FB 10: Fremdsprachliche Philologien

Institut für Anglistik und Amerikanistik

Student Manual

M.A. North American Studies

Compiled by and with material from

Prof. Dr. Carmen Birkle

Dr. Bärbel Höttges

Carmen Fels, M.A.

Britta Füllgrabe, M.A.

Johanna Heil, M.A.

Janina Rojek, M.A.

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Table of Contents

1. Marburg’s University System 2

1.1 UE, VL, PS, HS – Abbreviations for Classes and Their Meanings 2

1.2 How to Register for Classes and Exams 3

1.3 ECTS and LP – What Does It Mean? 3

1.4 S.t. and c.t. – How to Be on Time 4

1.5 Class Requirements – What Is Expected of Me? 4

1.6 ILIAS – What Is It and How Do I Access It? 7

1.7 The Grading System

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2 Writing Term Papers

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2.1 Acknowledging Your Sources – MLA Style 8

2.2 Writers’ Resources 10

2.2.1 The Libraries and OPAC 10

2.2.2 Accessing Online Databases 13

2.2.3 Material From Other Universities via Interlibrary Loan 13

3 Literary and Cultural Studies

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3.1 A List of Resources 14

3.2 Prose 16

3.3 Poetry 18

3.4 Drama 21

3.5 Film Analysis 24

4 Appendices

4.1 Appendix 1: Oral Report Guidelines

4.2 Appendix 2: Plagiarism

4.3 Appendix 3: Guidelines on How to Write an Academic Paper

4.4 Appendix 4: A Short Guide to Narratology: Stanzel & Genette

4.5 Appendix 5: Guiding Strategies and Questions for a Systematic

Analysis of Dramatic Texts

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1. Marburg’s University System

If you are new to Germany, the university system might seem strange to you and

possibly differ greatly from your home university. The following pages are designed to help

you understand the different types of classes and the kind of work that will be expected from

you. Generally, classes are held only once a week and last 1.5 hours. Once you are enrolled,

you can access and sign up for classes via the course catalogue. The exact process of signing

up will be explained later.

1.1 UE, VL, PS, HS – Abbreviations for Classes and Their Meanings

If you look at the course catalogue, you will see several abbreviations that show the form

of instruction of the class. Do not be confused if your modules call for a “UE” and you can

only find a “PS” – if the class is listed under your modules, it counts for your degree program,

but more about that later. First of all, here is a list of abbreviations:

UE = Übung = exercise

VL = Vorlesung = lecture

PS = Proseminar = seminar (lower level)

HS = Hauptseminar = seminar (higher level)

SE = seminar (only in linguistics)

Lectures:

In a lecture class, the students’ role is rather passive – you listen, take notes, and

process the information provided by the instructor. Lectures are held by professors only. You

might have to read assigned texts and you might have to pass a final test at the end of the

semester. Information provided in a lecture class is often rather broad, offering an overview of

a certain topic or field of English or American Studies.

Tutorials/Exercises and Seminars:

All three forms are participatory in nature, i.e., students are actively involved through

presentations and discussions. Higher-level seminars (HS) are usually only offered by

professors, while lower-level seminars (PS) and tutorials/exercises (UE) are also offered by

instructors and research assistants. In all classes you are expected to be well-prepared for each

session to be able to participate actively. Active participation of students also includes student

presentations, for which you usually sign up during the first session. You might also have

other kind of ungraded work, such as portfolios or response papers. Your instructors will tell

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you at the beginning of class and you can check the available forms (from which instructors

can choose) in the module catalogue (“Modulhandbuch”). You might also have to hand in

graded work, usually a term paper, which will be explained in more detail in due course.

1.2 How to Register for Classes and Exams

The sign-up period for classes usually begins early in September for the winter term and

early in March for the summer term. For exact dates, please consult the news feed on the

departmental website (under “Aktuelles”). The sign-up period lasts roughly a month, but

make sure to look up exact dates as to not miss it. You can look up classes in the course

catalogue and then register for them (Course Catalogue – Fachbereich 10 -

Lehrveranstaltungen für Master of Arts [M.A.] – M.A. North American Studies). If you are

unsure which modules to take, please consult the exemplary schedule. The classes are listed

according to their modules, so make sure you know which modules you have already taken.

You might notice that some classes are eligible for more than one module, but you cannot

have the same class cover more than one module. During the sign-up period, you can sign up

for the class under the header “Activity.” The course catalogue also provides information

about the instructor of the class, the form (lecture, seminar, etc.) and the time and place.

Please do not register randomly for all classes but only for those you really wish to take. Once

you have registered for a class, please check your status: “AN” = “angemeldet,” meaning, you

are registered for the class, but not admitted (= waiting list). “ZU” = “zugelassen,” meaning,

you are admitted to the class. Please note that you need to come to the first session in order to

claim your place or, if you are on the waiting list, to see if you can still be admitted to the

class. Also note that you need to register for all graded and ungraded work separately. Please

check the entry “Prüfungsanmeldung” (and scroll down to “English Guideliness”) on the IAA

Website. The examination office has also made a presentation on how to register for exams.

1.3 ECTS and LP – What Does It Mean?

ECTS stands for “European Credit Transfer System” and is intended to simplify the

process of transferring credits within European universities. When you look up modules, you

will see that each module has a certain number of ECTS or LP (“Leistungspunkte”) assigned

to it. In the ECTS system, one credit point equals 30 hours of work. Ideally, you would have

30 ECTS credits each semester – please check the exemplary schedule for a suggested course

of study.

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1.4 S.t. and c.t. – How To Be on Time

The earliest classes begin at 8 am., and each class, according to the course catalogue and

most course descriptions, lasts two hours. This means that classes begin either at 8am, 10 am,

noon, 2 pm, 4 pm, 6 pm, or 8 pm, leaving no official lunch break. The most curious thing

about the German university system is, however, the so-called “academic quarter.” This

means that classes that are scheduled from, for example, 10 to 12, start fifteen minutes late

and end fifteen minutes early. In reality, classes therefore last only 90 minutes. If not

indicated otherwise, classes start “c.t.” = “cum tempore,” which is Latin for “with time,”

meaning fifteen minutes later. Since students are so used to this, academic events such as

guest lectures that are supposed to start at x o’clock sharp are often labeled “s.t.” = “sine

tempore,” Latin for “without time.” So keep in mind, if you want to be on time: 10 c.t. =

10.15, 10 s.t. = 10 sharp.

1.5 Class Requirements – What Is Expected of Me?

You find the requirements for your classes in the course catalogue. They vary from class

to class, but they can be any combination of attendance, oral participation, quizzes, essays,

graded homework, a final test, presentations, or term paper. In the following, a short overview

of some of the forms of assessmentwill be given, which is supposed to help you understand

what is expected of you.

Attendance

Most instructors will expect you to attend classes regularly and will announce

guidelines for attendance in the first session. If you are sick, it is best to see a doctor and bring

a doctor’s note to the next session to account for your absence if attendance is compulsory.

Oral Participation

Oral participation includes preparation. You are expected to have read the assigned

homework or relevant literature for each session and to bring copies of your texts and your

notes to class. You should also be prepared to answer questions, share your thoughts, be

actively involved in discussions, and reflect on the texts you have read for the class. Do not

hesitate to ask questions in class since most instructors appreciate active students.

Presentations

For most classes, you sign up for a presentation in the first weeks of the semester.

Often, these presentations are group presentations in which each member is supposed to have

an equal share. You will have topics to choose from, but you should come up with your own

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ideas and approaches. To be sure what is expected of you in terms of content, talk to your

instructor beforehand. Most instructors also expect you to actively involve the class during

your presentation.

In terms of presentation skills, you are expected to speak freely and fluently. You can

use notes, but you should not just read out your notes or learn them by heart. You should

address the class. For PowerPoint presentations, make sure to know your slides or have them

printed out in order to avoid turning your back to the class. Speak clearly, in an appropriate

pace, and loudly enough. Give the class the opportunity to ask questions and be prepared to

clear up terms and concepts you use in your presentation.

If you use media, make sure the technology works. Better test video and audio formats

for their compatibility with the university computers before your presentation. If you use

PowerPoint, do not overcrowd your slides, but make them readable – use an appropriate font

size and colors. If you do a group presentation in which each member prepares their own

PowerPoint slides, make sure that you all use the same format and style.

Most instructors expect you to prepare a handout. This needs to have a header with the

university and course information and your name. The handout should have the presentation

title as a headline and a bibliography in which you acknowledge all sources used during the

presentation, including video and audio files. Structure the handout according to the outline of

your presentation, but do not merely copy and paste the key words from your PowerPoint

slides, especially when the handout is distributed after the presentation and the class members

do not have the opportunity to take notes on their handouts. The handout should summarize

the main points and serve as study material for your fellow students.

See Appendix 1: Handout “Oral Report Guidelines” for a printable and concise

overview!

Essays

If you are required to write an essay for a class, your instructor will inform you about

his or her requirements concerning the content. In general, every written assignment needs to

follow MLA style (see 2). Your essay should have a clear structure, including an introduction,

thesis statement, main body, and a conclusion. You need to have a header (as in the handout

for a presentation) and provide a bibliography that lists your primary and secondary sources.

Pay attention to the register and make sure your language is appropriate for academia. This

also includes not using contractions, such as “don’t” or “you’re.”

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Quizzes and Exams

Usually, quizzes and exams are not multiple choice, but there might be exceptions.

The content and form of questions will be different for each instructor, but there are some

ground rules and guidelines that you should be aware of. Quizzes and – even more so – exams

are usually not designed to test you on mere facts (although you are expected to be familiar

with them); rather, you are expected to apply the knowledge gained in class, for example by

answering open-ended questions. If you have a class on, for instance, slavery in the United

States, you might be asked to analyze a short passage from a slave narrative and identify

issues related to slavery in that passage and beyond it. Here it is always important to know the

key dates and events of the topics you will be tested on, even if those are not asked directly in

questions. To put it differently, to prepare for a test, you should review what you covered in

class and be familiar with the historical background and social and political aspects that are

important in relation to the topic - for the example of slavery, you might not be asked when

the Civil War took place, but you should know it anyway since it was important for the

abolition of slavery. If you dealt with controversial subjects in class, you should show your

awareness of difficulties with certain topics: In a test in the fictional class on slavery, for

instance, a question on the characterization of Uncle Tom (from Uncle Tom’s Cabin) should

not only take into consideration his characterization in the novel, but also its implications. To

sum it up, your answers in an exam should be thought through and structured, but not overly

long. You are supposed to answer concisely, but in full sentences.

Term Papers

Most instructors expect you to come up with your own topic and ideas for a term paper,

but you should always check with your instructor to make sure your topic is appropriate. You

will be informed about deadlines at the beginning of each class. Please note that you need to

hand in a hard copy, since most instructors do not accept term papers sent via email. A

guideline on writing term papers, including content and formal requirements, is provided in

the handout “Guidelines: How to Write an Academic Paper,” also available for download

from the departmental website (Studium » Formulare & Handouts » Handouts zum

wissenschaftlichen Arbeiten).

See Appendix 3: Guidelines on How to Write an Academic Paper

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1.6 ILIAS – What Is It and How Do I Access It?

ILIAS is a platform on which course material is provided, thus an online reserve shelf.

Most classes will only be accessible with a password which you will be told on the first day of

class. To sign in, you need to have a username and password (which you will also need for

your student email address and to use the university’s computers). From the university

website’s cover page, you can follow the direct link menu bar (“Direkt-Links”) to ILIAS. It

asks you to choose your language when logging in; however, so far, it is only available in

German. To add a class you have to go to “Suche” and type in the class title. From there, you

click on “Aktionen” and choose “beitreten.” Type in the password (make sure to pay attention

to capitalization, since it is case-sensitive) and your class is then added to your personal desk

(“Persönlicher Schreibtisch”). From here, you can view the sessions and access course

material. Make sure to download and/or print out assigned readings and other material, since

most classes will be taken off ILIAS after a certain amount of time, which means that you

cannot access the material any more. It is important that you sign up, not only to be able to

access course material, but also because ILIAS is often used by instructors to contact the class

and inform all students of a class about homework, and date/ room changes, or to publish test

results (by student ID number only).

1.7 The Grading System

There are three types of grading systems: the German school grading system (1-6), the

ECTS system (A-D, F, Fx), and the point system (1-15). You can find a document with a table

and explanations on the departmental homepage (» Institut für Anglistik und Amerikanistik »

Studium » Formulare & Handouts » Formulare für Studierende). However, the one generally

used today is the point system.

2. Writing Term Papers

For most seminars, you will need to write a term paper during the semester break as part

of your grade for the class. The length depends on the number of ECTS credits you receive.

