THE STUDY OF SOCIAL PROBLEMS

3Q2,000 years ago the Roman poet Juvenal wasin despair. Muggings in the street, womenengaged in traditionally male sport and menmarrying each other had convinced him thatthe social fabric was tearing. He became abrutal critic of all he saw, explaining his acer-bic writing thusIt is difficult not to writesatire, when you look at broken society.

The ancient idea that society is brokenfinds a spokesman in each generation. DavidCameron has decided that in this generation,that spokesman is him. The Leader of theOpposition has claimed repeatedly that welive in a broken society. It is a claim that oughtto be resisted.

There are good political reasons for aparty leader seeking power to assert thatsociety is broken. This does not make theobservation correct. Crime and social break-down are perpetual concerns. Anyone whobelieves modern experience to be novelshould try reading Henry Mayhew. Or try read-ing Charles Dickens. Or look at the engrav-ings of William Hogarth. Or read Tacitus forthat matter. That social problems have alwaysexisted does not diminish their importance, ofcourse. But it does call into question the roleplayed by recent changes in, for example,family structure or a decline in civility.

The biggest problem with the brokensociety claim is statistical. The singer LilyAllen pleaded last week on her website:

Please can everyone stop stabbing eachother in the UK. Sometimes, when followingthe news it seems as if everyone is indeedstabbing everyone else. Of course, they arenot. The Metropolitan Police recorded 70 knifekillings last year: the same as a decade ago.

This is 70 killings too many, but numbersmatter. There is a big difference between argu-ing, as Mr. Cameron does, that society is bro-ken, and believing, as we do, that there arebroken individuals, families and communities,having an impact on the law-abiding anddecent majority. If social breakdown is general,policies are needed to alter behaviour of theaverage citizen; if the problem is concentrated,so should be resources and attention. Arguingthat mainstream society has gone baddemonises the average teenager, the averagefamily, the average public space, the averageentrepreneur. Mr. Camerons broken societyrhetoric is in danger of leading him astray.

It is good to hear a Tory leader speak ofsocial problems with passion and determina-tion. There is too much crime, too muchpoverty; and 4.3 million people are claimingout-of-work benefits. Mr. Cameron is alsoinnovative and right to argue that socialchange need not always involve regulationand public spending. There are broken com-munities that urgently need attention. ButBritain is not a broken society.1

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WHAT IS A SOCIAL PROBLEM?HOW DO SOCIOLOGISTS USE

THEORETICAL PARADIGMS TO FRAMETHEIR THINKING?

WHAT IS THE ROLE OF RESEARCH ANDSOCIAL POLICY IN UNDERSTANDINGSOCIAL PROBLEMS?

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get the topic: WHAT IS A SOCIAL PROBLEM?

letting political ideology influ-ence our point of view? Theseare the core questions that thischapter strives to answer.

Certainly the idea of a brokensociety is nothing new to any-one who has turned on the tele-vision. But can we trust themedia or our political leaders toprovide a perspective fromwhich we can truly investigatethese issues? This book seeks toinvestigate the area of socialproblems from the point of viewof sociology. Like any other sci-ence, sociology is thorough,orderly, and logical. It engagesin the task objectively, withoutbias. The American SociologicalAssociation defines sociologyas the study of social life,social change, and the socialcauses and consequences ofhuman behavior.2

---David Cameron is a conservative politician in GreatBritain who regularly views social problems as a sign that

society is falling apart. Family breakdown, murder,and social unrest always seem to be popular topics for

politicians to bring up.

problems really any worse todaythan they were 100 years ago?

What makes something asocial problem? When I was incollege, a social problem meantI didnt have a date on Fridaynight. To a sociologist, a socialproblem is an issue that nega-tively affects a persons state ofbeing in a society. Often, socialproblems raise considerabledebate and controversy. Howcan we understand the prob-lems of society? What can wedo about these problems? Canwe do this objectively without

Prominent American sociologist C. Wright Mills (19161962) arguedthat people must understand how extraneous factors contribute to individ-ual situations. To do this, we must practice sociological imaginationthe ability to look beyond the individual as the only cause of success andfailure and see how society influences a persons outcome.3 Mills notedthat this macro (large-scale) point of view helps us understand how histo-ry and social structure affect people. Mills noted that we often see socialissues from our personal viewpoints only, interpreting actions at facevaluea micro (small-scale) view. Using only a micro point of view is detri-mental to a clear understanding of the world and can negatively influenceour perception of events.

Instead of assuming the worst, we should use our sociological imagi-nation and pause to consider that the man on the corner might be therefor a number of reasons. Maybe he really is a drug addict or simply lazy.Then again, he may be a victim of recent layoffs. Perhaps hes a casualtyof globalization, as his former employer downsized staff to hire cheap over-seas labor. He may even be mentally ill and unable to hold a job. Can wereally assume that we understand a person merely from seeing him on theside of the road? As Mills argued, the goal of sociology is to move beyondour own perceptions and toward a sociological imagination. Without con-necting what we know about society to the individual, we run the risk ofwrongly placing blame and misconstruing the way we interpret events. Ineveryday life, we make this mistake regularly, but sociological study is notthe same as our everyday common sense.

