study on nutrient composition of millets … are the machines that are usually utilized to clean...
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STUDY ON NUTRIENT COMPOSITION OF MILLETS AND
WAYS TO MINIMIZE LOSS DURING PROCESSING AND
VALUE ADDITION
PROJECT COMPLETION REPORT
Submitted to Agricultural Policy Planning
State Planning Commission
Government of Tamil Nadu
Post Harvest Technology Centre
Agricultural Engineering College and Research Institute
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University
Coimbatore - 641 003
Tamil Nadu
1. Name and title of the scheme :
Study on nutrient composition of millets and ways to minimize loss during processing and value addition.
2. Location : Post Harvest Technology Centre,
Agriculture Engineering College & Research Institute,
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore - 3.
3.
4.
Name and Designation of the Project Leader
Project leader
Co-PI
Duration of the scheme :
Dr.D.Malathi,
Professor (Food Science & Nutrition)
Post Harvest Technology Centre
TNAU, Coimbatore-3
1. Dr.NVaradharaju,
Professor and Head,
Post Harvest Technology Centre
TNAU, Coimbatore-3
2. Dr. G.Gurumeenakshi
Assistant Professor
Post Harvest Technology Centre
TNAU, Coimbatore-3
01-06-2014 to 30-11-2014 (Six Months)
CONTENTS
SL.NO. TITLE PAGE NO.
1. INTRODUCTION 1
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS 5
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 11
4. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 65
5. WAY FORWARD 66
6. REFERENCES 67
1. INTRODUCTION
Millets are one of the oldest foods known to humans & possibly the first cereal
grain to be used for domestic purposes”. It is a cereal crop plant belonging to the grass
family Graminae. The term millet refers to several types of small seeded annual grasses
that belong to the species under five genera namely, Panicum, Setaria, Echinocloa,
Pennisetum and Paspalum in the tribe Paniceae and one genus Eleusine, in the tribe
Chlorideae. The origin of millet is diverse with varieties coming from both Asia and
Africa. Millets have been main staples of the people of semi-arid tropics of Asia and
Africa for centuries where other crops do not grow well. They have been cultivated since
time immemorial. There are around 6,000 varieties of millet grown throughout the world.
The origin and common names of millets are as follows.
Table 1.1 Origins and common names of millets
Crop Common names Origin Sorghum bicolor Sorghum, great millet, guinea corn,
kafir corn, aura, mtama, jowar, cholam. kaoliang, milo, milo-maize
Northeast region of Africa (Ethiopia-Sudan border)
Pennisetumglaucum Pearl millet, cumbu, spiked millet, bajra, bulrush millet, candle millet, dark millet
Tropical West Africa
Setariaitalica
Foxtail millet, Thenai, Italian millet, German millet, Hungarian millet, Siberian millet
Eastern Asia (China)
Panicumsumatrense Little millet, Samai Southeast Asia Paspalumscrobiculatum Kodo millet, Varagu India Panicummiliaceum
Proso millet, common millet, hog millet, broom-corn millet, Russian millet, brown corn, Panivaragu
Central and Eastern Asia
Echinochloa crus-galli and Echinochloa colona
Barnyard millet, sawa millet, Japanese barnyard millet, Kudhiraivali
Japan
Eleusinecoracana Finger millet, African millet, koracan, ragi, wimbi, bulo, telebun, Ragi
Uganda or neighboring region
Sources: 1) FAO, 1995 2) Rai et al., 2006
1
Millets need very little inputs for their sustenance and require only 25% of the water
consumed by crops such as sugarcane and banana. Millets do not demand rich soils for their
survival and growth; they can even grow on skeletal soils that are less than 15 cm deep.
They can grow well with the use of farmyard manures and household produced bio fertilisers
as nutrients, so usage of synthetic fertilizers are avoided. They can also be termed as pest free
crops since they are not attacked by pests during their growth or storage.
All these extraordinary qualities of millet farming system make them the climate
change compliant crops. Climate change portends less rain, more heat, reduced water
availability and increased malnutrition. If there is any cropping system that can withstand
these challenges, survive and flourish, it is the millet system. In spite of all these
extraordinary qualities and capacities of millet farming systems, the area under millet
production has been shrinking over the last five decades and rapidly after the green
revolution period. Between 1966 and 2006, 44% of millet cultivation areas were occupied
by other crops signifying an extraordinary loss to India’s food and farming systems.
The distribution of millets in India, trends in the distribution of area, production and
productivity of small millets in India are presented below.
Millet grains account for about one sixth of the total food grain production hold
an important place in the food grain economy of India. The millet production is shared by
South and East Asia (about 60%), Eurasia and Central Asia (14%), Africa (16%) and rest
of the World (10%). India is the largest producer of millet grains, producing about
33-37% of a total of 28 million tonnes of the world produce. Finger millet constituted
about 81 per cent of the minor millets produced in India and the rest by kodo millet,
foxtail millet and little millet. (Pradhanet al., 2010). The world total production of millet
grains at last count was 762712 metric tons and the top producer was India with an
annual production of 334500 tons (43.85%) (FAO, 2012).
Millets are highly nutritious, non glutinous and non-acid forming foods. Hence
they are soothing and easy to digest. They are considered to be the least allergenic and
most digestible grains available. Millets contain about 8 per cent protein and 4 per cent
fat. They are rich source of vitamins and minerals. Millets are especially rich in calcium.
The dietary carbohydrate content of millets is also relatively high. Although a
2
considerable portion of nutrients is concentrated in the seed coat, the bioavailability of
the nutrients present in the endosperm is higher than the seed coat nutrients. Anti-
nutritional factors such as phytate and polyphenols are also present in millets but they are
mostly confined to the seed coat and the milled millets are generally free from the
anti-nutritional factors. (Kumar, 2010)
Due to urbanization, increase in health awareness and buying capacity among city
dwellers, the demand for processed and convenience foods have increased drastically.
Millets are much cheaper, but they have to be properly processed for further usage.
About 50 million Indians suffer from diabetes, 15% of the Indian population are obese and
India ranks 128th among all the mal-nutrition countries. Hence, there is a need to educate people
about the health and nutritional benefits of millets to increase the consumption of millets and
millet based products to save people from health and malnutrition related issues.
The outer tough seed coat and the characteristic flavour associated with these millets
(Malleshi, 1989), cultural attachments and the non-availability of processed products similar
to rice or wheat (Malleshi and Hadimani, 1993) are the main reasons why they are less
popular among rice and wheat eaters. Small millets are well protected in glume encasements,
hence the conversion of the grain to rice and other forms are time consuming and laborious.
Unavailability of technologies, poor marketing facilities, unstable supplies and relative
unavailability of millets and its products, including flour, when compared with other popular
grains. Presently, machines to process millets are unavailable and hence the machines
utilized to process paddy are being used for processing millets. Machines suitable for
processing millet grains to be developed urgently to revive millets and address issues related
to food and nutritional security. Minor millets in particular could be in great demand in the
future if the technology for specific industrial uses is developed. While wheat and rice might
provide only food security, millets produce multiple securities (food, fodder, health, nutrition,
livelihood and ecological) making them the crops of agricultural security.
Precleaning, grading and dehulling are the basic unit operations involved in
conversion of millets into millet rice. The precleaners viz., destoners, aspirators and
graders are the machines that are usually utilized to clean grains. These machines are
already available for the precleaning of paddy. They can be utilized by fine tuning them
to suit cleaning of millets. The machine that has to be skilfully developed is the dehuller.
3
Dehulling is the process of removing the outer husk from the grains. It is a vital
process for obtaining rice and for further processing of grains. Unique dehullers based on
their engineering properties are to be manufactured for millets. Usually dehulling is done
by attrition, abrasion or impact hullers. Most of the hullers available work on the
principles of attrition or abrasion while impact hullers are rarely used nowadays. While
hulling with attrition or abrasive type hullers, the grains get polished and there is a
considerable loss in nutrients due to the removal of the bran layer, whereas it is not so in
impact type dehullers, since there is no rubbing involved during the process.
Value added products from millets have the potential to add value to business and
has a large potential for growth as consumers believe that millets and millet based foods
contribute good, directly to their health. By increasing the consumption of millets,
farmers in dry land areas will be encouraged to grow crops that are best suited for those
regions. This is a step forward towards sustainable cropping practices where by
introducing diversity in our diets, we respect the biodiversity in nature rather than
forcefully changing cropping patterns to grow wheat and rice everywhere.
Though millets are cultivated in small scale compared to the popular type of food
grains, loses both at field level and processing level are alarming – upto 15%. Being the
crops cultivated in small areas and in small qualities, incurring loss will further reduce
the quantity available. Thus appropriate steps for reducing the losses is the requirement
and the information on the losses and the methods of reducing losses are required to plan
the strategies by the policy makers. Under this situation this study was taken up with the
following objectives:
OBJECTIVES
1. To compile the information available on the nutritional composition of different
millets and products, and to determine the nutritional profile of the newer products.
2. To assess post-harvest losses in the stage of processing, storage, etc., for the
millets.
3. To identify the areas of post-harvest losses and methods to prevent the losses
during post-harvest and processing of millets.
4
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
PART –I
NUTRIENT ANALYSIS AND VALUE ADDITION OF MILLETS
2.1. MATERIALS
2.1.1. Millets
The different varieties of millets were collected from the sites where millets are
grown predominantly in Tamil Nadu. The millets namely Sorghum and Pearl millet and
small millets namelykodo millet,little millet, foxtail millet, finger millet and barnyard
millet varieties were selected for the study based on their popularity, nutritional
characteristics and other specific characteristics. All the other ingredients needed for the
standardization of value added products were purchased from the local market.
2.1.2. Packaging materials
Poly Propylene (PP) pouches with 70 gauge, 100 gauge thickness and plastic
containers were purchased from the local dealer.
2.1.3. Chemicals
The chemicals with analytical reagent (AR) or laboratory reagent (LR) or
guaranteed reagent (GR) grade were used for analysis.
2.1.4. Equipment
The equipments available in the University were used in the present investigation
for the development of value added millet products.
1. Processing equipments
TNAU model double chamber dehuller and pulverizer
2. Dough mixing equipments
Flour sifter (M/S Sheet Master, CBE), Spiral kneader (M/S Sheet Master, CBE), Bread moulder (M/S Sheet Master, CBE)
3. Baking equipments and other cooking utensils
Rotary rack oven-Diesel operated (M/S Sheet Master, CBE), Baking oven (Memmert model 854, Schwabach, West Germany), Bread slicer (M/S Sheet Master, CBE) Stainless steel vessels, Mixer grinder, etc.,
5
4. Storage commodity Refrigerator (Godrej)
5. Texture analyzer Texture analyzer (TA-XT2i, Stable Micro Systems, Surrey, UK), Hunter Lab Colour Flex (Hunter Associates Laboratory Inc., Model: 450/00,Reston, Virgina, USA 20190, 471-6870)
6. Packing equipment Sealing machine (Preethi)
7. Weighing equipments Avery balance (2 kg capacity), Electronic balance (Shimadzu BL-120-H)
8. Analytical equipments
Sedimentation shaker (Muhlenbau sedimentation shaker, Model: 189, Peenya Industrial Area, Bangalore), Moisture meter (Model:RSMA 2, Rajdhani Scientific Instt. Co, New Delhi), Centrifuge (Universal model:11), Kjeldahl digestion mantle (Gerhardt), Soxhlet extraction apparatus (Pisces Instruments, Chennai), Muffle furnance (Gambak make, UK), Hot air oven (Narang Scientific company, India), U.V. Spectrophotometer (Varian, USA), Spectronic 20 (Bosch and Lamb, USA), Laminar air flow chamber, Water activity meter (HygroPalm AW1 (Cole Parmer A-37910-35, Huntington, New York, USA), Sedimentation shaker (Muhlenbau sedimentation shaker, Model: 189).
