structural functional aspec'i's of saarc -...
TRANSCRIPT
CHAPTER IV
STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONAL ASPEC'I'S OF SAARC
SAARC Group of Erninent Persons
Institutional Structure of S M C
Recommendations 93
Interaction with other International Organization 96
Financial resources of SAARC 97
Important SAAUC Institutions 97
Council of Minister's. Meeting 98
Technical Committe~:~ 99
Committee on Economic Co-operation (CEP) 99
Informal Consultations on Political and Security Issues 102
SAARC: Process of [nstitutionalisation of Regional Co-operation 104
Nature and Frequency of SAARC Summits 105
Second Summit Conference 1 1 1
Third Summit Conference 114
Fourth Summit Conference 115
Fifth Summit Conference 116
Sixth Summit Conference 118
Seventh Summit Co~~ference 119
Eighth Summit Conference 120
SAPTA and SAFTA 121
SAARC Summits (Table) 128
SAARC was formed on December 8, 1985 at Dhaka. In the words of
the former Secretary General. Nihal Rodngo: "it has progressed from a
hopeful, if tentative and cautiois beglnnlng, through often ambitious, if also
declaratory stages to the present when it faces daunting challenges within as
well as from outside the region."'
4.1 SAARC Group of Eminent Persons
The SAARC group of eminent persons (GEP) set-up at the ninth
summit at Male in 1997, listed out some of these achievements.
1. The formation of the Integrated Programme of Action (IPA)
2. The gradual developmei~t of a comprehensive agenda on the most
pressing social concerns of the member states
3. Establishment of fine regional centres to supplement the work of the
Technical Committees
4. SAARC Regional convertion on Suppression of Terrorism (1988)
5 . SAARC Convention on Narcotics Drugs and Psychotropic Substances
(1 990)
6. SAARC Food Security R1:serve
7. Other achievements on people to people contacts have been in the
S M C Audio-visual E:;change Programme, setting up of SAARC
chairs, Fellowships and Scholarship schemes, SAARC Volunteer
Exchange Programme and the SAARC visa Exemption scheme.*
I Remarks of the SAARC Secretary General, Nihal Rodrigo at the inaugural ceremony of the SAARC senior officials meetings at Colombo, November 13, 2000.
2 SAARC Vision Beyond the Year 2000, Report of the SAARC Group of Eminent Persons, p. 11.
In spite of it, the GEP w:is of the view that though the achievements
were good, they did not fulfil the real "aspirations underlying the formation
of sAARc."~ The reality differed by the end of the last century. The GEP
highlighted the following points as the limitations of the SAARC process
1 . SAARC did not emerge as a powerful regional grouping; progress
under SAPTA was very :;low. The organization has not evolved any
collective measures for g18,bal economic negotiations
2. Several collective decisions remained unexecuted even in those spheres
where agreements were arrived at limitations of the resources stood
on the way to progress unier the IPA.
3. Facilities under the SAARC security reserve have never been utilized
4. The people to people interaction remained inactive
5 . Taking into consideration of the limitations in social sector co-operation,
the Report observed that, besides producing written studies not much
had been achleved in The main objectives of the SAARC
were: "promoting the welfare of the peoples of the countries and
improving their quality cf life, accelerated economic growth, social
progress and cultural deve : l~~ment . "~
4.2 Institutional Structure of SAARC
The 11" SAARC summit was supposed to be held from 4 January
2002 at Kathmandu. It was a gcod development because the world changed
drastically during thls period. The summit was supposed to examine
important issues facing South Asia in the context of global changes which
base challenges as well as offer opportunities to South Asian countries.
Ibid. 4 Ibid., p.3. 5 Ibid., p.7.
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The SAARC secretariat announced that an additional half-day was to
be devoted completely for foc~lsed discussion on the Report of the group of
eminent persons (GEP). It ma) be noted here that GEP was set-up by the 9th
SAARC Summit held at Male in 1997. The GEP was supposed to cany out
a comprehensive appraisal of !SAARC, and identify steps and techniques to
further improve the effectiv1:ness of the Association in achieving its
objectives. Besides thls, a significant dimension of the mandate of the GEP
was to define a vision for SAARC, and to identify and clarify the
fundamental aspects of a perspective plan of action, comprising a SAARC
Agenda for 2000 and beyond.
The f i s t Summit held in December 1985 at Dhaka adopted the charter
formally establishing the South Asian Association for Regional Co-operation
(SAARC). The charter defiled the objectives the doctrine and the
institutional structure of SAAF32. It may be mentioned here that SAARC was
set-up nearly three decades alter the advent of the European community
(1957), two decades after the b.rth of ASEAN (1967), and a full decade after
the East &can Economic Conlmunity emerged in 1975.
The charter makes some reference in regard to the setting up of the
secretariat, without mentioning its organization, function and role. It almost
took years to establish the secretariat in January 1987 at Kathmandu
pursuant of the decision of the ~:ouncil of ministers and following the sigmng
by the Foreign Ministers of S.4ARC member states of a memorandum of
understanding (MOU). In its initial stages, the secretariat was controlled
by three director and a few g:neral staff to help the secretary general to
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cany out the assigned duties and responsibilities. The main role of the
Secretary General is to co-orclinate and monitor the execution of SAARC
activities, service the meetings of the association, and help and serve as
the mechanism of communica1:ion between SAARC and other international
and regonal organization.
By 1991, the number of directors increased to seven and a meagre
augmentation of general staff. After that, the functions and responsibilities of
the Secretary General and the secretariat got greatly enhanced, but without
giving the Secretariat with additional manpower and other resources.
4.3 Recommendations
Secretary General
The present status of th: Secretary General is to be uplifted to that of
a cabinet minister. This would crate more access to the heads of states and
government of the member states. The Secretary General should be gven
more flexibility for taking mee.sures and take follow-up action in monitoring
and analysing reasons for lack of progress in executing the decisions taken at
the high level meetings of the Council of Ministers and in particular at the
successive summit meetings. Elesides his interaction with other organizations
of regional and international n.lture, the Secretary General should be allowed
to have the powers to establish contacts at the ... . political levels. The
same way the enhanced stalus should enable the Secretary General to
establish continuous relationships and interactions with International
organizations, multilateral donor agencies and others in pursuit of SAARC
attempts to achieve its ob~ectives.
In the begmmng, the tenure of appointment of the Secretary General
was approved for a period of two years. Afterwards it was extended to three
years. According to GEP, it should be further extended to five years. It was
felt that this would enable the continuity of implementation process, apart
&om placing the secretary General at part with the tenure of heads of other
regional and international organizations. It was also recommended that the
Secretary general should be appointed by the SAARC summit. It was also
felt that the prevailing system of appointing the Secretary General by
national rotation is to be reviewed to help the SAARC summit to appoint the
Secretaxy General on merit with due regard to sufficient representation of the
member states.