The Sociological ImaginationWere tuned into the news and weve heard the reports: The recent finan-cial crisis is the worst global recession since the Great Depression. Newsreports are filled with headlines of the housing collapse, the credit crunch,banks in trouble, and the Big Three automakers bankruptcy. Its likely thatyou or someone you know has been directly affected by the economicdownturn through job loss or bankruptcy. What other social problems doyou think will develop as a result of the current recession?

Consider this: you pull up to an intersection and notice a man with amakeshift sign; hes holding out an empty coffee can to the windows ofstopped cars. He looks weary, but certainly strong enough to work. At firstglance, do you immediately assume that his situation is entirely a conse-quence of drug addiction or laziness?

In Britain, the conservative partyhas been out of power for morethan 10 years, so discussingsocial instability sends a clearmessage, We didnt cause it,but we can fix it. Such ideasare often present in the UnitedStates as well. Political leadersare quick to lay blame and shirkresponsibility. Claims of corrup-tion and moral breakdown pro-vide fuel to a fire that many feelwill consume our society. Issuessuch as poverty, crime, anddrug abuse all make for greatdebating points, but are these

SOCIAL PROBLEM is an issue that negatively affects a personsstate of being in a society.

SOCIOLOGY refers to a systematic and objective science thatinvestigates human behavior in the social environment.

SOCIOLOGICAL IMAGINATION is the ability to look beyond theindividual as the cause for success and failure and see how onessociety influences the outcome.

MACRO is a large scaled point of view.

MICRO is a small-scale reference.

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The Essential Elements of aSocial ProblemTHE OBJECTIVE CONDITIONAn objective condition is any aspect of society that can be viewed with-out bias. The recorded number of violent crimes in Britain, the conditions inwhich people live in a certain region of the United States, or the number ofmass layoffs at an auto plant because of the recent economic crisis areexamples of objective conditions. All can be quantifiably measured, andgenerally are not arguable. For example, according to the U.S. Bureau ofLabor Statistics, 5.7 million jobs have been lost since the recession beganin December 2007.4 Take a look at the table below to see the difference inrate of unemployment between 2007 and 2008.

Overall, men experienced a slightly larger increase in unemploymentthan women. By April 2009, the total national unemployment rate for menand women combined was 8.9 percent, compared to 8.5 percent the priormonth, and 5 percent total in 2008.5

What are some of the objective effects of this? According to a studyconducted by the Association for Health Services, there is a relationship

between job loss and individual health problems. The results indicate thatdisplaced workers, in relation to their continuously employed counterparts,exhibit poorer physical functioning and higher levels of depression. Thestudy also found that job displacement in the later stages of a workerscareer can result in more negative health effects.6

SUBJECTIVE CONCERNSMost of my students approach the study of sociology with subjective con-cerns. Is the depletion of Social Security resources really a problem forthose in their early 20s? As a student of mine once said, Its not a socialproblem if it doesnt affect me. This is a perfect example of subjectivity,a judgment based on personal feelings and opinions rather than externalfacts. Subjectivity often appears in my classes when students rely on per-sonal experiences. Every semester it seems, a student claims to know arich welfare mom who sucks the taxpayers dry while riding around in hernew Cadillac Escalade. This usually leads the student to make the erro-neous conclusion that all welfare recipients are freeloaders. Is that reallypossible?

We can use the social imagination as a tool to step outside of our sub-jectivity, or biography, and look at the big picture, which includes boththe objective facts and the historical background of the situation. Thisdoes not mean that the subjective is not important, only that it must bebalanced against the objective reality of a situation. According to C.Wright Mills, [It is] by means of the sociological imagination that men nowhope to grasp what is going on in the world, and to understand what ishappening in themselves as minute points of the intersections of biogra-phy and history within society.7

Factors that Define a Social ProblemWhat is and is not considered a social problem can vary a great deal overtime. As you continue through this course, you will see that social prob-lems are common to all societies, and they often are latent results fromefforts to deal with certain social situations. For example, the idea thatpeople should take care of themselves leads to limited governmentinvolvement in housing, jobs, and other aspects of peoples lives. This canresult in members of the population being unemployed, homeless, and/orliving in substandard housing. Are such things socially caused? Perhaps,but what is certain is that they have social consequences for us all. Forexample, whether or not you care about the argument for a more gener-ous social service program, youll be dealing with the results of that deci-sion, either by encountering more beggars on the street or paying higherfederal taxes to fund the program.

Of course, not everyone agrees that such things are social problems. Inmy years of teaching, Ive found that students are more eager to classify thethings that directly affect them as social problems, while discounting theimportance of things that do not affect them. For something to be consid-ered a legitimate social problem, however, it must be agreed that it is aproblem, and that something can be done about it.

Other a factors influence how we define social problems as well. Letstake look at those now in more detail.

We often claim to know the cause ofevents based on our own assumptions.

Is this woman practicing sociological imagination or imposing personal beliefs?

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Source: Data from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Labor Force Statisticsfrom the Current Population Survey, CPS Table 24, Unemployed persons bymarital status, race, Hispanic or Latino ethnicity, age, and sex.