Usually you will have to write around 10-12 pages for 6 ECTS credits and 15-18 for 8 ECTS

credits. Your instructor will announce the due date for the term paper in class and you need to

hand in your term paper in printed form by then. If you are sick or need an extension for

another reason, you need to contact your instructor ahead of time, not just two days before (or

even after) the deadline. You choose your own topic (related to the overall topic of the class,

of course), and you should check with your instructor whether your topic is appropriate, i.e.,

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whether it is manageable in terms of time and length and whether it is on a sufficiently

academic level. You should have a clear thesis and treat your topic in a scholarly way,

meaning you need to structure your paper, prove your thesis, and support your claims with

academic secondary sources. The following chapter will provide you with information on the

formal requirements (MLA Style) and help with finding resources.

2.1 Acknowledging Your Sources – MLA Style

Plagiarism

Not acknowledging quotations or ideas that you have taken from someone else is

plagiarism. Plagiarism is more than severe academic misconduct; it is intellectual theft, and if

you are caught plagiarizing, you may fail your class.

See also Appendix 2: Plagiarism

MLA Style

At the American Studies Department of our university, we use the MLA (Modern

Language Association) style for quoting from a text and citing the sources. In order to avoid

(involuntary) plagiarism, please familiarize yourself with that citation style. You can find the

MLA Handbook in the library. A shortened handout, Guidelines: How to Write an Academic

Paper, compiled by members of the department, can be downloaded from the departmental

website (Studium » Formulare & Handouts » Handouts zum wissenschaftlichen Arbeiten ).

See Appendix 3: Guidelines on How to Write an Academic Paper

MLA style distinguishes between dependent and independent publications. You need to

make this distinction clear on every piece of academic writing (essays, term papers, quizzes,

finals, presentation slides, and handouts etc.). The distinctions are the following:

- Independent publications, such as novels, newspapers, journals, magazines, films, albums

of audio recordings, anthologies, dictionaries etc. are italicized. In handwriting, they are

underlined.

- Dependent publications, such as songs, short stories, poems, articles etc. are put “in

quotation marks.”

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Practicing MLA Style

The following exercise is designed to help you practice your MLA style skills. The

sources on the worksheet are mixed up. Arrange them in the right order. Please note: a model

solution is provided on the next page.

Worksheet 1: MLA (List of Works Cited)

1. Ernest Hemingway’s short story The Killers, published by Scribner, New York (1987),

edited by John Hemingway, Patrick Hemingway, and Gregory Hemingway, in The

Complete Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway. Pages 215-222.

2. A novel by the same author: The Old Man and the Sea. Published by Arrow Books

(London) in 2004. Originally published in 1952.

3. About two hours ago, you just found this article by Alex Quade on CNN.com. (Cable

News Network). It was published on the 19th

of March 2007 and is titled “Elite Team

Rescues Troops behind Enemy Lines.”

4. You have to cite an entry from Webster’s Third New International Dictionary. It is

Entry 2 and its topic is “Manual.” The dictionary is from 1981.

5. Cite the book by Paul Smith from 1989, entitled A Reader’s Guide to the Short Stories

of Ernest Hemingway. The publisher is Hall from Boston.

Worksheet 1: Model Solution

1. Hemingway, Ernest. “The Killers.” The Complete Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway.

Ed. John, Patrick, and Gregory Hemingway. New York: Scribner, 1987. 215-22. Print

2. Hemingway, Ernest. The Old Man and the Sea. 1952. London: Arrow Books, 2004.

Print.

3. Quade, Alex. “Elite Team Rescues Troops behind Enemy Lines.” CNN.com. Cable

News Network, 19 Mar. 2007. Web. 13 Nov. 2009.

4. “Manual.” Entry 2. Webster’s Third New International Dictionary. 1981. Print.

5. Smith, Paul. A Reader’s Guide to the Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway. Boston:

Hall, 1989. Print.

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2.2 Writers’ Resources

Sometimes, you might get stuck when writing or you might not find the right entry for

your source in the MLA Handbook. You find a list of links in the Guidelines on writing a term

paper. The following chapter is a guide on how to use the library and access databases in

Marburg, since most instructors expect you to not use internet sources only, but above all to

consult books and academic articles.

2.2.1 The Libraries and OPAC

Marburg does not only have the large main library next to the PhilFak, but also a

number of smaller departmental libraries. For the English Department, those are the English

Studies library on the second floor of the D tower and the American Studies library on the

seventh floor of the D tower. Both libraries do not only have books you can access directly

and look through (in contrast to the main library, which will be explained later), but also

librarians you can ask for help, as well as computers, a copy machine, and places to work

quietly. Please note that their opening hours are a lot shorter than those of the main library.

You can look them up on the departmental homepage (Institut für Anglistik und

Amerikanistik » Institut » Bibliothek). The main library is open until midnight and offers

places to work, too; you can even rent your own booth to work quietly. You can look up hours

and further information on the main library homepage (» Universität » Universitätsbibliothek

» Über uns » Zentralbibliothek).

In the departmental libraries you can find books by just looking at the shelves and

seeing what they have or, which might be more fruitful, via the online catalogue OPAC,

which is also the only way to access books in the main library. You find a link to OPAC via

the direct links tool (Direkt-Links) on the university’s homepage. With OPAC, you can only

look for independent publications (books, magazines etc.), not single articles, but you can

search for author, editor, and other elements of a bibliographical entry. Here is how it works:

Example: You are looking for books on Arthur Miller’s Death of a Salesman. You type in

“Arthur Miller Death of a Salesman” and use the most general search setting “alle Wörter

(ALL)”. This is your result list:

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You will see a number of works, depending on how narrow your search is. In this example

you have 17 hits. For more information, you can click on an entry:

Here you see “Standort,” which describes where you can find the publication. You can find

this title in the departmental libraries; “Aufstellung” tells you whether it is in the English

Studies library (“Anglistik”) or the American Studies library (“Amerikanistik). In order to

find it, you need to note its shelf number (“Signatur”). Here it is “F MIL 2/101.” You then go

to the respective library, look for it yourself, bring it to the front desk (do not forget your

Ucard!), and then you can check it out for a week. You can usually bring it back after that and

check it out again, if it is not reserved, but you cannot extend your loan online.

If you need to check out a book from the main library, the OPAC entry will look

slightly different:

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Under “Ausleihstatus” it tells you whether or not it is checked out (“ausgeliehen”) or

available (“verfuegbar”). If it is there, you can click on “Bestellen” and a new window will

open:

Here you need to type in your Ucard number (located on the back underneath the bar code)

and your password. After half an hour to an hour, you can go to the main library and pick up

your book. It will be in the room with the check-out desk (“Leihstelle”) on a shelf. The

shelves are organized according to the last four digits of the Ucard number. You can check

your books out at the self-checkout computers. You can keep books for 4 weeks and extend

that period twice, given the book is not reserved. To extend your loan, go to the main library

homepage. On the right hand side you will find “Nutzerdaten und Verlängerungen” (= user

data and extension). If you click on it, you are asked to type in your Ucard number and

password again. Once you are logged in, you can choose “Entleihungen” from the top bar and

check the boxes next to the titles you wish to extend and then click on “verlängern” – it will

now show you the new return date. Luckily, you will also receive an email reminder you’re

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your student account) three days before your books are due. However, do not solely rely on

that, since mistakes can always happen.

2.2.2 Accessing Online Databases

Marburg subscribes to some online data bases, such as JSTOR, which you can access

within the university’s intranet. You go from the main library’s homepage to “Digitale

Bibliothek” and there to “Datenbanken.” Here you can choose from a variety of fields,

including “Anglistik/Amerikanistik,” from where you can access, for example, the Cambridge

Collection online. You can also access the MLA data base, which allows you to search for

essays. Some of them are available via links, others you might have to find in academic

journals. To find the magazine, either check if it is available on JSTOR or Project Muse or at

the university (search via OPAC as described earlier). Most of these data bases are only

accessible via the university’s intranet; however, you can download a VPN client and thus

access it from your personal computer.

2.2.3 Material from Other Universities (Interlibrary Loan)

During your research you might come across interesting books that are not available at

Marburg’s libraries. If that is the case, go to the main library’s homepage and from there to

MARLA (listed on the right). You can switch it to English. Make sure to log in before

searching for the title. In order to find books that are not in Marburg, you need to select

“Germany” under “Presetting” (right side). Once you find a title, you can order it and it will

be sent to Marburg. For that, you need to have credit on your “Fernleihekonto” (Interlibrary

Loan Account). Each interlibrary loan is 1.50 €. You can put money on your account directly

at the check-out desk (“Leihstelle”) at the main library. Please note that for the final order it

will ask you for your password. In case you changed your UCard password. Your interlibrary

loan password is your birth date, regardless of whether or not you have changed your UCard

password before. You will receive an email once your order has arrived and you can then pick

it up from the main library.

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3. Literary and Cultural Studies

As a student of North American Studies, you should already be familiar with the

fundamental concepts of literary studies and cultural studies. However, if you need to brush

up on your knowledge or further references, the following chapter will provide you with the

essential (but minimal) toolkit for your studies.

3.1 A List of Resources

In the following lists, you will find books that are available in Marburg’s libraries or online,

but also some other books that you might consider buying for your own reference shelf.

Literary Terms, Literary Theory and History:

Barry, Peter. Beginning Theory: An Introduction to Literary and Cultural Theory.

As the title states, this is an introduction with helpful example exercises.

Bertens, Hans. Literary Theory: The Basics.

Meyer, Michael. English and American Literatures.

Holman, C. Hugh. A Handbook to Literature.

Waugh, Patricia, ed. Literary Theory and Criticism.

This includes a variety of essays on certain theories and schools of criticism.

Cuddon, J.A. The Penguin Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory.

Explains almost any stylistic device or concept you can think and includes examples

Murfin, Ross C. The Bedford Glossary of Critical and Literary Terms.

Introduction to the Study of Anglophone Literatures:

Meyer, Michael. English and American Literatures.

used in Marburg by first-semester students of English and American literature. Covers

narratology, prose, drama, poetry, and literary history and theory. Each chapter also

contains a bibliography for further reference.

Narratology

Nünning, Ansgar, and Vera Nünning, eds. Erzähltextanalyse und Gender Studies.

Rimmon-Kenan, Shlomith. Narrative Fiction: Contemporary Poetics.

Meyer, Michael. English and American Literatures. (used for first-semester classes here)

Jahn, Manfred. Narratology: A Guide to the Theory of Narrative.

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Hermann, David. Routledge Encyclopedia of Narrative Theory.

Gender Studies

Butler, Judith. Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity

Pilcher, Jane, and Imelda Whelehan. 50 Key Concepts in Gender Studies.

Gilbert, Sandra M. and Susan Gubar. Feminist Literary Theory and Criticism: A Norton

Reader.

Cultural Studies

Meyer, Michael. English and American Literatures. (used for first-semester classes here)

Storey, John. Cultural Studies and the Study of Popular Culture: Theories and Methods.

Grossberg, Lawrence, Cary Nelson, and Paula Treichler, eds. Cultural Studies. a

collection of essays

Edgar, Andrew, and Peter Sedgwick, eds. Key Concepts in Cultural Theory.

Media Studies

Jahn, Manfred. “A Guide to Narratological Film Analysis.”

Nelmes, Jill, ed. An Introduction to Film Studies.

Kaplan, E. Ann. Feminism and Film.

Hayward, Susan. Cinema Studies: The Key Concepts.

Monaco, James. How to Read a Film.

3.2. Prose

Source: Meyer, Michael. English and American Literatures. 3rd

ed. Tübingen: Francke, 2008.

Print.

The following glossary is a very brief summary and is meant to serve as a refresher and first

reference; for a comprehensive and more complex description please consult the original

source.

Story vs. Plot

Story = “the content of what is told,” the sequence of events (Meyer 60)

Plot = “the logical connection between the events“ (Meyer 60)

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Duration

discourse time = “roughly the time you need in order to tell and listen to or read the

story”

story time = fictional time does not have to be represented 1:1

ellipsis = some aspects are omitted; summary; scene = “show[ing] events of

importance in the same time of their occurrence” (in slow-motion = stretch)

(Meyer 77); pause = “in the relation of events [a pause] occurs at the

description of the setting, reflections, or comments” (Meyer 77)

Time

flashback/ analepsis = “narrator interrupts the present chronology of the story and

connects it . . . to the past” (Meyer 78).

flashforward/ prolepsis = “narrator interrupts the present chronology of the story and

connects it to the future…” (Meyer 78).

Narrative Situations

You can find a more detailed narratology guide in Appendix 4. The following just lists the

main distinctions.

