagements are linked. How a battle is fought is a matter of tactics: the terms and conditions that it is fought on and whether it should be fought at all is a matter of strategy, which is part of the four levels of warfare: political goals or grand strategy, strategy, operations, and tactics. Building on the work of many thinkers on the subject, one can define strategy as "a comprehensive way to try to pursue political ends, including the threat or actual use of force, in a dialectic of wills there have to be at least two sides to a conflict. These sides interact, and thus a Strategy will rarely be successful if it shows no adaptability."[1]

EtymologyThe word strategy derives from the Greek "" (strategia), "office of general, command, generalship",[2] in turn from "" (strategos), "leader or commander of an army, general",[3] a compound of "" (stratos), "army, host" + "" (agos), "leader, chief",[4] in turn from "" (ago), "to lead".[5] We have no evidence of it being used in a modern sense in Ancient Greek, but find it in Byzantine documents from the 6th century onwards, and most notably in the work attributed to Emperor Leo VI the Wise of Byzantium. The word was first used in German as "Strategie" in a translation of Leo's work in 1777, shortly thereafter in French as "stratgie" by Leo's French translator, and was first attested in English 1810.[1]

Strategies in game theoryIn game theory, a strategy refers to one of the options that a player can choose. That is, every player in a non-cooperative game has a set of possible strategies, and must choose one of the choices. A strategy must specify what action will happen in each contingent state of the gamee.g. if the opponent does A, then take action B, whereas if the opponent does C, take action D. Strategies in game theory may be random (mixed) or deterministic (pure). That is, in some games, players choose mixed strategies. Pure strategies can be thought of as a special case of mixed strategies, in which only probabilities 0 or 1 are assigned to actions.

Strategy

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Noted texts on strategyClassic texts such as Chanakya's Arthashastra written in the 3rd century BC, Sun Tzu's The Art of War, written in China 2,500 years ago, the political strategy of Niccol Machiavelli's The Prince, written in 1513, or Carl von Clausewitz's On War, published in 1832, as with the Japanese classic The book of five rings by Miyamoto Mushashi written in 1645, are still well known, and highly influential. Even though the term was not used before the end of the 18th century, and subsequently shifted its meaning (see definitions, above), there were several insightful writers on strategy between Machiavelli and Clausewitz, like Matthew Sutcliffe, Bernardino de Mendoza, Santa Cruz de Marcenado (lvaro de Navia Osorio y Vigil, marqus de Santa Cruz de Marcenado), Guibert (Jacques Antoine Hippolyte, Comte de Guibert), and August Otto Rhle von Lilienstern. In the 20th century, the subject of strategic management has been particularly applied to organizations, most typically to business firms and corporations. The nature of historic texts differs greatly from area to area, and given the nature of strategy itself, there are some potential parallels between various forms of strategynoting, for example, the popularity of The Art of War as a business book. Each domain generally has its own foundational texts, as well as more recent contributions to new applications of strategy. Some of these are: Political strategy The Prince, published in 1532 by Niccol Machiavelli Arthashastra, written in the 4th century BC by Chanakya The Book of the Courtier by Baldassare Castiglione Military strategy: The Art of War, written in the 6th century BC by Sun Tzu The Art of War, written in the 19th century AD by Baron Antoine-Henri Jomini The Book of Five Rings, written in the 17th century AD by Miyamoto Musashi Strategikon, written in the 6th century AD by the Byzantine emperor Maurice Taktikon, by the Byzantine emperor Leo VI the Wise Reflexiones Militares by Santa Cruz de Marcenado Essai gnral de la Tactique by Guibert (Jacques Antoine Hippolyte, Comte de Guibert) On War, by Carl von Clausewitz (19th century) Strategy, by B.H. Liddell Hart On Guerrilla Warfare, by Mao Zedong The Influence of Sea Power upon History, by Alfred Thayer Mahan The Air Campaign, by Colonel John A. Warden, III Makers of Modern Strategy, edited by Peter Paret Strategy, by Edward N. Luttwak The Strategy Makers, edited by Beatrice Heuser, ISBN 978-0-275-99826-4 OODA, by John Boyd

Economic strategy General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money, published in 1936 by John Maynard Keynes Business strategy Blue Ocean Strategy, by W. Chan Kim and Rene Mauborgne, 2005 Competitive Strategy, by Michael Porter Strategy Concept I: Five Ps for Strategy and Strategy Concept II: Another Look at Why Organizations Need Strategies, by Henry Mintzberg Winning In FastTime by John A. Warden, III and Leland A. Russell, 2002. Designing Organization for Higher Performance by David P. Hanna, 1988. Exploring Corporate Strategy by Gerry Johnson and Kevan Scholes, 2001.

Strategy Strategy of the Dolphin: Scoring a Win in a Chaotic World by Dudley Lynch and Dr. Paul L. Kordis, 1988 General strategy Strategy Safari, by Henry Mintzberg, Bruce Ahlstrand and Joseph Lampel. Strategic Studies-Intelligence and strategy, by Gagliano Giuseppe, Uniservice, Nov 2009 Others Marcel Dtienne and Jean-Pierre Vernant, Les Ruses de l'intelligence, Paris: Flammarion, 1993 (on the role of the Greek Metis)

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Notes[1] Beatrice Heuser, The Evolution of Strategy: Thinking War from Antiquity to the Present (Cambridge University Press, 2010), ISBN 978-0-521-19968-1, p.27f. [2] (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 04. 0057:entry=strathgi/ a), Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library [3] (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 04. 0057:entry=strathgo/ s), Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library [4] (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 04. 0057:entry=a)go/ s1), Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library [5] (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 04. 0057:entry=a)/ gw), Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library

Missile

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MissileMissile

A V-2 missile launch by the British during Operation Backfire.

The word missile usually now means a self-propelled guided weapon system, but it may refer to any thrown or launched object.

EtymologyThe word missile comes from the Latin verb mittere, meaning "to send". In military parlance, powered/guided munitions are broadly categorised as follows: A powered, guided munition that travels through the air or space is known as a missile (or guided missile.) A powered, unguided munition is known as a rocket. Unpowered munitions are called bombs whether guided or not; unpowered, guided munitions are known as guided bombs or "smart bombs". Munitions that are fired from a gun are known as shells whether guided or not. Powered munitions that travel through water are called torpedoes. A common further sub-division is to consider ballistic missile to mean a munition that follows a ballistic trajectory and cruise missile to describe a munition that generates lift.

Early developmentThe first missiles to be used operationally were a series of missiles developed by Nazi Germany in World War II. Most famous of these are the V-1 flying bomb and V-2, both of which used a simple mechanical autopilot to keep the missile flying along a pre-chosen route. Less well known were a series of anti-shipping and anti-aircraft missiles, typically based on a simple radio control system directed by the operator. However, these early systems in World War 2 were only built in small numbers.

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TechnologyGuided missiles have a number of different system components: Targeting and/or guidance Flight system Engine Warhead

Guidance systemsMissiles may be targeted in a number of ways. The most common method is to use some form of radiation, such as infrared, lasers or radio waves, to guide the missile onto its target. This radiation may emanate from the target (such as the heat of an engine or the radio waves from an enemy radar), it may be provided by the missile itself (such as a radar) or it may be provided by a friendly third party (such as the radar of the launch vehicle/platform, or a laser designator operated by friendly infantry). The first two are often known as fire-and-forget as they need no further support or control from the launch vehicle/platform in order to function. Another method is to use a TV camerausing either visible light or infra-redin order to see the target. The picture may be used either by a human operator who steers the missile onto its target, or by a computer doing much the same job. Many missiles use a combination of two or more of the above methods, to improve accuracy and the chances of a successful engagement.

Targeting systemsAnother method is to target the missile by knowing the location of the target, and using a guidance system such as INS, TERCOM or GPS. This guidance system guides the missile by knowing the missile's current position and the position of the target, and then calculating a course between them. This job can also be performed somewhat crudely by a human operator who can see the target and the missile, and guides it using either cable or radio based remote-control, or by an automatic system that can simultaneously track the target and the missile.