2.2. METHODS
2.2.1. EVALUATION OF DIFFERENT MILLETS VARIETIES FOR THEIR
NUTRITIONALVALUES AND CONSUMPTION QUALITIES
Collection of different millet varieties
Initially the project aimed in identifying the millet growing areas in Tamil Nadu,
with the help of agricultural officers, BDOs and farmers. The scheme officers and the
research fellows interacted with the local people and the farmers to identify the
commonly grown millets in the particular locality. Finally seven districts were chosen for
the study based on the availability of millet growing areas. The project sites include:
Mudukulathur, Paramakudi, Kadaladi, Kamuthi, and R.S.Mangalam blocks in
Ramanathapuram district, Anjetty block in Krishnagiri district, Peraiyur block in Madurai
district, Jawathu hills /Jamunamarrathoor in Thiruvannamalai district, Thalavadi in Erode
district, Annur block in Coimbatore district and Kolli hills in Namakkal district.
The research fellows interacted with the farmers and collected samples of the commonly
6
grown millet varieties. The major millets namely sorghum and pearl millet and small
millets namely kodo millet, little millet, foxtail millet, finger millet and barnyard millet
varieties were selected for the study based on their popularity and analyzed for their
nutritional characteristics and other specific characters.
The Project areas of Tamil Nadu involved in the study are given below
Name of the district Name of the block No. of villages No. of farmers
Coimbatore Annur 3 15
Madurai Peraiyur 10 50
Thiruvannamalai Jamunamarathoor 6 30
Krishnagiri Anjetty 6 30
Ramanathapuram Mudukulathur, Paramakudi, Kadaladi, Kamuthi, and R.S.Mangalam
5 30
Erode Thalavadi 3 15
Namakkal Kolli hills 3 30
Screening of millet varieties
The millet varieties collected from the seven project sites were evaluated for their
nutritional characteristics and analysed for their suitability for the standardization of
products.
Nutritional characteristics of the millet varieties
The chemical composition of the millet varieties was analyzed. The nutrients like
moisture, crude protein, carbohydrate, fat, crude fibre, calcium, iron and tannin were
analyzed. The procedure adopted is given below.
7
Parameters Methods References
Moisture Hot air oven method Ranganna (1995)
Carbohydrate Phenol sulphuric acid method
Dubois et al, (1956)
Crude Protein Micro kjelplus method AOAC, (1980) and Ma andZuazaga, (1942)
Fat Solvent extraction AOAC, (1980) and Cohen, (1917)
Crude fibre Acid and alkali digestion Sadasivam&Manickam (1996)
Ash Muffle furnace - dry ashing
AOAC, (1980)
Calcium Titration AOAC, (1980) and Clark andCollip, (1925)
Iron Colorimetric method AOAC, (1980) and Wong, (1928)
Tannin Colorimetric method Sadasivam and Manickam (1996)
2.2.2 VALUE ADDED MILLET PRODUCTS
PROCESSING OF MILLETS
The best suited millet varieties for the development of value added products
were selected based on their nutrient content. The grains were cleaned to remove the
dust, dirt, chaff and stones by winnowing and sieving. The cleaned grains were sun
dried by spreading uniformly for 5 - 6 hours. Conditioning of the grains was done by
adding water at the rate of 50 ml/Kg to the dried grains and mixed well. The moistened
grains were kept in an airtight stainless steel drum for 3hrs, at room temperature, so that
uniform moisture migration takes place which enables the loosening of husk. The
conditioned grains were pearled and dried in sun for 6 - 8 hours. The dried grains were
then pulverized to obtain flour.
DEVELOPMENT OF VALUE ADDED MILLET PRODUCTS
Traditional foods
Millet based value added foods were standardized including breakfast recipes,
sweet and snack recipes based on traditional methods replacing rice and wheat. Breakfast
recipes like Idli, Dosa, Idiappam, Rotti, Pittu, Upma, Vermicelli, Adai, Porridge, Khakra
and Chappathi. Sweets like Halwa, Leaf kolukattai, Adhirasam, Kesari, Nutritious ball,
8
Kheer and sweet Paniyaram. Snack items like Vadai, Pakoda, Ribbon pakoda, Omapodi,
Murukku, Thattu vadai, hot kolukattai and Vadagam. All the above recipes were
developed with millets replacing rice flour and other cereal grains. The products were
standardized and evaluated for their sensory attributes by a panel of trained members
using a nine point Hedonic scale. The developed products were evaluated for their quality
and nutritional attributes like moisture, energy, protein, fat, fibre, calcium and iron
content using standard procedures.
Bakery Products
Millets were incorporated in different variations from 30% to 50% level to develop
and standardize bread, cake, cookies, soup sticks and khari.
Pasta products
For millets to be competitive with important cereal foods, preprocessed or
alternative millet based foods are required. Vermicelli, noodles and Macaroni were
prepared from refined wheat flour and blending with millets in various proportions
(10, 20, 30, 40 and 50%). The developed products were packed in different packaging
materials. The samples were analyzed for their nutrient content and sensory attributes
using a score card with 9 point hedonic rating scale.
Flaked and popped products
For millets to be competitive with important cereal foods, preprocessed or
alternative millet based foods are required. Millet grains were flaked and popped using
flaking and popping machines to obtain different products. The flaked millets were used
in the standardization of boli, bar, sweet and hot upma. The popped millets were used in
standardization of upma, sweet balls, masala popped, bhelpur and cheeiam.
Instant Food Mixes
Millets were used for the standardization of instant food mixes.
9
Instant food mixes from millet flour
Breakfast recipes Sweet recipes Snack recipes
Health mix Halwa mix Murukku mix
Dosa mix Kesari mix Thattuvadai mix
Paniyaram mix Payasam mix Ribbon pakoda mix
Adai mix Ravaladdu mix Omapodi mix
Ravauppuma mix Kolukattai mix Samosa mix
Idiyappam mix vadagam
Rotti mix, Vada mix
Macaroni, Vermicelli
Quick cooking millet mixes
The preparation of quick cooking millets using pearled varieties of millet grains
was standardized. The process of preparation of quick cooking millets was developed.
The pearled grains were partially cooked for 50% of the conventional cooking time and
dried. The partially cooked grain was used for the preparation of quick cooking mixes.
The recipes were standardized and evaluated for their shelf life.
Bisibelabath mix, Puliyotharai mix, Mushroom Pulav mix, Tomato mix, Ravakitchadi
mix, Biriyani mix, Vangibath mix, Pongal mix, Coriander leaves mix and Mint mix.
SENSORY EVALUATION
In the present study, nine point hedonic scale rating was used to assess the
organolepticcharacteristics of the value added products from millets.
COST ANALYSIS
The cost of the developed products was analyzed systematically.
10
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION OF MILLETS Sl
. No.
Mill
ets
Prot
ein(
g)
Fat(
g)
CH
O(g
)
Ene
rgy
(K.c
al)
Cru
de F
ibre
(g)
Cal
cium
(mg)
Iron
(mg)
Thi
amin
e (m
g)
Rib
ofla
vin
(mg)
1. Rice 6.40 0.40 79.00 346.00 0.20 9.00 1.00 0.21 0.05
2. Wheat 11.80 1.50 71.20 346.00 1.20 41.00 5.30 0.45 0.17
3. Finger millet 7.30 1.30 72.00 328.00 3.60 344.00 3.90 0.42 0.19
4. Little millet 7.70 4.70 67.00 341.00 7.60 17.00 9.30 0.30 0.09
5. Kodo millet 8.30 1.40 65.90 309.00 9.00 27.00 0.50 0.33 0.09
6. Foxtail millet 12.30 4.30 60.90 331.00 8.00 31.00 2.80 0.59 0.11
7. Proso millet 12.50 1.10 70.40 341.00 2.20 14.00 0.80 0.20 0.18
8. Barnyard millet 6.20 2.20 65.50 307.00 9.80 20.00 5.00 0.33 0.10
9. Sorghum 10.40 1.90 72.60 349.00 1.60 25.00 4.10 0.37 0.13
10. Pearl millet 11.60 5.00 67.50 361.00 1.20 42.00 8.00 0.33 0.25
11
3.1. MILLET VARIETIES IDENTIFIED IN THE DISTRICTS OF TAMIL NADU
The millet growing areas in Tamil Nadu were identified by the scheme officers
and research fellows with the help of agricultural officers, BDOs and farmers. They
interacted with the local people and the farmers to identify the commonly grown millets.
Finally seven districts were chosen for the study based on the availability of millet
growing areas. The project sites include: Mudukulathur, Paramakudi, Kadaladi, Kamuthi,
and R.S.Mangalam blocks in Ramanathapuram district, Anjetty block in Krishnagiri
district, Peraiyur block in Madurai district, Jawathu hills / Jamunamarrathoor in
Thiruvannamalai district, Thalavadi in Erode district, Annur block in Coimbatore district
and Kolli hills in Namakkal district. The major varieties of millets grown in the above
said districts are listed below in Table 1.
Table 1. Millet varieties identified in the districts of Tamil Nadu
S.No. District Area / Village Name of millet Variety name
1. Ramanathapuram
Nallur Barnyard millet
Vall – kudiraivali, Kattaikudiraivali
Muthukulathur Barnyard millet
Vallkudiraivali
Paranur Finger millet
Saradharagi
Puthenthal
Finger millet
Saradhakeppai, Muttikeppai, Kaalakeppai
2.
Erode
Nanjaiuthukuli
Sorghum
Kakkasolam, muthusolam, sensolam, irumbusolam, sivapusolam.
Nanjaiuthukuli
Pearl millet
Perunkambu, nattukambu, nada kambu, motchakambu, pachaikambu
Nanjaiuthukuli Little millet
Pei samai, karupusamai, nanjansamai
Nanjaiuthukuli Foxtail millet
Senthinai, rose thinai, perunthinai, koraali
Nanjaiuthukuli Kodo millet
Tirivaragu
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S.No. District Area / Village Name of millet Variety name
3. Coimbatore Annur Sorghum Manjacholam Annur Pearl
millet Rawkumbu
4. Madurai Peraiyur Kodo millet
CO3,Senthazh varagu, karuvaragu, siruvaragu , uppuvaragu
Barnyard millet
Sadaikuthiraivali, M.kuthiraivali, A.kuthiraivali
5. Krishnagiri Anjetty Finger millet
Sunamani, bati, dasarabadi, mati, kalekeranga, kempuragi, pitchugaddiragi, halkuliragi, muttanragi, perunkezhvaragu, saratha
6. Thiruvannamalai Jawathu hills Little millet
Chittansamai, perunkolaisamai, vellaisamai, kalmannusamai, koluthanasamai, badasamai, kalasamai
7. Namakkal
Kolli hills Finger millet
Karunkuzhiyan, sundaangi, sattai, kaarakelvaragu,Perunkelvaragu, arisikelvaragu, kaungelvaragu
Kolli hills Foxtail millet
Paalanthinai, senthinai, mookanthinai, perunthinai
Kolli hills Little millet
Trigulasamai, perunsamai, kottaipattisamai, Sadansamai, malliyasamai
Kolli hills Kodo millet
Tirivaragu.