Stanzel’s three basics

first-person narrative is told by a narrator who “shares the characters’ world” (Meyer

63). A “temporal and cognitive distance” (Meyer 64) can exist between the narrating

I and the experiencing I.

An authorial narrative is told by a narrator who “is beyond the characters’ world and

looks at it from the outside but also has the ability to look into characters” (Meyer 63).

It “offers a godlike panoramic view from an Olympic position outside and above the

story world. . . . The authorial narrator mediates between the world of the characters

and that of the reader, creating the illusion of a fictional world but also breaking it by

intrusive comments and reader addresses” (Meyer 66).

Omnipresence, omniscience of narrator

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A figural narrative situation “has no visible narrator and presents events through a

character’s perspective” (Meyer 63). This character “serves as a subjective reflector

of the fictional world” (Meyer 67).

Genette’s two basic distinctions

Differentiates between “Who speaks?” (voice) and “Who perceives?”

(focalization)

A homodiegetic narrator “belongs to the story world and is called an autodiegetic narrator

if he/she tells the story of his/her own life” (Meyer 69).

A heterodiegetic narrator is outside of “the world of the characters” (Meyer 69).

Overt vs. Covert Narrator

overt narrator = visible, “appears as a mediator in the discourse. Overt narrators

introduce themselves and the stories to the reader and give comments that guide the

readers’ understanding” (Meyer 69).

covert narrator = invisible, “merely a voice that reports information. The author

passes on the task of evaluating the story to the reader” (Meyer 69).

Reliable vs. Unreliable Narrator

To check whether or not a narrator is reliable, the following three aspects need to be

examined: 1) consistency, 2) coherence, and 3) correspondence (Meyer 71), the first two of

which are the more straightforward, less complex ones:

1) Consistent narrative: no “contradictions between the narrator’s words and acts, values

and judgements, self-image and image by others, his/her version of events and those of

others” (Meyer 71). = reliable

2) Coherent narrative: one event in the story “leads to another without significant

temporal or logical gaps” (Meyer 71).

For the aspect of correspondence, please refer to Meyer’s explanation.

A catalogue of guiding questions for the analysis of prose texts and an exercise are

provided in Meyer!

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3.3. Poetry

(compiled from various sources)

Linguistic Analysis

Meaning of words and sentences

Dialects (geographical, historical, social)

Formal Analysis

poem: consists of a number of stanzas

stanza: a group of lines which form a division of a poem

verse: one line of a poem

word

rhyme: identity in the rhyming words of the last accented vowel and of all the speech

sounds following that vowel

masculine rhyme: last syllable is stressed, e.g., hill-still

feminine rhyme: last but one syllable is stressed, e.g., ending-mending

position: initial rhyme, internal rhyme, end rhyme

completeness: perfect rhyme, imperfect rhyme (e.g., renew-snow), eye-rhyme

(e.g., daughter-laughter)

rhyme patterns: cross rhyme (abab), rhyme pairs (aabb), embracing rhyme

(abba)

alliteration: initial rhyme created by the repetition of initial sounds in two or

more words (e.g., watch-woods)

assonance: the same vowels rhyme but consonants differ (e.g., tide-time)

consonance: the same consonants rhyme but vowels differ (e.g., hill-hall)

onomatopoeia (Lautmalerei): when sounds are somehow imitative of the

thing they refer to; onomatopoetic effects (e.g., cuckoo, twitter)

meter: pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables, characterized by the name of the

foot and the number of feet (e.g., iambic pentameter)

foot: a group of syllables forming a metrical unit, a unit of rhythm

number of feet: monometer (1), dimeter (2), trimeter (3), tetrameter (4),

pentameter (5), hexameter (6), heptameter (7), octameter (8).

iamb: unstressed syllable is followed by stressed syllable (x/)

e.g., "The curfew tolls the knell of parting day."

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trochee: stressed syllable is followed by unstressed syllable (/x)

e.g., "There they are my fifty men and women."

dactyl: stressed syllable is followed by two unstressed syllables (/xx)

e.g., "Just for a handful of silver he left us."

anapest: two unstressed syllables are followed by one stressed syllable (xx/)

e.g., "And the shean of their spears was like stars on the sea."

blank verse: five-feet iambic line without a rhyme (iambic pentameter)

Imagery and Rhetorical Figures

Imagery

metaphor: an implied (or reduced) comparison between phenomena of unlike

classes. Metaphor conveys a relation between two things by using a word in the

figurative sense ("übertragene Bedeutung eines Wortes"); e.g., "the foot of a

mountain."

simile: the explicit comparison in poetry between objects that belong to different

classes, introduced by the comparative conjunctions as or like; one or two things,

ideas, beings have one or more qualities in common ("tertium comparationis"); e.g.,

"And like the cat I have nine times to die" (Sylvia Plath, "Lady Lazarus").

metonymy: is characterized by the substitution of a term naming an object

closely associated with the word in mind for the word itself. In this way we

commonly speak of the king as "the crown," an object closely associated with

kingship thus being made to stand for "king."

synecdoche: the use of the part for the whole ("pars pro toto"); e.g., "hands" for men

who are at work at manual labor.

allegory: actual figures or persons who stand for abstractions such as virtues or vices;

it attempts to evoke a dual interest, one in the events, characters, and setting presented,

and the other in the ideas they are intended to convey or the significance they bear;

also: an extended narrative which carries a second meaning along with its surface

story = structure of ideas as the controlling influence in the work; e.g., scales of the

goddess Justitia as an image of justice.

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personification: refers to the attribution of qualities of life to abstract or inanimate

phenomena. It represents them as persons.

symbol: a concrete thing that represents (stands for) something immaterial or

abstract; e.g., dove for peace.

allusion: an indirect or passing reference to something outside the text in which it

occurs.

Rhetorical Figures

Arrangement of Words

Repetition: words, phrases, or sentences are repeated and produce the effect of, e.g.,

insistence and importance.

parallelism: a structural arrangement of parts of a sentence, sentences, paragraphs,

and larger units of composition by which one element of equal importance with

another is equally developed and similarly phrased.

anaphora: the marked repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive

sentences or paragraphs

chiasmus: a type or rhetorical balance in which the second part is syntactically

balanced against the first but with the parts reversed, as in Coleridge's line, "Flowers

are lovely, love is flowerlike," or Pope's "Works without show, and without pomp

presides."

antithesis: a figure of speech characterized by strongly contrasting words, clauses,

sentences, or ideas.

Function of Words

hyperbole: overstatement or exaggeration, e.g., Macbeth: "No; this my hand will

rather / The multitudinous seas incarnadine, / Making the green one red."

irony: saying the opposite of what one means (two levels of meaning); a broad term

referring to the recognition of a reality different from the masking appearance.

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paradox: an apparent contradiction which is nevertheless somehow true

oxymoron: etymologically, "pointed foolish"; a rhetorical antithesis bringing together

two contradictory terms. Such a contrast makes for sharp emphasis, e.g., "cheerful

pessimist, wise fool, sad joy, eloquent silence."

zeugma: a term usually applied to any construction in which one word is placed in the

same grammatical relationship to two other words with which it can be yoked only in

different senses, as "stain" is linked in different senses with "honour" and "brocade" in

Pope's line, "Or stain her honour, or her new brocade"; or, e.g., "to take a train and

tea."

apostrophe: consists in addressing someone absent or something nonhuman as if it

were alive and present and could reply to what is being said; e.g., "Oh, Nature!"

rhetorical question: a question propounded for its rhetorical effect and not requiring a

reply or intended to induce a reply.

invocation: an address to a deity for aid

paranomasia (pun): an old term for a pun or play on words, based on the similarity of

sound between two words with different meanings; e.g., "They went and told the

sexton and the sexton told the bell."

Literary Tradition

Quotations; Allusions; Parody

3.4. Drama

In the following, you will find a short list of some key concepts for the analysis of dramatic

texts. In Appendix 5 you will find guiding questions for the analysis of dramatic texts.

Adapted from: Nünning, Ansgar, and Vera Nünning. An Introduction to the Study of English

and American Literature. Stuttgart: Klett, 2007.

Drama vs. play vs. theater: drama refers to the literary genre; play indicates the concrete

text/performance.; the theater is the place (institution) where the play is performed

The Classsical Tragedy:

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I. Introduction

II. Development of Conflict/ Rising Action

III. Climax (Peripeteia)

IV. Moment of Delay/ Falling Action

V. Catastrophe/dénouement

Concepts:

Hamartia: fault or error that entails destruction of tragic hero (error is derived from

“ignorance of some material fact or circumstance”, see OED)

Hubris: a character’s excessive self-confidence

Catharsis: The purification of the emotions by vicarious experience, esp. through the drama

(OED): evokes fear or pity in the audience/spectators

Peripeteia: reversal, sudden change of fortune

Ways of transmitting information:

Monologue: a long speech by a single character addressing himself/the audience. The speaker

does not have to be the only person on stage.

Soliloquy: special form of monologue where the speaker is the only character on stage

Both monologue and soliloquy represent consciousness, provide information, and can

be commentary.

Dialogue: conversation between two (duologue) or more speakers (polylogue)

Aside: 1) ad spectatores: utterance is only heard by audience, 2) dialogical: it is heard also

by other characters, 3) monological: it is heard by no one

Other key concepts:

Dramatic Irony: Discrepancy of awareness between character(s) and spectators (audience

knows more); thus characters might not be aware of scope of their actions

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Showing: Action is conveyed through forms of speech or nonverbally. Sometimes there might

be epic elements in a drama, meaning that there is some form of telling (mediation of text),

however, usually there is no narrator. This is called the absolute nature of dramatic texts.

Primary vs. secondary text: primary text includes everything that is said, the secondary text

includes stage directions and the list of dramatis personae

Exposition: information concerning previous events (needed to understand the action). It can

be isolated (at the beginning) or integrated (dispersed throughout text, integrated into action)

Collective nature of production/reception: A performance is produced and received by a

multitude of people

3.5. Film Analysis

Source: Monaco, James. How to Read a Film.

This chapter will provide you with a concise glossary of terminology and concepts of film

analysis. For further information, please consult the source How to Read a Film.

Frame: (1) The single "still" photograph on the strip of celluloid, representing a fraction less

than one-twenty-fourth of a second in screen time. (2) What we see on the screen - that is, the

image outlined or encompassed by the screen as distinct from the darkness of the rest of the

theater. Obviously, the shape of the frame will affect its composition - that is, it will

determine the decision made while shooting about what we are to be shown within the frame

and how what we are shown will be arranged. The frame may be in open or closed form: the

former suggests that the limits of the frame are the limits of artistic reality, while the latter

suggests that reality continues outside the frame. Freeze frame is a freeze shot which is

achieved by printing a single frame many times in succession to give the illusion of a still

photograph when projected.

Mise en Scène: French, literally "placing-in-the-scene"; originally a theatrical term for the

staging or placement of scenery, property, and actors in a play. Fundamentally it refers to the

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arrangement of the space within the frame: the setting, the lighting, the placement of the

actors and direction of their movements, the perspective of the camera, and generally the

interrelationships of all the components making up the visual image in the frame.

Point of View: abbreviated POV; designates the angle of vision and the perspective conveyed

by the camera "eye."

Camera Angle: the angle at which the camera is pointed at the subject: low, high, or tilt. Not

to be confused with angle of view (or vision), which designates the angle subtended by the

lens (cf. below, focal length).

Focus: that part of the image which is sharply defined. The choice of focus governs the depth

of field. A shallow focus concentrates on one object (in the foreground) while blurring

everything else. A selective focus switches back and forth between, e.g., two people talking.

A deep focus renders a clear image of objects irrespective of their position in the foreground

or background. The focal length determines the angle of vision: the focal length (of a "wide

angle" lens) takes in a wider area and allows a larger depth of field; a longer focal length (a

"telephoto") has both a narrow angle of view and a very restricted depth of field. Follow focus

is to follow the subject as it moves. Rack focusing is a change of focus from one subject to

another. Zoom is a shot using a lens whose focal length is adjusted during the shot (it may

range from wide angle to telephoto).

Camera Movement: two basic types: either (1) the camera revolves or pivots as it remains on

the same spot, or (2) it moves from place to place. Ad (1) pan: the camera pivots on a

horizontal plane, from left to right or right to left; tilt: the camera pivots on a vertical plane,

pointing up or down; roll: the camera revolves around its focal axis. Ad (2) tracking is the

general term used for movements in which the camera changes its location. To dolly is to

move horizontally and to keep up with the object as it moves forward or backward, with the

camera either behind or in front of it. Trucking refers to moving horizontally or keeping up

with the object, alongside of it. A crane shot involves vertical movement, or a combination of

vertical and horizontal movements, in which the camera is mounted on a "crane" or "boom."