Flight systemWhether a guided missile uses a targeting system, a guidance system or both, it needs a flight system. The flight system uses the data from the targeting or guidance system to maneuver the missile in flight, allowing it to counter inaccuracies in the missile or to follow a moving target. There are two main systems: vectored thrust (for missiles that are powered throughout the guidance phase of their flight) and aerodynamic maneuvering (wings, fins, canards, etc.).

EngineMissiles are powered by an engine, generally either a type of rocket or jet engine. Rockets are generally of the solid fuel type for ease of maintenance and fast deployment, although some larger ballistic missiles use liquid fuel rockets. Jet engines are generally used in cruise missiles, most commonly of the turbojet type, due to its relative simplicity and low frontal area. Turbofans and ramjets are the only other common forms of jet engine propulsion, although any type of engine could theoretically be used. Missiles often have multiple engine stages, particularly in those launched from the ground. These stages may all be of similar types or may include a mix of engine types.

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WarheadMissiles generally have one or more explosive warheads, although other weapon types may also be used. The warhead or warheads of a missile provides its primary destructive power (many missiles have extensive secondary destructive power due to the high kinetic energy of the weapon and unburnt fuel that may be on board). Warheads are most commonly of the high explosive type, often employing shaped charges to exploit the accuracy of a guided weapon to destroy hardened targets. Other warhead types include submunitions, incendiaries, nuclear weapons, chemical, biological or radiological weapons or kinetic energy penetrators. Warheadless missiles are often used for testing and training purposes.

Basic rolesMissiles are generally categorized by their launch platform and intended target. In broadest terms, these will either be surface (ground or water) or air, and then sub-categorized by range and the exact target type (such as anti-tank or anti-ship). Many weapons are designed to be launched from both surface or the air, and a few are designed to attack either surface or air targets (such as the ADATS missile). Most weapons require some modification in order to be launched from the air or ground, such as adding boosters to the ground launched version.

Surface-to-Surface/Air-to-SurfaceBallistic After the boost-stage, ballistic missiles follow a trajectory mainly determined by ballistics. The guidance is for relatively small deviations from that. Ballistic missiles are largely used for land attack missions. Although normally associated with nuclear weapons, some conventionally armed ballistic missiles are in service, such as ATACMS. The V2 had demonstrated that a ballistic missile could deliver a warhead to a target city with no possibility of interception, and the introduction of nuclear weapons meant it could do useful damage when it arrived. The accuracy of these systems was fairly poor, but post-war development by most military forces improved the basic inertial platform concept to the point where it could be used as the guidance system on ICBMs flying thousands of kilometers. Today the ballistic missile represents the only strategic deterrent in most military forces, however some Ballistic missiles are being adapted for conventional roles, such as the A R-36 ballistic missile launch at a Soviet silo. Russian Iskander or the Chinese DF-21D anti-ship ballistic missile. Ballistic missiles are primarily surface launched from mobile launchers, silos, ships or submarines, with air launch being theoretically possible using a weapon such as the canceled Skybolt missile. The Russian Topol M (SS-27 Sickle B) is the fastest (7,320 m/sec) missile currently in service[1]

Missile Cruise missile The V1 had been successfully intercepted during World War II, but this did not make the cruise missile concept entirely useless. After the war, the US deployed a small number of nuclear-armed cruise missiles in Germany, but these were considered to be of limited usefulness. Continued research into much longer ranged and faster versions led to the US's Navaho missile, and its Soviet counterparts, the Burya and Buran cruise missile. However, these were rendered largely obsolete by the ICBM, and none were used operationally. Shorter-range developments have become widely used as highly accurate attack systems, such as the US Tomahawk missile, the Russian Kh-55 the German Taurus missile and the Pakistani Babur cruise missile.

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United States Tomahawk cruise missile

Cruise missiles are generally associated with land attack operations, but also have an important role as anti-shipping weapons. They are primarily launched from air, sea or submarine platforms in both roles, although land based launchers also exist. Anti-ship Another major German missile development project was the anti-shipping class (such as the Fritz X and Henschel Hs 293), intended to stop any attempt at a cross-channel invasion. However the British were able to render their systems useless by jamming their radios, and missiles with wire guidance were not ready by D-Day. After the war the anti-shipping class slowly developed, and became a major class in the 1960s with the introduction of the low-flying jet or rocket powered cruise missiles known as "sea-skimmers". These became famous during the Falklands War when an Argentine Exocet missile sank a Royal Navy destroyer.

The French Exocet missile in flight.

A number of anti-submarine missiles also exist; these generally use the missile in order to deliver another weapon system such as a torpedo or depth charge to the location of the submarine, at which point the other weapon will conduct the underwater phase of the mission. Anti-tank By the end of WWII all forces had widely introduced unguided rockets using HEAT warheads as their major anti-tank weapon (see Panzerfaust, Bazooka). However these had a limited useful range of a 100 m or so, and the Germans were looking to extend this with the use of a missile using wire guidance, the X-7. After the war this became a major design class in the later 1950s, and by the 1960s had developed into practically the only non-tank anti-tank system in general use. During the 1973 Yom Kippur War between Israel and Egypt, the 9M14 Malyutka (aka "Sagger") man-portable anti-tank missile proved potent U.S. Army soldiers firing an FGM-148 Javelin. against Israeli tanks. While other guidance systems have been tried, the basic reliability of wire-guidance means this will remain the primary means of controlling anti-tank missile in the near future. Anti tank missiles may be launched from aircraft, vehicles or by ground troops in the case of smaller weapons.

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Surface-to-airAnti-aircraft By 1944 US and British air forces were sending huge air fleets over occupied Europe, increasing the pressure on the Luftwaffe day and night fighter forces. The Germans were keen to get some sort of useful ground-based anti-aircraft system into operation. Several systems were under development, but none had reached operational status before the war's end. The US Navy also started missile research to deal with the Kamikaze threat. By 1950 systems based on this early research started to reach operational service, including the US Army's Nike Ajax, the Navy's "3T's" (Talos, Terrier, Tartar), and soon followed by the Soviet S-25 Berkut and S-75 Dvina and French and British systems. Anti-aircraft weapons exist for virtually every possible launch platform, with surface launched systems ranging from huge, self propelled or ship mounted launchers to man portable systems.MIM-104 Patriot missile being launched

Anti-ballistic Like most missiles, the Arrow missile, S-300, S-400 and MIM-104 Patriot are for defense against short-range missiles and carry explosive warheads. However, in the case of a large closing speed, a projectile without explosives is used, just a collision is sufficient to destroy the target. See Missile Defense Agency for the following systems being developed: Kinetic Energy Interceptor (KEI) Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense System (Aegis BMD) - a SM-3 missile with Lightweight Exo-Atmospheric Projectile (LEAP) Kinetic Warhead (KW)

Arrow missile

Air-to-airSoviet RS-82 rockets were successfully tested in combat at the Battle of Khalkhin Gol in 1939. German experience in WWII demonstrated that destroying a large aircraft was quite difficult, and they had invested considerable effort into air-to-air missile systems to do this. Their Me-262's jets often carried R4M rockets, and other types of "bomber destroyer" aircraft had unguided rockets as well. In the post-war period the R4M servedA F-22 fires an AIM-120 AMRAAM

Missile as the pattern for a number of similar systems, used by almost all interceptor aircraft during the 1940s and '50s. Lacking guidance systems, such rockets had to be carefully aimed at relatively close range to successfully hit the target. The US Navy and USAF began deploying guided missiles in the early 1950s, most famous being the US Navy's AIM-9 Sidewinder and USAF's AIM-4 Falcon. These systems have continued to advance, and modern air warfare consists almost entirely of missile firing. In the Falklands War, less powerful British Harriers were able to defeat faster Argentinian opponents using AIM-9G missiles provided by the United States as the conflict began. The latest heat-seeking designs can lock onto a target from various angles, not just from behind, where the heat signature from the engines is strongest. Other types rely on radar guidance (either on-board or "painted" by the launching aircraft). Air to Air missiles also have a wide range of sizes, ranging from helicopter launched self defense weapons with a range of a few kilometers, to long range weapons designed for interceptor aircraft such as the Vympel R-37.