U.S. Unemployment Rates between2007 and 2008

Men (16 years and older) Women (16 years and older)

2007 2008 2007 20084.7% 6.1% 4.5% 5.4%

OBJECTIVE CONDITION is any aspect of society that can be viewedwithout bias.

SUBJECTIVITY refers to making judgments based on personalfeelings and opinions rather than external facts.

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HISTORY

History changes the definition of social problems. The issues that societyconsidered major in the past are often not that important in the present. Forexample, at one point in history a major concern in the United States washorse theftobviously, this is no longer an issue. Many of the problems weencounter today may also go the way of the horse thief. For instance, highgasoline prices and fear of an oil shortage may seem laughable 50 yearsfrom now when electric or magnetic motors are the norm.

Of course, history is often written by the powerful, and this influenceshow we view the problems of the past. Weve been taught In 1492,Columbus sailed the ocean blue, and he discovered the New World. Butaccording to political scientist Howard Zinn, no textbook accounts for thetorture, slave labor, or murder of approximately half of the 250,000natives that occurred as well.8 At the time, Columbus and the subse-quent European explorers probably felt that what they were doing wasright. And yet nowadays, killing, enslaving, and forcing people into reli-gious conversions would certainly be viewed differently.

CULTURAL VALUESJust as history defines social problems, so do values. Values are a part ofsocietys nonmaterial culture that represent standards by which we deter-mine what is good, bad, right, or wrong. As weve mentioned before, one

of the countrys largest current social problems is unemployment. But whydo you suppose this is? According to noted American sociologist RobinMurphy Williams Jr., there are certain dominant values held by people in theUnited States.9 In the diagram above, you can see five of these values, andhow they relate to the recent economic crisis.

Societies tend to define social problems according to their cultural val-ues. For example, in countries where womens education is devalued, itsnot seen as a social problem for girls to be illiterate. In our nation, this wouldbe shocking. Values matter.

CULTURAL UNIVERSALSA cultural universal is any aspect of ones social life that is commonto all societies. All societies experience births, deaths, crime, war, anda host of other issues. In response to these issues, they create socialcustoms to deal with them. For example, think back to a wedding youmay have attended or viewed on TV. Most likely, it was similar to all theothers youve seen: fancy clothes, lots of food, and friends and familygathered in celebration. Although the color of the dress or the wordingof the vows may differ, people from all over the world still deal with thesame issue: How do two people leave their childhood behind them andstep into their new, adult lives? Wedding ceremonies help make thisimportant step officialand fun.

From this perspective, social problems are also cultural universals. Inother words, every society has social problems, but how societies dealwith these problems can vary a great deal from place to place. For exam-ple, when I lived in Mexico, I remember my friends having a big celebra-tion on November 2, The Day of the Dead. As they explained, its a tradi-tional Mexican day to remember loved ones who have passed away. Inthe United States, many people use Memorial Day as an occasion to paytheir respects to fallen soldiers and departed relatives. Both cultures honortheir dead; they simply have different dates and rituals by which to do it.

VALUES are a part of a societys nonmaterial culture that representcultural standards by which we determine what is good, bad, right,or wrong.

CULTURAL UNIVERSALS are aspects of ones social life that arecommon to all societies.

Achievement and SuccessWhat is it that you want to accomplish in life? Many of

us attach success to our level of education. Success may

be impossible if we cant afford tuition.

Activity and WorkWe value ourselves by what

we do. Not having a job means idle time and this

means more time for surfing the web or surfing the

channels. No one respects a couch potato.

Material ComfortWithout an income, its

impossible to buy the things you and your family need, let alone things to make your life more comfortable. That new Mac Mini youve been eyeing isnt getting any cheaper in

times like this.

ProgressProgress often means moving forward to improve our lives.

However, in times of uncertainty we may feel like we are declining,

not progressing. This calls our values into question.

Individual PersonalityIf were successful in life, we tend

to believe its because weve made good choices. When faced with a global recession, however, its difficult to continue to believe that our fate is in our hands. This

leads to value conflicts.

Five Cultural Values Affected by a Global Recession

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direct mail and door-to-door visits to promote their cause. Their campaignwas successful because of these efforts.

The third element of a social movement encompasses the worthiness,unity, numbers, and commitments (WUNC) of the individuals involved.Social movements must be seen by the public as worthy of action.Recycling seemed worthy of action in my town, but carpooling has not.Unity refers to the idea that all members of the movement must agree onwhat they are trying to accomplishthe message must be focused.Furthermore, the movement must have enough people involved to avoidlooking like a small splinter group. Finally, members must be committedto the social change. Having WUNC gives the movement a fightingchance for success. A social movement typically goes through severalconventional stages of development: emergence, coalescence, bureau-cratization, and decline.11

AWARENESS is the ability of a person or group to bring a probleminto public recognition.

SOCIAL MOVEMENTS are activities that support or protest socialissues organized by nongovernmental organizations.

CAMPAIGNS are organized and ongoing efforts that make claimstargeting a specific authority in the society.

REPERTOIRE is the actions used to promote interest andparticipation within the movement.

WUNC refers to worthiness, unity, numbers, and commitments,which are the characteristics shown by members of a socialmovement.