Shot: refers to the unedited strip of a film resulting from a single running of the camera,

whether the basic contents of the frame remain constant or change as a result of camera

movement or because objects come in and out of the camera's angle of view. The (temporal)

length of the various shots in a scene will largely determine the viewer's sense of tempo: a

quick series of shots (accelerated montage) will produce a much more hectic tempo than a

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single prolonged shot of basically the same mise en scène. Another differentiation relies on

the spatial quality of the shot. In a long shot or extremely long shot the objects are in the

distance. The long shot often serves as an establishing shot, which orients the viewer at the

start of a scene. A full shot is one close enough for the object(s) being filmed to fill the frame,

though not so close that the viewer cannot see, e.g., the full body of a person. A medium shot

shows, say, a person from the knees or waist up. A close shot shows, say, a person from the

shoulders up besides allowing a glimpse of other elements of the setting. In the close-up

(abbreviated as CU) the object (e.g., a person's face) fills much or almost all of the frame. In

an extreme close-up (also called a detail shot, XCU) the viewer is unusually close to the

object, so that s/he sees, e.g., only a person's lips, or a single eye. A point-of-view shot allows

the viewer to observe events from the point of view of a character.

Take: a version of a shot - as, normally, for a feature film a number of (different) variations

of a shot are made so that one or two can be selected and used in the finished movie.

Cut: denotes the switching from one shot to another. The direct cut is a cinematic punctuation

device which preserves the sense of continuity between two shots. In a match cut the two

shots are made to seem parallel by maintaining a visual, aural, or metaphorical link. The jump

cut is one in which a segment of a shot has been removed. The fade is a less abrupt transition

between two shots. In the fade-out the image on the screen gradually disappears into darkness;

then the darkness gradually gives way to the visual images of the next shot. When the old shot

gradually fades as the new shot is coming in, so that for a time the two visual images are

superimposed on the screen, we have a dissolve. The wipe is an optical effect in which a line

or soft edge sweeps across the screen, wiping away the old shot as it brings in the new one (a

flip frame is nearly the same). A similar effect is achieved by the transition known as iris; in

the iris-out, the screen gradually turns to black by having a circle of darkness around the

edges cause the image to get smaller and smaller; then, in the iris-in, the blackness gradually

disappears as a pinhole image of the new shot gets larger and larger until it fills the screen.

Editing: the joining and assembling of shots; also called cutting (montage is the term used in

Europe).

Scene, Sequence: Scene is occasionally used as a synonym for shot; in a more frequent use it

refers to a series of shots which occur in the same locale and are part of the same general

action; or it may refer to any group of shots which seem connected with each other because of

considerations of place or time or elements of the plot. The latter sense is difficult to

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distinguish from sequence, which generally refers to a series of shots which are themselves

interrelated. A cutaway is a shot inserted in a scene to show action at another location, usually

brief, and most often used to cover breaks in the main take. Cross cutting (or parallel

montage) moves to and fro between two strands of action, thus being an important narrative

device. A jump cut (also called time lapse cut) occurs within a scene rather than between

scenes; it can effectively eliminate dead periods.

Voice-Over: the term for the use of an off-screen voice heard "over" the scene we are seeing;

the voice may be that of a narrator, or that of a character who is in the scene but not talking

aloud. Like "canned laughter," it is a special form of commentative sound. MOS is the

indication in a script that a scene is to be shot without sound. Actual sound has as its source

an object or person in the scene.

Exposure: measure of the amount of light striking the surface of the film. Film can be

intentionally over-exposed to give a very light, washed-out, dreamy quality to the printed

image, or it can be under-exposed to make the image darker, muddy, and foreboding. These

effects can also be achieved by means of over- and underdevelopment.

Contrast: is used to refer to both the quality of the lighting of a scene and a characteristic of

the film-stock. High-contrast lighting shows a stark difference between blacks and whites;

low-contrast (or soft-contrast) lighting mainly emphasizes the midrange of grays.

Parallax: the apparent change of position of a viewed object, caused by differences in

perspective or point of view; useful in providing a sense of depth to otherwise two-

dimensional representations, especially in cinema when it is a function of the moving camera.

Score: the music of a film.

Set-up: a camera and lighting position.

Off-Camera: also Off, abbreviated as OC; refers to anything that occurs outside the area of

the action shot.

Off-Screen: abbreviated as OS; describes action that occurs out of camera range but is

supposed to be occurring nearby.

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Suggestions for Oral Reports by Prof. Dr. Carmen Birkle and Silke Schmidt, M.A.

1. How to Prepare an Oral Report

Finalize the topic if it is not assigned to you

Narrow the scope – focus on the most important issues connected to the topic

Do research with suggested material and find more sources if necessary

Structure the report in a logical manner

Place yourself in the position of an audience member who is not familiar with the

topic be clear, explain, focus on comprehension

Think of interesting and creative ways to present the report (PowerPoint is a starting

point but there are more options/media/techniques to employ)

Practice the report at home (at least twice) and watch the time – if you do not stay

within the given time frame, add/reduce content (e.g. start a “backup section” in

PowerPoint following the official slides)

Think of sections which you could skip/summarize if – for whatever reason – you

might be given less time for the presentation in the end

Think about questions the audience might have try to find appropriate answers

Get familiar with the setting of the presentation prepare for particularities with

respect to light conditions, acoustics etc.

Arrange for technical equipment in due time if the room does not offer standard

equipment -> e.g. reservation of projector, speakers

LOOK FORWARD TO THE PRESENTATION, NO REASON TO BE NERVOUS

2. Elements of an Oral Report

Introduction

Question/thesis

Outline

Methodology (if necessary)

Main section: most important steps to answer research question, logical order

Handout (maximum two pages): use bullet points to outline major statements

Conclusion: summarize most important findings do not repeat everything!

Outlook (optional): mention major research questions resulting from the presentation

which future research in the field could engage with

Discussion/Questions and Answers (Q&A): be prepared to raise open questions

yourself in case the audience needs additional encouragement

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STRUCTURE – STRUCTURE – STRUCTURE!

3. Presentation Techniques

Mention important organizational notes at the very beginning, e.g. if the audience can

ask questions in-between, if there will be a discussion in the end

A presentation is NOT a lecture – do not read a prepared text; speak freely, use notes!

Keep an eye on the time – if necessary, skip/summarize sections/slides

Find a balance when using different media: the media should help you get your

content across, they should not superimpose the content

Be open to new methods, try out creative techniques to really reach the audience (e.g.

theatrical performance, staged interview, mime, games, audience interaction…)

Speak at an adequate pace

Make sure the people in the back row also hear what you are saying

Watch the rhythm of your voice – a class presentation should not sound like reading a

bedtime story!

Always highlight how the section you are presenting relates to your research question

Do not talk to the wall when using PowerPoint or other visual media on a screen

(place the laptop in front of you when setting up the technical equipment)

Keep eye contact with your audience – if necessary, react to disturbances

THINK POSITIVELY, SMILE AND ENJOY THE EXPERIENCE – this is YOUR

CHANCE TO SET A POSITIVE EXAMPLE

Source: www.english-blog.com

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I. Plagiarism – What It Is and Why and How to Avoid It

(by Britta Füllgrabe, M.A.)

1. What Is Plagiarism?

Plagiarism generally means “intellectual theft” (Gibaldi 52). It can be committed on purpose, but it can

also happen unintentionally (Gibaldi 55). Plagiarism can take many forms. The MLA Handbook mentions

the following (52, 56-58):

using the entire work of someone else and declaring it to be your own

using the words of another person without quotation marks and/or source

using the idea of someone else without giving the original source

paraphrasing a text without giving the original source

There are even more ways to plagiarize, as Dr. Debora Weber-Wulff introduces (Weber-Wulff):

using the structure of thought of someone else without giving the source

citing the sources only in the works cited list/bibliography, but not in the text, or vice versa

having a translation machine (e.g. Google-translator) translate a text and claiming it to be your own

Plagiarism thus has a wide range of definition. It can mean employing someone to write the paper for

you or even handing in one of your formerly written papers a second time in another seminar. It can

mean to apply too little care to your academic work and end up unintentionally using others’ words or

lines of thought as your own. All of this is not allowed and unethical.

2. Why not to Plagiarize

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Plagiarism is not always an intentional “Täuschungsversuch,” but can happen without being aware of

plagiarizing. That is why it is important to know what plagiarism is and how to avoid it.

Avoiding plagiarism is also a question of morals. You should not only avoid it because it is illegal, but also

because it is a “moral and ethical offense” (Gibaldi 52).

Consider the following reasons for avoiding plagiarism that the MLA-Handbook lists (52-53):

Giving the original source acknowledges the work of others – it is only fair. You will want to be

treated fairly, too.

Giving the source allows your readers to draw their own conclusions from the original text and not

relying solely on your interpretation of it. This is important in a society of responsible and informed

people.

If you have plagiarized once, all of your other writing is likely to be treated with suspicion. Plagiarism

can destroy careers – not only of writers, but of people with all kinds of occupations, because

plagiarism takes away your credibility.

When students plagiarize, the relationship between teachers (at the university as well as in school)

and students is harmed. Plagiarism “turn[s] teachers into detectives instead of mentors and foster[s]

suspicion instead of trust” (Gibaldi 53).

When students plagiarize, they miss the chance to learn how to work academically. This is not only

important for those wanting to work in the academic realm, but also for school teachers and those

wanting to work in other fields. As school teachers, for instance, you will use a lot of texts that are

not your own and thus have to know how to give the sources. This will create your students’

awareness of a responsible treatment of other people’s work. As a teacher, it is required of you to

act as a role model to those shaping our society in the future.

If you plagiarize, you fail to express your own personality in writing. “Gaining skill as a writer opens

the door to learning more about yourself and to developing a personal voice and approach in your

writing” (Gibaldi 53). Don’t miss this chance by taking the perhaps easier way.

Apart from these reasonable points, there are also consequences and penalties directly damaging your

university education. At the Philipps-Universität Marburg, the following can happen if you plagiarize:

If you are suspected of plagiarism, your teacher will talk to you about your paper. If the plagiarism

turns out to be unintentional, you might be allowed to revise it once more.

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If you are repeatedly suspected of plagiarism, more severe consequences will be applied.

If your plagiarism is severe and/or likely to have happened on purpose (e.g. when happening

repeatedly), your paper will be graded with 0 points – you have then failed the course. In your

transcript of records, “TA” for “Täuschungsversuch” will be entered. This will be visible to your future

employers in the application process and is likely to shed a negative light on you and your

trustworthiness.

2. How to Avoid Plagiarism

You do not need to know all about plagiarism when entering university. However, as a student

you are expected to inform yourself about what plagiarism is and how to work academically correct.

During the writing process, make sure to ask yourself continually where your sentences come from. Give

all of the sources you are using immediately – as short references in brackets or footnotes and as full

citations in the list of works cited. If you have doubts and questions about how to do research and write

papers correctly, you can ask your teachers, participate in courses on academic work, or read about how

to research and cite correctly, e.g. in the MLA Handbook or the style sheet provided on the institute’s

website and in this manual. The style sheet’s appendix also includes a sample declaration for you to

include in every paper you turn in at university. With your signature, you declare that you know what

plagiarism is and that you have not plagiarized in your text.

Note that even if you plagiarize unintentionally, you are responsible for your work and can be

penalized. Unintentional plagiarism can occur when you do not keep your notes in order. When you take

notes during the preparation of a paper, you should always immediately indicate whether it is a direct or

indirect quote. Otherwise, you are likely to forget which is what and run the risk of plagiarizing if not

doing the work all over again. Thus, you should always work accurately and carefully (Gibaldi 55).

As a second language speaker of English, you might unintentionally plagiarize because you feel

you cannot formulate a sentence as well as it is in the original. Coming too close to an author’s sentence

structure can easily lead to plagiarizing (Gibaldi 55). You should thus always work on improving your

language skills, which of course cannot be done by copying other people’s work, but by practicing the

language in speech and writing.

In case of doubt, you can always talk to your teacher. The appendix provides some example

questions and answers regarding the citing of sources in academic writing. You can also test your skills of

avoiding plagiarism here: http://abacus.bates.edu/cbb/quiz/index.html.

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If you find you have plagiarized after turning in your paper, talk to your teacher immediately.

Then, you can prevent your plagiarism from being called a “Täuschungsversuch,” and you might even be

allowed to revise your paper (Gibaldi 56).

Works Cited

Gibaldi, Joseph. MLA Handbook for Writers and Research Papers. 7th ed. New York: The Modern

Language Association of America, 2009.

Weber-Wulff, Debora. “Plagiatserkennungssoftware: Wundermittel oder Zeitverschwendung?”