The above said millet varieties were identified to be grown by the farmers in the
districts of Tamil Nadu. Based on their availability, the millets samples were collected
from the project sites by the research fellows from the farmers of the locality and
analyzed for their nutrient content.The nutritionally rich millet varieties were taken up
for the standardization of value added products.
13
NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION OF MILLETS( per 100g) Sl
. No.
Mill
ets
Prot
ein(
g)
Fat(
g)
CH
O(g
)
Ene
rgy
(K.c
al)
Cru
de F
ibre
(g
)
Cal
cium
(mg)
Iron
(mg)
Thi
amin
e (m
g)
Rib
ofla
vin
(mg)
1. Rice 6.40 0.40 79.00 346.00 0.20 9.00 1.00 0.21 0.05
2. Wheat 11.80 1.50 71.20 346.00 1.20 41.00 5.30 0.45 0.17
3. Finger millet 7.30 1.30 72.00 328.00 3.60 344.00 3.90 0.42 0.19
4. Little millet 7.70 4.70 67.00 341.00 7.60 17.00 9.30 0.30 0.09
5. Kodo millet 8.30 1.40 65.90 309.00 9.00 27.00 0.50 0.33 0.09
6. Foxtail millet 12.30 4.30 60.90 331.00 8.00 31.00 2.80 0.59 0.11
7. Proso millet 12.50 1.10 70.40 341.00 2.20 14.00 0.80 0.20 0.18
8. Barnyard millet 6.20 2.20 65.50 307.00 9.80 20.00 5.00 0.33 0.10
9. Sorghum 10.40 1.90 72.60 349.00 1.60 25.00 4.10 0.37 0.13
10. Pearl millet 11.60 5.00 67.50 361.00 1.20 42.00 8.00 0.33 0.25
The nutritional composition of the millets is compared with that of rice and
wheat. The protein content of foxtail millet, proso millet and pearl millet are
comparatively higher than the protein content in wheat. Pearl millet is high in fat content
(5.00 g /100g). The carbohydrate content of small millets are lesser than that of rice and
wheat. The carbohydrate content ranges between 307.00g to 361.00g per 100g of grains.
The fibre content of kodo, little, foxtail and barnyard millet is higher. Finger millet has a
remarkable amount of calcium 344.00mg / 100g. Millets are also rich sources of iron.
The iron content of little and pearl millet is 9.30 and 8.00mg /100g respectively.
14
3.2 NUTRIENT ANALYSIS
NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION OF SORGHUM VARIETIES
Sorghum grains are excellent source of nutrients to the millions belonging to the
economically challenged society in India, and these cereals have become synonymous
with health and nutrition. It forms a major source of proteins and calories in the diet. Five
sorghum varieties, namely CO (S) 28, CO (S) 30, TNSH 482, COH 4 and Sencholam were
procured from Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore for nutrient analysis.
Carbohydrate content was high in CO (S) 28, CO (S) 30 with the values of 87.50 g
followed by TNSH 482 (86.30 g) sencholam (70.12 g ) and COH4 (62.70 g).
The protein content was 8.60 g in CO (S) 28, 8.20 g in CO (S) 30 and TNSH 482,
7.70 g in COH4 and 7.35 g in sencholam. It was found to decrease on pearling. The fat
content ranged between 2.46 g to 2.20 g in all the quick cooking sorghum varieties.
The corresponding values after pearling were 2.09 g to1.35g/l00g. The fibre content of
whole and pearled quick cooking sorghum varieties ranged from 1.90 to 1.33 g/l00g and
1.71 to 1.30 g/l00g respectively.
Table 2. Nutrient composition of whole and pearled sorghumvarieties (per 100 g)
Nutrients CO (S) 28 CO (S) 30 TNSH 482 COH4 Sencholam
whole Pearled whole Pearled whole Pearled whole Pearled whole Pearled
Carbohydrate (g) 87.50 84.12 87.50 84.80 86.30 83.81 62.70 61.40 70.12 68.35
Protein (g) 8.60 8.43 8.20 8.01 8.20 7.64 7.70 7.01 7.35 7.13
Fat (g) 2.46 1.40 2.45 1.35 2.30 2.09 2.45 2.34 2.20 1.85
Fibre (g) 1.90 1.71 1.55 1.31 1.33 1.30 1.42 1.39 1.45 1.32
Calcium (mg) 23.15 22.71 22.20 22.10 23.21 22.32 22.10 21.20 23.15 22.70
Iron (mg) 3.85 3.72 3.91 3.84 3.32 3.10 3.40 3.20 3.62 3.34
Tannin (mg) 62.53 40.70 76.25 42.00 73.75 41.20 74.20 42.00 75.10 40.10
The calcium and iron content of the variety CO (S) 28 as whole grain was found
to be higher than other varieties, ie 23.15 mg per 100 g and 3.84 mg/100 respectively.
The pearled grain contained 22.71 mg/l00g of calcium and 3.72 mg/l00g of iron. Anti-
15
nutritional factor like tannin was found to be decreased during processing.
The tannin content of whole quick cooking sorghum varieties were 62.53 mg/l00g in
CO (S) 28, 76.25 mg/l00g in CO (S) 30, 73.75 mg/l00g in TNSH 482, 74.20 mg/l00g in
COH4, 75.10 mg/l00g in lsencholam. In pearled grain, the tannin content was found to be
lesser than whole grains. Based on the nutrient content it was concluded that
CO (S) 28 variety was selected for the standardization of value added products.
NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION OF PEARL MILLET VARIETIES
Pearl millets are a great source of starch, making it a high-energy food. It is also
an excellent source of protein and fiber. It is said that the amino acids in the pearl millet
are more easily digestible than the ones found in wheat. Magnesium is essential for
maintaining good heart health, as it lowers blood pressure and reduces the risk of heart
attacks. Pearl millet is a rich source of phosphorus, which plays an important part in the
structure of body cells. Recent studies have proven that regular consumption of pearl
millets help in preventing gallstones and provide protection against breast cancer in
women. Apart from that, it has also shown a considerable reduction in the occurrence of
wheezing and asthma in children. Consumption of pearl millets helps in minimizing the
risk of type 2 diabetes. Five varieties of pearl millet were collected from the farmers of
Tamil Nadu and analysed for their nutrient content.
Table 3.Nutritional composition of Pearl millet varieties (per 100g)
Sl. No. Varieties Moisture
(g) Ash CHO
(g)
Protein
(g)
Fat
(g)
Crude Fibre
(g)
Calcium
(mg)
Iron
(mg)
1. Perunkambu 11.86 2.45 58.83 11.52 3.98 1.04 40.23 7.32
2. Nattukambu 11.41 2.86 59.36 11.82 4.46 1.21 41.82 7.68
3. Motachakambu 10.23 1.33 55.36 10.88 3.88 1.16 40.46 6.91
4. Pachaikambu 11.36 1.25 58.74 11.29 3.62 0.98 41.76 7.82
5. Raw kambu 11.23 2.59 58.21 10.14 3.78 0.77 41.70 7.09
16
The carbohydrate content of pearl millet varieties ranged from 55.36g to 59.36g
per 100g. The protein content of the variety nattukambu was 11.82g; the crude fibre
content of the same variety was 2.21g which was found to be higher than other varieties.
The iron content of the pearl millet varieties was between 6.91mg to 7.82mg per 100g of
the sample. The varieties nattukambu and perunkambu were identified to be suited for
product development based on their nutritional composition.
NUTRIENT COMPOSITION OF SMALL MILLET VARIETIES
Millets are full of nutrients which our body needs, such as magnesium, calcium,
manganese, tryptophan, phosphorus, fiber, and antioxidants. The tiny "grain" is gluten-
free and packed with vitamins and minerals. Millet grain is highly nutritious with good
quality protein, rich in minerals, dietary fibre, phyto-chemicals and vitamins. Finger
millet provides 8 to 10 times more calcium than wheat or rice. It is also rich in
phosphorous and potassium. The millet carbohydrates have the unique property of slower
digestibility and regarded as food for long sustenance. It also has high contents of
polyphenols and phytochemicals that are known to be having anti-fungal and
anti-bacterial properties. Dietary fiber protects against hyperglycemia, phytates against
oxidation stress and some phenolics and tannins act as antioxidants. Millets, being high fibre
foods contribute to well being in various ways by reducing the risk of cardiovascular
diseases, constipation, diabetes mellitus and cancer. They are also valued for natural
antioxidants and minerals and are gaining importance as complete nutrient source.
NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION OF LITTLE MILLET VARIETIES
The nutrient composition of eight little millet varieties collected from the project
sites was analyzed. Among the small millets little millet or samai is highly nutritious.
The collected samples were found to be high in fat, iron and protein content than the
other cereals. Little millet protein contains amino acids in balanced proportions and is
rich in methionine, cysteine and lysine. They are beneficial to vegetarians who depend on
plant food for their protein nourishment.
17
Table 4. Nutritional composition of Little millet varieties (per 100g)
Sl. No. Varieties Moisture
(g) Ash CHO
(g)
Protein
(g)
Fat
(g)
Crude Fibre
(g)
Calcium
(mg)
Iron
(mg)
1. Chittansamai 10.59 1.01 82.89 7.38 3.79 6.42 16.57 7.77
2. Perunkolaisamai 10.65 1.36 85.39 6.95 2.23 6.45 14.65 7.62
3. Vellaisamai 10.35 1.23 83.24 7.55 3.74 5.52 14.25 6.01
4. Kalmannusamai 10.21 0.59 84.72 7.63 2.22 6.68 14.18 4.38
5. Koluthanasamai 10.59 0.66 84.85 6.12 3.46 5.36 15.93 7.68
6. Badasamai 10.33 0.59 78.94 6.89 2.24 7.12 14.23 6.91
7. Kala samai 9.18 0.62 84.61 7.41 2.15 6.97 12.10 6.51
8. Sadansamai 9.24 0.64 79.22 6.73 3.00 6.76 9.24 7.34
The carbohydrate content of little millet varieties ranged from 78.94g to 85.39g.
The protein content was found to be high in kalmannusamai with 7.63 g per 100g.
The calcium and iron content of chittansamai variety was found to be 16.57 and 7.77mg
respectively which was higher than the other varieties. The little millet varieties contain
high proportion of crude fibre ranging from 5.36 to 7.12g per 100g which help in
prevention of constipation, lowering cholesterol and slow release of glucose to the
bloodstream during digestion. The varieties chittansamai and Koluthanasamai were
identified to be best variety based on their nutritional composition and hence used in the
standardization of value added products.
NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION OF FINGER MILLET VARIETIES
Finger millet is a versatile source of carbohydrate, protein and mineral that is
comparable to other common cereal grain. It is also a rich source of minerals having
significant amount of calcium, iron and phosphorus. Eleven landraces were analyzed for
their nutrient content.
18
Table 5. Nutritional compositions of finger millet varieties (per 100g)
Sl. No. Varieties Moisture
(g) Ash CHO (g)
Protein (g)
Fat (g)
Crude Fibre
(g)
Calcium (mg)
Iron (mg)
1. Sunamani 10.12 2.12 69.56 7.05 1.19 2.15 321.10 3.12
2. Bati 10.94 1.22 68.29 6.98 1.01 2.68 311.48 2.98
3. Dasarabadi 11.18 2.14 69.35 6.64 1.25 2.71 319.05 2.84
4. Mati 10.54 1.88 67.34 6.87 1.33 3.01 319.00 3.81
5. Kalekeranga 11.15 1.36 62.58 7.04 1.06 2.96 329.98 3.25
6. Kempuragi 10.45 1.31 71.45 7.31 1.13 3.01 333.15 3.96
7. Pitchugaddiragi 10.98 1.28 66.98 6.58 1.29 2.04 324.01 3.28
8. Halukuliragi 10.72 1.24 65.29 5.97 1.54 1.98 310.00 3.16
9. Muttanragi 9.12 2.25 64.51 6.12 0.98 2.66 307.24 2.92
10. Perunkezhvaragu 10.87 1.97 69.68 7.03 1.00 2.97 331.67 2.45
11. Saratha 9.58 1.41 73.90 7.41 1.08 3.12 334.10 2.37
The carbohydrate content of the finger millet varieties ranged between 62.58 and
73.90g per 100g. The protein content of the varieties ranged from 5.97 to 7.41g per 100g.
The calcium content was found to be maximum in the variety of saratha (334mg/100g).
The iron content of the varieties ranged from 2.37 to 3.96mg per 100g and maximum iron
content was found in the variety Kempuragi. Based on the nutrient content the varieties
mati and kempuragi were found to be best suited for product development.
NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION OF KODO MILLET VARIETIES
Kodo millet is rich in B vitamins, especially niacin, B6 and folacin, calcium, iron,
potassium, magnesium and zinc. Celiac patients can replace certain cereal grains in their
diets by consuming kodo millet in various forms including breakfast cereals. The four
landraces of kodo millet were collected from the project sites of Tamil Nadu and
analyzed for their nutrient content.
19
Table 6. Nutritional composition of kodo millet varieties (per 100g)
Sl. No. Varieties Moisture
(g) Ash (g)
CHO (g)
Protein (g)
Fat (g)
Crude Fibre (g)
Calcium (mg)
Iron (mg)
1. Senthazhvaragu 11.51 1.43 61.02 7.46 1.16 4.13 33.88 1.01
2. Karuvaragu 10.64 1.84 58.74 8.21 1.05 4.68 32.67 1.26
3. Siruvaragu 10.43 2.36 62.91 7.99 1.00 3.97 31.05 0.94
4. Uppuvaragu 11.87 1.97 59.01 7.87 1.12 4.61 32.41 0.81
The carbohydrate content of kodo millet was between the range of 58.74 and
62.91g per 100g. The protein and fibre content of the variety karuvaragu was found to be
maximum with the value of 8.21g and 4.68 per 100g respectively. Whereas the calcium
content of the variety senthazhvaragu was higher than the other varieties (33.88mg). The
iron content was considerably higher in karuvaragu. Senthazhvaragu and karuvaragu
were identified to be the best varieties for the standardization of recipes.
NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION OF BARNYARD MILLET VARIETIES
Barnyard millet has good nutritive value. It is nutritionally superior to cereals like
any other minor millet. Barnyard millet is most effective in reducing blood glucose and
lipid levels compared to other millets and rice. Five varieties of barnyard millet was
identified from the project sites and analyzed for their nutrient composition.
Table 7. Nutritional composition of barnyard millet varieties (per 100g)
Sl. No. Varieties Moisture
(g) Ash CHO (g)
Protein (g)
Fat (g)
Crude Fibre
(g)
Calcium (mg)
Iron (mg)
1. Sadaikuthiraivali 9.86 3.45 52.20 10.52 1.98 7.84 19.17 4.32
2. M kuthiraivali 10.41 3.86 50.56 10.02 1.46 8.21 18.32 4.28
3. A kuthiraivali 9.23 3.33 51.08 10.88 1.88 7.66 18.46 4.61
4. Kattaikuthiraivali 10.86 3.25 52.47 10.59 1.62 8.63 19.76 4.82
5. Val kuthiraivali 10.23 3.59 52.65 10.14 1.78 7.77 19.70 4.09
20
The carbohydrate content of barnyard millet varieties ranged from 50.56g to
52.65g per 100g. The protein content of the variety A-kuthiraivali was 10.88g, the crude
fibre content of the variety Kattaikuthiraivali was 8.63g which was found to be higher
than other varieties. The iron content of the barnyard millet varieties was between 4.28 to
4.82mg per 100g of the sample. The varieties Kattaikuthiraivali and Akuthiraivali were
best suited for product development based on their nutritional composition.
NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION OF FOXTAIL MILLET VARIETIES
Foxtail millet has good nutritive value and it is a good source of carbohydrate.
It is also a rich source of calcium. It is rich in dietary fiber and minerals such as copper
& iron.It helps us to keep our body strong & immune.It helps to control blood sugar
&cholesterol levels.Four varieties of foxtail millet was identifiedamong which three
common varieties cultivated by the farmers in Tamil Nadu were collected and analyzed
for their nutrient composition.
Table 8. Nutritional composition of foxtail millet varieties (per 100g)
Sl. No. Varieties Moisture
(g) Ash CHO (g)
Protein
(g) Fat (g)
Crude Fibre (g)
Calcium (mg)
Iron (mg)
1. Senthinai 11.86 2.05 59.23 10.89 3.98 6.54 29.17 2.15
2. Rose thenai 10.41 2.15 60.58 11.02 3.46 6.21 29.32 2.28
3. Perunthenai 11.23 2.36 60.56 11.14 3.32 6.66 30.46 2.61
The carbohydrate content of foxtail millet varieties ranged from 59.23g to 60.56g
per 100g. The protein content of the variety perunthenai was 11.14g and the crude fibre
content was 6.66g per 100g of the grains which was found to be higher than other
varieties. The iron content of the foxtail millet varieties was between 2.15 to 2.61 mg per
100g of the sample. Based on the nutritional composition the variety perunthenai was
found to be best suited for product development.
21
3.3. STANDARDIZATION OF VALUE ADDED MILLET PRODUCTS
The different millet varieties identified from the districts of Tamil Nadu were
collected from the farmers based on their availability and analyzed for their nutritional
composition. Based on the nutrient content the best varieties were identified from each
millet for the standardization of value added products.
TRADITIONAL FOODS
The traditional and ethnic food items were standardized with millets that are being
grown by the farmers. The millets were used for the standardization of value added foods
belonging to the categories of traditional foods for the convenient preparation by rural
and town folk at low cost. Millets were substituted for rice and wheat flour in the
preparation of various traditional foods commonly consumed by the farmers. The recipes
developed from finger millet, little millet, kodo millet and barnyard millet were analyzed
for their nutrients using standard procedures. The developed traditional products were
found to be rich in protein, calcium and phosphorus. The protein content of adai prepared
from little millet was found to be 13.74 g/ 100gm. The iron content of kodo millet and
barnyard millet adhirasam was 16.3mg and 17.4mg respectively. (Tables-6, 7, 8 and
9).The overall acceptability of the developed products ranged between 8.1 to 8.6 for
Barnyard millet, 8.3 to 8.7 for Kodo millet, 8.1 to 8.7 for finger millet and 8.3 to 8.6 for
Little millet products.
The standardized traditional recipes include
• Breakfast food : Idli, Dosa, Idiappam, Rotti, Pittu, Upma, Adai, Porridge,
Khakra,Paniyaramand Chappathi.
• Sweets : Halwa, sweat kolukattai, Adhirasam, Kesari, Nutritious
ball and Kheer.
• Snacks : Vadai, Pakoda, Ribbon pakoda, Omapodi, Murukku,
Thattuvadai, HotkolukattaiandVadagam.