AWARENESSThe last factor that defines a social problem is awareness. Awareness isthe ability of a person or group to bring a problem into public recognition.This often happens only after years of conflict. The battle for womens suf-frage, for example, lasted about 150 years before women finally achievedthe right to vote in the United States.10

Awareness can lead people to start social movementsactivities thatsupport or protest social change. These often start as grassroots move-ments formed by non-government organizations. For example, the CivilRights Movement started in churches in the South, as leaders worked toincrease the awareness of racial discrimination.

Charles Tilly, a twentieth century American sociologist, identified threeelements common to all social movements. The first involves campaigns,organized and ongoing efforts that make claims targeting a specificauthority in society. For example, at the outbreak of the war in Iraq, peace-ful protestors marched on Washington, hoping to demonstrate enoughnegative public response to end the war. Campaigns tend to focus on onespecific issue. Recently, a campaign to begin curbside recycling was suc-cessful in my hometown. Citizens voted for higher tax rates in order to beable to decrease the amount of waste that goes into landfills, and beganto put recycling bins in their driveways.

A repertoire is the second element of a social movement. Accordingto Tilly, this step involves the actions used to promote interest and partic-ipation within the movement. Anti-war campaigners might lobby, protest,or march to advertise their opinions. Depending on the situation, differentstrategies may be more useful. The recyclers in my neighborhood used

The Four Stages of Social Movements

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3 3

EMERGENCE is the first stageof a movement when peoplebecome aware of a problem andbegin to notice that others feelthe same way.

COALESCENCE is the secondstage of a movement whengroups reach out to other groupsand individuals to increase membership.

BUREAUCRATIZATIONis the third stage, when the movement becomes apolitical force.

DECLINE is the final stageof a movement when theorganization finally completesits goal or is dismissed asirrelevant.

Charles Tilly noted that all social movements travel through four stages: emergence, coalescence, bureaucratization, and decline. He also argued that all movements involve

campaigns, repertoire, and WUNC.

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The Three Major Paradigms ofSociologyThe issues that we define as social problems are complex in nature, andbecause of the increase in globalization and media outlets, they do notremain confined to one institution or geographic area. For this reason,sociologists must look carefully at a problem to see all its parts. So, howdo we begin to approach thinking about social problems? Historically,sociologists use either macro or micro paradigms, the theoretical frame-works through which scientists study the world. These include threemajor paradigms that well be focusing on in this text: functionalism, con-flict theory, and symbolic interactionism. Sociologists from each school ofthought analyze similar issues, but the manner in which they reach con-clusions differs. Lets explore each of these paradigms a little further.

FUNCTIONALISMFunctionalism is a theoretical framework that defines societyas a system of interrelated parts. Because functionalismfocuses on the entire social system and not just the individ-ual, its considered a macro approach to sociological study.If something happens to one component of a social struc-ture, the other components will automatically step in to helprestore balance. Think about an automatic HVAC (heating,ventilating, and air-conditioning) system. Some warehousesmanufacture products that must be stored at a certain temper-ature and humidity. If the temperature and humidity outsidegoes up or down, so do the conditions inside the ware-house. But if an HVAC system has been installed, itcan be switched on to maintain a stable tem-perature and humidity level. Social struc-tures operate in the same manner. If prob-lems occur, society automatically acts inways to offset these issues. Functionalismtreats society as relatively secureevery-thing that occurs has a purpose in thepreservation of stability.

Functionalists believe that the best wayto understand society as a whole is tounderstand how social institutions (such asfamily, education, and the economy) areinterrelated. Each institution has an impact,no matter how small it may seem; becauseeverything is connected, a butterfly effect

occurs. Heres an example: When the economy does poorly, it doesnt justaffect your wallet. Companies fold, jobs are lost, families go hungry, andchildren do poorly in school. Because societys balance is reliant on eachof its components, functionalism suggests that all social structures mustagree on values and norms. These values and norms create societys rulesand laws, thus regulating the relationships between institutions.

Lets take a quick look at a few prominent functionalists from historyand their beliefs.

Functionalists: Herbert Spencer (18201903) Society can be consid-

ered a living organism in which some are more apt to dealwith social dynamics and, therefore, adapt better to changesin the environment.12

Emile Durkheim (18581917) Social integration andsocial control hold society together. People view themselves asunified wholes, which helps them stay within the boundaries oftheir social structures rules and laws.13

Talcott Parsons (19021779) Society is a grand interrelat-ed system in which each individual is instrumental in keepingthe system functional. If one individual falters, society as a

whole will suffer.14

Robert Merton (19102003) Every action insociety has manifest functions (factors that lead to anexpected consequence) and latent functions (factorsthat lead to an unforeseen or unexpected conse-quence).15

CONFLICT THEORYConflict theory is a theoretical framework that views soci-ety as being in a constant struggle over a limited amount

of resources. Similar to functionalism, this theory alsouses a macro approach because it deals with the

interaction of multiple groups fighting togain power. For example, conflict the-

orists would examine how and whythe rift between the rich and thepoor affects the quality of educa-tion, health care, and living con-ditions of those groups. Thewealthy can afford better hous-ing and tend to live near peopleof the same status. Because ofthis, the values of these homesincrease, and the poor whooriginally lived there are forcedinto separate areas. Its no sur-prise that individuals who canafford to live in more expensive

Auguste Comte (17981857) coinedthe term sociology and proposed the

basic principles of functionalism.

think social problems: HOW DO SOCIOLOGISTS USE THEORETICAL PARADIGMSTO FRAME THEIR THINKING?