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Anti-satelliteIn the 1950s and 1960s, Soviet designers started work on an anti-satellite weapon, called the "Istrebitel Sputnik", which meant literally, Interceptor of satellites, or Destroyer of satellites. After a lengthy development process of roughly 20 years, it was finally decided that testing of the Istrebitel Sputnik be canceled. Ironically, this was when the U.S. started testing their own systems. From the mid 1970s onwards, the Soviets tested Directed-energy weapons with a facility named Terra-3, although relatively underpowered to perform a full anti-satellite attack, it was used to cause malfunctions on board the Space Shuttle Challenger in 1984.[2] The proposed Brilliant Pebbles defense system during the 1980s would use kinetic energy collisions without explosives. Anti satellite weapons may be launched either by an aircraft or a surface platform, depending on the design. To date, only a few known tests have occurred.ASM-135 ASAT missile launch on Sep. 13, 1985.

References[1] "Worlds military powers" (http:/ / www. independent. co. ug/ index. php/ reports/ world-report/ 74-world-report-/ 172-worlds-military-powers). The Independent. . [2] http:/ / www. astronautix. com/ craft/ terra3. htm

External links S. A. Kamal, A. Mirza: The Multi-Stage-Q System and the Inverse-Q System for Possible application in SLV (http://www10.brinkster.com/drakamal/pub/confabst.htm#C66:), Proc. IBCAST 2005, Volume 3, Control and Simulation, Edited by Hussain SI, Munir A, Kiyani J, Samar R, Khan MA, National Center for Physics, Bhurban, KP, Pakistan, 2006, pp 2733 Free Full Text (http://www.ngds-ku.org/Papers/C66.pdf) S. A. Kamal: Incorporating Cross-Range Error in the Lambert Scheme (http://www10.brinkster.com/ drakamal/pub/confabst.htm#C67:), Proc. 10th National Aeronautical Conf., Edited by Sheikh SR, Khan AM, Pakistan Air Force Academy, Risalpur, KP, Pakistan, 2006, pp 255263 Free Full Text (http://www.ngds-ku. org/Papers/C67.pdf) S. A. Kamal: The Multi-Stage-Lambert Scheme for Steering a Satellite-Launch Vehicle (http://www10.brinkster. com/drakamal/pub/confabst.htm#C72:), Proc. 12th IEEE INMIC, Edited by Anis MK, Khan MK, Zaidi SJH, Bahria Univ., Karachi, Pakistan, 2008, pp 294300 (invited paper) Free Full Text (http://www.ngds-ku.org/ Papers/C72.pdf)

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Intercontinental ballistic missileAn intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) is a ballistic missile with a long range (greater than 5,500km or 3,500miles) typically designed for nuclear weapons delivery (delivering one or more nuclear warheads). Due to their great range and firepower, in an all-out nuclear war, land-based and submarine-based ballistic missiles would carry most of the destructive force, with nuclear-armed bombers having the remainder. ICBMs are differentiated by having greater range and speed than other ballistic missiles: intermediate-range ballistic missiles (IRBMs), medium-range ballistic missiles (MRBMs), short-range ballistic missiles (SRBMs)these shorter range ballistic missiles are known collectively as theatre ballistic missiles. There is no single, standardized definition of what ranges would be categorized as intercontinental, intermediate, medium, or short. With the advent of multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles (MIRVs) in 1970, deployed in Minuteman ICBMs and Poseidon SLBMs,[1] a single missile had the capability of carrying several warheads, each of which could strike a different target. While the warheads of theater ballistic missiles are often conventional, ICBMs have been nearly inseparable from their connection with nuclear warheads. 'Nuclear ICBM' was seen as a redundant term. Strategic planning avoided the concept of a conventionally tipped ICBM, mainly because any ICBM launch threatens many countries and they are expected to react under the worst-case assumption that it is a nuclear attack. This threat of ICBMs to deliver such a lethal blow so rapidly to targets across the globe means that there has never been any end-to-end test of a nuclear-armed ICBM. The speed and range of an ICBM means that it is the only means by which military action can be taken promptly anywhere in the world, though the United States Prompt Global Strike effort is designed to allow for similar flexibility with conventional weapons.A Minuteman III ICBM test launch from Vandenberg Air Force Base, California, United States Test launch of a LGM-25C Titan II ICBM from underground silo 395-Charlie at Vandenberg AFB, during the mid 1960s

HistoryWorld War II

The development of the world's first practical design for an ICBM, A9/10, intended for use in bombing New York and other American cities, was undertaken in Nazi Germany by the team of Wernher von Braun under Projekt Amerika. The ICBM A9/A10 rocket initially was intended to be guided by radio, but was changed to be a piloted craft after the failure of Operation Elster. The second stage of the A9/A10 rocket was tested a few times in January and February 1945. The progenitor of the A9/A10 was the German V-2 rocket, also designed by von Braun and widely used at the end of World War II to bomb British and Belgian cities. All of these rockets used liquid propellants. Following the war, von Braun and other leading German scientists were secretly forced to the United

Intercontinental ballistic missile States to work directly for the U.S. Army through Operation Paperclip, developing the IRBMs, ICBMs, and launchers.

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Cold WarIn 1953, the USSR initiated, under the direction of the reactive propulsion engineer Sergey Korolyov, a program to develop an ICBM. Korolyov had constructed the R-1, a copy of the V-2 based on some captured materials, but later developed his own distinct design. This rocket, the R-7, was successfully tested in August 1957 becoming the world's first ICBM and, on October 4, 1957, placed the first artificial satellite in space, Sputnik.

The Soviet R-36(SS-18 Satan) is the largest ICBM in history, with a Throw weight of 8,800 kg, twice that of Peacekeeper.

In the USA, competition between the U.S. armed services meant that each force developed its own ICBM program. The U.S. initiated ICBM research in 1946 with the MX-774. However, its funding was cancelled and only three partially successful launches in 1948, of an intermediate rocket, were ever conducted. In 1951, the U.S. began a new ICBM program called MX-774 and B-65 (later renamed Atlas). The U.S.' first successful ICBM, the 1.44-megaton Atlas D, was launched on July 29, 1959, almost two years after the Soviet R-7 flight.[2] [3] Military units with deployed ICBM would first be fielded in 1959, in both the Soviet Union and the United States. The R-7 and Atlas each required a large launch facility, making them vulnerable to attack, and could not be kept in a ready state. The first US base to host ICBMs was F. E. Warren Air Force Base, in Wyoming;[4] [5] the base hosts an ICBM and Heritage Museum.

U.S. Peacekeeper missile after silo launch.

These early ICBMs also formed the basis of many space launch systems. Examples include Atlas, Redstone, Titan, R-7, and Proton, which was derived from the earlier ICBMs but never deployed as an ICBM. The Eisenhower administration supported the development of solid-fueled missiles such as the LGM-30 Minuteman, Polaris and Skybolt. Modern ICBMs tend to be smaller than their ancestors, due to increased accuracy and smaller and lighter warheads, and use solid fuels, making them less useful as orbital launch vehicles. The Western view of the deployment of these systems was governed by the strategic theory of Mutual Assured Destruction. In the 1950s and 1960s, development began on Anti-Ballistic Missile systems by both the U.S. and USSR; these systems were restricted by the 1972 ABM treaty. The first successful ABM test were conducted by the USSR in 1961, that later deployed a fully operating system defending Moscow in the 1970s (see Moscow ABM

Intercontinental ballistic missile system). The 1972 SALT treaty froze the number of ICBM launchers of both the USA and the USSR at existing levels, and allowed new submarine-based SLBM launchers only if an equal number of land-based ICBM launchers were dismantled. Subsequent talks, called SALT II, were held from 1972 to 1979 and actually reduced the number of nuclear warheads held by the USA and USSR. SALT II was never ratified by the United States Senate, but its terms were nevertheless honored by both sides until 1986, when the Reagan administration "withdrew" after accusing the USSR of violating the pact. In the 1980s, President Ronald Reagan launched the Strategic Defense Initiative as well as the MX and Midgetman ICBM programs.