Fachforum “Plagiats-Erkennung in der Lehre.” Philipps-Universität Marburg. 20 Mar 2012.

II. Exercises to Avoid Plagiarism (by Dr. Bärbel Höttges)

1) Direct and Indirect Quotes

You have to write a term paper on trickster figures in Louise Erdrich's Love Medicine. While reading

Jeanne Rosier Smith's Writing Tricksters: Mythic Gambols in American Ethnic Literature, you discover

these interesting passages:

Page 76:

As the novel's most conspicuous embodiment of the trickster, Gerry addresses

Erdrich's central concerns by challenging the notion of fixed boundaries, both

physically with his transformative powers and politically with his continual escapes

from imprisonments by whites. Chippewa writer and critic Gerald Vizenor

describes Nanabozho as a "comic healer and liberator" ("Trickster Discourse" 188).

Gerry Nanapush fits both of these descriptions insofar as he represents Erdrich's

concern with liberating and healing Chippewa culture from damaging white

stereotypes.

Page 79-80:

Although Gerry's mother, Lulu Lamartine, corresponds to Nanabozho's

grandmother Nookomis, Lulu is also Erdrich's feminist revisioning of the trickster,

sharing Nanabozho's physical flexibility, artful gambling, and sexual prowess. Like

the trickster, Lulu can "beat the devil himself at cards." She brags, "I am a woman

of detachable parts" (LM 115).

33

In your term paper, you include the following paragraph:

Where and how should you refer to Jeanne Rosier Smith's book?

2) Facts and Background Information

In a term paper on slavery, you write the following paragraphs. In both cases, you rely on

more than one article or book and you do not directly or indirectly quote one specific author.

Nevertheless, you rely on secondary sources, of course, as far as facts, dates, and numbers are

concerned. Do you need to indicate your sources?

Example 1

Gerry is Erdrich's most conspicuous embodiment of the trickster as he

challenges the notion of fixed boundaries both physically with his transformative

powers and politically with his persistent attempts to escape from white

imprisonment. Trickster-like abilities are not restricted to male characters in

Erdrich's world, however: Although Gerry's mother, Lulu Lamartine, corresponds

to Nanabozho's grandmother Nookomis, Lulu is also Erdrich's feminist revisioning

of the trickster, sharing Nanabozho's physical flexibility, artful gambling, and

sexual prowess.

Serious efforts to Christianize the slave population did not begin to bear fruit until

1740, but even after that date, the Christian faith did not sweep through the slave

community with anything like the rate that some earlier scholars assumed; it is

estimated that by 1750 only one percent of the colony's black population was

baptized.

34

Example 2

When the Civil War broke out in 1861, the system of slavery was still firmly established in

the American South. At the beginning of the war, abolition was not on Lincoln's agenda. In

the course of the war, however, the question of slavery became more and more important

and Lincoln finally decided to issue the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863.

35

Some Answers

1) Direct and Indirect Quotes

In the paragraph on Love Medicine, you quote Smith twice: In the beginning of the paragraph, Smith

is quoted indirectly when you paraphrase her idea of Gerry's transformative powers. In the second

part of the paragraph, you quote Smith directly. As the paper relies on Smith's analysis twice, you

need to indicate your sources in both cases:

2) Facts and Background Information

A statement considered to be "common knowledge" – e.g., major historical events or dates –

does not need to be attributed to a source in your term paper. Usually, you can find that kind

of information in a variety of books and articles, and anyone who is vaguely interested in your

field of research will be aware of those facts. Accordingly, you do not need to include source

references in the passage dealing with the Civil War and the Emancipation Proclamation:

If you include in-depth knowledge – i.e., information only experts will know such as

historical details or statistical data – you have to indicate your sources, even if you summarize

several scholars' results:

Gerry is Erdrich's most conspicuous embodiment of the trickster as he

challenges the notion of fixed boundaries both physically with his transformative

powers and politically with his persistent attempts to escape from white

imprisonment (see Smith 76). Trickster-like abilities are not restricted to male

characters in Erdrich's world, however: "Although Gerry's mother, Lulu

Lamartine, corresponds to Nanabozho's grandmother Nookomis, Lulu is also

Erdrich's feminist revisioning of the trickster, sharing Nanabozho's physical

flexibility, artful gambling, and sexual prowess" (Smith 79-80).

When the Civil War broke out in 1861, the system of slavery was still firmly established in

the American South. At the beginning of the war, abolition was not on Lincoln's agenda. In

the course of the war, however, the question of slavery became more and more important

and Lincoln finally decided to issue the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863.

Serious efforts to Christianize the slave population did not begin to bear fruit until

1740, but even after that date, the Christian faith did not sweep through the slave

community with anything like the rate that some earlier scholars assumed; it is

estimated that by 1750 only one percent of the colony's black population was baptized

(see Lincoln 19; see also Wilmore 450).

36

Alternatively, you may also incorporate source references directly into your text, especially if you

want to stress that you are referring to an important scholar or work:

Please note: Make sure to indicate all your sources in your term paper whenever you rely on other

people's research. (That includes research available online!) Plagiarism is a serious matter and you

will fail the class if you copy other authors or include their ideas in a term paper of your own without

proper reference.

Last but not least, do not forget to list all authors you mention in the course of you paper in your

Works Cited list:

According to C. Eric Lincoln, serious efforts to Christianize the slave population did

not begin to bear fruit until 1740 (see 19). Even after that date, however, the Christian

faith did not sweep through the slave community with anything like the rate that some

earlier scholars assumed; in his recent study "Survival, Elevation, and Liberation in

Black Religion," Gayraud S. Wilmore estimates, for example, that by 1750 only one

percent of the colony's black population was baptized (see 450).

Works Cited

Lincoln, C. Eric. "The Development of Black Religion in America." African

American Religious Studies: An Interdisciplinary Anthology. Ed. Gayraud

S. Wilmore Durham: Duke UP, 1989. 1-21. Print.

Smith, Jeanne Rosier. Writing Tricksters: Mythic Gambols in American Ethnic

Literature. Berkeley: U of California P, 1997. Print.

Wilmore, Gayraud S. "Survival, Elevation, and Liberation in Black Religion."

Down by the Riverside: Readings in African American Religion. Ed. Larry

G. Murphy. New York: New York UP, 2000. 447-68. Print.

37

GUIDELINES: HOW TO WRITE AN ACADEMIC PAPER

There are some rules, regulations, and conventions that you should be familiar with before

you start to write a term paper. They will be briefly introduced in the following.1

1. Readership, Authorship, and the Writing Process 2

2. Formal Outline 3

3. Drafting a Thesis Statement 3

4. Structure and Line of Argumentation 4

4.1 Introduction 5

4.2 Main Part 6

4.3 Conclusion (in a shorter essay or paper: concluding paragraph) 7

5. Documentation of Sources 7

5.1 Citing within the Text 8

5.2 Bibliography or Works Cited 10

5.3 Citing Sources from the Internet 12

5.4 Other Sources 13

6. Bibliography 13

7. Appendices 14

Appendix 1: Some Useful Verbs and Phrases 14

Appendix 2: Some Online Resources 14

Appendix 3: Abbreviations Used for Documentation 16

Appendix 4: Plagiarism 17

1 Since most information is based on the MLA Handbook (7th ed.), constant references to this source would be

reader-unfriendly and are, therefore, omitted. Please note that the compilers of these guidelines do not claim

authorship but are simply responsible for the collection and representation of this information.

38

1. Readership, Authorship, and the Writing Process

Before you write your term paper, it might be helpful to clarify who your readers are, and

what your role as an author is, accordingly. Please note that different instructors might have

slightly different expectations here. In general, your paper shows that you are part of an

academic community and its specific discourse. Your paper is situated within the academic

discourse, draws on previous findings, and adds news aspects, perspectives, or insights into

a specific topic. Since you might never publish your paper, which means it might not find its

way into the “real” academic community, imagine your readers as your fellow students (who

took a different class), i.e., people who have some knowledge of Anglophone literatures and

cultures, but who do not necessarily know about specific concepts, theories, and

approaches. As the author, you should guide your reader through your thinking process (i.e.,

the structure of your paper), make clear what your main argument is (i.e., your thesis

statement), and point out where your ideas come from (i.e., document your sources), and

how you approach your topic (i.e., methodology and/or theory). Try finding a topic that you

are actually interested in, since the paper is the product of a relatively long process of

research, analysis, and writing.

Ideally, once you have your topic and consulted your sources, your actual writing process

begins. How exactly you structure this process depends on your mode of writing/ what kind

of writer you are (see table below). However, some strategies are useful for all writers:

- gathering and evaluating information - working out and formulating your main argument (“thesis”) - structuring what you intend to do - start writing - (getting feedback) - (restructuring what you intend to do) - . . . proof-reading

(adapted from Kruse 110-15)

This strategy of recursivity will help you in checking whether or not the part you are working

on is relevant for your overall structure, whether or not it fits where you have placed it, or it

will help you in restructuring your paper and/or even defining a new thesis if you realize that

new information and aspects change the direction of your paper. In addition, feedback (by

your fellow students or your instructor) will help you get over writer’s block, to refocus, and to

check if your line of argumentation makes sense. Please do not forget to have someone

proof-read your paper, since you are bound to overlook typos and other mistakes.

39

Models of Writers/Modes of Writing (Willey qtd. in Kruse 43, transl. and adapted by Heil and

Rojek):

Mental planner External planner Planner/ Explorer

Explorer/ planner

Explorer

Writes the

complete text in

one step without

revising much

(1) Written drafts

of most of what

s/he wants to

write; (2) writing

and revising

Each sentence /

paragraph is

revised before

s/he starts with

the next one

Starts with a

rough plan or

blueprint and

revises at a later

point

Follows

spontaneous

ideas; organizes

ideas at a later

point

Mostly

sequential (start

at the beginning)

Often sequential Sometimes

sequential

Sometimes

sequential,

sometimes

erratic

Barely

sequential

Thinking “rationally” thinking “in language”

2. Formal Outline

1. Title Page

upper section : university, department, semester, title of course,

instructor's name

middle section: title of the paper

lower section: author's name, course of studies, module,

number of ECTS points, semesters studied,

address, email / telephone, date of

submission, student ID / registration number

2. Table of Contents (Example)

1. Introduction 1 2. [Main Part I] (including chapter numbers and page numbers) 2

2.1 Historical Background 3 2.2 Fictional Setting 5

3. [Main Part II] 7 3.1 [Character Analysis I] 8 3.2 [Character Analysis II] 13

4 Conclusion 17 5 [Bibliography] or [Works Cited] 19

Plagiarism Statement 22

Titles in [brackets] indicate a placeholder for an actual heading

40

Many word processing programs provide templates for tables of contents which

update and format chapter and page numbers automatically.

3. Layout

margins: 2.5 cm left, 3 cm right, 2.5 top and bottom

spacing: 1.5 for main text, single for indented quotations (i.e., quotation exceeding four lines)

font: Arial or Times New Roman (use the same font for the whole text)

size: 12 for main text, 10 for indented quotations longer than four lines

3. Drafting a Thesis Statement

[A thesis statement] is a single sentence that formulates both your topic and your point of

view. In a sense, the thesis statement is your answer to the central question or problem you

have raised. Writing this statement will enable you to see where you are heading and to

remain on a productive path as you plan and write. Try out different possibilities until you find a

statement that seems right for your purpose. Moreover, since the experience of writing may

well alter your original plans, do not hesitate to revise the thesis statement as you write the

page. (MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers 42)

Before getting started, make up your mind on what you want to write about and make your

topic/thesis as precise as possible. If, for example, you decide on focusing on a specific text

(e.g., Toni Morrison’s Beloved) you cannot possibly include all the information you consider

relevant about the work in general, but rather should limit your scope of interest in a practical

and specific sense which means that you might concentrate on gathering information

relevant to your thesis. Try to develop your own theories, concepts, and schemes to

substantiate your reading(s) of the respective text.

By the way, in literary and cultural studies, “text” may refer not only to written works; a song,

movie or painting can also be regarded as a text. So whenever this term is used in the

following, it does not exclusively pertain to written texts such as novels.

Example:

Let us suppose that you want to write about Toni Morrison’s Beloved. It does not make sense

to simply label the paper "Toni Morrison’s Beloved” as this would be much too vague and

41

unfocused. There is no way you would ever be able to cover all aspects and facets of the

novel’s dimension(s).

Instead:

Think about aspects or elements in a text that you find relevant and, above all, interesting or

attention-grabbing. Another strategy you might want to take into consideration is a theoretical

approach on which you can then base your own analysis.