22
FINGER MILLET BASED TRADITIONAL RECIPES
23
Table 9. Nutrient content of finger millet breakfast recipes
Name of the Product
CHO (g)
Protein (g)
Fat (g)
Crude Fibre
(g)
Iron (mg)
Calcium (mg)
Phosphorus (mg)
Niacin (µg)
Folic acid (µg)
Idli and Dosa(80%) 68.96 11.02 1.40 3.12 3.93 302.32 305.14 1.27 42.35
Idiappam (100%) 72.00 7.30 1.30 3.60 3.90 344.00 283.00 1.10 18.30
Rotti (100%) 51.04 5.59 1.01 2.93 3.37 251.45 209.93 0.95 13.40 Pittu (100%) 70.21 5.93 5.13 3.06 3.11 260.80 236.40 0.90 14.97 Upma (100%) 56.78 9.22 1.52 2.70 3.55 245.14 275.58 1.22 41.20 Adai (60%) 67.07 13.50 1.97 2.56 4.08 253.30 315.30 1.52 66.10 Porridge(100%) 70.75 4.55 1.70 1.80 1.21 222.00 174.00 0.55 11.27
Nutrient content of finger millet sweet recipes
Name of the
Product
CHO (g)
Protein (g)
Fat (g)
Crude Fibre
(g)
Iron (mg)
Calcium (mg)
Phosphorus (mg)
Niacin (µg)
Folic acid (µg)
Halwa (100%) 53.65 4.33 35.08 1.21 1.79 111.80 130.20 0.45 5.49
Sweet Kolukattai (100%)
70.13 6.09 4.35 3.39 3.54 273.40 240.65 0.90 14.72
Nutrient content of finger millet health drink
Name of the
Product
CHO (g)
Protein (g)
Fat (g)
Crude Fibre
(g)
Iron (mg)
Calcium (mg)
Phosphorus (mg)
Niacin (µg)
Folic acid (µg)
Finger millet malt
(100%)
77.48 5.86 1.04 2.88 31.51 277.60 226.40 0.88 14.64
Nutrient content of finger millet snack recipes
Name of the Product
CHO (g)
Protein (g)
Fat (g)
Crude Fibre
(g)
Iron (mg)
Calcium (mg)
Phosphorus (mg)
Niacin (µg)
Folic acid (µg)
Vadai (40%) 58.38 16.96 2.52 2.05 3.66 223.88 322.63 1.65 88.37 Pakoda (85%) 62.62 6.28 25.93 2.76 2.95 244.00 225.47 1.10 15.52 Ribbon pakoda(70%) 65.20 6.52 6.21 12.25 3.15 175.68 225.20 1.65 25.50
Omapodi (85%) 69.37 10.68 2.73 3.87 4.55 266.75 279.24 1.78 41.16 Murukku (75%) 67.53 7.83 6.67 12.52 3.04 178.90 228.42 1.68 25.27 Thattuvadai (90%) 49.18 6.46 31.34 2.28 2.87 278.24 202.90 0.90 25.73
24
KODO MILLET BASED TRADITIONAL RECIPES
25
Table 10.Nutrient content of kodo millet breakfast recipes
Name of the Product
CHO (g)
Protein (g)
Fat (g)
Crude Fibre
(g)
Iron (mg)
Calcium (mg)
Phosphorus (mg)
Niacin (µg)
Folic acid (µg)
Idli and Dosa (75%) 63.89 12.6 1.49 6.94 1.45 61.40 241.00 1.98 51.60
Paniyaram (80%) 45.57 9.94 11.40 5.10 1.73 92.00 193.00 1.70 43.20
Idiappam (75%) 60.80 5.03 11.00 4.50 0.69 20.30 129.00 1.15 11.60
Adai (50%) 62.25 13.10 11.90 6.35 2.58 103.00 243.00 2.60 51.00
Rotti (80%) 47.50 5.96 11.20 4.80 2.38 90.60 139.70 1.45 14.80
Pittu (80%) 61.14 5.96 9.18 6.12 1.14 34.20 169.00 1.36 16.40
Upma (100%) 45.40 6.91 8.84 6.07 3.13 56.30 158.00 1.57 22.80
Chapathi (50%) 54.12 8.16 11.20 4.36 2.16 30.00 217.00 2.52 23.50
Khakra (50%) 67.65 10.20 1.55 5.45 11.70 37.50 272.00 3.15 29.50
Nutrient content of kodo millet sweet recipes
Name of the Product
CHO (g)
Protein (g)
Fat (g)
Crude Fibre
(g)
Iron (mg)
Calcium (mg)
Phosphorus (mg)
Niacin (µg)
Folic acid (µg)
Halwa (90%) 56.03 3.97 32.80 2.06 0.93 16.90 96.00 0.89 8.20 Sweet Kolukattai (100%) 65.30 7.97 7.48 6.41 1.99 110.00 199.70 1.67 9.92
Kheer (100%) 54.43 4.33 11.30 3.22 1.77 55.70 109.00 0.71 7.78 Adhirasam (50%) 83.50 3.98 0.53 2.30 16.30 49.30 107.00 0.98 7.78
Kesari (100%) 64.90 5.05 13.20 2.82 0.95 33.90 93.80 0.69 7.78 Sweet adai(70%) 72.57 10.50 1.55 3.87 3.01 54.80 199.00 1.35 51.10
Nutrient content of kodomileet snack recipes
Name of the Product
CHO (g)
Protein (g)
Fat (g)
Crude Fibre(g)
Iron (mg)
Calcium (mg)
Phosphorus (mg)
Niacin (µg)
Folic acid (µg)
Vadai (75%) 51.40 9.97 2.19 5.56 2.13 52.50 193.00 1.79 52.60 Pakoda (75%) 52.90 7.33 1.57 7.67 1.15 76.75 170.00 1.75 20.70 Ribbon pakoda(90%) 60.76 8.32 6.37 9.07 0.71 58.10 192.00 2.18 23.50
Kolukkattai (100%) 45.11 6.55 11.90 6.12 1.78 70.70 151.00 1.51 19.80
Murukku (100%) 56.50 8.12 6.98 8.52 1.77 105.00 189.80 2.07 22.50 Thattuvadai (80%) 59.85 9.49 5.90 8.34 1.44 48.80 197.00 2.07 34.30
Vadagam (90%) 62.7 9.20 2.32 10.2 1.16 86.3 213 1.16 20.8
26
LITTLE MILLET BASED TRADITIONAL RECIPES
27
Table 11. Nutrient content of little millet breakfast recipes
Name of the Product
CHO (g)
Protein (g)
Fat (g)
Crude Fibre
(g)
Iron (mg)
Calcium (mg)
Phosphorus (mg)
Niacin (µg)
Folic acid (µg)
Idli and Dosa (80%) 65.06 11.32 4.05 6.24 8.14 13.44 211.92 2.91 35.10
Idiappam (100%) 67.00 7.00 4.70 7.60 9.30 17.13 215.12 3.20 9.00
Rotti (100%) 47.79 5.85 3.22 5.53 6.88 16.14 214.89 2.32 7.36
Pittu (100%) 66.46 6.23 7.66 6.06 7.16 15.55 215.05 2.48 8.00
Upma(100%) 53.78 9.46 3.57 5.10 6.79 18.94 216.10 2.48 35.61
Adai (65%) 64.07 13.74 4.01 4.96 12.90 12.10 160.15 2.78 60.52
Porridge (100%) 68.25 4.75 3.40 3.80 5.36 16.50 216.32 1.60 6.62
Nutrient content of little millet sweet recipes
Name of the Product
CHO (g)
Protein (g)
Fat (g)
Crude Fibre
(g)
Iron (mg)
Calcium (mg)
Phosphorus (mg)
Niacin (µg)
Folic acid (µg)
Halwa (80%) 52.15 4.45 36.10 2.41 3.41 13.70 111.30 1.08 2.70
Sweet Kolukattai (100%)
66.38 6.39 6.87 6.39 7.59 28.15 193.40 2.48 7.75
Nutrient content of little millet snack recipes
Name of the Product
CHO (g)
Protein (g)
Fat (g)
Crude Fibre
(g)
Iron (mg)
Calcium (mg)
Phosphorus (mg)
Niacin (µg)
Folic acid (µg)
Vadai (40%) 56.88 17.08 2.31 3.25 5.28 11.88 303.73 2.92 85.58
Pakoda (85%) 59.12 6.56 28.38 5.56 6.73 15.10 181.37 2.57 9.01
Ribbon pakoda (50%)
61.87 7.51 1.54 3.42 3.54 13.24 268.65 1.10 23.69
Omapodi (85%) 66.62 10.90 4.65 6.07 7.52 14.90 244.59 2.94 36.05
Murukku (75%) 65.53 8.37 8.07 4.12 5.20 13.15 203.22 2.52 21.55
Thattuvadai (90%) 46.18 6.70 33.38 4.80 6.11 15.80 165.10 2.16 20.15
28
BARNYARD MILLET BASED TRADITIONAL RECIPES
29
Table 12. Nutrient content of barnyard millet breakfast recipes
Name of the Product
CHO (g)
Protein (g)
Fat (g)
Crude Fibre
(g)
Iron (mg)
Calcium (mg)
Phosphorus (mg)
Niacin (µg)
Idli and Dosa (75%) 63.10 11.1 2.08 7.52 4.73 56.30 307.00 3.59
Paniyaram (80%) 45.39 8.99 11.7 5.46 3.75 14.40 233.00 2.69
Idiappam (100%) 60.58 3.98 1.14 4.90 2.94 16.75 175.00 2.25
Adai (75%) 62.05 12.00 12.30 6.75 4.83 80.24 289.00 3.70
Rotti (80%) 23.40 5.12 11.50 5.12 4.18 17.80 176.50 2.33
Pittu (100%) 60.90 4.70 9.66 6.60 3.84 16.63 224.00 2.68
Upma (100%) 45.20 5.65 9.32 6.55 3.83 18.54 213.00 2.89
Chapathi (50%) 53.90 7.32 11.50 4.68 3.96 12.20 254.00 3.40
Khakra (50%) 67.45 9.60 1.95 5.85 4.95 11.68 317.00 4.25
Nutrient content of barnyard millet sweet recipes
Name of the Product
CHO (g)
Protein (g)
Fat (g)
Crude Fibre
(g)
Iron (mg)
Calcium (mg)
Phosphorus (mg)
Niacin (µg)
Halwa (80%) 55.95 3.55 32.90 2.22 1.83 15.50 124.00 1.33
Kheer (100%) 54.30 10.80 11.30 3.46 1.37 19.80 213.12 -
Sweet Kolukattai (100%) 65.04 6.61 8.00 6.93 4.90 30.45 198.50 3.10
Sweet adai (70%) 72.40 9.66 1.86 4.19 4.81 17.56 205.14 2.23
Adhirasam (50%) 83.43 3.45 0.73 2.50 17.40 27.50 132.25 1.53
Kesari (100%) 64.70 11.60 13.50 3.06 2.30 25.80 121.36 1.35
Nutritious ball (30%) 61.27 13.70 21.30 3.12 2.89 16.90 159.48 1.63
30
Nutrient content of barnyard millet snack recipes
Name of the Product
CHO (g)
Protein (g)
Fat (g)
Crude fibre(g)
Iron (mg)
Calcium (mg)
Phosphorus (mg)
Niacin (µg)
Vadai (75%) 51.20 8.92 2.59 5.96 4.38 49.00 239.00 2.89
Pakoda (100%) 49.40 5.44 2.06 7.78 4.27 70.50 225.00 3.19
Ribbon pakoda(100%) 60.40 6.43 70.90 9.79 4.76 51.80 274.00 4.16
Murukku (100%) 56.20 6.44 7.62 9.16 5.37 99.70 263.00 3.83
Thattuvadai (100%) 59.50 7.81 6.54 8.98 5.04 43.20 270.00 3.83
Kolukkattai (100%) 44.87 5.29 12.30 6.60 4.48 66.46 206.00 2.83
Vadagam (100%) 62.36 7.31 3.04 10.90 5.21 80.00 296.00 4.39
BAKERY PRODUCTS
The millets incorporated bread was standardized by incorporating millets at
different proportions (10% to 70%). The bread prepared with 20% incorporation of
millets was found to be more acceptable up to 3 days. The cost of millet bread works out
tobe Rs. 30.00 per 400g.
Millets based cakes were standardized at various levels of incorporation and were
highly acceptable at 30% incorporation level for a period of 7 days. The cost of millet
cakes was averaged to be around Rs.200 per kg of the product.
The millet incorporated cookies was standardized by incorporating millets at 25%,
50% and 75%. The products were evaluated for their sensory attributes using a nine
point hedonic scale by panel of members. The developed cookies were highly acceptable
at 50% incorporation level and the shelf life of the product was 15 days. The developed
products were analyzed for their nutrient content. The cost of cookies was Rs.200 per kg
of the product.
31
Foxtail millet Little millet Kodo millet
Table 13. Nutrient content of millet based bread (per 100g)
Nutrients Refined Wheat Flour
Kodo Millet Flour
Little millet flour
Foxtail millet flour
Moisture (g) 10.33 11.01 10.84 10.75
CHO (g) 73.78 74.79 74.58 73.96
Protein (g) 11.26 8.69 8.59 9.35
Fat (g) 2.86 2.90 3.76 3.24
Crude Fibre (g) 0.36 1.31 1.46 1.53
Ash (g) 1.29 1.35 1.30 1.26
Calcium (mg) 20.61 21.54 19.88 22.21
Iron (mg) 2.24 2.33 3.36 2.28
Tannin (mg) 54.71 55.86 58.86 73.22
The breads prepared from millets were highly acceptable. The carbohydrate
content of millet bread varied between 73.96g to 74.79g per 100g of the product.
The protein and crude fibre content was high in foxtail millet bread being 9.35g and
1.53g per 100g of the product. The calcium content was also high in foxtail millet bread
when compared with other millets. Little millet bread had high iron content 3.36mg per
100 of the product.