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PostCold WarIn 1991, the United States and the Soviet Union agreed in the START I treaty to reduce their deployed ICBMs and attributed warheads. As of 2009, all five of the nations with permanent seats on the United Nations Security Council have operational ICBM systems: all have submarine-launched missiles, and Russia, the United States and China also have land-based missiles. In addition, Russia and China have mobile land-based missiles. India is reported to be developing a new variant of the Agni missile, called the Agni V, which is reported to have a strike range of more than 6,000km.[6] It is speculated by some intelligence agencies that North Korea is developing an ICBM;[7] two tests of somewhat different developmental missiles in 1998 and 2006 were not fully successful.[8] [9] On April 5, 2009, North Korea launched a missile. They claimed that it was to launch a satellite, but there is no proof to back up that claim.[10] Most countries in the early stages of developing ICBMs have used liquid propellants, with the known exceptions being the planned South African RSA-4 ICBM and the now in service Israeli Jericho 3.[11]

Flight phasesThe following flight phases can be distinguished: boost phase: 3 to 5 minutes (shorter for a solid rocket than for a liquid-propellant rocket); altitude at the end of this phase is typically 150 to 400km depending on the trajectory chosen, typical burnout speed is 7km/s. midcourse phase: approx. 25 minutessub-orbital spaceflight in an elliptic orbit; the orbit is part of an ellipse with a vertical major axis; the apogee (halfway through the midcourse phase) is at an altitude of approximately 1,200km; the semi-major axis is between 3,186km and 6,372km; the projection of the orbit on the Earth's surface is close to a great circle, slightly displaced due to earth rotation during the time of flight; the missile may release several independent warheads, and penetration aids such as metallic-coated balloons, aluminum chaff, and full-scale warhead decoys. reentry phase (starting at an altitude of 100km): 2 minutesimpact is at a speed of up to 4km/s (for early ICBMs less than 1km/s); see also maneuverable reentry vehicle.

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Modern ICBMsModern ICBMs typically carry multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles (MIRVs), each of which carries a separate nuclear warhead, allowing a single missile to hit multiple targets. MIRV was an outgrowth of the rapidly shrinking size and weight of modern warheads and the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaties which imposed limitations on the number of launch vehicles (SALT I and SALT II). It has also proved to be an "easy answer" to proposed deployments of ABM systemsit is far less expensive to add more warheads to an existing missile system than to build an ABM system capable of shooting down the additional warheads; hence, most ABM system proposals have been judged to be impractical. The first operational ABM systems were deployed in the U.S. during 1970s. Safeguard ABM facility was located in North Dakota and was operational External and cross sectional views of a Trident II D5 nuclear missile system. from 19751976. The USSR deployed its It is a submarine launched missile capable of carrying multiple nuclear warheads up to 8,000 km. Trident missiles are carried by fourteen active US Galosh ABM system around Moscow in the Navy Ohio class submarines and four Royal Navy Vanguard class 1970s, which remains in service. Israel deployed submarines. a national ABM system based on the Arrow missile in 1998,[12] but it is mainly designed to intercept shorter-ranged theater ballistic missiles, not ICBMs. The U.S. Alaska-based National missile defense system attained initial operational capability in 2004.[13] ICBMs can be deployed from multiple platforms: in missile silos, which offer some protection from military attack (including, the designers hope, some protection from a nuclear first strike) on submarines: submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs); most or all SLBMs have the long range of ICBMs (as opposed to IRBMs) on heavy trucks; this applies to one version of the RT-2UTTH Topol M which may be deployed from a ICBMs can be deployed from TELs such as Topol. self-propelled mobile launcher, capable of moving through roadless terrain, and launching a missile from any point along its route mobile launchers on rails; this applies, for example, to -23 "" (RT-23UTTH "Molodets"SS-24 "Sll") The last three kinds are mobile and therefore hard to find.

Intercontinental ballistic missile During storage, one of the most important features of the missile is its serviceability. One of the key features of the first computer-controlled ICBM, the Minuteman missile, was that it could quickly and easily use its computer to test itself. In flight, a booster pushes the warhead and then falls away. Most modern boosters are solid-fueled rocket motors, which can be stored easily for long periods of time. Early missiles used liquid-fueled rocket motors. Many liquid-fueled ICBMs could not be kept fuelled all the time as the cryogenic liquid oxygen boiled off and caused ice formation, and therefore fueling the rocket was necessary before launch. This procedure was a source of significant operational delay, and might allow the missiles to be destroyed by enemy counterparts before they could be used. To resolve this problem the British invented the missile silo that protected the missile from a first strike and also hid fuelling operations underground. Once the booster falls away, the warhead continues on an unpowered ballistic trajectory, much like an artillery shell or cannon ball. The warhead is encased in a cone-shaped reentry vehicle and is difficult to detect in this phase of flight as there is no rocket exhaust or other emissions to mark its position to defenders. The high speeds of the warheads make them difficult to intercept and allow for little warning striking targets anywhere in the world within minutes. Many authorities say that missiles also release aluminized balloons, electronic noisemakers, and other items intended to confuse interception devices and radars (see penetration aid). As the nuclear warhead reenters the Earth's atmosphere its high speed causes friction with the air, leading to a dramatic rise in temperature which would destroy it if it were not shielded in some way. As a result, warhead components are contained within an aluminium honeycomb substructure, sheathed in pyrolytic graphite-epoxy resin composite, with a heat-shield layer on top which is constructed out of 3-Dimensional Quartz Phenolic. Accuracy is crucial, because doubling the accuracy decreases the needed warhead energy by a factor of four. Accuracy is limited by the accuracy of the navigation system and the available geophysical information. Strategic missile systems are thought to use custom integrated circuits designed to calculate navigational differential equations thousands to millions of times per second in order to reduce navigational errors caused by calculation alone. These circuits are usually a network of binary addition circuits that continually recalculate the missile's position. The inputs to the navigation circuit are set by a general purpose computer according to a navigational input schedule loaded into the missile before launch. One particular weapon developed by the Soviet Union (FOBS) had a partial orbital trajectory, and unlike most ICBMs its target could not be deduced from its orbital flight path. It was decommissioned in compliance with arms control agreements, which address the maximum range of ICBMs and prohibit orbital or fractional-orbital weapons. Low-flying guided cruise missiles are an alternative to ballistic missiles.

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Intercontinental ballistic missile

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Specific missilesLand-based ICBMsOnly Russia, the United States, and China currently possess land-based ICBMs.[14] The United States currently operates 450 ICBMs in three USAF bases. The only model deployed is LGM-30G Minuteman-III. All previous USAF Minuteman II missiles have been destroyed in accordance with START, and their launch silos have been sealed or sold to the public. To comply with the START II most U.S. multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles, or MIRVs, have been eliminated and replaced with single warhead missiles. The powerful MIRV-capable Peacekeeper missiles were phased out in 2005.[15] However, since the abandonment of the START II treaty, the U.S. is said to be considering retaining 800 warheads on existing 450 missiles.[16]

Testing at the Kwajalein Atoll of the Peacekeeper re-entry vehicles, all eight fired from only one missile. Each line, were its warhead live, represents the potential explosive power of about 375 kilotons of TNT.

China recently has developed several long range ICBM missiles.[17]

Submarine-launchedAll current designs of submarine launched ballistic missiles have intercontinental range. Current operators of such missiles are the United States, Russia, United Kingdom, France,India and China.