Examples:

"Interior Frontiers in Toni Morrison's Beloved"

“Slavery, Scarring, and Complications of Authorship in Beloved"

“African American Gothic Elements in Toni Morrison’s Beloved”

"Beloved: A Neo-Slave Narrative?"

“Reading Space and Time in Toni Morrison's Beloved"

If you are not sure whether you have sufficiently narrowed down your topic, the following

three questions may help:

a) What? What is the topic of your paper? What are you dealing with?

b) How? What methods do you use for your analysis? What theories do you base your analysis on?

c) Arrangement? In what order do you present the main arguments of your paper?

42

4. Structure and Line of Argumentation

A term paper should adhere to a logical and coherent line of argumentation. Your arguments

should be presented according to a formal structure which will be explained in the following.

4.1 Introduction

Function: Introduces the reader to the topic and is a preview or outline of the content and

structure of the paper. It has to observe several formal rules and contains a specific set of

information.

Formal aspects: The introductory part should approximately make up one tenth of your entire

paper. For regular term papers this usually adds up to 1 (Proseminar) or 1-2 (Hauptseminar)

pages. According to its function, it can simply be entitled “Introduction,” just like above (but

without quotation marks).

Content(s) (suggestions):

You could start the introduction of your thesis by simply pointing out your thesis

statement, i.e., what issue you intend to examine in your paper and which

answers/arguments you propose. This could be realized by, for example, a paragraph

giving a short overview of the main argument within the criticism relevant to your

topic. Questions that may be addressed indirectly here are, amongst others, “Why

does this approach matter in the context of this particular topic?” or “To what extent

can this particular focus enrich previous models of analyzing this specific text?” Mind

that you should be very clear in how you proceed to conceptualize your own

findings/research.

For example:

43

Criticism of Margaret Laurence’s novel The Diviners includes essays and books on a

large variety of topics, such as metafiction, ethnicity, myth, history, the author's

Scottish background and its influence on her work, autobiographical elements,

regionalism, as well as feminist readings of her work. This paper expands on the topic

of memory and imagination as it emerges from the novel. I maintain that in The

Diviners memory is presented as an active process of recreation of past events and

feelings, on the one hand, and as a process of reconstruction of place and identity, on

the other.

The second step (and, as the case may be, following paragraph/s) includes an

elaboration on your thesis statement, i.e., how you intend to conduct your analysis.

Here you

briefly outline how you want to approach the topic (method) and what aspects in which order you focus on.

mention the various aspects that you analyze in the selected text and also outline the theories you use.

For example:

In her memoir Dance on the Earth Laurence makes the distinction between those

memories of her childhood of which she is herself aware and which she can actually

remember experiencing, and those memories which were transmitted to her by other

people (24). This distinction, however, does not allow for the claim of accuracy and

objectivity in connection with either of these two kinds of memories. In The Diviners,

Morag revises her childhood with the aid of photographs. She calls the events evoked

by them "totally invented memories" (Laurence 18) and qualifies them as "quite

untrue, [o]r maybe true or maybe not" (Laurence 16). She can paradoxically remember

composing her memories even though she is no longer able to identify the facts that

have generated them.

4.2 Main Part

The Main Part contains the actual implementation of your line of argumentation. Here you

bring forward arguments that "prove" the thesis previously sketched in your introduction by

further elaborating on those aspects you would like to focus on.

44

WATCH OUT:

Every paragraph should constitute a logical unity of meaning which deals with a part of your overall line of argumentation and should be placed according to the structure you have outlined in your introduction. No one-sentence paragraphs!!! The general rule is: one thought, one paragraph.

Do not list many disconnected details that may be interesting observations but are not related to the coherent structure of your paper. If at all, these can be added in footnotes.

Think about transitions from one paragraph to the next. Ideally, one paragraph refers to the preceding paragraph.

NO-NOS:

One-Sentence Paragraphs One-sentence paragraphs that are not related to one another are a sign of poor

writing style as they show that the text is not logically structured and not based on

proper logical argumentation. No one-sentence paragraphs ever! If you find that one

of your thoughts really makes up only one sentence, check closely: Is it really

substantial? If not (so much), omit it or mote it to a footnote. If yes, your sentence

might need to be split up and/or your thought elaborated in more detail.

Exaggerated /Inflationary Use of Subheadings While the main part should have a meaningful heading (NOT simply “Main Part”), not

every paragraph needs its own subheading! This is especially inappropriate in

Proseminar papers that are only 10-12 pages long. In practice, it should be possible

to read a term paper even without the inclusion of subheadings, i.e., as a

homogenous entity featuring smooth transitions that link one thought with the other.

Headings and subheadings do not replacer transitions between the paragraphs (see

Appendix 2). Also note: If you have a first point, you need to make a second one, e.g.

if you have chapter 3.1., you need chapter 3.2.

Summaries of Texts which Comprise a Whole Chapter. In some cases, it might be necessary and useful to briefly introduce your reader to

your topic in its relation to the context of the story/plot. However, it is sufficient to

summarize the plot of a text in a few words. A better way of indicating the text’s

story/plot is to make it part of your line of argumentation. The reader of your paper is

familiar with the contents of the work on which you write your paper. Summarize the

plot only if this is indispensable to your line of argumentation.

45

Bio-Bibliographical Information Include information on the author’s life and his or her works only if this information is

relevant for strengthening/substantiating your thesis. Refrain from providing extensive

records and facts and figures on the author’s life only to then leave this bulk of

information without comment or without transferring your findings to the actual focus

of your paper (compare the problematic usage of summaries as pointed out above).

4. 3 Conclusion (in a shorter essay or paper: concluding paragraph)

Summarizes the main arguments of the paper and adds the results of the main part to the thesis of the introduction and can therefore be simply called what it is, i.e., it does not need a more specific heading.

Repeats the thesis and topic statement, yet should not necessarily recap the various arguments.

A helpful strategy to find out whether a paper is well structured is to read the introduction and then the conclusion as both should transmit the paper's focus, methodology as well as your results.

Some General Remarks:

Whatever you write about, a critical re-evaluation as well as accurate documentation of your sources are essential to an academic paper. Your paper should be based on a consistent line of argumentation that constitutes your own approach. You need to document your sources to avoid plagiarism!

Your argumentation needs to be based on textual evidence. Whatever you argue, support your arguments with examples from the text and secondary literature. This avoids superficial interpretations and trains you to read a text closely and critically.

Not only quotes from sources/authors that you have consulted during your research need to be documented but also those whose ideas you have modified by either paraphrasing them or integrating them in your research. Please also see the section on Plagiarism for further information on how to avoid intellectual and academic theft. By the way: The term plagiarism derives from the Latin word plagiarius and means “kidnapper.” Just as the term suggests, it is an academic crime.

46

5. Documentation of Sources

The careful documentation of sources is crucial to good scholarly writing. Whenever you

draw on the work of another person or institution, you must document your source by

indicating what you borrowed—whether fact, opinions, or quotation—and where you

borrowed it from. Whether you quote from another text directly, paraphrase it, or take from it

an idea which you express entirely in your own words, you must properly document that

source.

Plagiarism is the most severe crime in academia. You plagiarize when you use someone

else’s formulations directly but also when you display someone else’s ideas, trains of

thoughts, or line of argumentation as your own without acknowledging the sources. If found

out, you will not receive credit and you will not be given the opportunity to write an alternative

paper for the course. If you plagiarize, you severely damage your academic reputation. And

remember that your instructors have discovered the internet as well!

The following website offers a self-test with which you can test your knowledge of various

types of direct and indirect plagiarism: http://abacus.bates.edu/cbb/quiz/index.html.

The last page of your paper must be a statement by which you guarantee that you have not

used any unacknowledged sources (see Appendix 4).

5.1 Citing within the Text

All references to primary and secondary sources have to be included in the text. You must

include all the information necessary for finding the quotation, using parenthetical

documentation and the bibliography at the end of your paper. If you are quoting short

passages up to three lines of text, integrate them into your own sentence. Use American

quotation marks (i.e., check the language settings of your word processing program). When

you quote from a text and leave out parts of the original text, indicate the omission by adding

three spaced periods (or four, if the omission is at the end of a sentence. If the original text

already contains an ellipsis and you leave out parts of the text, indicate the omission in the

following way: (page number, ellipsis in orig.).

47

Parenthetical references are directly linked to your list of works cited or bibliography.2 The

author's last name and a page reference are usually sufficient to identify the source. In the

following example, the reference (Townsend 10) indicates that the quotation comes from

page 10 of a work by Townsend. Your readers can then find complete publication information

for the source in your list of works cited.

Example:

Medieval Europe was a place both of "raids, pillages, slavery, and

extortion" and of "travelling merchants, monetary exchange, towns if

not cities, and active markets in grain" (Townsend 10).

Basic Structure and Placing of Parenthetical References

The standard parenthetical reference is simply the author's last name followed by a space

and then a page number. A parenthetical reference in your text must clearly point to a

precise location in a specific source listed in your works cited, but at the same time you

should keep the reference as brief as possible. If, for example, you include an author's name

in a sentence, you need not repeat the name in the parenthetical page citation that follows.

Place the parenthetical reference where a pause would naturally occur (preferably at the end

of a sentence), as near as possible to the material documented. Whenever you use ideas,

lines of argumentation, etc. from a text without directly quoting, you still need to indicate your

source. Use “cf.” (‘confer’) if you point to a source that can be used for comparison. Use

“see” if you point to a source that gives more information of the same kind.

Authors’ Names in Parenthetical References

If your list of works cited listing contains more than one author with the same last name, add

the first initial. If the list contains more than one work by the same author, your parenthetical

reference must include the title (preferably shortened) after the author's last name.

2 The difference between “Works Cited” and “Bibliography” will be explained in 5.2.

48

Page Numbers in Parenthetical References

The abbreviation p. is not required before the page number. When citing poetry, you should

cite the line number(s) by initially using the word line(s) (line 24) in your first citation and then

giving the numbers alone. When citing plays, act, scene, and line numbers should be given,

separated by periods (either 2.4.120 or II.iv.120, depending on your instructor's preference).

Parenthetical References by Title

If you quote a work with no stated author, as is often the case with electronic sources, you

list the work by title. You can shorten the title if necessary, but make sure that your readers

can find the respective work easily in the works cited list or bibliography. You may add a

footnote in which you indicate that you will use a certain abbreviation throughout the paper.

Sample Entries for Parenthetical References

Citing a Work by a Single Author

Between the 1960s and the 1990s, television coverage of presidential

elections changed dramatically (cf. Hallin 5).

Citing a Work by Two or Three Authors

Others, like Gilbert and Gubar (1-25), hold the opposite point of

view. Or: Others hold the opposite point of view (e.g., Gilbert and

Gubar 1-25).

Citing a Work by an Author Who Has More Than One Work Listed in Your Works Cited

Shakespeare's King Lear has been called a "comedy of the grotesque"

(Frye, Anatomy 237). Or: In Anatomy of Criticism, Frye called King

Lear a "comedy of the grotesque" (237).

Citing a Work Listed by Title

A New York Times editorial called Ralph Ellison "a writer of

universal reach" ("Death").

49

Citing More Than One Source

(Hallin 22; Scotto 63)

(Gilbert and Gubar 1-25; Atwood 15)

Citing Volume and Page Numbers of a Multivolume Work

The anthology by Lauter and his coeditors contains both Stowe's

"Sojourner Truth, the Libyan Sibyl" (1: 2425-33) and Gilman's "The

Yellow Wall-Paper" (2: 800-12).

Citing Indirect Sources

Samuel Johnson admitted that Edmund Burke was an "extraordinary man"

(qtd. in Boswell 2: 450).

5.2 Bibliography or Works Cited

Generally, the rules for citing electronic sources are similar to the ones pertaining to printed

material. In the list of Works Cited you should always indent the second and all subsequent

lines of entries five spaces from the left margin and use the following format:

This list should contain an entry for each of the works cited in your paper. You may also want

to include works which were consulted in the preparation of the paper but not actually cited

in your text. In the first case you will use the heading Works Cited; in the latter case you will

use the heading Bibliography, but note that you cannot use both headings at the same time.

All entries are listed alphabetically. Alphabetize entries by the author's last name; works

listed under the same name are alphabetized by title. If the author's name is unknown,

alphabetize by the title, ignoring any initial A, An, or The. The following paragraph is the

basic structure of an entry (a period usually follows each of the numbered components, but

very few entries will contain all components):

1. Author's name, last name first; 2. title of a part of the book (i.e., short stories,

articles, poems) in quotation marks; 3. title of the book, in italics or underlined; 4.

name(s) of the editor, translator, and/or compiler; 5. edition used; 6. number(s) of the

50

volume(s) used; 7. place of publication [only the first one is necessary]: name of the

publisher [not necessary with books before 1900], and date of publication; 8. page

numbers. 9. publication form: print or web.