32
Table 14. Nutrient content of millet based cookies (per 100g)
Nutrients Refined wheat flour
Kodo millet flour
Little millet flour
Foxtail millet flour
Moisture (g) 12.58 9.13 8.24 8.25
Carbohydrate (g) 66.54 66.48 66.85 64.81
Protein (g) 13.65 6.45 6.25 7.79
Fat (g) 20.12 20.77 21.87 21.73
Crude Fibre (g) 0.46 3.10 2.65 2.77
Ash (g) 1.00 0.92 0.90 0.98
Calcium (mg) 17.62 19.07 15.73 20.40
Iron (mg) 1.83 1.51 4.03 1.86
Tannin (mg) 43.88 47.87 45.47 45.12
Cookies standardized from millets were highly acceptable. The carbohydrate
content of the developed cookies ranged from 66.48g to 66.85g per 100g of the product.
The protein and calcium content of foxtail millet was higher with values 7.79g and
20.40g per 100g of the product. The iron content of little millet was considerably higher
than the other millet cookies being 4.03mg per 100 g of the product.
Soup sticks -20% Twist Khari -40%
33
PASTA PRODUCTS
Vermicelli, noodles and Macaroni were prepared at various substitution levels of millet
flour (10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60 and 70%). The products were found to be acceptable up to an
incorporation level of 30 per cent. The nutrient content of kodo millet vermicelli was analyzed.
. The calcium and phosphorus of vermicelli ranged from 19.5 to 103.03mg/ 100 g of the
product respectively. The iron content of the developed product ranged from 3.73 mg/100g and
at 30 per cent incorporation level. The cost of the millet based products works out to Rs.150 per
kg of vermicelli and Rs.170 per kg of noodles and macaroni.
PASTA PRODUCTS
INSTANT FOOD MIXES Instant food mixes from milletswere standardized. The recipes were standardized
from the best varieties of millets identified based on their nutrient content.
34
Table 15.Instant food mixes from millet flour
Breakfast recipes Sweet recipes Snack recipes
Health mix
Halwa mix Murukku mix
Dosa mix, Paniyaram mix Kesari mix Thattuvadai mix
Adai mix Payasam mix Ribbon pakoda mix
Ravauppuma mix Ravaladdu mix Omapodi mix Idiyappam mix Kolukattai mix Samosa mix Rotti mix, Vada mix vadagam
The five instant mixes idli, dosa, paniyaram, appam and halwa mix developed
from kodo and barnyard millet were evaluated for its nutrient content.
Table16.Nutritive value of Kodo millet and Barnyard millet Instant food mixes
Nutrients Kodo millet Barnyard millet
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
Moisture (g) 9.60 9.60 9.80 10.0 11.00 10.10 10.10 9.60 10.10 10.80
Protein (g) 11.37 11.37 9.50 10.45 3.97 9.62 9.62 8.15 9.40 55.95
Fat (g) 1.50 1.50 1.20 1.55 32.8 2.80 2.80 2.90 2.70 3.55
Crude fibre(g) 4.20 4.20 4.30 4.35 2.06 6.90 6.90 4.33 3.90 2.25
Tannin (g) 3.40 3.40 3.10 3.50 4.26 4.10 4.10 3.80 4.15 3.89
Calcium (mg) 53.20 53.20 55.00 59.10 16.9 57.18 57.18 81.78 55.28 15.5
Phosphorus(mg) 121.70 121.70 200.30 120.60 96.0 277.60 277.60 224.00 217.68 124
Iron (mg) 2.17 2.17 1.98 2.34 1.93 2.34 2.34 3.75 3.25 1.83
T1-Idli, T2-Dosai, T3-Paniyaram, T4- Appam,T5-Halwa
The protein content was high in kodo millet based mixes ranging from 9.50 to
11.37g/100g and the barnyard millet mixes ranging from 9.62 to 9.4g/100g of the
product. The crude fibre content was high in kodopaniyaram mix (4.35g per 100g) and
barnyard idli and dosa mix (6.90g per 100g). the calcium and iron content of kodo millet
instant mixes was high in paniyaram and appam mix, whereas in barnyard millet the
calcium and iron content were high in idli/ dosa and paniyaram mix. The cost of the
developed mixes averaged to Rs.150 per kg of the product.
35
FLAKED AND POPPED MILLET PRODUCTS
Millets were flaked and popped in flaking and popping machines to develop
various flaked and popped millet products. The developed millet flakes and popped
products were found to be highly acceptable.
36
QUICK COOKING INSTANT MILLET MIXES
The quick cooking millet mixes were standardized for the convenience of
urban consumers. The developed mixes were highly acceptable and the shelf life
of the optimized quick cooking grains was up to six months. The recipes were standardized
using sorghum and were followed similarly for pearl millet and other small millets. The cost
of the quick cooking millet products was averaged to be Rs. 200/-per Kg. The nutrient
content was analyzed for sorghum based quick cooking instant food mixes.
Table 17. Nutrient content of Quick cooking sorghum based instant mixes (per 100g )
S.No. Name of the product
Moisture gm
Carbohydrate gm
Protein gm
Fat gm
Fibre gm
Calcium mg
Iron mg
1 Bisibelabath mix
8.22 74.04 44.97 2.36 4.16 68.20 4.55
2 Puliyotharai mix
8.13 60.81 10.37 4.69 4.06 150.77 7.37
3 Mushroom Pulavoo
8.42 161.48 12.58 8.06 6.76 177.81 6.49
4 Tomato mix 8.04 65.67 11.94 15.26 7.57 328.19 7.30
5 Ravakitchadi 8.21 139.12 41.93 8.00 7.99 148.75 6.49
6 Biriyani mix 8.14 62.80 43.43 2.17 11.00 173.09 10.60
7 Vangibath 8.32 58.34 11.09 9.71 10.42 176.19 4.97
8 Pongal mix 8.33 80.85 17.55 7.48 7.68 155.61 7.07
9 Corriander leaves mix
8.10 61.39 18.93 4.18 11.68 181.15 5.10
10 Mint mix 8.09 60.47 14.17 11.84 12.45 413.17 24.04
The quick cooking millets were found to be highly acceptable and fairly
good sources of iron and calcium. The protein content of the developed mixes ranged
from 10.37g to 44.07g per 100g of the product. The calcium content ranged from 68.20mg
to 413.17mg per 100g of the product. The crude fibre content was considerably high in
biriyani, coriander and mint mix. The iron content was found to be high in mint mix with
the value being 24.04mg per 100g of the product.
37
PLATE NO. 1 QUICK COOKING SORGHUM MIXES
Tomato Mix Mushroom Pulavoo Mix RavaKitchadi Mix
Mint Mix Bisibelabath Mix Bisibelabath Mix
Coriander Leaves Mix Vangibath Mix Puliyotharai Mix
38
PLATE NO. 2 SORGHUM FLOUR BASED BREAKFAST INSTANT MIXES
Paniyaram Mix Vada Mix
Dosa Mix Idiayappam Mix
Rotti Mix RavaUppuma Mix
Vermicelli Macaroni
39
PLATE NO. 3 SORGHUM FLOUR BASED SWEET
AND SNACKINSTANT MIXES
Kesari Mix RavaLadoo Mix
Halwa Mix Payasam Mix Kolukkattai Mix
Murukku Mix Thattuvadai Mix Ribbon Pakoda Mix
SOR HL
40
The major reasons for the decline and fall of millets are as follows.
i. Lag of processing equipments and technologies to convert millets into
consumable products.
ii. Unawareness among the people about the nutritional and other socio-ecological
values of millets.
iii. Time and energy required to prepare millet based products.
iv. Declining support in terms of crop loans and crop insurance.
v. Lag of policies and financial incentives to support millet growers.
vi. Rapid rate of urbanization and changing food habits of the urbanized population
during the last decades.
vii. Change in cultural connections and the non-availability of processed products
similar to rice or wheat.
41
PART –II
ASSESSMENT OF POST HARVEST LOSSES IN MILLETS
SURVEY OFPOST-HARVEST TECHNOLOGIES AND CONSTRAINTS FACED
BY FARMERS
A survey was conducted by Tamil Nadu Agricultural University to identify the
post harvest constraints faced by farmers. Surveys are one of the most frequently
employed methods in social research and hence this survey method was used for the
collection of data. The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral
verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral verbal responses. A well structured questionnaire
consisting of predetermined questions were developed and an interview schedule was
formulated. Face to face interview was conducted with the farmers at the selected
villages. The villages for the survey were identified fromseven districts of Tamil Nadu
where millets are grown in large area. The project areas of Tamil Nadu involved in the
study are given below:
Name of the district Name of the block No. of villages
No. of farmers
Coimbatore Annur 3 15
Madurai Peraiyur 10 50
Thiruvannamalai Jamunamarathoor 6 30
Krishnagiri Anjetty 6 30
Ramanathapuram Mudukulathur, Paramakudi, Kadaladi, Kamuthi, R.S.Mangalam
5 30
Erode Thalavadi 3 30
Namakkal Kolli hills 3 30
The objective of the survey was to study the socio-economic status of the farmers
in the selected villages, to identify the main crop and intercrops cultivated, methods of
processing starting from harvest to storage, constraints faced by the women farmers and
42
the various efforts taken to overcome them. The focus was mainly to lay an outline for
taking up the research work to find a solution to the problems of the farmers.
The survey was conducted using two techniques
1. Key informant survey
2. Focused group discussion
The key informant interview schedule was framed in such a way to get
information on the cultivation and post harvest processes, starting from threshing,
winnowing, drying, packing, storage etc. The focused group discussion aimed to get all
the information mentioned in the key informant schedule from the farmers through group
discussions.
The survey was designed with the following objectives:
i. To study the socio economic status of the farmers.
ii. To assess the main crop and intercrops in the selected villages.
iii. To identify the present post harvest technologies.
iv. To assess the constraints faced by the farmers.
v. To study the good practices by the community.
The methods and procedures adopted in the present investigation are explained as
follows:
Research design
- Survey research
- Interview schedule / questionnaire
Selection of area / blocks
- Selection of villages
- Identification of farmers
43
Conduct of the study
Collection of data - Socio Economic Status
- Area of Cultivation
- Post Harvest Technology
- Constraints faced by the farmers
- Efforts taken by farmers
Data collection procedure:
Collection of requisite information from respondents in a systematic manner is the
most important task for success of any survey work. Therefore, it is essential to develop
appropriate questionnaire or schedule to systematically collect all requisite data. Different
schedules were developed based on detailed group discussion with experts to collect the
data through enquiry and actual observations. Field investigators were employed to
collect the data for subsequent scrutiny and analysis.
Data collection by enquiry:
Survey schedules for collection of data on assessment of post harvest losses of
crops by enquiry were formulated. This includes complete enumeration of selected
villages, grain losses in both pre and post harvest operations. Pre harvest losses include
loss due to birds, pest, insects, rodents and fallen grains. Post harvest losses includes
harvesting, collection, threshing, sorting/grading, winnowing/ cleaning, drying,
packaging, transporting and dehulling.