References[1] "Call it suigenocide" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 1981/ 09/ 13/ books/ call-it-suigenocide. html). The New York Times. September 13, 1981. . Retrieved May 5, 2010. [2] Missile Threat: Atlas D (http:/ / www. missilethreat. com/ missilesoftheworld/ id. 15/ missile_detail. asp) [3] Encyclopedia Astronautica: Atlas (http:/ / www. astronautix. com/ lvs/ atlas. htm) [4] Lockheed Martin Press Release, October 9, 2009 (http:/ / www. lockheedmartin. com/ news/ press_releases/ 2009/ 1009_ss_ICBM. html) [5] Airmen commemorate 50 years of nation's preeminent ICBM fleet, Air Force Base news, October 7, 2009 (http:/ / www. warren. af. mil/ news/ story. asp?id=123171695) [6] Times of India: India plans 6,000-km range Agni-IV missile (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ India_plans_6000-km_range_Agni-IV_missile/ articleshow/ 2618413. cms) [7] Taep'o-dong 2 (TD-2) - North Korea (http:/ / www. fas. org/ nuke/ guide/ dprk/ missile/ td-2. htm) [8] CNN.com (http:/ / edition. cnn. com/ 2006/ WORLD/ asiapcf/ 07/ 04/ korea. missile/ ) [9] CNN.com (http:/ / www. cnn. com/ 2006/ WORLD/ asiapcf/ 07/ 05/ korea. missile/ index. html) [10] BBC.co.uk (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ asia-pacific/ 7982874. stm) [11] Astronautix.com (http:/ / www. astronautix. com/ lvfam/ jericho. htm) [12] Israeli Arrow ABM System is Operational as War Clouds Darken (http:/ / www. ishitech. co. il/ 1102ar1. htm) [13] MissileThreat.com (http:/ / www. missilethreat. com/ systems/ fort_greely. html) [14] Britannica.com (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 290047/ ICBM) [15] Peacekeeper missile mission ends during ceremony (http:/ / www. af. mil/ news/ story. asp?storyID=123011845) [16] Nuclear Notebook: U.S. and Soviet/Russian intercontinental ballistic missiles, 19592008 (http:/ / thebulletin. metapress. com/ content/ 037qk4866n431045/ fulltext. pdf) Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists (http:/ / thebulletin. org), January/February 2009 [17] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ DF-31

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External links Ballistic missile characters (http://www.mda.mil/mdalink/bcmt/bm_char_1.htm) Estimated Strategic Nuclear Weapons Inventories (September 2004) (http://es.rice.edu/projects/Poli378/ Nuclear/f04.stratg_invent.html) Intercontinental Ballistic and Cruise Missiles (http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/icbm/index.html) "A Tale of Two Airplanes" (http://www.RC135.com) by Kingdon R. "King" Hawes, Lt Col, USAF (Ret.)

SubmarineA submarine is a watercraft capable of independent operation below the surface of the water. It differs from a submersible, which has only limited underwater capability. The term submarine most commonly refers to large crewed autonomous vessels; however, historically or colloquially, submarine can also refer to medium sized or smaller vessels (midget submarines, wet subs), remotely operated vehicles or robots. The word submarine was originally an adjective meaning "under the sea"; consequently other uses such as "submarine engineering" or "submarine cable" may not A Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force Oyashio-class submarine in actually refer at all to the vessel. Submarine was in fact 2006 shortened from the proper term, "submarine boat", and is often further shortened to "sub" when the word is employed informally. Submarines should always be referred to as "boats" rather than as "ships", regardless of their size. The English term U-boat for a German submarine comes from the German word for submarine, U-Boot, itself an abbreviation for Unterseeboot ("undersea boat"). Although experimental submarines had been built before, submarine design took off during the 19th century, and they were adopted by several different navies. Submarines were first widely used during World War I (19141918) and now feature in many large navies. Military usage includes attacking enemy surface ships or submarines, aircraft carrier protection, blockade running, ballistic missile submarines as part of a nuclear strike force, reconnaissance, conventional land attack (for example using a cruise missile), and covert insertion of special forces. Civilian uses for submarines include marine science, salvage, exploration and facility inspection/maintenance. Submarines can also be modified to perform more specialized functions such as search-and-rescue missions or undersea cable repair. Submarines are employed, too, in tourism and for undersea archaeology. Most large submarines comprise a cylindrical body with hemispherical (and/or conical) ends and a vertical structure, usually located amidships, which houses communications and sensing devices as well as periscopes. In modern submarines this structure is the "sail" in American usage, and "fin" in European usage. A "conning tower" was a feature of earlier designs: a separate pressure hull above the main body of the boat that allowed the use of shorter periscopes. There is a propeller (or pump jet) at the rear and various hydrodynamic control fins as well as ballast tanks. Smaller, deep diving and specialty submarines may deviate significantly from this traditional layout. Submarines have one of the largest ranges of capabilities in any vessel, ranging from small autonomous examples to one- or two-person vessels operating for a few hours, to vessels which can remain submerged for 6 months such as the Russian Typhoon class - the biggest submarine in use and built. Submarines can work at greater depths than are survivable or practical for human divers. Modern deep diving submarines are derived from the bathyscaphe, which in turn was an evolution of the diving bell.

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History of submarinesEarly history of submarines and the first submersiblesThe first submersible with reliable information on its construction was built in 1620 by Cornelius Jacobszoon Drebbel, a Dutchman in the service of James I of England. It was created to the standards of the design outlined by English mathematician William Bourne. It was propelled by means of oars. The precise nature of the submarine type is a matter of some controversy; some claim that it was merely a bell towed by a boat. Two improved types were tested in the Thames between 1620 and 1624. In 2002 a two-person version of Bourne's design was built for the BBC TV programme Building the Impossible by Mark Edwards, and successfully rowed under water at Dorney Lake, Eton.

The Drebbel, the first navigable submarine

Though the first submersible vehicles were tools for exploring under water, it did not take long for inventors to recognize their military potential. The strategic advantages of submarines were set out by Bishop John Wilkins of Chester, England, in Mathematicall Magick in 1648: 1. Tis private: a man may thus go to any coast in the world invisibly, without discovery or prevented in his journey. 2. Tis safe, from the uncertainty of Tides, and the violence of Tempests, which do never move the sea above five or six paces deep. From Pirates and Robbers which do so infest other voyages; from ice and great frost, which do so much endanger the passages towards the Poles. 3. It may be of great advantages against a Navy of enemies, who by this may be undermined in the water and blown up. 4. It may be of special use for the relief of any place besieged by water, to convey unto them invisible supplies; and so likewise for the surprisal of any place that is accessible by water. 5. It may be of unspeakable benefit for submarine experiments.

First military submarinesThe first military submarine was Turtle (1775), a hand-powered acorn-shaped device designed by the American David Bushnell to accommodate a single person. It was the first verified submarine capable of independent underwater operation and movement, and the first to use screws for propulsion. During the American Revolutionary War, Turtle (operated by Sgt. Ezra Lee, Continental Army) tried and failed to sink the British warship HMS Eagle, flagship of the blockaders in New York harbor on September 7, 1776.[1]

A replica of the Turtle (submarine)Turtle on display at the Royal Navy Submarine Museum, Gosport

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In 1800, France built a human-powered submarine designed by American Robert Fulton, the Nautilus. The French eventually gave up on the experiment in 1804, as did the British when they later considered Fulton's submarine design. During the War of 1812, in 1814, Silas Halsey lost his life while using a submarine in an unsuccessful attack on a British warship stationed in New London harbor. The Submarino Hipoptamo was the first submarine in South America The Nautilus (1800) built and tested in Ecuador on September 18, 1837. It was designed by Jose Rodriguez Lavandera, who successfully crossed the Guayas River in Guayaquil accompanied by Jose Quevedo. Rodriguez Lavandera had enrolled in the Ecuadorian Navy in 1823, becoming a Lieutenant by 1830. The Hipopotamo crossed the Guayas on two more occasions, but it was then abandoned because of lack of funding and interest from the government. Today, few engravings[2] and a scale model of the original design is preserved by the Maritime Museum of the Ecuadorian Navy[3] . In 1851, a Bavarian artillery corporal, Wilhelm Bauer, took a submarine designed by him called the Brandtaucher (incendiary-diver), which sank on its first test dive in Kiel Harbourbut its three crewmen managed to escape, after flooding the vessel, which allowed the inside pressure to equalize.[4] This submarine was built by August Howaldt and powered by a treadwheel. The submarine was re-discovered during a dredging operation 1887, and was raised sixteen years later. The vessel is on display in a museum in Dresden. The submarine Flach was commissioned in 1865 by the Chilean government during the war of Chile and Peru against Spain (18641866). It was built by the German engineer Karl Flach. The submarine sank during tests in Valparaiso bay on May 3, 1866, with the entire eleven-man crew. Submarines in the American Civil War During the American Civil War, the Union was the first to field a submarine. The French-designed Alligator was the first U.S. Navy sub and the first to feature compressed air (for air supply) and an air filtration system. Initially hand-powered by oars, it was converted after 6 months to a screw propeller powered by a hand crank. With a crew of 20, it was larger than Confederate submarines. Alligator was 47 feet (14.3 m) long and about 4 feet (1.2 m) in diameter. It was lost in a storm off Cape Hatteras on April 1, 1863 with no crew and under tow to its first combat deployment at Charleston.[5] The Confederate States of America fielded several human-powered submarines. The first Confederate submarine was the 30-foot (9m) The 1862 Alligator, first submarine of the US long Pioneer which sank a target schooner using a towed mine during Navy, was developed in conjunction with the tests on Lake Pontchartrain, but was not used in combat. It was scuttled French after New Orleans was captured and in 1868 was raised and sold for scrap. The Bayou St. John Confederate Submarine was also scuttled without seeing combat, and is now on display at the Louisiana State Museum.