Please not that all major words should be capitalized (see MLA Handbook 3.6.1). Page

numbers should be given in the following way: 55-57; 255-57; 3255-57; 102-03.

The basic structure of an entry citing a periodical is slightly different. After giving the title of

the journal or periodical, indicate the volume and issue numbers, followed by the date in

parentheses, then a colon, then the page numbers.

Sample Entries for Works Cited

A Book by a Single Author

Berlage, Gai Inghara. Women in Baseball: The Forgotten History.

Westport: Greenwood, 1994. Print.

A Book by Two or Three Authors

Marquart, James W., Sheldon Ekland Olson, and Jonathan R. Sorensen.

The Rope, the Chair, and the Needle: Capital Punishment in

Texas, 1923-1990. Austin: U of Texas P, 1994. Print.

A Book by More Than Three Authors

Gilman, Sander, et al. Hysteria beyond Freud. Berkeley: U of

California P, 1993. Print.

Two or More Books by the Same Author

Frye, Northrop. Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays. Princeton:

Princeton UP, 1957. Print.

---. The Double Vision: Language and Meaning in Religion. Toronto: U

of Toronto P, 1991. Print.

---, ed. Sound and Poetry. New York: Columbia UP, 1957. Print.

51

A Work in an Anthology or a Collection of Essays

Allende, lsabel. "Toad's Mouth." Trans. Margaret Sayers Peden. A

Hammock beneath the Mangoes: Stories from Latin America. Ed.

Thomas Colchie. New York: Plume, 1992. 83-88. Print.

An Article in a Familiar Reference Book

"Mandarin." The Encyclopedia Americana. 1993 ed. Print.

An Introduction, a Preface, a Foreword, or an Afterword

Drabble, Margaret. Introduction. Middlemarch. By George Eliot. New

York: Bantam, 1985. vii-xvii. Print.

A Translation

Dostoevsky, Feodor. Crime and Punishment. Trans. Jessie Coulson. Ed.

George Gibian. New York: Norton, 1964. Print.

A Second or Subsequent Edition

Feuer, Jane. The Hollywood Musical. 2nd ed. Bloomington: Indiana UP,

1993. Print.

A Multivolume Work

Lauter, Paul, et al., eds. The Heath Anthology of American

Literature. 2nd ed. 2 vols. Lexington: Heath, 1994. Print.

A Republished Book

Atwood, Margaret. Surfacing. 1972. New York: Fawcett, 1987. Print.

An Unpublished Dissertation

Sakala, Carol. "Maternity Care Policy in the United States: Toward a

More Rational and Effective System." Diss. Boston U, 1993.

Print.

52

A Work (Article, Essay, Short Story, or Poem) in an Anthology

Wright, Louis B. "Human Comedy in Early America." The Comic

Imagination in American Literature. Ed. Louis D. Rubin. New

Brunswick: Rutgers UP, 1973. 17-31. Print.

An Article in a Journal

Baum, Rosalie Murphy. "Alcoholism and Family Abuse in Maggie and The

Bluest Eye." Mosaic 19.3 (Summer 1986: 91-105. Print.

An Article in a Newspaper

Manegold, Catherine S. "Becoming a Land of the Smoke-Free, Ban by

Ban." New York Times 22 Mar. 1994, late ed.: A1+. Print.

An Article in a Magazine

Murphy, Cullen. "Women and the Bible." Atlantic Monthly Aug. 1993:

39-64. Print.

An Article on a CD-ROM

"Brontë, Emily." Discovering Authors. Vers. 1.0. CD-ROM. Detroit:

Gale, 1992. Print.

5.3 Citing Sources from the Internet

Reliability of Sources

One general word of warning concerns the scholarly seriousness and reliability of materials

found on the Internet. Since among the millions of items you can find both well-researched

articles and highly subjective speculations about authors and literary works, you should be

as selective as you are with printed sources. Digitalized versions of monographs, essays,

etc. as they can be found in databases such as Google Book Search or JSTOR need to be

documented as such.

53

List of Works Cited

1. Name of the author, compiler, director, editor, narrator, performer, or translator of the

work; 2. title of the work; 3. title of the overall Web site if distinct from item 2; 4. version of

edition used; 5. publisher or sponsor of the site (if not available, use n.p.); 6. date of

publication (if nothing is available, use n.d.); 7. medium of publication: Web; 8. date of

access.

Cite as much information as is available.

Only include the URL if the reader would not be able to find the Web site without it. Place

the URL at the end of the entry and enclose it in angle brackets <> followed by a period.

A Work Cited Only on the Web

"Fresco Painting." Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. 2002.

Encyclopaedia Britannica, n.d. Web. 8 May 2002.

Antin, David. Interview by Charles Bernstein. Dalkey Archive Press.

Dalkey Archive P, n.d. Web. 21 Aug 2007.

Eaves, Morris, Robert Essick, and Jospeh Viscome, eds. The William

Blake Archive. Lib. Of Cong., 8 May 2008. Web. 15 May 2008.

A Work on the Web Cited with Print Publication Data

Cascardi, Anthony J. Ideologies of History on the Spanish Golden

Age. University Park: Pennsylvania State UP, 1997. Penn State

Romance Studies. Web. 12 May 2007.

A Scholarly Journal

Armstrong, Grace. Rev. of Fortune’s Faces: The Roman de la Rose and

the Poetics of Contingency, by Daniel Heller-Roazen. Bryn Mawr

Review of Comparative Literature 6.1 (2007): n.pag. Web. 5

June 2008.

A Periodical Publication in an Online Database

54

Tolson, Nancy. “Making Books Available: The Role of Early Libraries,

Librarians, and Booksellers in the Promotion of African

American Children’s Literature.” African American Review 32.1

(1998): 9-16. JSTOR. Web. 5 June 2008.

Parenthetical (In-Text) Citation

For Internet sources, use parenthetical (in-text) citations, just as you would for traditional

print and non-print sources. Most electronically accessed work is not paginated. Thus, for

most electronic works, you may have only an author's last name.

At least one account of the life of Mary Shelley depicts a child who

was "treated as if she were born beneath a lucky star" (Bridges).

K. W. Bridges's investigation of the life of Mary Shelley reveals a

child who "was treated as a unique individual."

5.4 Other Sources

For all other cases, such as sites found through Gopher, ftp (File Transfer Protocol), Telnet

sites, synchronous Communications (MUD [Multi-User Dungeon], MOO [Object-Oriented

MUD,], IRC [Internet Relay Chat], etc.), e-mail Communications, online databases, or CD

ROMs, access http://webster.commnet.edu/mla/online.htm.

6. Bibliography

Modern Language Association. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. 7th ed. New

York: MLA, 2009. Print.

Kruse, Otto. Keine Angst vor dem leeren Blatt: Ohne Schreibblockaden durchs Studium.

Frankfurt: Campus, 2012. Print.

55

7. Appendices

Appendix 1: Some Useful Verbs and Phrases

maintain, illustrate, demonstrate

emphasize, highlight

scrutinize, investigate, examine

accordingly, as a result, consequently, subsequently, in conclusion, therefore, hence, thus, in this way, likewise

besides, furthermore, moreover, even more, what is more, in addition, first(ly)/second(ly), etc., finally, in the first place, next, then, also

still, nevertheless, nonetheless, however, now, even so

for example, for instance, similarly, in other words, that is, specifically

on the contrary, on the one hand, on the other hand, conversely, instead, otherwise

as a matter of fact, indeed, certainly, actually, in fact, after all

anyhow, anyway, at any rate, of course

at the same time, meanwhile

Appendix 2: Some Online Resources

1. Academic Writing

William Strunk, Jr: The Elements of Style (standard American textbook)

http://www.bartleby.com/141/index.html

Dartmouth College Composition Center:

http://www.dartmouth.edu/~compose/student/index.html

Advice on Academic Writing (University of Toronto):

http://www.utoronto.ca/writing/advise.html

Writer's Handbook (Writing Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison):

http://www.wisc.edu/writing/Handbook/handbook.html

Purdue Online Writing Lab

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/747/01/

Plagiarism

http://abacus.bates.edu/cbb/quiz/index.html

2.1 Miscellaneous but Relevant

Evaluating Internet Resources:

http://www.library.georgetown.edu/internet/eval.htm

The Heath Anthology of American Literature Online:

http://college.hmco.com/english/heath/litlink.html

Project Gutenberg: Primary Texts Online

http://promo.net/pg/

The Literary Encyclopedia

http://www.litencyc.com/index.php

56

The Literary Link (useful materials, tips and links, as well as suggestions for teachers)

http://www.theliterarylink.com

Representative Poetry Online (RPO)

http://rpo.library.utoronto.ca/display/

E-text sources

www.bartleby.com

www.bibliomania.com

Literary Terminology

http://www.virtualsalt.com/litterms.htm

American Literature

http://www.vcu.edu/engweb/eng372/sources.htm

Romanticism

http://www.rc.umd.edu/

The Poetry Resource

http://www.poetryresource.org

Etext Centre: University of Virginia Library

http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/modeng/

Postcolonial Web

http://www.postcolonialweb.org/

Victorian Web

http://www.victorianweb.org/

Basics of English Studies

http://www2.anglistik.uni-freiburg.de/intranet/englishbasics/Home01.htm

2.2. Databases:

access via U of Marburg Library website: http://www.uni-marburg.de/bis

(Digitale Bibliothek → Datenbanken → Anglistik/Amerikanistik)

Oxford Reference Online

http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/BOOK_SEARCH.html?book=t56

MLA database

http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/search?vid=2&hid=4&sid=3813353f-f8d1-4e23-95f4-

e4f702666413%40sessionmgr14

JSTOR

http://www.jstor.org/?cookieSet=1

Literary Reference Center

http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/search?vid=1&hid=119&sid=bbb5d8e8-a763-4c70-

9afe-acbda8a2a448%40sessionmgr110

Cambridge Collections Online

http://cco.cambridge.org/uid=10484/private_home

57

Appendix 3: Abbreviations Used for Documentation

bk. book

ch., chs. chapter, chapters

cf. compare (Latin confer; do not confuse with the word "see")

ed. editor, edition, edited by (eds. is used after the names of two or more editors)

e.g. for example (Latin exempli gratia; usually set off by commas)

et al. and others (Latin et alii, et aliae)

introd. introduction, introduced by

n.d. no date of publication

n.p. no place of publication; or: no publisher

n.pag. no pagination

p., pp. page, pages

qtd. quoted

rev. revised, revised by, revision; review, reviewed by

rpt. reprinted by, reprint

sec. section

trans. translator, translation, translated by

UP University Press

Appendix 4: Plagiarism

Versicherung

Ich versichere hiermit an Eides statt, dass ich die vorliegende Arbeit selbständig verfasst,

ganz oder in Teilen noch nicht als Prüfungsleistung vorgelegt und keine anderen als die

angegebenen Hilfsmittel benutzt habe.

Sämtliche Stellen der Arbeit, die benutzten Werken im Wortlaut oder dem Sinn nach

entnommen sind, habe ich durch Quellenangaben kenntlich gemacht.

Dies gilt auch für Zeichnungen, Skizzen, bildliche Darstellungen und dergleichen

sowie für Quellen aus dem Internet.

Bei Zuwiderhandlung gilt das Seminar (PS, SE etc.) als nicht bestanden – keine

Scheinvergabe.

Ich bin mir bewusst, dass es sich bei Plagiarismus um schweres akademisches

Fehlverhalten handelt, das im Wiederholungsfall weiter sanktioniert werden kann.

Marburg, den ........................................ .......................................

Datum Unterschrift

58

Confirmation of Authorship

I hereby formally declare that the work submitted is entirely my own and does not involve

any additional human assistance. I also confirm that it has not been submitted for credit

before, neither as a whole nor in part and neither by myself nor by any other person.

All quotations and paraphrases but also information and ideas that have been taken from

sources used are cited appropriately with the corresponding bibliographical references

provided. The same is true of all drawings, sketches, pictures and the like that appear in

the text, as well as of all Internet resources used.

Violation of these terms will result in failure of the seminar and no credits will be awarded.

I am aware that plagiarism is serious academic misconduct which can lead to further

sanctions on reoccurrence.

Marburg, _________________ _________________________

(Date) (Signature)

Please note that you have to copy this, you cannot simply print out the page and add

it to your paper!

59

A Short Guide to Narratology: Stanzel & Genette by Carmen Fels, M.A.

A) DISCOURSE (= in narrative texts: structure of the narrative transmission, “how” is the story

narrated?)