Directors
There are seven directors, next to the Secretary General. Each
Director is in charge of a particular area in the Secretariat. At present,
Directors are nominated by their national governments, who used to pay all
their allowances from their respective national exchanges but now, they are
paid by the SAARC Secretarial.. It may be mentioned here that the Secretary
General has hardly any say in ihe selection of Directors, except to issue, the
usual letter of appointment showing the specific areas of their activity. It is
felt that each national govemnent must nominate a panel of their names
showing their experience and. qualifications. If necessary, the Secretary
General should personally in1:erview each candidate and make his final
selection. This would create a situation, wherein the distribution of
responsibilities in the Secretariat wodd be properly balanced and thereby,
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cover all activities with equa. proficiency. The Directors must get their
emoluments from the SAlZRC Secretariat on the basis of their entitlement
and not from their national excllanges.
An appointment by the Secretary General, the Directors should take
an oath to cany out their responsibilities for achieving the objectives of the
SAARC charter. The context of the oath should be that in their capacity as
SAARC civil servants they will not look for any instructions or favour fkom
any government of SAARC member states. The purpose is to promote their
loyalty and allegiance to the Secretary General of SAARC. This is a usual
practice prevailing in almost all regional and international organizations.
Professional Experts
One of the important weaknesses in the structure of the SAARC
secretariat is the absence of highly qualified and experienced professional
experts. The gradual expans:on of SAARC, as approved by successive
SAARC summits, especially the transition from SAPTA to SAFTA, the
customs union and related integrative steps leading upto the establishment of
a South Asian Economic community by 2010 needs immediate induction of
professionals of high calibre in the secretariat. These professionals must be
selected fkom within South A3ia. For retaining the budgetary burden to the
minimum, at least two to thrc:e professionals should be selected very soon
and appointed by the Secretaqf General.
For filling the necessity for expertise and research, the Secretary
General should take suitable measures to benefit fro111 the research being
carried out on particular sub.jects by spec~alists and centres of excellence
within the region. For this purpose the secretariat should have a standing
network of institutions, within the region, whose services could be readily
drawn upon.
4.4 Interaction with other International Organization
The leaders of South Asian countries felt that SAARC should be
made an outward looking organization. Accordingly, SAARC has to move
away fiom its initial wariness (of exposing to the world community at large
and particularly to other regional groupings, international and regional
organizations and agencies. It would be highly impracticable to believe that
in an inter-dependent and globalized world, SAARC could prosper in
isolation. SAARC has to open its doors to mutually beneficial co-operation
with other groupings and agen1:ies without compromising its independence.
In the context of recent developments, especially in the recent expansion in
the sphere of co-operation, which is supposed to grow and widen, it has
become essential for SAARC to foster closer relationships with similar
organizations, especially those whch have experience of functional regional
co-operation and in starting free trade areas, customs unions and social
integration. The same way, ittimate relationships must be made within
the UN system in regard tc~ the same subjects, and especially, with
UNCTAD, UNICEF, WTO, ASEAN free trade area and the European Union
etc. These interactions should be within the overall framework approved
by the SAARC summits
Besides this, intimate arid continuous contact must be retained with
the help of international financing agencies such as UNDP, the Asian
Development Bank and the 'Norld Bank for the purpose of mobilizing
technical assistance and financial resource for SAARC programmes and
other related projects. It is felt by the leaders of South Asian countries that
the Secretary General of SAARC must have the powers and authonty to take
initiatives in this respect.
4.5 Financial resources of SAARC
It is clear that for the purpose of carrying out the expending activities
and programmes, and projects, the member states are supposed to look
for the budgetary resources oj' the association. Each member state should
enhance its annual financial contributions.
4.6 Important SAARC Institutions
It is essential to have a review of the important institutions of
SAARC.
Summit meetings
It is very important to maintain the annual cycle of Summit Meetings.
According to the SAARC chruter, summit meetings should be held at least
once in a year. It means that with the expansion of areas of co-operation,
necessity will arise to hold more than one annual summit meeting.
In the past, summits were postponed mainly for political reasons as a
result of strained bilateral and political relations between member states.
This is a serious contradiction because it violates the basic general provision
of the charter that there shculd be proper bilateral relations. However,
bilateral relations were used to postpone summits. Sudden postponement of a
summit upsets the entire schedule of related meetings, especially meetings of
the council of ministers, the standing committee and sectoral meetings etc.
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The summit meetings should be of more business like by cutting down
on ceremonial aspects. In fact, the pre-summit sessions of the council of
ministers are supposed to be preparatory meetings for the summits, whlch
have remained the backbone of the SAARC process. The summit leaders are
supposed to explicitly focus on specific issues of vital importance and need
not be burdened with peripheral issues. Quite often, lack of political will and
non-implementation of decisions taken at the hlgher level of summits stood on
the way to the co-operation among member states of South Asian countries.
The strength and vitality of SAARC wiil remain incomplete without
reinforcing the commitment of the member states to move beyond
formalistic proclamations about the vision of SAARC to effective execution
of the plans and programmes for achieving the main goals and objectives set
forth in the SAARC charter. [n a way, the practice of giving a relaxed
atmosphere to the leaders by taking them to the "Retreat" is a very good
programme and really motivi~ted and purposeful. But, experience has
revealed that much time need not be spent in travelling to the site of the
Retreat. The purpose of the summit should be to create a sustained and result
oriented interaction. As far as possible, the Retreat should be held at the site
of the summit meeting or its close vicinity.
4.7 Council of Minister's Meeting
It may be mentioned here that the council of Foreign ministers
meeting should carefully carry out preparatory work for the summit. With
the help and assistance of the standing committee, it should prepare action-
oriented working papers, con~prising recommendations to facilitate the
99
leaders to take prompt and time and contextual decisions. The expansion
of the scope of the meetings of the council of ministers, particularly its
pre-summit meetings, would help the concerned authorities to hold joint
ministerial meetings on particular issues and problems, bringing together
ministers from concerned sectoral ministries of member-states.
4.8 Technical Committees
The establishment of a host of technical committees (1 1) was perhaps
essential in the first few years of SAARC. The main objective and motive
was to exchange information md other basic data in the agreed areas of
co-operation by bringing together concerned officials in the various annual
meetings of the technical comrr~ittees. In the course of time with the passage
of time and quick expansion of IT and other modem technological means,
the contribution of the technical committees declined and became
ineffective. Though the total n m b e r of the technical committees has been
reduced from 11 to 7, it is suggested and further recommended that all the
technical committees should be abolished. That step would reduce the
burden on the secretariat in mol~ilizing and organizing many meetings almost
in that year, and also result in jinancial savings by the secretariat as well as
by the member states. Two high level committees as mentioned below
should replace the technical conlmittees.