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The Confederate submarine H. L. Hunley (named for one of its financiers, Horace Lawson Hunley) was intended for attacking the North's ships, which were blockading the South's seaports. The submarine had a long pole with an explosive charge in the bow, called a spar torpedo. The sub had to approach an enemy vessel, attach an explosive, move away, and then detonate it. The sub was extremely hazardous to operate, and had no air supply other than what was contained inside the main Confederate H.L. Hunley compartment. On two occasions, the sub sank. On the first occasion half the crew died during an experimental voyage. On the second occasion, February 17, 1864, the salvaged and renovated vessel, now named CSS Hunley, sank the USS Housatonic off Charleston Harbor. Soon after signaling its success the submarine sank due to unknown cause; the entire eight-man crew (including Hunley himself) drowned. Submarines did not have a major impact on the outcome of the war, but did portend their future importance to naval warfare and increased interest in their use in naval warfare. The location of Hunley was unknown until it was officially found in 1995,[6] and was then recovered in 2000. The sinking of the USS Housatonic by CSS Hunley was the first successful submarine attack on a warship.[7]

Mechanically powered submarines, late 19th centuryThe first submarine not relying on human power for propulsion was the French Plongeur (meaning diver), launched in 1863, and using compressed air at 180psi (1241 kPa).[8] The first combustion-powered submarine was Ictineo II, designed in Spain by Narcs Monturiol. Originally launched in 1864 as Plongeur human-powered, propelled by 16,[8] it was converted to peroxide propulsion and steam in 1867. The 14meter (46ft) craft was designed for a crew of two, could dive to 30metres (96ft), and demonstrated dives of two hours. On the surface it ran on a steam engine, but underwater such an engine would quickly consume the submarine's oxygen; so Monturiol invented an air-independent propulsion system. While the air-independent power system drove the screw, the chemical process driving it also released oxygen into the hull for the crew and an auxiliary steam engine. Monturiol's fully functional, double hulled vessels also solved pressure and buoyancy control problems that had bedeviled earlier designs. In 1870, the French writer Jules Verne, inspired by the recent efforts of Monturiol and of his own navy, published the science fiction classic 20,000 Leagues under the Sea, which concerns the adventures of a maverick inventor of the Nautilus, a submarine more advanced than any at the time. An international success, the story encouraged inventors around the world to work towards making such a vehicle a reality.

Replica of Ictineo II, Barcelona

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In 1879, the Peruvian government, during the War of the Pacific, commissioned and built the fully operational submarine Toro Submarino. It never saw military action before being scuttled by the Peruvians after their defeat in the war to prevent its capture by the Chileans. The first submarine to be mass-produced was human-powered. It was the submarine of the Polish inventor Stefan Drzewiecki50units were built in 1881 for the Russian government. In 1884 the same inventor built an electric-powered submarine.Design of the Peruvian Toro, the first fully functional submarine built in Latin America.

Discussions between the English clergyman and inventor George Garrett and the industrially and commercially adept Swede Thorsten Nordenfelt led to a series of steam-powered submarines. The first was the Nordenfelt I, a 56tonne, 19.5metre (64ft) vessel similar to Garret's ill-fated Resurgam (1879), with a range of 240kilometres The Nordenfelt-designed, Ottoman submarine (150mi, 130nm), armed with a single torpedo, in 1885. Like Abdlhamid Resurgam, Nordenfelt I operated on the surface by steam, then shut down its engine to dive. While submerged the submarine released pressure generated when the engine was running on the surface to provide propulsion for some distance underwater. Greece, fearful of the return of the Ottomans, purchased it. Nordenfelt then built Nordenfelt II (Abdlhamid) in 1886 and Nordenfelt III (Abdlmecid) in 1887, a pair of 30metre (100ft) submarines with twin torpedo tubes, for the Ottoman navy. Abdlhamid became the first submarine in history to fire a torpedo submerged.[9] Nordenfelt's efforts culminated in 1887 with Nordenfelt IV which had twin motors and twin torpedoes. It was sold to the Russians, but proved unstable, ran aground, and was scrapped. Two submarines, both launched in September 1888, marked the maturing of naval submarine technology. One was the Peral Submarine, launched by the Spanish Navy. It had two torpedoes, new air systems, hull shape, propeller, and cruciform external controls anticipating much later designs. After two years of trials the project was scrapped by naval officialdom that cited concerns over the short range permitted by its batteries. The other was the Gymnote, launched by the French Navy. Gymnote was also an electrically powered and fully functional military submarine. It completed over 2,000 successful dives using a 204-cell battery.[10] Although she was scrapped for her limited range her side hydroplanes became the standard for future submarine designs. Many more designs were built at this time by various inventors, but submarines were not put into service by navies until 1900.Peral submarine hull, Cartagena

End of the 19th century to the Russo-Japanese WarThe turn of the 20th century marked a pivotal time in the development of submarines, with a number of important technologies making their debut, as well as the widespread adoption and fielding of submarines by a number of nations. Diesel electric propulsion would become the dominant power system and equipment such as the periscope would become standardized. Large numbers of experiments were done by countries on effective tactics and weapons for submarines, all of which would culminate in them making a large impact on the coming World War I.

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In 1896, the Irish-American inventor John Philip Holland (18411914, born in Liscannor, County Clare, Ireland) designed submarines that, for the first time, made use of internal combustion engine power on the surface and electric battery power for submerged operations. The 'Fenian Ram', in 1881, was the launching the world's first successful submarine. The Holland VI was launched on May 17, 1897 at Navy Lt. Lewis Nixon's Crescent Shipyard of Elizabeth, New Jersey. On April 11, 1900 the United States Navy purchased the revolutionary Holland VI and renamed it the USSHolland(SS-1), America's first USS Plunger, launched in 1902 commissioned submarine. (John P. Holland's company, the Holland Torpedo Boat Company/Electric Boat Company became General Dynamics "Cold War" progeny and is arguably the builder of the world's most technologically advanced submarines today). Commissioned in June 1900, the French steam and electric Narval introduced the classic double-hull design, with a pressure hull inside the outer shell. These 200-ton ships had a range of over 100 miles (160km) underwater. The French submarine Aigrette in 1904 further improved the concept by using a diesel rather than a gasoline engine for surface power. Large numbers of these submarines were built, with seventy-six completed before 1914.