1. Narrative Situation (point-of-view) according to Stanzel:

authorial narrative situation: 3rd

- person narrator outside the narrated world, omniscient,

intrusive, dominance of the external perspective, appears as concrete tangible speaker,

personal interjections, comments, moral judgements, addresses the reader, flashforwards,

generalizations, thematization of the act of narration, privileges: psychological privilege of

psychological insight into internal processes of all characters, spatial privilege of invisible

and fictive omnipresence (presence at several locations simultaneously), temporal

privilege of being able to survey entire course of narrative events in the past, present,

future

first-person narrative situation: narrating I takes part in the action of the fictional world

as a character or experiencing I (=homodiegetic n.), often: temporal/moral distance

between experiencing I and narrating I, process of reflection, maturation, involvement as

protagonist (I-as-protagonist) or as a peripheral character (I-as-witness), limitations: only

internal processes, thoughts, feelings of narrating/experiencing I, no insight into other

ch.’s consciousness, must be present at the scene, not able to look into the future

figural narrative situation: 3rd

- person narrator outside story world (=heterodiegetic),

covert n. recounts the events from the perspective of a character who is involved in the

action = ‘reflector’ who functions as a medium/center of orientation, his/her

perceptions/internal processes play a central role in determining what is narrated, direct

insight into the sensory impressions and consciousness of the perceiving, thinking

character, internal perspective predominates (≠ authorial n.), 3rd

- person narrator restricts

himself to a factual representation, recedes in the background so that traces of narrative

transmission are barely noticeable,

2. Narrative Transmission according to Genette:

distinction between narration (who speaks?) and focalization (who sees?)

narrating vs. perceiving/experiencing

focalization: in contrast to categories relating to the narrator, this term refers to the

representation of the perception of the fictional world; it includes internal processes such

as thinking, feeling, remembering, sensory perception

- focalizer: subject of the focalization, center of orientation from whose perspective the

narrated world is perceived, answer to the question who sees?

- Internal vs. external focalization, multiple, variable focalization, multiperspectivity

Focalization: who sees?

- external, internal focalization

- fixed, variable, multiple

- monologic, dialogic structures of perspective

- how are the thoughts, feelings, words mediated? (report, indirect discourse, free

indirect discourse, interior monologue)

- distance (1st person shortens distance)

- tone: attitude of the speaker toward what is being said

60

- focalizer: psychological centre of orientation through whose perception and

consciousness the fictional events are filtered = LENS

levels of communication according to Genette:

- extradiegetic level/narrator: n. is located on the level of the narrative transmission,

not part of the fictional world

- intradiegetic level/narrator: n. is a character who is part of the narrated story/world;

located on the level of the story

- heterodiegetic narrator: n. is located outside the narrated world

- homodiegetic narrator: narrator appears as a character within his own story

- autodiegetic narrator: a homodiegetic narrator who is identical with the main

protagonist and narrates his/her own life story, instead of being just a witness or an

observer

overt narrator: or explicit n. = n. appears on the level of the narrative transmission as an

individualized speaker/concrete persona

→ reader is encouraged to attribute personal characteristics and value

judgements to such a speaker

covert narrator (neutrales Erzählmedium): n. who recounts the action in a detached and

factual manner, who is not presented as an individualized speaker

→ his role is restricted to the basic narrative functions (recounting the action and

supplying deictic information concerning place, time, and characters), common in the

figural narrative situation

reliable vs. unreliable narration

- general: degree of reliability, credibility, trustworthiness

- unreliable: n. is compromised by his/her limited knowledge, emotional involvement,

questionable norms/values, contradictions, contradiction between self-characterization

and characterizations by other characters

B) STORY ( = chronological sequence of narrated events, “what” is narrated?)

1. 4 factors which influence the behaviour of the character and thus the development of the

action:

1. abilities

2. needs

3. motivation

4. intention

2. construction/conception of characters

- personification/representative vs. type/individual

- flat or round

- static or dynamic

- transparent or opaque (solid)

- fully explained, closed

- plot agents: hero, helper, villain, donor

- archetypes

- individual vs. type

61

3. How are characters designed?

- telling names etc.?

- character perspective → 3 major factors regarding view of reality:

knowledge

psychological disposition

values and norms

- imitation or role?

- manner and timing of entrances, exits

- PHYSIOGNOMY: judging a character by his/her (facial) features, appearance; the act of

discovering temperament/character from outward appearance

- body language

- characteristic vocal quality

- do words agree with acts?

- which particular places do characters belong to?

- figural vs. authorial characterization

- implicit vs. explicit characterization

- internal vs. external activities

- language:

a. syntax (simple style, complex style, paratactic, hypotactic)

b. diction (colloquial, hard words, archaic, dialect)

4. Character Constellation

- dynamic structure = their relationships, conflict potential

- irreconcilable motives (leads to climax)

- positive traits juxtaposed with a villain (opposition between protagonist and antagonist)

- changing of constellation (groups vs. individuals, pairs)

5. Imagery & Atmosphere

- leitmotif

- metaphor

- symbols

- personification

- ambiguity

- similes

- etc.

6. Setting: Time and Place Where does the story take place?

- single or multiple setting

- objective location, perceived atmosphere

- internal space vs. external space (subjective mind, private home vs. world outside)

- social, political, cultural spaces

- symbolic function

When does the story take place?

- conceptions of time: subjective experience of time (‘mind time’) vs. external, ‘clock’ time =

are there any discrepancies, privileging subjective time (e.g. Faulkner, Woolf)?

- historical/social/socio-economic/political background

7. Structure:

- chronological/logical or anachronic order?

- discourse time vs. story time

- flashbacks (analepsis)

- flashforwards (prolepsis)

- retrospection

- linear, circular, fragmentary

62

- relationship between internal and external action

Sources:

Nünning, Ansgar, and Vera Nünning. An Introduction to the Study of English and American

Literature. Trans. Jane Dewhurst. Stuttgart: Klett, 2004. Print.

Fielitz, Sonja. Roman: Text & Kontext. Berlin: Cornelsen, 2001. Print.

Jahn, Manfred. Narratology: A Guide to the Theory of Narrative. English Department, University of

Cologne, 2005. Web. August 10, 2012.

“Typenkreis“ (Franz K. Stanzel):

Source: Stanzel, F. K. Theorie des Erzählens. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1979. Print.

63

Guiding Strategies and Questions for a Systematic Analysis of Dramatic

Texts by Carmen Fels, M.A.

1. Structure: Primary Text / Secondary Text a) Which forms of epic communication fulfil which functions?

1) Significance of title

2) secondary text (all text which is not part of dialogue): demarcation of acts and

scenes, title, dedications, prefaces, list of dramatis personae etc.

3) Narration: inclusion of narrative (story) elements, narrative frame

4) Comments in stage directions (gestures, facial expressions)

Epic narrator/narration (outside play, introduces, mediates)

Dramatic introduction = serves to establish a communication channel, contact

between the stage and the audience, awaken interest,

acclimatize it to atmosphere of the play (phatic function,

i.e. establish connection, contact)

Exposition = information of events preceding the action, introduction to time and

place of action, characters (referential function, i.e.

providing information)

5) monological speech : Aside, soliloquy etc.

b) THEATER CODES and SIGNS = Semiotics of Theatre (the study of signs and codes of

theatre communication)

1) verbal or non-verbal signs, codes (related to actors or not?)

2) acoustic and optical or visual signs, codes

3) durative (constant) or non durative (temporary) codes

2. Verbal / Non-verbal Modes of Communication / Norms of Co-

operative Communication

Analyzing dramatic language

1. Content (what)

2. Manner (how)

3. Function (why)

Norms of co-operative

communication help to

understand dramatic speech:

speakers should respect each

other and tell the truth, give

adequate amount of information

The intentional violation of these rules in a dialogue

reveals incompetence, alienation, domination, deception

It matters how long, how often someone speaks = quantity

of speeches, entrances Who interrupts whom how often

Dominant characters are given more, longer speeches in

order to reveal their individual complexity, social power,

prominence as agents

64

a) Monologue, soliloquy, aside

function:

1) Familiarize audience w/ atmosphere, description of surroundings, scenery

2) Providing of expository information about preceding events

3) Introducing/commenting on the action, characters, spatial, temporal context

4) Introducing the protagonist, his/her self-characterization

5) Confession, divulgence of innermost feelings

6) Informs the audience about character’s thought, plans, feelings

7) Explicit self-commentary

8) Conclusions concerning his or her own values, norms, personality traits

9) Revealing innermost feelings, conflicts, internal processes

10) Disclosing speakers plans

11) reason? → conceive, intrigue, plan

Distinction :

- soliloquy: ch. alone on stage, or regardless of any hearers, divulgence of innermost

feelings, high degree of subjectivity, unreliable

- monologue: ch. speaks alone, but in the explicit presence of others, Selbstgespräch,

high degree of subjectivity, unreliable

- Aside: ch. addresses audience, reader directly

b) Dialogue

function:

1. sets action in motion

2. ensure progression of action

3. central devise for characterization

4. medium for conflict

5. serve as a clarification of opinions

6. expounding of central themes

Aspects that are crucial for analysis:

= succession of remarks and counter remarks between two or more characters

addressed to an interlocutor on stage

exchange of thoughts, opinions, discussion of topic, plot or intrigue

as an indicator for ch.’s position, hierarchy, rank

length

distribution of speech time (dominant character vs. weak ch.)

linearity

interruption? = sign for malfunctioning, problematical communication?

Relationships between utterances of one figure and other? (quality, quantity)

Logical coherence? = logical reaction to previous utterances by other ch.?

Who says what to whom in which way for which reason?

How do figures characterize themselves/others?

Direct vs. indirect characterization through content, manner, style

What do utterances aim at?

Exchange of information

65

Retrospectives

Foreshadowing

Negotiation

Planning, performing action

How do perspectives relate to each other?

3. Characters and Action: Dramatis personae

a) 4 factors which influence the behavior of the character and thus the development of the

action: 1) abilities (skills, talents, capabilities)

2) needs (requirements, desires, wishes)

3) motivation (drives, inspirations, impulses)

4) intention (aims, objectives, (secret) plans)

b) construction/conception of characters

- personification/representative vs. type/individual

- flat or round

- static or dynamic

- transparent or opaque (solid)

- fully explained, closed

- plot agents: hero, helper, villain, donor

- archetypes (basic models from which copies are made: the rebel, Don Juan, hero,

snob, social climber, femme fatale=

- individual vs. type

c) How are characters designed?

- Stage directions

- Telling names etc.? ( → Blanche DuBois = white from the woods)

- entrances and exits

- character perspective → 3 major factors regarding view of reality:

1. knowledge

2. psychological disposition

3. values and norms

- imitation or role?

- Manner and timing of entrances, exits

- PHYSIOGNOMY: judging a character by his/her features, appearance; the act of

discovering temperament/character from outward appearance

- Body language

- Characteristic vocal quality

- Do words agree with acts?

- Which particular places do characters belong to?

- figural vs. authorial characterization (information conveyed by author or character)

- implicit vs. explicit characterization (direct statements or audience has to draw own

conclusions)

d) Character Constellation

1) dynamic structure = their relationships, conflict potential

2) irreconcilable motives (leads to climax)

66

3) positive traits juxtaposed with a villain (opposition between protagonist and

antagonist)

4) changing of constellation (groups vs. individuals, pairs)

e) Imagery & Atmosphere - leitmotif

- metaphor

- Symbols

- Personification

- Ambiguity

- Similes

- etc.

4. Representation of Place and Time

a) Where does the story take place? 1) Aristotle: unity of time, place, action?

2) Or: open temporal and spatial structure (setting changes frequently, time is not

restricted to one day)

3) Single setting

4) Objective location, perceived atmosphere

5) Social, political, cultural spaces, boundaries

6) Symbolic function (mirror)

7) crossing of boundaries between locations?

8) “word-scenery” (attempts to engage audience’s imagination by describing location

[props] or imaginary figures [ghosts])

b) When is the story set? How is time conceived?

1) Objective vs. subjective measure of time

2) Linear, cyclical, inverted, achronic

3) foreshadowing, flashbacks, pauses, ellipses

4) actual performance time vs. fictional time

5. General Considerations

Impact on audience:

estrangement

catharsis

How does the form correspond to topics?

How does performance realize/interpret play?

How does the drama relate to its cultural context?

Sources:

Nünning, Ansgar, and Vera Nünning. An Introduction to the Study of English and American

Literature. Trans. Jane Dewhurst. Stuttgart: Klett, 2004. Print.

Fielitz, Sonja. Roman: Text & Kontext. Berlin: Cornelsen, 2001. Print.

Jahn, Manfred. Narratology: A Guide to the Theory of Narrative. English Department, University of

Cologne, 2005. Web. August 10, 2012.