4.9 Committee on Economic Co-operation (CEP)
This is supposed to play the leading role in taking initials for
achieving economic co-operation in South Asia and executing decision of the
higher SAARC bodies.
Social committees
This is supposed to be concerned with all social issues, including
poverty alleviation, and social charter, etc. these committees and other
meetings are supposed to be held at the SAARC secretariat by evolving the
present premises, including the conference hall and recruiting additional
staff for serving the increasing ]lumber of meetings.
Regional Centres
The following Regional Centres were set-up over the years.
1 . SAARC Agricultural Information Centre (SAIC) at Dhaka in 1988
2 . SAARC Tuberculosis Centre (STC) at Kathmandu in 1992
3. SAARC Documentation Centre (SDC) at New Delhi in 1994
4. SAARC Meteorological 'Centre (SAC) at Dhaka in 1995
5 . SAARC Human Resource Development Centre (SHRDC) at Islamabad
These institutions mentimed above have not emerged as recogmzed
centres of excellence in the Region. They have been doing only routine
activities and cannot be easily distinguished from the National Centres with
which they are associated. These centres are supposed to be under the
overall supervision and direction of the Secretary General who should
personally monitor their result.
Focal point of SAARC
They have played significant role in the S.4ARC process and its
progress over the years. They have also led to the suggestion of certain
particular initiatives and creat~ng co-ordination and implementation of the
association's plans and programmes. Hence, it is essential to provide all
101
NFPs with sufficient manpower resources with the responsibilities. The
connection between the NFPs and the SAARC secretariat and the sectoral
ministries are to be made powr:rful.
SAARC and civil society
Primarily, SAARC has an inter-governmental bureaucratic organization.
It kept away from the civil :societies of its member states. The SAARC
chamber of commerce and industry was set-up in the year 1992, SAARC
Law (1994) and South Asian Media Association (SAMA), etc.
In recent times, a significant and innovative initiative was taken by
the coalition for action on South Asian Co-operation (CASAC), a non-
governmental organization with Regional chapters in all South Asian
countries. Efforts made by CASAC led to the setting up of a hlgh level group
called: 'the citizens commission for South Asia.' The commission consisted
of some of the vely famous personalities of south Asia to examine the
critical problems and issues of development and security facing South Asia,
and to make comprehensive suggestions to the leaders and policy makers of
SAARC member states to overcome the difficulties and problems whlch
have so far prevented SAARC from realizing its potential. The citizen's
commission holds its first ses:;ion in December 2000 at Kathmandu under
the chairmanship of the former Primer Minister of India, I.K. Gujral. It
comprised eminent South Asian personalities like Nobel Laureate Prof.
Amaratya Sen and Dr. Manmohan Singh from India, Dr. Kamal Hussain and
Prof. Mohammad Yunus frcm Bangladesh, Sher Bahadur Deuba and
Dr. Devendra Raj Pandey from Nepal, Mr. Sartaj Aziz and Ms. Asma Jehangu
fiom Pakistan, Dr. Ial Jayawardene and Dr. Radhlka Coomaraswamy from
Sri Lanka, Abdus Sattar, Moose Didi from Maldives and Lyompodava
Tsering from Bhutan.
The first session of the citizen's commission showed the begnning of
a process in which various sector of the civil society can be mobilized to
work together to strengthen 11e official and non-official framework for
reg~onal co-operation. The conmission emphasized that different sectors of
civil society are to be involved in order that there has to be progress in the
sphere of regional co-operaticn. Accordingly, they are also supposed to
identify the jobs that lay ahead, at government level as well as at the level of
civil society. The commission also emphasized that the activities of SAARC
should have quick impact on the lives of the people, which is the main
objective of SAARC. The commission visualized itself as an objective
critical evaluator of the progres:; towards regonal co-operation and its role in
the days to come. Hence, it suggested to hold meetings at regular intervals in
order to discuss and examine various important issues and problems so that
there can come into existence E r n environment in which South Asian Regon
could go forward with hope asp rations and confidence.
4.10 Informal Consultations8 on Political and Security Issues
At the 9th SAARC sumrnit held in 1997 at Male, the seven leaders
recognized that regonal integration could beg~n from mutual trust and
understanding among its mem1)ers. It is the unsettled problems and issues
that create an environment for rebqonal co-operation and integration.
103
The SAARC leader further recognized that motive of encouraging peace,
stability, secured and quick soc:io-economic co-operation can be achieved in
a proper way by creating good neighbourly relations, reducing tensions and
building up confidence among South Asian countries. To this end, the 9"
summit took an important decision in order to initiate a process of informal
political consultations to redwe tension in the repon. This decision was
taken in spite of the inhibiting limitations imposed by the SAARC charter,
which is not in favour of disc~ssion of bilateral and contentions issues. It
was felt that immediate decision and necessity should be to create the
regional co-operation at any cost.
In this context, the experience of other regonal groupings can provide
practical guidelines, ASEAN had decided to set-up ARF, whlle the European
union has evolved an effective OSCE to examine the political and security issues
in their respective regions. In South Asia, the absence of such a forum has stood
on the way of progress towards creating mutual trust and confidence, which are
very essential for regional co-cperation and integration. Apart fTom thls, at
present, the concepts llke peace, security and development have expanded to
such an extent that it covers multidimensional areas of problems and issues
influencing, affecting and creating an impact on civil security in South Asian
Regional. The focus is now on human security and economic security, and
the purpose of development has shlfted fTom the governmental authority to
indvidual citizens. It was felt earlier that the SAARC leaders at the summit
beginning kom 4 Jan- 2002 i ~ t Kathmandu would direct the suitable organs
of SAARC to discuss the sug;3est1on aiming at setting up a South Asian
security forum.
In fact, South Asia has been vely slow to respond and benefit from the
worldwide wave and impact o € quick change in the sphere of technological
development. As a result of tht: technological developments, there has taken
place drastic changes in the political developments all over the world. It may
be remembered that many countries in the world have overcome difficulties
and problems. Second world arar was very serious than the First World War
mainly because of the fact that many powers in Europe, along with their
colonial people, were greatly involved in this International theatre of war. It
is a matter to be noted here that South Asia is at the cross roads today in
every way. At the same time, the rest of the world is moving rapidly towards
peace, stability and developn~ent. It may be mentioned here that Afncan
continent and south Asian regim are involved in conflicts and poverty.