Submarines during the Russo-Japanese WarThe first mechanically powered series of submarines to be put into service by navies, which included Great Britain, Japan, Russia, and the United States, were the Holland submersibles built by Irish designer John Philip Holland in 1900.[11] Several of each of them were retained in both the Imperial Russian and Japanese Navies during the Russo-Japanese War in 1904-1905. The Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) started their submarine service with five Holland Type VII submarines purchased from the Electric Boat Company in 1904. The five vessels were delivered in sections, arriving in Japan on 14 June 1904. After re-assembly, the five Hollands were ready for combat operations in August 1905,[12] but the Russo-Japanese War was nearing its end by that date, and no IJN submarines would see action in that war. The first submarines built in Japan were constructed by Kawasaki beginning in 1904. The Kaigun Holland Type #6 and #7 were each launched on 28 September but a year apart, in 1905 and 1906 respectively. Both submarines were modified versions of the original imported Hollands. However, while the original vessels had each displaced over a 100 tons submerged, and were approximately 67' long and 11' wide; the Kawasaki boats displaced only 63/95 tons submerged, and measured 73'/84' by 7' respectively for the number 6 & 7 submarines. The Kawasaki machines had increased horse-power by 1/2, and reduced fuel consumption by 1/4, but could only launch one 18" torpedo and carried 14 men, while the Hollands could fire two 18" torpedoes and operate with only 13 crewmen.[13] The Kaigun Holland #6 submarine has been preserved as a memorial at Kure, Japan.[14] The Imperial Russian Navy (IRN) preferred the German constructed submersibles built by the Germaniawerft shipyards out of Kiel. In 1903 Germany successfully completed its first fully functional engine-powered submarine, the Forelle (Trout).[15] This vessel was sold to Russia in 1904 and shipped via the Trans-Siberian Railway to the combat zone during the Russo-Japanese War.[16] In 1901 two IRN Lieutenants, Kolbasieff and Kuteinoff designed and built the electric submarine Piotr Koschka which was operated by bicycle pedals, but no other versions were built. During the final weeks of the Port Arthur siege in 1904, the IRN attempted to place the Piotr Koschka into operation, her bicycle pedals having been replaced by an automobile engine. But the attempt to deploy the submarine into the Port Arthur battle was unsuccessful.[17] A prototype version of the Plunger-class or A-class submarines, the Fulton, was developed at Nixon's Crescent Shipyard for the United States Navy before the construction of the A-class submarines there in 1901. A naval

Submarine architect and shipbuilder from the United Kingdom, Arthur Leopold Busch, superintended the development of these first submarines for Holland's company. However the Fulton was never purchased by the U.S. Navy and was eventually sold to the Imperial Russian Navy during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. Two other A-class vessels were built on the West Coast of (USA) at Mare Island Naval Shipyard/Union Iron Works circa 1901. In 1902, Holland received a patent for his persistent pursuit to perfect the underwater naval craft. By this time, Holland was no longer in control of the day-to-day operations at Electric Boat, as others were now at the helm of the company he once founded. The acumen of business were now in control of these operations as Holland was forced to step down. His resignation from the company was to be effective as of April 1904.[18] Due to the blockade at Port Arthur, Russia sent the remainder of their submarines to Vladivostok, where by 01 January 1905 there were seven boats, enough to create the world's first "operational submarine fleet." The new submarine fleet sent out its first patrol on 14 February, usually lasting for about 24 hours. The first confrontation with Japanese warships occurred on 29 April 1905 when the IRN sub Som was fired upon by IJN torpedo boats, but then withdrew.[19]

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The 1900 French submarine Narval

In 1904, the Imperial Russian Navy ordered several more submersibles from the Kiel shipyard, submarines from the Karp class. One sample of which was modified and improved, and commissioned into the Imperial German Navy in 1906 as its first U-Boat, the U-1.[16] U-1 was retired from service in 1919, and is currently preserved and on display in the Deutsches Museum in Munich.[20]

Submarines during World War IMilitary submarines first made a significant impact in World War I. Forces such as the U-boats of Germany saw action in the First Battle of the Atlantic, and were responsible for the sinking of Lusitania, which was sunk as a result of unrestricted submarine warfare and is often cited among the reasons for the entry of the United States into the war.[21]

In August 1914, a flotilla of ten U-boats sailed from their base in Heligoland to attack Royal Navy warships in the North Sea in the first submarine war patrol in history.[22] Their aim was to sink capital ships of the British Grand Fleet, and so reduce the Grand Fleet's numerical superiority over the German High Seas Fleet. With much depending more on luck than strategy, the first sortie was not a success. Only one attack was carried out, when U-15 fired a torpedo (which missed) at HMS Monarch, while two of the ten U-boats were lost. The U-9 had better luck. On 22 September 1914 while patrolling the Broad Fourteens, a region of the southern North Sea, U-9 found a squadron of three obsolescent British Cressy-class armoured cruisers (HMS Aboukir, HMS Hogue, and HMS Cressy), which were assigned to prevent German surface vessels from entering the eastern end of the English Channel. She fired all six of her torpedoes, reloading while submerged, and sank all three in less than an hour. The U-boats' ability to function as practical war machines relied on new tactics, their numbers, and submarine technologies such as combination diesel-electric power system developed in the preceding years. More submersibles than true submarines, U-boats operated primarily on the surface using regular engines, submerging occasionally to attack under battery power. They were roughlyGerman U-boat U 14

The German submarine U-9, which sank three British cruisers in a few minutes in September 1914

Submarine triangular in cross-section, with a distinct keel to control rolling while surfaced, and a distinct bow. During World War I more than 5,000 Allied ships were sunk by U-boats.[23]

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Interwar developmentsVarious new submarine designs were developed during the interwar years. Among the most notorious ones were submarine aircraft carriers, equipped with a waterproof hangar and steam catapult to launch and recover one or more small seaplanes. The submarine and its plane could then act as a reconnaissance unit ahead of the fleet, an essential role at a time when radar still did not exist. The first example was the British HMS M2, followed by the French Surcouf, and numerous aircraft-carrying submarines in the Imperial Japanese Navy.

Submarines during World War IIGermany Germany had the largest submarine fleet during World War II. Due to the Treaty of Versailles limiting the surface navy, the rebuilding of the German surface forces had only begun in earnest a year before the outbreak of World War II. Expecting to be able to defeat the Royal Navy through underwater warfare, the German High Command pursued commerce raiding and immediately stopped all construction on capital surface ships save the nearly completed Bismarck-class battleships and two cruisers, switching its resources to submarines, which could be built more quickly. Though it took most of 1940 to expand the production facilities and get the mass production started, more than a thousand submarines were built by the end of the war.

German U-175 Submarine on the surface

Germany put submarines to devastating effect in the Second Battle of the Atlantic in World War II, attempting but ultimately failing to cut off Britain's supply routes by sinking more merchant ships than Britain could replace. The supply lines were vital to Britain for food and industry, as well as armaments from the US. Although the U-boats had been updated in the intervening years, the major innovation was improved communications, encrypted using the famous Enigma cipher machine. This allowed for mass-attack tactics or "wolf packs" (Rudeltaktik), but was also ultimately the U-boats' downfall. After putting to sea, U-boats operated mostly on their own, trying to find convoys in areas assigned to them by the High Command. If a convoy was found, the submarine did not attack immediately, but shadowed the convoy to allow other submarines in the area to find the convoy. These were then grouped into a larger striking force to attack the convoy simultaneously, preferably at night while surfaced. From September 1939 to the beginning of 1943, the Ubootwaffe ("U-boat force") scored unprecedented success with these tactics, but were too few to have any decisive success. By the spring of 1943, German U-boat construction was at full capacity, but this was more than nullified by increased numbers of convoy escorts and aircraft, as well as technical advances like radar and sonar. Huff-Duff and Ultra allowed the Allies to route convoys around wolf packs when they detected them from their radio transmissions. The results were devastating: from March to July of that year, over 130U-boats were lost, 41 in May alone. Concurrent Allied losses dropped dramatically, from 750,000tons in March to only 188,000 in July. Although the Second battle of the Atlantic would continue to the last day of the war, the U-boat arm was unable to stem the tide of personnel and supplies, paving the way for Operation Torch, Operation Husky, and ultimately, D-Day. Winston Churchill wrote that the U-boat "peril" was the only thing that ever gave him cause to doubt the Allies' eventual victory. By the end of the war, almost 3,000 Allied ships (175 warships; 2,825 merchant ships) were sunk by U-boat torpedoes.[24] Of the 40,000 men in the U-boat service, 28,000 (or 70%) lost their lives.