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PARADIGMS are theoretical frameworks through which scientistsstudy the world.

FUNCTIONALISM is a theoretical framework that defines society asa system of interrelated parts.

CONFLICT THEORY is a theoretical framework that views society asbeing in a constant struggle over scarce resources.

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SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISMSymbolic interactionism is a theoretical framework that focuses onhow individual interactions between people influence their behavior andhow these interactions can impact society. Unlike functionalism andconflict theory, this paradigm is a micro approach because it deals withindividuals, not groups or institutions. Symbolic interactionists analyzehow social interactions influence, create, and sustain human relation-ships. They believe that symbols such as body language, words, ges-tures, and images affect communication. Humans interact with oneanother according to the meanings of these symbols.

How did you first learn your name? Early on in your life your parentscalled you something, and you learned to respond to it. Now if someonecalls you by another name, youre unlikely to even move your head. Why?Because somewhere in your mind, you use this symbol to help form yoursense of self. It is this identity that you carry with you your entire life and usein interactions with others to create a social world.

We also learn the meaning behind symbols within social contexts. Forexample, a photo of Chinese revolutionary Mao Zedong probably has littleor no meaning to you, whereas a picture of George Washington might bringforth thoughts of freedom and rebellion. Despite both men being revolution-ary leaders, your cultural context influences how you view each photo.

Symbolic Interactionists: George Herbert Mead (18631931) Society is made up

of symbols that teach us to understand the world. We usethese symbols to develop a sense of self, or identity. We thentake this identity into the world to interact with other identitiesto create society.

Herbert Blumer (19001987) An individuals behaviordepends on the meanings weve already created throughexperience and interaction. We use an interpretive process tohandle and alter these meanings.

Erving Goffman (19221982) Social interactions are thebuilding blocks of society. Individuals alter their behavior con-stantly, requiring a complex series of actions and reactions.

Howard Becker (1928Present) Social interactions canlead to self-fulfilling prophecies that limit a persons outcomes.We place labels on people in society; individuals then feel asthough they must embody those labels.19

What Types of Questions DoSociologists Ask?Understanding the three paradigms can be confusing, especially whenapplying them to complicated social problems. Use the table on the fol-lowing page as a reference to help you remember the basic ideasbehind each theory. Often, the types of questions sociologists ask giveclues to their school of thought.

SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM is a theoretical framework thatfocuses on how individual interactions between people influencetheir behavior and how these interactions can impact society.

neighborhoods can also afford better schools for their children, therebyincreasing the chances that their offspring will also be more successful.Conflict theorists suggest that once inequality begins to take root, thoseat the top are unlikely to push for social change. This is because the eliteset standards and rules that benefit themselves, not the individuals orgroups below them. These standards also help keep the wealthy andpowerful in prominent positions.

Conflict theory can be applied to many institutions, not just social class.Conflict theorists apply their principles to age, gender, race, religion . . . anysocial construct in which inequality can be viewed as a social problem. Takea look at the list below to see the different ways in which conflict theoristsapproach this paradigm:

Conflict Theorists: Harriet Martineau (18021876) A societys actions are

often quite different from the values expressed by that society.For example, despite boasts of freedom and democracy in theUnited States, only men had the right to vote until 1920.16

Karl Marx (18181883) Capitalism breeds conflict betweenthe rich and the poor. The pursuit of wealth corrupts society andwill ultimately destroy it. Economic power should not lie in thehands of the elite few, but in the hands of all people.

W. E. B. Du Bois (18681963) Social equality is impossibleto achieve in corrupt social systems. The past strongly influencesthe present, such as the connection between past and presentdiscrimination against African Americans and all disadvantagedgroups.17

John Bellamy Foster (1953Present) Social unrest is aresult of unequal distribution of power and wealth. Capitalismcannot continue as is; the process of seeking short-termrewards and avoiding long-term consequences must bestopped if society is to continue.18

Symbolic interactionists are interestedin peoples reactions to cultural sym-

bols. How do you think someone fromNigeria would respond to these images?

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The Three ParadigmsHowAre They Interrelated?Often, the lines between micro and macro analysis blur. Most sociologistsI know follow in the footsteps of Max Weber (VAY-bur), a famous social sci-entist who in many ways defied being put into any one of these categories.Like conflict theorists, Weber asserted that social class is one of the mostimportant influences in the outcome of our lives. Power disparities betweenthe classes often dictate who succeeds in a society and who does not.However, he also took a more functionalist approach, arguing that societyat its most efficient will naturally run like a bureaucracy: One leader presidesover a group of smaller organizations that all share a common goal. At thesame time, Weber incorporated symbolic interaction into his theories, not-ing that values influence peoples goals and behaviors. Weber understoodthat sociologists arent naturally immune to personal biases, and he urgedhis colleagues to separate their private values from their professional work.