4.11 SAARC: Process of Institutionalisation of Regional Co-operation
In the course of these years, SAARC has faced many challenges in
terms of its smooth functioning as well as its capability to deliver what
is expected of it. SAARC has created more than 30 bodies and institutions
at the governmental level 10 organizations are affiliated to the SAARC
secretariat. It has also identified a series of areas of co-operation. The
association has undergone thm: expansionary phase and is moving towards
the stage of consolidation ;md concentration. It has gven a platform
for South Asian societies for recognizing themselves to be bound by a
common destiny. It has focussd on the techniques by which SAARC can be
made effective.
The process of institutionalisation of Regional Co-operation is related
to the actions being carried ou.: on a regular basis by the organs and bodies
of SAARC.
4.12 Nature and Frequency of SAARC Summits
In fact, SAARC is sumzit-centric. In the absence of the summit, the
activities of the other bodies of SAARC have been treated as insigmficant.
Till today, a number of SAARC summits took place since its inception
in 1985 .~ Four summits were held annually over the four years i?om 1985-
1988, in alphabetical order rc:spectively in Bangladesh, India, Nepal and
Pakistan, with the exception c~f Bhutan. The fifth summit took place after
two years. The other summits took place at gaps of one or two years.
According to the S U l Z charter: "the heads of states or government
shall meet once a year or were often as an when considered necessary by
member state^."^ The annual summit of the heads of states is mandatory
under the charter. Two questions come up in this context: first, why the
summits have not been organized annually as mentioned in the charter?
Second, has there been any important difference in the operation of the
association between organizing and not organizing annually?
Political environment iri South Asian countries was the main reason
why summit had to be postpo:led. Moreover, the state of bilateral relations
also caused non-participation in summits. It may be mentioned here that the
summit conference of heads o:? states or governments is the highest political
6 The 1" Summit, Dhaka, 7-8 December 1985, 9-;O 7 Article iii of the Charter.
106
level decision making body in SAARC. Therefore, it comes very important
political commitments to run the association in comparison to the decision of
other bodies of SAARC. That (charter does not mention any subjects directly
to be treated by heads of states or government. The annual summit has given
an opportunity to SAARC mcmber states for having formal and informal
bilateral meetings on the guidelines of the summit. Definitely, this has an
impact on the decline of bilateral visits between the regions. Thls kind of
annual summits have also 1':d to the creation of communication and
co-ordination between the leader in a direct manner or different problems
and issues of interests to them.
The decision of the summit is reflected in the declaration issues at the
end of each summit. The subject matter covered by the declaration of the
summit has increased every year. Declaration condemned decision, points
agreed and commitments mad(: by political leaders. The practice of issuing
joint press releases was dis~ontinued from the sixth summit held at
Colombo. The format of the: declaration has changed since then. The
SAARC summit takes place after the preparation made by meetings of the
SAARC council of ministers and standing committee at their by annual
meetings. In the absence oi' the meetings of the heads of states or
government, the decision on the matters in regard to regonal co-operation
could be taken up by the council of ministers. In case the summit takes place
in a period of two years there is no negative impacts on the operation of
SAARC as the council of ministers has the power to makes the policies of'
the association and to execute them accordingly.
Standing committee
The standing cornmittec: comprises foreign secretaries of SAARC
member states and it has played a very constructive role in taking initiatives
for launching regional co-operai:ion in South Asia. The standing committee, a
charter body assigned to overall monitoring and co-ordination of
programmes of co-operation, initially identified five areas and later on
eleven areas for regional co-operation. Identification of the spheres of
co-operation have enabled in starting the integrated programme of action
(IPA) that is carried by the different technical committees. The budgets of
the secretariat and the regional centres are examined and approved by the
standing committee. The programming committee consisting of senior
officials of the ministry of Foreign Affairs assists in the discussions and
deliberations of the issues by th,: standing committee.
Action Committees
The concept of sub regional co-operation has been included into the
SAARC Charter for executing the projects involving more than two, but not
all member states. Bangladesh, Bhutan, India and Nepal have advanced the
idea of South Asian growth quadrangle.8 The purpose is to create a model of
sub regonal co-operation based on the particular condition, needs and
interests of the participating countries.
Regional funds
The South Asian Develo2ment Fund (SADF) was founded in the year
1996 to provide finances for indusrr~al development, poverty alleviation,
8 Article vii.
and protection of the environment and balance of payment support. The fund
has three areas:
1. Identification of develop~nent projects
2. Institutional and human resource development projects
3. Social and infrastructure development projects
The SAARC member stittes have contributed funds for item number
one. The fund has an adhoc secretariat moving along with a chairmanship.
The government of Japan has given a special fund to assist in the execution
of SAARC projects and activities. Chosen by SAARC many of the activities
under the SAARC Japan specia fund have been of a short-term nature.
Institutional Mechanism
The SAARC Charter revzaled some hurdles that needed to be crossed,
if co-operation was to materialize. The principle of unanimity in the Charter
for decision-making is a double-edged weapon. While it assured that there is
no ganging up against any one member, there is also scope for manipulation
of the forum through any one member, thereby effectively sabotaging all
co-operations.
Also to be borne in mind, were the objectives listed in Arhcle 1 of the
Charter. It spoke of welfare of the peoples of the region, of improving their
quality of life, accelerating economic growth, social progress and cultural
development, of collective self-reliance, of joint collaboration and mutual
assistance in various fields including economic etc. But SAARC and its
integrated programmes of action, actually &d not measure up to these
aspirations
The present institutional arrangement has little scope to gve adequate
attention to the financial arrangements. As the financial arrangements are
confined to voluntary contribiitions, and the contributions made in local
currencies (non-convertible), they can be utilized only in the counhy concerned.
Even in terms of convertibility, tieir values are m sharp variations
Thus, one could summarize the difficulties in utilizing the h d s for
common programmes of regional co-operation. The elements of uncertainty
were strong enough. Therefore, there had been a woeful lack of sufficient
national progress with regard to a number of schemes of regional
co-operation, for instance, in respect of establishing a South Asia Centre for
Research and Development in Postal Services; Regional Software
Telecommunication Centre, or Regonal Meteorological Research Centre.
It is important to be noted here that the institutiorial framework hardly
had made any headway at the r~on-governmental level. Of course, it had been
argued that once real co-cperation got momentum, the institutional
framework would come automatically. However, it should be reminded that
for any sort of co-operation, there is a need for minimum infrastructural
linkages.
The importance of an institutional framework should not be over-
stressed, though it should not be under estin~ated. Central mechanism is
not always an essential pre-8:ondition for regonal co-operation. Rather,
manifestation of political will is of paramount importance.