Submarine Japan During World War II, the IJN operated the most varied fleet of submarines of any navy; including Kaiten crewed torpedoes, midget submarines (Ko-hyoteki and Kairyu), medium-range submarines, purpose-built supply submarines and long-range fleet submarines. They also had submarines with the highest submerged speeds during The Imperial Japanese Navy's I-400-class World War II (I-200-class submarines) and submarines that could carry submarine, the largest submarine type of WWII multiple aircraft (I-400-class submarine). They were also equipped with one of the most advanced torpedoes of the conflict, the oxygen-propelled Type 95. Nevertheless, despite their technical prowess, Japan had chosen to utilize its submarines for fleet warfare, and consequently were relatively unsuccessful, as warships were fast, maneuverable and well-defended compared to merchant ships. In 1942, a Japanese submarine sank one aircraft carrier, damaged one battleship, and damaged one destroyer (which sank later) from one torpedo salvo; and during the Battle of Midway were able to deliver the coup de grace to another fleet aircraft carrier, again, sinking another destroyer, for another multiple score from one salvo. But with the lack of fuel oil and air supremacy, Imperial submarines were not able to sustain those kind of results afterwards. By the end of the war, submarines were instead often relegated to transport supplies to island garrisons. United States The United States Navy considers its submarines as boats[25] and uses its submarine force to attack both war- and merchant ships; and destroyed more Japanese shipping, than all other weapons combined. This feat was considerably aided by the Imperial Japanese Navy's failure to provide adequate escort forces for the nation's merchant fleet. Whereas Japan had the finest submarine torpedoes of the war, the U.S. Navy had the worst: the Mark 14 torpedo ran ten feet too deep on Tang off Mare Island in 1943. average and was tipped with a Mk VI exploder with both magnetic influence and contact features, neither reliable. The faulty depth control mechanism of the Mark 14 was corrected in August 1942, but field trials for the exploders were not ordered until mid-1943, when tests in Hawaii and Australia confirmed the flaws. In addition, the Mark 14 suffered circular runs, which sank at least one U.S. submarine, Tullibee.[26] Fully operational Mark 14 torpedoes were not put into service until September 1943. The Mark 15 torpedo used by U.S. surface combatants had the same Mk VI exploder and was not fixed until late 1943. One attempt to correct the problems resulted in a wakeless, electric torpedo (the Mark 18) being placed in submarine service; Tang was lost to a circular by one of these torpedoes.[27] Given the prevalence of circulars, there were probably other losses among boats which simply disappeared.[28] During World War II, 314submarines served in the United States Navy, of which nearly 260 were deployed to the Pacific.[29] On December 7, 1941, 111 boats were in commission; 203 submarines from the Gato, Balao, and Tench classes were commissioned during the war. During the war, 52 US submarines were lost to all causes, with 48 directly due to hostilities;[30] 3,505[29] [31] sailors were lost, the highest percentage killed in action of any US service arm in World War II. U.S. submarines sank 1,560enemy vessels,[29] a total tonnage of 5.3million tons (55% of the total sunk),[32] including 8aircraft carriers, a battleship, three heavy cruisers, and over 200 other warships.[33] In addition, the Japanese merchant marine lost 16,200 sailors killed and 53,400 wounded, of some 122,000 at the start of the war, due to submarines.[34]

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Submarine United Kingdom The Royal Navy Submarine Service was primarily used to enforce the classic British blockade role. It therefore chiefly operated in inshore waters and tended to only surface by night. Its major operating areas were around Norway, the Mediterranean (against the Axis supply routes to North Africa), and in the Far East. Royal Navy submarines operating out of Trincomalee and Australia were a constant threat to Japanese shipping passing through the Malacca Straits. In the war British submarines sank 2million tons of enemy shipping and 57major warships, the latter including 35submarines. Among these is the only documented instance of a submarine sinking another submarine while both were submerged. This occurred when HMS Venturer engaged the U864; the Venturer crew manually computed a successful firing solution against a three-dimensionally manoeveuring target using techniques which became the basis of modern torpedo computer targeting systems. Seventy-four British submarines were lost,[35] the majority, 42, in the Mediterranean. The snorkel Diesel-electric submarines need air to run their diesel engines, and so carried very large batteries for submerged operation. The need to recharge the batteries from the diesel engines limited the endurance of the submarine while submerged and required it to surface regularly for extended periods, during which it was especially vulnerable to detection and attack. The snorkel, a pre-war Dutch invention, was used to allow German submarines to run their diesel engines whilst running just under the surface, drawing air through a tube from the surface. The German Navy also experimented with engines that would use The diesel engines on HMS Ocelot charged the hydrogen peroxide to allow diesel fuel to be used while submerged, but batteries located beneath the decking. technical difficulties were great. The Allies experimented with a variety of detection systems, including chemical sensors to "smell" the exhaust of submarines. Cold-war diesel-electric submarines, such as the Oberon class, used batteries to power their electric motors in order to run silently. They recharged the batteries using the diesel engines without ever surfacing.The British submarine HMS Venturer.

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Modern military submarinesThe first launch of a cruise missile (SSM-N-8 Regulus) from a submarine occurred in July 1953 from the deck of USS Tunny, a World War II fleet boat modified to carry this missile with a nuclear warhead. Tunny and her sister boat Barbero were the United States's first nuclear deterrent patrol submarines. They were joined in 1958 by two purpose built Regulus submarines, Grayback, Growler, and, later, by the nuclear powered Halibut. In the 1950s, nuclear power partially replaced diesel-electric propulsion. Equipment was also developed to extract oxygen from sea water. These two innovations gave submarines the ability to remain submerged for weeks or months, and enabled previously impossible voyages such as USS Nautilus' crossing of the North pole beneath the Arctic ice cap in 1958[36] and the USS Triton's submerged circumnavigation of the world in 1960.[37] Most of the naval submarines built since that time in the United States and the Soviet Union/Russia have been powered by nuclear reactors. The limiting factors in submerged endurance for these vessels are food supply and crew morale in the space-limited submarine.

Submarine In 19591960, the first ballistic missile submarines were put into service by both the United States (George Washington class) and the Soviet Union (Hotel class) as part of the Cold War nuclear deterrent strategy. While the greater endurance and performance from nuclear reactors makes nuclear submarines better for long-distance missions or the protection of a carrier battle group, their reactor cooling pumps have traditionally made them noisier, and thus easier to detect, than conventional diesel-electric submarines. Diesel-electrics have continued to be produced by both nuclear and non-nuclear powers as they lack this limitation, except when required to run the diesel engine to recharge the ships battery. Recent technological advances in sound damping, noise isolation, and cancellation have made nuclear subs quieter and substantially eroded this disadvantage. Though far less capable regarding speed and weapons payload, conventional submarines are also cheaper to build. The introduction of air-independent propulsion boats, conventional diesel-electric submarines with some kind of auxiliary air-independent electricity generator, have led to increased sales of such types of submarines. During the Cold War, the United States and the Soviet Union maintained large submarine fleets that engaged in cat-and-mouse games. The Soviet Union suffered the loss of at least four submarines during this period: K-129 was lost in 1968 (which the CIA attempted to retrieve from the ocean floor with the Howard Hughes-designed ship Glomar Explorer), K-8 in 1970, K-219 in 1986, and Komsomolets in 1989 (which held a depth record among military submarines1000m). Many other Soviet subs, such as K-19 (the first Soviet nuclear submarine, and the first Soviet sub to reach the North Pole) were badly damaged by fire or radiation leaks. The US lost two nuclear submarines during this time: USS Thresher due to equipment failure during a test dive while at its operational limit, and USS Scorpion due to unknown causes.

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Nuclear powered Los Angeles-class submarines form the backbone of the United States submarine fleet.

During the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, the Pakistan Navy's Hangor sank the Indian frigate INS Khukri. This was the first kill by a submarine since World War II, and the only one until the United Kingdom employed nuclear-powered submarines against Argentina in 1982 during the Falklands War. The Argentine cruiser General Belgrano was sunk by HMS Conqueror (the first sinking by a nuclear-powered submarine in war). The PNS Ghazi, a Tench-class submarine on loan to Pakistan from the US, was sunk in the Indo-Pakistani War. It was the first submarine casualty since World War II during war time. More recently, Russia has had three high profile submarine accidents. The Kursk went down with all hands in 2000; the K-159 sank while being towed to a scrapyard in 2003, with nine lives lost; and the Nerpa had an accident with the fire-extinguishing system resulting in twenty deaths in late 2008. India launched its first locally built nuclear-powered submarine, the INS Arihant, on July 26, 2009.[38] A North Korean submarine's torpedo allegedly sank the South Korean navy ship ROKS Cheonan on 26 March 2010.[39]

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Polar Operations 1903 - Simon Lake submarine Protector surfaced through ice off Newport, Rhode Island.[40