Like Weber, modern sociologists often find themselves taking on theroles of functionalist, conflict theorist, and symbolic interactionist inter-changeably to best analyze todays social problems. Few of us arepurists; can you think of ways these theories overlap?

Emerging ParadigmsOther paradigms exist, apart from the major three. Lets take a look atsome of the more modern approaches to sociological theory.

FEMINIST THEORYFeminist theory is a female-centered, interdisciplinary approach that seeksto demonstrate how women fit into the social world. Feminists often askquestions such as, Why is the social world the way that it is? and Canwe change the social world to make it a fair place for all people? Feministsare also interested in how race, ethnicity, social class, and age interact with

gender to determine the outcomes for individuals. There are three promi-nent feminist theories:

Gender-inequality theories: Womens experiences of the socialworld are not equal to those of men. Such theories focus onsexist patterns that limit womens opportunities for work, edu-cation, and other social needs.

Theories of gender oppression: Men purposefully maintaincontrol over women through discrimination and the use ofpower; this leads to oppression.

Structural oppression theories: Womens oppression is rootedin capitalism; patriarchies keep women on the margins of thesocial world.

EXCHANGE THEORYExchange theorists suggest that our social experiences consist of aseries of costs and rewards. People inherently seek to maximize theirrewards and minimize their costs, resulting in social action. Exchangetheory often appeals to thinkers on a micro levelfor example, why dowe choose one mate over another? If youre dating someone and theeffort youre exerting makes the relationship feel like the cost is higherthan the reward, youre likely to end the relationship. But exchange the-ory also has a macro point of view. For example, do you suppose its inthe best interest of a country to export all manufacturing jobs to othernations that can provide cheaper labor? In calculating the value of theexchange, we must consider not only the short-term reward (the imme-diate profit, in this case), but also the potential long-term costs (econom-ic collapse when transportation of goods is interrupted, for example).

ENVIRONMENTAL THEORYEnvironmental theory is the most recent paradigm to emerge in sociology.This theory combines social thought and ecological principles to discoverhow environmental policies influence society, and how attitudes toward theenvironment have changed over time. Environmental theorists oftenattempt to understand how societies adjust to ecological changes. Forexample, how many people can live in a specific area? This amount isknown as carrying capacity. Often we believe that humans are an excep-tion to the ecological limits of carrying capacity. However, for environmen-tal sociologists, humans are merely one type of organism sharing the sameecological space with other organisms. How do societies adapt to theselimits? If they fail to adapt, will they continue to survive? These types ofquestions are at the center of environmental theory.

Core Questions of the Three Paradigms

Functionalists Conflict Theorists Symbolic Interactionists

Approach to Analysis Macro Macro Micro

Core Questions

1. What are the componentsof society?

2. How do these componentsrelate to each other?

3. What keeps society inbalance?

4. What are the expected andunexpected consequencesof an event?

1. How are wealth, power,opportunities, andresources divided withinsociety?

2. How do individuals orgroups maintain theirwealth and power?

3. Which groups thrive insociety and why?

1. What influence doindividuals have on thecreation of a socialstructure?

2. In what manner does socialinteraction impact humanrelationships?

3. Do individuals alter theirbehavior depending onsetting? If so, why?

GENDER-INEQUALITY THEORIES focus on sexist patterns that limitwomens opportunities for work, education, and other social needs.

THEORIES OF GENDER OPPRESSION refer to a situation in whichmen purposefully maintain control over women throughdiscrimination and the use of power, leading to oppression.

STRUCTURAL OPPRESSION THEORIES refer to the fact thatwomens oppression is rooted in capitalism; patriarchies keepwomen on the margins of the social world.

Sometimes, it takes a financial collapse to remind consumers to spend responsibly, but functionalists

trust that society will rectify its own misdoings.What are some other ways in which society seeks torestore balance?

Conflict theory suggests thatthere is anongoing

struggle forwealth and

power creating

inequality.How mightthe housing

collapse advanceclassism in the

United States?

In order foreveryone to

agree onwhether or not

society is broken, we would all haveto have a common understanding ofwhat society is supposed to be. Do

we all share the same ideas?

WRAP YOUR MIND AROUND THE THEORY

FUNCTIONALISMFrom a functionalist point of view, society

cant be broken. Systems evolve due to needs thatmust be met, and social structures exist to balance society. The

housing collapse triggered financial instability in many areas, but peopleand institutions create reforms to counterbalance volatility. For example, after

years of heavy borrowing, consumers will now begin to adopt practices of net sav-ing. Social problems that exist are the result of dysfunctions of the system; however,

these dysfunctions do not indicate that society is broken, as David Cameron insists. Toa functionalist, fixing society merely involves tinkering with it.

CONFLICTTHEORYModern conflict theorists look atsocial problems, often focusingon how different structures con-tribute to the existence of thoseproblems. If one were to argue,like David Cameron, that societyseems broken, a conflict theoristwould likely suggest that those withthe most money and power are theones who broke it.

SYMBOLICINTERACTIONISM

A symbolic interactionist mightask, What does brokenmean? The definition willchange depending on yoursocial status. If youre poor, its

likely that one of your concerns ishaving enough food to feed your

family. If youre rich and powerful,odds are you wont think twice

about obtaining your next meal. Beforewe define and/or deal with social problems, wemust first acknowledge their existence. Thenext step is to find new ways to view thesituation so that these same problemswill be avoided in the future.