9 See, LN. Mukherjee: South Asian Regional Co-operation: Paper presented in the Seminar Organised by the School of International Studies, JNU, New Delhi, 1985, pp-12-14,
Instih~tional Framework
Meetings of the Head of States or
Governments
(Consisting the Head of States or Governments of Member State)
"Council of Ministers"
(Consisting of the Foreign Ministers of the Member States)
Standing Committees
(Comprised of Foreign Secretaries of the Member States)
Technical Committees Secretariat Action Committees (Comprised of (Headed by the Secretary (Con~prised of member
representatives of all General to be nominhted states concerned with the member states) by the member states on implementation of
rotation basis) particular projects)
Thus, to sum up, the ir~stitutional mechanism is largely an evolving
process, which slowly evolves out of expanded co-operation for which
political will is a neces sq precondition. The South Asian regonal
co-operation had also evolved a sort of institutional mechanism of its own.
The strong subjective factors for the creation of a well-htted organizational
structure of the association had been often over-powered by objective
conditions of the South Asian regon, manifesting themselves in the
constitutional flaws and lacunae. Nevertheless, the Charter has provided for
sufficient arrangements for the fulfilment of those listed objectives for which
this Association was created."
A look at the Charter of SAARC reveals that its drafters took special
precautions and extra pains sc' as to keep thmgs confined within the four
walls of co-operation, which has relevance only to economic, and other non-
political activities. This fact, together with the rule of unanimity and the
requirement that the bilateral and contentious issues are to be excluded from
SAARC's deliberations, truly reflected the South Asian political reality. The
Association could not have come into being had it not commenced in a very
limited and tentative fashion, end if it had not taken special precautions to
avoid rapid institutional and agenda-budding escalation.
4.13 Second Summit Conference
The Second Summit lelcel meeting of SAARC leaders was held in
Bangalore, the garden city of Southern In&a on November 16-18, 1986.
Inaugurating the conference, the Indian, Prime Minister Rajiv Gandh stressed
the need for peace and referred that the m i s race 'distorts economies' and
'waste resources' could be used to ameliorate the human miseries. He urged
the seven nations not to waste time and resources "reinventing the wheel"
and move on to newer and core areas of regional co-operation.
President Ershad said that development of common natural resources,
Himalayan resources and resources of the sea could be areas of mutually
beneficial co-operation.lo Pakistan Premier M.K. Junejo, in his speech,
offered Pakistan's "co-operation in any form and at any level among the
SAARC countries to elirninats: the threat of terrorism," and suggested a
"binding agreement" to meet the challenge collectively." The suggestion
was not commented upon by th': others.
As expected, Sri Lankan President Jayewardene did refer to what he,
termed as the "terrorist problem in Sri Lanka", and recounting the various
developments since 1983, sought the end to violence. In his remarks, clearly
directed at the T;lmil militants in India, he said, "whatever form of agitation
is used to attain the political goals, it must be non-violent and we cannot
compromise with violen~e." '~
Though Jayewardene dilated on the issue and made several off the
cuff remarks, his tenor appear8:d even and less than acrimonious. In sharp
contrast, the Pakistan Premier sought to rake up several issues that appeared
to have direct bearing only on bilateral relations with India.
10 Indian Express, New Delhi, 17 Ncvember 1986 I' Ceylon Daily News, Colombo, 18 Vovember 1986 l2 Indian Express, New Delhi, 17 Nc'vember 1986
President Gayoom of t t e Maldives highlighted the tensions caused
by super power rivalry in the Ocean." King Birendra of Nepal warned that
wrongly perceived, the differences and variety in the region could cause
dissension and destabilisation He saw the birth of "a new spring" of
co-operation in SAARC.'~
Moreover, the submit had not only opened up a new horizon for
SAARC, but had provided India with unique opportunity to lead SAARC along
the path of growing trust and confidence in unity in diversity and closer
co-operation in raising the quality of life of all the peoples of the reBon.
Besides the Summit outcomes, an important by-product of the
Bangalore Summit was the decision to resume the stalled process of
normalization of Indo-Pakistan relations. A step-by-step approach in this
regard was agreed upon during President Zia-ul-Haq's stopover in New
Delhi on his way home from Dhaka in December 1985. The then Indian
Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi and President of Sri Lanka J.R. Jayewardene
utilized the opportunity afforded by the summit to further the process of a
negotiated settlement of the ettnic problem in Sri Lanka. Jayewardene, who
vexed eloquent on the virtues of non-violence at the summit, showed a spirit
of accommodation in offering to improve upon the proposals, formulated by
him earlier to meet the Tamil xspirations through devolution of powers. In
agreeing to merge a part of the Eastern province with the predominantly
Tamil Northern province, he ha'S made a significant concession.
13 Statesman, New Delhi, 17 Noveml~er 1986 l4 Times of India, New Delhi, 17 Nv~ember 1986
4.14 Third Summit Conferc:nce
Third summit level meeting of SAARC was held in Kathmandu on
November 2-4, 1987. Opening the summit, King Birendra told the leaders
that terrorists were threatening peace in the region, and they should be given
no room in any country within or outside its territory.
New initiatives and dilemmas came to the fore at the Third summit
meeting in Nepal. Just before the Summit was convened, Afghanistan
applied for membership in SAARC, and it was also suggested that ASEAN
should be accorded the status of observer or guest. However, as the basic
documents of SAARC contained no provisions for the admission of new
members, observers or guests, the Summit was faced with new problems
requiring resolution. No corisensus was reached on the admission of
Afghanistan largely because of the conflicting stands of Pakistan (which
opposed the motion) and India (which supported it).
The SAARC heads of state or government condemned all terrorist
acts and methods, and the practice of terrorism; they applauded the
conclusion of a regional convention to combat terrorism. They expressed
happiness at the signing of a document namely "The SAARC Regonal
Convention on Suppression of errori ism"'^ and considered it as a hlstor~c
step towards the prevention, and elimination of terrorism from the regon.
The document defined the concept of terrorist acts and specified the
obligations of the member countries in t h s context, especially their pledge
l5 SAARC Regional Convent~on or, Suppression of Terrorism (Kathmandu: Secretariat of the SAARC) pp. 1-7.
115
not to permit on their territory preparations for terrorist acts against
other SAARC member countries. The convention likewise provided for the
extradition of terrorists in specific crises. According to press comments, the
convention marked great success for it was not certain, until the summit was
drawing to close, whether it wcluld be signed at all.
4.15 Fourth Summit Conference
The Fourth SAARC Summit, which was held in Islamabad during
29-31 December 1988, marked a turning point in the history of the world's
largest and yet youngest venture in regonal co-operation. At the inaugural
meeting, virtually all the leaders addressed attention to the wide gap that still
existed between promise and reality between the modest progress SAARC
had so far achieved and its achal potential. The seven members states of the
organization had common problems of hunger, poverty, malnutrition,
illiteracy and underdevelopmt:nt, and a common strategy to tackle these
problems within a regional frarnework, which provided the basis for SAARC,
was emphasized by all the leaders in their speeches. All of them also stressed
the need to make SAARC more effective in dealing with such problems. But
in this otherwise agreeable and consensual framework, a disconcerting
note was struck at the Summit on an issue outside the purview of SAARC.