Complete enumeration of households of the selected village
Each of the selected villages was completely enumerated at the beginning of
survey. The information collected was identification particulars of agro climatic zone,
district, block, name of the village and details of farmers including operational holding,
area and crop grown.
Losses during farm operations by inquiry
It covers the data collected by enquiry for losses during harvesting and other
operations prior to storage. The data was collected within one week after harvest.
44
Subsequent visits were made to record the loss in other operations. The data like method
of operation, equipment used, quantity handled and quantity loss etc were recorded.
The farmers were interviewed for their assessments of the quantitative loss in each of the
farm operations.
Data collection by observation for the assessment of post harvest losses at farm level
Survey schedules for collection of data by observation on assessment of losses
were developed through intensive dialogue in multiple group meetings among all the
research scientists. Data collection protocols for losses during harvesting, threshing and
cleaning/ winnowing of all millets were almost same. Particulars of harvesting method,
equipments used, etc were recorded. In case of traditional harvesting, manual harvesting
or harvesting with reaper, a plot of 5m x 5m was selected and harvested with the method
followed by the farmer. Harvested crop of the selected plot was collected separately.
Then the fallen grains on the selected plots were collected and weighed or the number of
dropped grain was counted. Yield of the selected plot was recorded after threshing it
separately with usual practice of the farmer.
For estimating the loss during threshing, the harvested crop of 5m x 5m was
threshed with the usual practice followed by the farmer. The produce and straw were
weighed separately. Then a sample of 250g straw was drawn and grains not removed
from straw were separated and weighed.
To estimate the losses during cleaning/ winnowing, a sample of 10kg unclean
grains-straw mixture was drawn and cleaned using the method followed by the farmer.
Grain and straw were collected separately. A sample of 250g was drawn following
quadruple technique from the straw. Grains recovered from the straw sample were
separated and weighed.
Storage loss was estimated by collecting 100-150g of commodity every month
subject to availability with the respondent. The samples were packed in to polythene pouches
with the identity slips. Theses samples were analysed for moisture content, 1000 grain
weight, number of undamaged grain, damaged grain and their weight were recorded.
45
LOSSES DURING POST-HARVEST OPERATION
Pre-Harvest Drying: Extended pre-harvest field drying ensures good preservation but
also increases the risk of loss due to attack (birds, rodents, insects) and moulds
encouraged by weather conditions, On the other hand, harvesting before maturity entails
the risk of loss through moulds and the decay of some of the seeds.
Constraints in Harvesting and Stalking: The time of harvesting is determined by the
degree of maturity. This harvest maturity affects the successive operations, particularly
storage and preservation. There are two methods of harvesting followed across the sites.
Harvesting of only panicles - After crop maturity, the matured panicles (ear heads) are
collected by cutting with the help of sickle leaving the plant stalks as such in the field; the
operation is being carried out at one time or at intervals depending on the uniformity of
maturity. The harvested panicles are collected in bamboo baskets, before heaping them.
The panicles staked in heaps are left for sun drying for a period ranging from one week to
more than a month. Some of the farmers believe that the heat generated within the heap
will help in easy separation of grains while threshing. Some farmers use wooden mullets
to separate the panicle by blatting the heap. In Jawadhu Hills the stalks were harvested by
cutting them at base and stored for using as fodder, which involves double operation, one
for collecting panicles and another for stalks.
Harvesting of stalks along with panicles – This is the most commonly followed method
in the areas of large scale cultivation of finger millet, say like Anchetty. The harvested
stalks are spread in rows in the field for sun drying, commonly for two to four days and
may go up to 12 days depending on weather conditions.
The issues identified in harvesting and stacking are:
i. Harvesting coinciding with heavy rains and lack of sunny days leading to problems
like lodging, shattering of grains, blackening of grains and straw, increased duration
of heaping before threshing resulting in deterioration of quality of grain and some
times germination of seeds in the fields (due to continuous rains).
ii. Labour shortage as majority of farmers do harvesting simultaneously.
iii. Labour requirement for harvesting operation is high and given the increase in
wages, harvesting is becoming a costly activity.
46
Constraints in Threshing (grain separation, winnowing, bagging and transport)
Threshing and winnowing: Manual threshing results in the small amount of grains left
out in the straw and spilling during threshing operation. During winnowing, broken grain
and some good grains can also be removed with the husks. There was not much variation
across the sites related to threshing operation, as seen from table no. 18. The study
indicated that different types of threshing yard are used across the project sites. Leveled
mud floor smeared with cow dung slurry, home court yard, concrete yard, and public tar
roads are commonly seen as the available threshing yards in finger millet growing sites.
Table 18. Threshing, winnowing, cleaning, drying and bagging of finger millet
Project sites
Threshing methods
Winnowing and cleaning
Drying and bagging
Labor requirement /acre
(approx)
Men Women
Project sites of Tamil Nadu
Use of stone roller (kundu) with a bullock pair in mud yard. hand pounding partially threshed panicles with stick in mud yard.
Manually during windy
hours, iron rakes, sieves
and visumuram used for cleaning
Sun drying 1 day, nylon woven or
gunny bags
12 15
Separation of grains – Threshing methods for separating grains from the panicles also
did not vary much based on the scale of cultivation and availability of infrastructure.
Spreading of panicles or stalk with panicles is done early in the morning and threshing
starts from 10 o’clock. Threshing of only panicles or stalks with panicles, especially
when the quantity is large, is usually done by using bullocks (4-5 in number) for
trampling or by stone roller drawn by a pair of bullocks. The stone roller is known as
kundu in Anchetty site and its size is about 2 ½ feet in length and 2 feet in diameter
(see picture 1 below). On tar roads, the vehicular movement helps in separation of grains
from the panicles. In place of bullocks tractor is also used by some farmers. Hand
pounding is usually followed to thresh the small quantity of partially threshed panicles
47
remained after cleaning the separated grains in other methods. It is observed that some
farmers use paddy threshers for threshing finger millet, which need to be further explored
for understanding it’s benefits to the farmers.
Stone roller (Kundu) for threshing finger millet in Anchetty
Winnowing and cleaning – Winnowing is done manually during windy hours, usually in
afternoon. Before winnowing the threshed bulk is cleaned from straw using iron rakes
followed by first winnowing for cleaning from the straw pieces and dust. Sieves are used
for cleaning straw pieces, stone particles and other materials and this operation is handled
by two men. The un-husked grains are hand pounded and mixed with the bulk produce
before final winnowing.
Winnowing
48
Threshing yard
The threshing operation is completed in one day or it may get extended to the next
day. Both men and women are involved equally in most of the sites.
Issues
i. Labour requirement for threshing operation is high and given the increase in
wages, threshing is becoming a costly activity.
ii. Drying for two to three days is a pre-requisite for easy grain separation during
threshing, but this may not be achieved due to weather conditions.
iii. Less air during winnowing increases labour requirement to as much as 3 times of
the labour requirement when there is good air.
iv. Threshing on roads leads to grain damage and loss. Threshing and drying on mud
floor is less efficient than on cemented floor and access to cemented threshing
yards is limited.
v. Small stones, dirt and other varieties of finger millet get mixed with the grains
during threshing and drying operation.
49
Post-harvest drying: The length of time needed for full drying of grains depends
considerably on weather and atmospheric conditions. In structures for lengthy drying
such as yard, or unroofed threshing floors, the grains are exposed to wandering livestock
and the depredations of birds, rodents or small ruminants. Apart from the actual wastage,
the droppings left by the farmer often result in higher losses. On the other hand, if grain is
not dry enough, it is vulnerable to mould and can rot during storage.
Transport: Much care is needed in transporting a really mature harvest, in order to
prevent detached grain from falling on the road before reaching the storage place.
The transportation of grain to primary markets by the farmers is done in bulk using
bullock carts, tractor trolleys or lorries.
Hulling: If grain is too dry it becomes brittle and cracks during hulling or milling.
Excessive hulling results in grain losses, which suffer cracks and lesions. The grain is
then not only worth less, but also becomes vulnerable to insects.
Constraints in Storage: Facilities, hygiene and monitoring must all be adequate for
effective, long-term storage. In closed structures (granaries, warehouses, hermetic bins),
control of cleanliness, temperature and humidity is particularly important. Damage caused by
pests (insects, rodents) and moulds can lead to deterioration of facilities (e.g. mites in
wooden posts) and result in losses in quality and food value as well as quantity.
Study revealed that farmers across the sites sun dry the grains as well as seeds
before storage. Various structures are used for storage of grains and seeds. Usually closed
structures are used for seeds. In Anchetty, an underground storage system by name
Kalanjiam was used earlier. It is made of wooden planks and it was told that grains stored
in Kalanjiam will be in good condition even after 10 years. The storage period varied
across the sites ranging from one year to a maximum of 5 years for grains and one year
for seeds. Storage insect pests is not a serious problem, hence no special treatment is
followed for storing the grains in most cases. Some farmers also use neem and tulsi to
repel insects. In Anchetty chemical balls are used to keep out insect pest.
50
Picture of Kalanjium, Anchetty
The handling, transport and storage of grains in jute gunny bags is commonly
seen in all the project sites. Availability of cheaper jute gunny bags encourages handling,
storage and marketing of grain in bags. Large quantities of food grain have to be moved
through rail or road transport, another major factor promoting use of these bags.
Table 19. Storage methods for millet grains and seeds in project sites
Storage structures Storage period Remarks
Gunny bags, mud sall, clay pots, dombai, kalanjiam, Plastic bags, earthen pots, bamboo baskets
Grains-Upto 3 years
Seeds- 1 year
Structures varied depending on the quantity in earlier days
CONSTRAINTS IN PROCESSING
Grains need to be dried and cleaned to remove thin husk and small stone particles
before processing. To do this type of cleaning manually is a tedious and more time
consuming job, which earlier was done by the women. Now, cleaning machines –
aspirator and destoner- are available for this purpose. In Anchetty along with flour mill.
these machinery are also available as part of a rice and other grains processing unit. Flour
is the only product processed from finger millet. Traditionally grain was processed into
51
flour using stone grinder, called as Ariyakkal - Anchetty. Presently grains are processed
in flour mills which are usually accessible within a radius of 5 kilometers distance.
There is a difference in opinion across the sites regarding the comparison of taste
between flour made of grinding stone and flour made from mill. The difference can be
explained by the difference in parameters observed by the communities involved.
De-hulling operation
De-hulling is the one of the important post harvest operations carried out for the
removal of husk from millets. At present husking is carried out manually because of the
lack of mechanical machines. Conventionally women folk are pounding the grains or
using grinding stone for separating the husk.
Pounding Grinding
Conventional methods
It is the cumbersome process and capacity is also very less. Nowadays abrasive
rollers are being used to remove the husk from millets. In this process, along with the
husk, bran and small portion of endosperm is also removed extensively. The following
table gives the amount of various by-products obtained during de-hulling of millets with
abrasive rollers.