?IS SOCIETY BROKEN? 11W

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discover solutions to social problems:WHAT IS THE ROLE OF RESEARCH AND SOCIALPOLICY IN UNDERSTANDING SOCIAL PROBLEMS?

Research MethodsSociology is more than a school of thought or a philosophy of life. It is a sci-ence that attempts to discover facts and connections between people andthe social world in which they live. The only way in which sociologists cantruly understand and solve social problems is by studying and conductingscientific research. Like all science, however, sociology has its limits. It pro-vides tools to help us study the social world, but many of these must befully understood in order to avoid false conclusions.

This section will familiarize you with the various aspects of sociologicalresearch. Research methods are the scientific procedures that sociolo-gists use to conduct studies and develop knowledge about a particulartopic. Was David Cameron thinking like a sociologist when he hypothe-sized that society was broken? What does broken mean? How would

you go about measuring a societys broken-ness? What would societylook like if it were fixed? What would fixing it mean? Anyone can com-ment on society, but it takes a lot more effort to solve its problems. The firststep is to understand the specific terms and research methods that soci-ologists use.

OBJECTIVITYFor sociologists, objectivity is the ability to conduct research withoutallowing the influence of personal biases or prejudices. As Max Weber firstadvised, sociologists must set aside all private values and preconceivednotions to study a subject objectively. Personal experiences and politicalaffiliations are two major biases that most of us find hardest to keep incheck. Do you think you could objectively analyze the war in Iraq if your sonwas stationed in Baghdad? Could you study pedophiles impartially if yourchild was victimized by one? Objectivity is difficult, but essential to socio-logical research.

So, how do we think objectively? According to Weber, the only way todraw accurate conclusions is to completely detach yourself from the sub-ject. When you do this successfully, youre able to accomplish verstehen,an understanding of the action from the actors point of view.20

RESEARCH METHODS are scientific procedures that sociologists useto conduct research and develop knowledge about a particular topic.

OBJECTIVITY refers to the ability to conduct research withoutallowing the influence of personal biases or prejudices.

Choose a Topic

Determine what you want to study by deciding what questions you want answered. You might select a social problem that you believe needs immediate attention, or you might base your decision on past studies.

Conduct aLiterature Review

Form a Hypothesis

Source: Earl Babbie, The Practice of Social Research 8th edition (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1998).

CollectData11 22 33 44 65

A literature review isa study of relevant academic articles and information. You dont want to plagiarize others writings of course, but you can analyze existing articles to obtain other viewpoints and get ideas for your own research.

A hypothesis suggests how variables relate (you can think of it as an educated guess.) From the hypothesis, youll develop your theory; a comprehensive and systematic explanation of events that lead to testable predictions. When you specify terms quantifiably, youreoperationalizing the variable.

The method used to find information is known as a research design. To make a design reliable, you must measure your variables the same way every time. If your research is valid, youre actually measuring what you set out to measure, and not being misled by unrelated variables. There are three main types of studies in sociology. Compara-tive studies use data from different sources and evaluate these data against each other.

4

The Six Steps of Social Research

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VARIABLESOnce you train yourself to view social prob-lems objectively, the next step is to deter-mine the variables in the situation. Variablesare simply things we want to know about.For example, we may want to know ifhaving a college degree affectsthe likelihood of having a job. Butwe may also want to know if thefindings vary depending on apersons degree choice,race, or gender. Each ofthese is a variable.

There are two maintypes of variables in socio-logical research: independ-ent and dependent.Independent variablesare factors that are deliber-ately manipulated in anexperiment, and depend-ent variables are theresponse. So, the depend-ent variable depends onthe independent variable.In our previous example,having a college degree isthe independent variable,

INDEPENDENT VARIABLES are variables that are deliberatelymanipulated to test the response in an experiment.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES are the responses to the manipulatedvariable.

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whereas employment status is the dependent one. This is because webelieve that employment depends on education. Of course, such a studywould be rather simple. Do teachers and engineers have the same unem-ployment rates as social workers and art history majors? Probably not.

To determine what effect, if any, a college degree has on a personsemployment status, you must control for other variables that might influ-ence the results and lead to false conclusions. Control variables are fac-tors that are kept constant to accurately test the impact of an independ-ent variable. If you compare the rate of unemployment of people with col-lege degrees to the rate of unemployment of people without collegedegrees, you must be sure that other factors such as race and genderare equivalent. In short, control variables take into account other featuresthat might influence the outcome.

CAUSE AND CORRELATIONPerhaps one of the most misunderstood concepts in research is the differ-ence between cause and correlation. In common speech, we frequentlyclaim causality when it doesnt exist. Its common to remark that a personmade me mad when in fact it was you choosing to get angry. In socio-logical research, a causal relationship is one in which a condition or vari-able leads directly to a certain consequence. Such a finding is rare in soci-ology; some have even argued that its impossible. Why? This is exploredin the sections that follow.