The Maldives President Maumoon Abdul Gayoom referred, at some
length, to the recent turbulence ill his countly, which he described as "a
dangerous conspiracy aimed at subverting the sovereignty, territorial
integrity and independence of the Maldives." He, then. went on to express
his "profound appreciation" to the Indian government, for having responded
"positively and swiftly" to his request for military assistance to help
overcome what he called the "mercenary aggression."'"
The King of Nepal, Birzndra Bir Bikram Shah Dev. also mentioned
the Indian role in Maldives, saying that the incident "highlights how
important it is to coordinate our approaches to tackle similar problems from
recurring elsewhere." The Kmg, however, raised the question of devising,
within the framework of the recently enforced Convention on Suppression
of Terrorism, "an acceptable: mechanism capable of dealing with the
destabilisation of a fellow member State by terrorists and hued assassins.""
An added attraction of the Islamabad meetings was the sigmng of
three important agreements on non-attack on each other's nuclear facilities
double taxation avoidance and cultural co-operation, between India and
~ a k i s t a n . ' ~ The leaders of both the countries took the best advantage of that
occasion and informally discussed major bilateral problems.
4.16 Fifth Summit Confererlce
The Fifth Summit Clonference was held at Male on 21-23 November,
1990, This summit held at a time of more widespread internal turmoil and
greater uncertainty about this region's place in the world than these countries
have known in decades. Four of the seven regional nations - India, Pak~stan,
Nepal and Sri Lanka have nevi governments, all forms of controversy and
violence to one degree or another Of the remaining three, Bhutan and
Bangladesh have been consumed by political unrest.
16 Muslim, Islamabad, 30 December 1988 l7 Pakistan Times, Islamabad, 30 December I 988 18 Pakistan Times, Islamabad. 31 December ! I 9 8 8
One measure of the atmosphere leading to this meeting of South
Asian Association for Reg~oilal Co-operation is that it was repeatedly
postponed. For more than a year, Sri Lanka refused to take its turn in holding
the meeting because Indian tro3ps were on its soil. Again the collapse of the
Indian government caused a last mlnute delay of two days.
Indian Prime Minister Chandra Shekhar declared, "the politics of
confrontation will not solve clur problems." In a transparent reference to
certain remarks, which his Pakistani counterpart, Nawaz Sharif, had earlier
made, calling for a "binding SPARC agreement" on nuclear non-proliferation.
Chandra Shekhar said: "Let us forget our past and (our) hfferences and
co-operate for the future, at least for the sake of our chlldren."19
Chandra Shekhar also felt that SAARC should swing away from being
a mere diplomatic forum. The :?rime Minister further suggested that SAARC
should not delay making a beginning on economic co-operation till the
bilateral disputes in the re&.jon could be resolved politically.
The only major political aspect that Chandra Shekhar touched upon
during the course of his spec:ch related to the continuing debate on the
question whether SAARC s h o ~ l d eschew, the discussion of bilateral disputes
that bedevil relations between ::ome of the member countries.
"Economic co-operation among the South Asian countries has its own
logic and compulsions. The framers of the SAARC Charter, therefore,
displayed foresight and wisdorn in not making such co-operation contingent
upon the solution of bilateral p.-oblems."'O
-
l9 Islamabad Declaratmn Fourth SPARC Summ~t, Islamabad, December 1988, pp 1-13 'O The Indzan Express, New D e b , :!2 November 1990
This is how the Indian leader sought to counter the continuing
Pakistani moves to raise bilateral disputes on the collective SAARC forum
itself, instead of confining the discussion on bilateral issues to behind-the-
scene parleys that punctuate the SAARC summitry as an interlude that does
not form part of the summit. Even during the pre-summit deliberation
Pakistan reaffirmed its earlier plea that bilateral disputes too should be taken
up at the collective SAARC folum itself.
4.17 Sixth Summit Confereace
The Sixth Summit Conference at the level of the Heads of States of
Government of the South Asia Associations for Reponal Co-operation was
held at Colombo on 21 December 1991. The sixth summit originally
scheduled to be held on 7 Nov1:mber 1991. But could not held because of the
Bhutan kings inability to attend owing to domestic problems and India
insisted on a full quorum and decided to abstain from the abortive summit.
Although their Heads of State or Government represented the rest of SAARC
member states by all means, i t ended in a fiasco. Sri Lanka, President,
Ranasinghe Premadasa openly alleged the underhand of India in the
Bhutanese King's absence from the summit. He along with the Palastan
Prime Minister, Nawaz Sharif vociferously said that in future, no single
member on a small group would be able to veto it by boycotting any meeting.
The Bangladesh Prime Minister, Begum Khaleda Zia although quite
sympathetic to the plight of C:olombo in the light of such a postponement,
decided to maintain hscreet silznce. Thus the postponement of the November
Summit resulted in a lot of bad blood and Islamabad as India's traditional
rival got a God-sent opportunity to throw mud against its neighbour. Even
President Premadasa who, in the midst of mounting opposition at home,
wanted to leg~timise hmself by getting an elevated post llke SAARC
Chairman, received a major set.back to h s planned strategy.
In this speech, the Paki:;tan Premier, Nawaz Sharif, expressed "deep
regret" that the Summit could not be held on schedule. We.need to avoid
such disruptive postponements in future, whch can prove detrimental to the
effectiveness of the Nawaz Sherif repeated his country's
position in South Asia as a nuclear free zone.
4.18 Seventh Summit Conference
The Seventh Meeting o:F the SAARC Heads of State or Government
was held at Dhaka on 10-11 April 1993. The two-day Summit held in the
Bangladesh capital of Dhaka after two successive postponements, served to
demonstrate the resilience of the SAARC process and its inherent ability to
surmount unexpected difficulties. The return of the Summit to Dhaka some
seven years after its formal inception there in 1985 was a significant
occasion for reflection, rededi(:ation and to look forward to the future with
renewed determination.
The signing of the framework agreement on "South Asia Preferential
Trade," Arrangement (SAPTI,) at the Seventh SAARC Summit at Dhaka
marks the first major step towards expanding trade among the member-
nations after eight years of pious exhortations for increased reg~onal
economic co-operation. Initially Pakistan was opposed to signing the SAPTA
2' The Sunday Times, New Delhi, 22 December 19991
framework agreement. But with other member-nations keen on going ahead
with it so that a political direction could be given to the much talked about
trade arrangement, Islamabad found itself isolated.