52
Destoner, Anchetty Stone Grinder
Flour mill, Anchetty Abrasive roller mill
53
Table 20.Comparison of percentage composition of millets per 100 g
Composition of millets
Composition of millets obtained from abrasive roller
Endosperm/ millet rice Husk Bran Endosperm
Husk+Bran+ Powdered Endosperm
(millet rice)
Sorghum 89 11 - 60 40
Pearl millet 85 9.5 5.5 59 41
Finger millet 89 - 11 60 40
Little millet 77 17 6 55 45
Kodo millet 63.2 29.3 7.5 50 50
Foxtail millet 77.2 16.8 6 55 45
Barnyard millet
77.5 16.5 6 56 44
Table 21. Average loss of food grain at different post harvest stages as a percentage
of production
Millets /Operations
Sickle reaping Transportation Threshing Winnowing Drying Storage Total loss
Sorghum 0.9-1.8 1-2 2.9-3.8 0.9-1.4 2-3 0.5-1.2 08.20-13.20
Pearl millet 1.2-2.1 1-2 1.9-2.8 0.5-1.5 4-7 0.7-0.9 09.30-16.30
Finger millet 1.4-2.3 1-2 2-2.4 1-1.5 5-7 0.8-1.1 11.2-16.3
Little millet 1.2-2.1 1-2 2.1-2.8 0.7-1.3 4-5 0.6-1.0 09.6-14.2
Kodo millet 0.8-1.7 1-2 2.2-2.5 1.4-1.7 5-8 0.5-0.9 10.9-16.8
Foxtail millet
1.4-2.3 1-2 1.8-2.3 0.9-1.4 4-7 0.6-1.2 09.7-16.2
Barnyard millet
1.5-2.4 1-2 2.1-2.9 1.5-1.9 5-9 0.9-1.2 12-19.4
54
Table 22. Equipments used for different post harvest operations in different sites
S.No Name of millet District Post harvest operations
Methods/ Equipments
1.
Barnyard millet and finger millet
Ramanathapuram a. Harvesting Sickle reaper
b.Threshing Tractor
c. Winnowing Manually
d. Drying Open yard
e. Storage In gunny bags
f. Dehulling Abrasive Roller
2.
Sorghum and Pearl millet
Coimbatore a. Harvesting Sickle reaper
b.Threshing Tractor
c. Winnowing Manually
d. Drying Open yard
e. Storage In gunny bags
f. Dehulling Abrasive Roller
3.
Little millet, Pearl millet, Foxtail millet, Sorghum and Kodo millet
Erode a. Harvesting Sickle reaper
b.Threshing Manually
c. Winnowing Manually
d. Drying Open yard
e. Storage In gunny bags
f. Dehulling Manual pounding
4.
Finger millet, Little millet, Finger millet, Foxtail millet and Kodo millet
Namakkal a. Harvesting Sickle reaper
b.Threshing Manually
c. Winnowing Manually
d. Drying Open yard
e. Storage In gunny bags
f. Dehulling Manual pounding
55
Ways to minimize loss:
In order to minimize loss, the following points have to be considered.
• Harvesting the grains at proper mature stage will reduce losses during post harvest
operations.
• Mechanised harvesting and threshing will improve efficiency, reduce labour and
minimize loss.
• Proper and clean drying yard has to prepared for drying grains. Because, field
drying results in loss of grains due to spillage and damage by livestocks.
• By adopting proper packaging material and intense care during transportation will
reduce losses.
• Proper storage structure will prevent grains from rodents and insects.
• Usage of appropriate dehulling machine for separation of husk from millet.
Machinery available to minimize the post harvest loses
Riding Type Reaper
56
Walk -in -type Reaper
Multi crop thresher
57
Combine harvester
58
Grain winnower
Drying yard
59
Grain Outlet
DOUBLE CHAMBER CENTRIFUGAL DEHULLER
The centrifugal dehuller consists of two dehulling chambers and the separation
chamber. In the dehulling chambers, opening out the husk and bringing out the grains
takes place, while separation of grains and husk takes place in the separation chamber.
The centrifugal dehuller works on the principle of impact where the grains fed are
rotated at high velocities within the impeller and thrown out to hit the casing. The husk is
split open due to impingement of the high velocity grains on the casing. Grain and husk
mixture comes out of the dehulling chamber. The mixture is taken to the separation
chamber and they are separated by means of a blower. Unpolished clean grains are
obtained from the grain outlet end and the husk is sucked by an aspirator and pushed out
to husk outlet.
Double chamber centrifugal dehuller
Dehulling chamber
Separation chamber
Feed hopper
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Table 23.
Performance of double chamber de-huller (single pass)
Millet Hulling efficiency, % Broken, %
Foxtail millet 88.50 6.50
Little millet 89.25 7.50
Proso millet 92.50 8.00
Performance of double chamber de-huller (Double pass)
Millet Hulling efficiency, % Broken, %
Kodo millet 86.00 9.50
Barnyard millet 84.50 10.0
The developed de-huller was evaluated for its performance with four millets
namely little, foxtail, kodo and barnyard millet. The trials were carried out by changing
the grain parameters (viz type of millet, moisture content, parboiling) and machine
parameters (number of impellers, type of casing, speed of impeller, no of vanes, etc) and
the hulling efficiency and broken percentage were calculated. Maximum hulling
efficiency of 88.50% and 89.25% was obtained in two passes for little and foxtail millet
respectively, with broken percentage range of 5 to 10%. The capacity of the de-huller is
75 kg/hr and is operated with 3 h.p. three phase motor.
61
Table 24. Recovery of kernel from millets (per 100kg of grain)
Millets Available kernel (with bran), kg
Conventional Processing
methods, kg
Double chamber Centrifugal dehuller, kg
Little Millet 78 (6) 65 75
Foxtail Millet 75(6) 64 72
Pearl Millet 68(7.5) 56 65
Kodo Millet 67(8) 55 64
NUTRIENT COMPOSITION OF DEHUSKED AND POLISHED MILLETS
Table 25. Composition of Nutrients in Little Millet
Nutrient Dehusked Polished
Moisture (g) 6.80 7.60
Protein (g) 11.40 9.50
CHO (g) 74.80 78.00
Fat (g) 5.40 3.10
Ash (g) 1.60 0.73
Calcium (mg/100g) 17.20 13.10
Phosphorus (mg/100g) 412.40 262.70
Iron (mg/100g) 13.45 9.30
Crude Fibre (g/100g) 9.24 6.00
62
Table 26. Composition of Nutrients in Foxtail Millet
Nutrient Dehusked Polished
Moisture (g) 6.59 7.48
Protein (g) 14.68 12.30
CHO (g) 65.18 60.90
Fat (g) 7.00 4.30
Ash (g) 1.90 0.72
Calcium (mg/100g) 38.25 31
Phosphorus (mg/100g) 453.00 290
Iron (mg/100g) 4.02 2.8
Crude Fibre (g/100g) 9.83 6.52
Table 27. Composition of Nutrients in Kodo Millet
Nutrient Dehusked Polished
Moisture (g) 6.62 7.15
Protein (g) 5.11 8.30
CHO (g) 86.12 65.90
Fat (g) 1.40 0.78
Ash (g) 1.80 0.90
Calcium (mg/100g) 33.88 27
Phosphorus (mg/100g) 326.00 188
Iron (mg/100g) 1.23 0.50
Crude Fibre (g/100g) 11.40 7.73
63
Table 28. Composition of Nutrients in Proso Millet
Nutrient Dehusked Polished
Moisture (g) 6.75 7.32
Protein (g) 15.87 12.50
CHO (g) 76.84 70.40
Fat (g) 2.00 1.10
Ash (g) 1.52 0.70
Calcium (mg/100g) 14 8.65
Phosphorus (mg/100g) 398.20 206.00
Iron (mg/100g) 2.02 0.80
Crude Fibre (g/100g) 5.38 2.10
Table 29. Composition of Nutrients in Barnyard Millet
Nutrient Dehusked Polished
Moisture (g) 6.63 7.23
Protein (g) 8.52 6.20
CHO (g) 80.76 65.50
Fat (g) 3.09 2.20
Ash (g) 1.70 0.74
Calcium (mg/100g) 28.63 20.50
Phosphorus (mg/100g) 426.00 280.00
Iron (mg/100g) 8.76 5.00
Crude Fibre (g/100g) 12.83 9.72
64
4. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
• The nutritionally rich millet varieties were studied for their nutrient content and
selected for the standardization of therapeutic foods (for diabetic, cardiovascular
disease, obesity etc.) and traditional foods consumed by the farmers replacing rice
and wheat.
• Millet based value added products like quick cooking millet mixes, instant food
mixes, traditional products, bakery products, pasta products, flaked and popped
products were highly acceptable.
• A survey was conducted on Post Harvest Technologies and Constraints faced by
farmers.
• The objective of the survey was to study the socio-economic status of the farmers in
the selected villages, to identify the main crop and intercrops cultivated, methods of
processing starting from harvest to storage, constraints faced by the women farmers
and the various efforts taken by them to overcome them.
• Facilities for threshing (yard), pearling and milling units are not available in the
villages.
• Small farmers are using roads for threshing whereas large farmers use their own
threshing yards made of cement or mud.
• Post harvest losses are high when threshed in the field itself.
• The unseasonal rains and hasty winds spoil the harvesting and drying operations.
• The farmers face shortage of labour for farming operations which tends to higher
wages and restriction of cultivation
• Hand pounding is done manually and only female labourers are involved in this
operation.
• Most of the farmers sell the grains in the markets @ Rs.20 to 25/- per Kg with in a
month
• Consumption of minor millets among farmers is very less.
65
5. WAY FORWARD
Conducting dietary survey to assess the nutritional status and consumption pattern
of the new geographies.
Standardization of therapeutic food products from millets for rural and urban
consumers.
Client oriented research for adoption of food products developed by various
clients including street vendors and small scale food entrepreneurs under different
contexts in terms of crops, agro-climatic regions and socio-political environments.
Popularization and commercialization of small millets through trainings and
demonstration programmes to empower women.
Incorporate the modification/improvement to harvest and thresh millets.
To popularize the dehulling and threshing machinery developed to the farmers.
66
6. REFERENCES
• AOAC. 1980. Official method of Analysis. Association of Official Analytical
Chemists. Arlington, Virginia. USA.
• FAO. 1995. ‘Sorghum and millets in human nutrition’. (FAO Food and Nutrition
Series, No. 27) Rome, ISBN 92-5-103381-1.
• FAO, 2012. Economic and Social Department: The Statistical Division. Statistics
Division.
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based millet biscuits. Advances in Applied Science Research. 1(3): 187-196.
• Malleshi, N.G. and Desikachar, H.S.R. 1981. Milling, popping and malting
characteristics of some minor millet. J. Food Sci. Technol., 22: 400-403.
• Malleshi,N.G. and N.A.Hadimani. 1993. Nutritional and technological characteristics
of small millets and preparation of value-added products from them. In: K.W. Riley,
S.C. Gupta,A. Seetharam, and J.N. Mushonga (Eds.), Advances in small millets
(pp.271–287). New Delhi: Oxford and IBH Publishing Co Pvt. Ltd.
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control diabetes. Current Science. 98 (6): 763-765.
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toxicity of ekanayakam (salaciareticulata) in albino rates. Ind. J. Nutr. Dietet., 46: 1-13.
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V.k. Bhakti and A. Shastri (Eds.). 2006. Millets in Handbook of Agriculture. ICAR
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