While the general emph;isis of the leaders was on economic problems,
the leaders did discuss other issues facing the region, especially in the course
of informal or bilateral talks. .4s in previous Summits, media attention was
focussed on the meeting betwe~:n the Prime Minister of India and Palustan.
4.19 Eighth Summit Conference
The Eighth Summit Conference of the SAARC Head of States or
Governments was held at New Delhi on 2-3 May 1995. The Summit began
with discordant notes being struck by Palustan, Nepal and Maldives who
demanded that bilateral issues be discussed at this forum if it was to resolve
"unsettled political issues in the region" and be effective in alleviating
poverty, combating malnutrition and improve the quality of life of the
people. Palustan came close tc calling for a change in the SAARC charter,
which precludes discussion of tilateral issues.
The bilateral wrangles among member states have also adversely
affected the working of SAAIIC. Though the SAARC bars discussion of
contentious bilateral issues and insists on unanimity of decisions, yet
bilateral differences have hamp~red its smooth sailing.22
For instance, 1989 Sri Lanka refused to host the SAARC Summit
on account of the presence of' Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) in the
country. Similarly in 1990, president Premadasa of Sri Lanka did not
22 The Times of India, 18 December 1992.
attend the Summit at Male and send his Prime Minister. This has greatly
undermined the importance of the organisation.
The Seventh SAARC Summit who was held at Dhaka in April 1993,
after being postponed twice in December 1992 and January 1993, on account
of disturbed conditions in Bangladesh in the wake of demolition of Babri
Masjid at Ayodhya. This Surnmit adopted a Declaration, which sought to
pull down trade baniers in the region by endorsing the South Asian
Preferential Trade Agreement (SAPTA) for the liberation of trade among the
seven member nations of the P,ssociation.
4.20 SAPTA and SAFTA
The Eighth SAARC Swnmit held up New Delhi in May 1995 accepted
the recommendation of the sub-continental Foreign Minister's meeting of
April 1995, which had proposed the launching of the South Asian
Preferential Trade Agreement. which would take closer to an economic role.
Apart from this, the Summit also decided to establish the South Asian Free
Trade Area (SAFTA) to prornote intra-reg~onal trade. This was a positive
sign towards the economic ;is well as trade related aspiration from the
region. Being a region with very poor economic structure and under
development, the political heads could propose the neo-functionalist
paradigm in the heterogeneou:; structure of South Asia with and eye open up
the avenues of trade and other related economic activities to strengthen the
genuine co-operation and integration among themse~ves .~~ As early as in
1959, a European free Trade a treat). s~gned by the U.K., Sweden, Norway,
-
23 Hindustan Times, January 3, 19S6
122
Denmark, Austria, Portugal, I(:eland and Switzerland created Area (EFTA).
The conceptual basis of EFT.4 was a bloc of countries who trade among
themselves for free customs restriction. A zero-custom arrangement
promotes greater trading, withsut restriction, within the specific area. A free
trade area benefits all the members who constitute such an area. In early
1990's, NAFTA, the North American Free Trade Area was established to
remove trade barriers, between the U.S.A., Canada and Mexico. It has been
realised all over the world thai. free trading at regonal level is in the interest
of economies of the countries concerned. SAPTA is established in the hope
that by the decade of 21" century a South Asian Free Trade Area would
become a reality whereas P.V. Narasirnha Rao, the then Prime Minister of
India (1995) said, they would be zero - custom trading in South Asia.
International trading system is facing new challenges. With the
emergence of new regonal trading blocs across the world, the South Asian
countries are faced with a tight position on the export front. According to
Prof. Vijaya Kathi of the Indian Institute of Foreign Trade, about 50% of
the world trade was confmed in 1996 to the trading blocks and intra-regional
trade activity. But, "there has been consistent decline in South Asia's share
in the world trade." The three billion dollar trade w i t h SAARC region is
only three per cent of its total imports and four per cent of its total exports,
whlch means that the SAAR.C countries have 97 per cent imports from
outside South Asia, and they exports 96 per cent to outside this regon.
Thls is depressing. In the trading field, South Asia has been described as
lagging behind every other area in the world in constructing explicit,
co-operative arrangements.24
There is a possibility of developed countries imposing new trade
restrictions on South Asia. Besides, the setting up of World Trade Organisation
(WTO), South Asian Countriels are llkely to face difficulty in having access
to the developed world, which had been major trading partners of these
countries.
The SAPTA has been described as "an umbrella framework of rules
providing step by step liberalis;~tion of trade within the region. It provides for
periodic round of trade negotiations for exchange of trade concessions on
tariff and related matters." ISAPTA contains provisions for favourable
treatment to be given to the lea:jt developed countries in the regon.
The Foreign Secretary 11:vel meeting held at New Delhi in 1995 have
completed the formalities of the functioning of SAPTA. A South Asia Free
Trade Area (SAFTA) expecced it after the submission of ratification
documents that discussion would soon begm to replace SAPTA by the
beginning of the 21" century. This will mean that trading among the South
Asian Countries (as in EFT'A and NFTA) will become fiee custom
restrictions and duties. There will be free flow of goods within SAFTA,
if achieved.
Meanwhile, in Decembsr 1995 at New Delhi meeting all SAPTA
countries exchanged lists of commodities for preferential trading. India
offered a list of 106 items, which should enjoy duty concession for
24 S.D. Muni, Expanding SAARC in World Focus, New Delhi, 1996
preferential trading with S A N K . The list of 106 items is more than three
times as large as the list Gram Pakistan, which comprised only 35 items.
Nepal offered 14 items, Mald ves 17 items, Bhutan 7, and Bangladesh 12
items for trade on preferential rates of duty with other SAARC countries.25
Firstly, their vast difference ill the number of items notified by different
member countries to be covercd for preferential trading. Secondly, most of
the items in most of the lists, exchanged for preferential trading, either do
not have a demand in the pote~itial importing countries of the region, or the
items are such that they do not have exportable surplus which could be
traded with SAPTA, after domestic needs are met and after exports to the
developed countries generating hard currencies have been made.
India had become a "Sec:toral dialogue partner" of the Association of
the South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) in 1991. This initiated, as former
Foreign Secretary J.N. Dixit said, "the process of co-operative llnkages with
this important regional groupin;g." This means that India was allowed limited
co-operation in the areas that .4SEAN permitted. However, in 1995 the 51h
ASEAN Summit confirmed with India the status of "full dialogue
partnership." This would enable India to have multi-dimensional and
comprehensive co-operation wi:h ASEAN.
Once SAPTA star$ working effectively, the establishment of SAFTA
is facilitated. India's Commerce Secretary Tejinder Khanna said in the late
1996 that the free trading in EFTA could be a model for proposed SAFTA
25 Lt.Co1.K.S Ramanathan, India ant1 the Future of SAARC In Strutegic Analysis, New Delhi, February 1995.
whose scheduled framework was between 2000-2005. SAARC had in
principle agreed to create a jiee trade area but a number of problems will
have to overcome. These problems include issue of trade imbalance and
lifting or non-tariff barriers (such as transit restrictions). Pakistan's refusal to
grant "Most Favoured Nation" (MFN) status to India and demand by smaller
economies for level playing jield is other issues to be tackled for effective
change from SAPTA to SAF1.A. Meanwhile, the business community led by
trade union bodies and chambers of commerce and Industry of SAARC
countries are keen on an e;uly introduction of free trade in the regon.
Therefore as, Commerce Se1:retary Khanna opined it is "the duty of the
governments in these countries to facilitate the creation of free trade area
in the region."
Government of India's decision to extent several trade concessions to
Nepal in 1996 was likely to tiasten the process of establishment of SAFTA.
These concessions were given with all good intentions and where likely to
boost bilateral trade and joint investment in Nepal, which in turn was likely
to facilitate SAFTA. The decision to convert preferential trading (SAPTA)
into free trading by establishing SAFTA between 2000-2005 AD was given a
concrete shape when Male Summit in 1997 formally decided to establish
SAFTA in the year 2001. This gave just four years to prepare. President
Gayoom denied that it was two ambitious to hope for SAFTA by 2001, by
saying that SAPTA had made considerable progress since its inception in
December 1995. He adrnitte d that nearly four thousand non-tariff items
remained to be accessible, but hoped thzt it would be possible to cover these
items by 2001. So that SAFTP. could become a reality. I.K. Gujral the then
Prime Minister of India, told the Lok Sabha after the Summit, that the
decision on SAFTA was an important step reflecting the growing sentiment
among the member countries lo consolidate economic interaction at a fast
pace. "The economies of neighbourhood can act as the foundation stone of
building up satisfactory international economic relati~ns."~'
Maldive's President Ga!ioom warned that mutual suspicions among
members could jeopardise the future of the SAARC. There was a need to
remove these suspicions. Bangladesh Prime Minister Begum Khaleda Zia
regretted that member countries were still "deeply divided."
Pakistan President Farooq Ahmad Khan Leghari said that SAARC had
not been able to take off bzcauc:e of the "suspicions and insecurity generated
by unsettled political issues in c'ur regon." Maumoon Abdul Gayoom voiced
a similar view saying that SAARC had fallen short of the expectations of
many people possibly due to "certain sensitive issues casting black shadow
on our ac t iv i t i e~ ."~~
Nepalese Prime Minister Manmohan Adhikari observed that SAARC
should face challenges and bi: ready to discuss bilateral issues also to
overcome past prejudices." Without making any specific reference to any
bilateral irritants, Pakistan's President said: "The movements for self-
determination, fieedom, democracy and respect for human rights have
spread across the globe and can no longer be denied. With the end of the
26 V .N. Khanna, Foreign Policy ofIndia (New Delhi. Vikas Publishers, 1997) p.216. 27 Ibid. 28 Indian Express, New Delhi, 3 1 De~:ember 1996.
127
cold war, emphasis has shiftc:d from political and ideologcal rivalry to
economic competition. We cannot wish our troubles away by simply turning
a blind eye to our disputes. We must tackle them headlong on the basis of
international law and justice and fairplay."29 Stating that he was aware that
the SAARC charter precluded discussion of contentious political issues, he
wondered whether only bold and decisive initiatives could not help to
acheve progress. The experience of other regional groupings like the
European Community and ASICAN showed that progress was possibly only
after the political issues had been meaningfully addressed.
Referring indirectly to (differences with India on the nuclear issue.
Leghari called upon the South Asian leadership to 'rise above local
considerations and enter into a regime to banish for ever the spectre of
nuclear weapons from the area. "
"The phenomena of narco-terrorism is inseparably linked to organized
crime, money laundering and the illicit arms trade," Begum Khalida Zia said.
Sri Lanka was one of the fust countries to adopt domestic legslation to gve
effect to the SAARC convention on suppression of terrorism.
Begum Khalida Zia said that while SAARC had several achevements,
they would have greater skill had it not been for, some failures. SAARC
had strengthened the concept that we in South Asia are a family. "Sadly,
however, we remain divided." "There are wide divergences between and
within states, ethnic, comm~ia l and social fabric. Dark forces have at
times taken hold of our minds and hearts. They have brought death
29 Pakistan Times, Lahore, 30 December 1996
and destruction. They give fue'led the fire of hatred." She said, stressing that
SAARC was to alleviate ths: sorrows of South Asia and that "we must not
detract from our purpose."
4.21 The SAARC Summits
No. Date I place / country
2. 1 November 17, 1986 I Bangalore I India
I I I
3. 1 November 4, 1987 I Kathmandu I Nepal
Bangladesh
5. 1 November 23, 1990 I Male I Maldives
Dhaka 1.
I I
December 8, 1985
December 31, 1988
I I I
Islamabad
I I I
I May 4, 1997 I Male I Maldives
Pakistan
Sri Lanka
I I I
Colombo 6.
7.
November 21, 1991
Dhaka April 1 1, 1993
India
I I
I due to bilateral wriingles I
Bangladesh
New Delhi 8.
Colombo
January 6,2002
February 6-7, 2005, but postponed
I political problems. I I
May 4, 1995
Sri Lanka
Kathmandu
Islamabad
Dhaka
Nepal
Pakistan
Bangladesh
129
The Summit till 2002 at Kathmandu, i.e.. the 1 lth, could generate
initial optimism by exchangng positive ideas with hlgh rhetoric, but ended
pathetically with discontent and discord between the member countries.
Accusations and counter accusltions followed immediately after the summits
have created a negative impaci. on regonal co-operation in South Asia. This
has raised doubts in the minds of the ruling elites to mingle genuinely for the
real co-operation. The instih~tional arrangements have never been in a
coherent manner to tackle the issues genuinely. The bilateral irritants
surfaced every time during the summits and even the 13" Summit, schedule
to have been held in Bangladesh on February 6-7, 2005 has postponed after
India pull out by citing the security situations in Bangladesh and the
developments in Nepal, where King Gyanendra dismissed the government.
The so-called SAFTA meet ha:; been cancelled due to Pakistan's withdrawal
to attend the same.
Since India and Pakis t~ l are the two largest countries in the regon,
both in terms of size, military resources and potential, the relation between
these two countries and their ole in the regon is very vital and crucial for
achieving regional co-operation. The next chapter reveals the issues of
confrontations between India and Pakistan with the focus on K a s h r ,
nuclear arms race, cross border terrorism, Siachen dispute etc.