CausationCausation is the relationship between cause and effect. For example, theH1N1 virus, a subtype of the swine influenza, causes flu-like symptoms.Therefore, if you catch swine flu, you must have caught the virus. But beingexposed to someone with the virus doesnt necessarily mean that you willget sick. Why? Because, just like with any common cold, being around asick person does not mean you will necessarily catch his or her disease.The virus causes the illness; being around someone doesnt cause the ill-ness. Of course, if you hang around with people who have the flu, yourelikely to catch it yourself. Being around an infected person is correlated withcatching the disease.

CorrelationUnlike causation, correlation is an indication that a factor might be con-nected to another factor. What does this mean for us in sociology?Correlation tells us that the variables were studying are related in someway. In sociological research, we have numerous correlations and almostno causations. Lets say, for example, that those people who have collegedegrees are more likely to have jobs than those who dont attain such highlevels of education. In this example, there is a correlation between educa-tion and employment rates. However, this doesnt mean that having a col-lege degree means automatic employment (especially in the current U.S.economy). There are many other factors we must consider, such as age,race, location, and so forth.

Correlations exist in three forms: positive, negative, and spurious.

1. A positive correlation involves two variables moving in aparallel. In other words, the variables must increase or decreasetogether. For example, its likely that a family who defaults on its mortgagepayments will lose its home to foreclosure. Although both variables have anegative impact, they show a positive correlation because they both movein the same direction.

2. A negative correlation occurs when the variables move inopposite directions. If a community spays or neuters more of

N1,553 Internet users. Margin of error is 3%.Source: Pew Internet & American Life Project April-May 2008 Survey.

CONTROL VARIABLES are variables that are kept constant toaccurately test the impact of an independent variable.

CAUSAL RELATIONSHIPS are relationships in which a condition orvariable leads to a certain consequence.

CAUSATION is the relationship between cause and effect.

CORRELATION is an indication that one factor might be the causefor another factor.

POSITIVE CORRELATION involves two variables moving in a parallel.

Cloud Computing Activities by Different Age CohortsInternet users in each age group who do the following online activities (%)

1829 3049 5064 65+

Use webmail services such as Hotmail, Gmail, or Yahoo! mail 77 58 44 27

Store personal photos 50 34 26 19

Use online applications such as Google Documents orAdobe Photoshop Express

39 28 25 19

Store personal videos 14 6 5 2

Pay to store computer files online 9 4 5 3

Back up hard drive to an online site 7 5 5 4

Have done at least one activity 87 71 59 46

Have done at least two activities 59 39 31 21

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their pets, the community members would notice fewer strays wanderingthe streets. This situation results in a positive result, but its still a negativecorrelation because the variables move in different directions.

3. The third form of correlation is spurious, meaning not genuineor authentic. A spurious correlation occurs when twovariables appear to be related, but actually have separate causes. Forexample, the number of violent crimes generally increases in summermonths. The consumption of ice cream also increases in summermonths. Does this mean that ice cream causes violence? Certainly not.It could be the warm weather, the longer days, or one of many otherfactors. As you work your way through this course, be careful to avoidmaking spurious correlations.

INTERPRETING TABLESYoure likely to encounter many tables and graphs when youre evaluat-ing statistical data. This type of information is helpful because it meanssomeone has already taken the time to collect and organize the informa-tion for you; all you have to do is interpret it. Even if youve had experi-ence with scientific tables before, here are some tips to help you interpretdata faster and more accurately. a look at the table on the previous pageand walk through the steps below.

1. Read the table and figure out why someone created itwhat isthe information trying to tell you? In this example, the researcherwants to convey that use of the Internet varies between age groups. Whatelse might this tell you?

2. Pay attention to subheadings; they often exist to present newinformation necessary for analyzing the contents of the table. Inthis case, the subtitle clarifies that the data represent the percent ofInternet users in multiple age groups who participate in the followingonline activities.

3. Read any information printed below the table. This is whereyoull find the source of the original material and any otherinformation the author wants you to understand. In this table, youll notethat the number (N) of people surveyed was 1,553 and that the study waspublished in early 2008. The source information also tells us exactly whereto find the original data.

ETHICAL CONCERNSSociological research, especially when it deals with social problems, is oftena snapshot of society at its worst. You may be discouraged to learn that notmany sociologists spend their time researching the dining trends of rich,healthy, happily married couples. In sociology, we need to study the worstproblems in society to be able to solve them. Sometimes, our researchinvolves sensitive topics such as prostitution or drug abuse. Sociologistsmust approach these issues ethically and with delicacy. Ethics is a systemof values or principles that guide ones behavior. The American SociologyAssociation provides five universal principles that all sociologists mustadhere to in their studies.

Researchers must be professionally competent, limiting their studiesto areas in which theyve had previous experience. Personal beliefs andopinions must be ignored because all sociologists have a professionaland scientific responsibility. They must also show integrity and nevercoerce their subjects into telling them what they want to hear. Likewise,scientists need to show respect for peoples rights, dignity, and diversity.Discrimination is detrimental to any form of research and goes against the

NEGATIVE CORRELATION occurs when the variables move inopposite directions.

SPURIOUS CORRELATION occurs when two variables appear to berelated, but actually have separate causes.

ETHICS refers to a system of values or principles that guide onesbehavior.

QUANTITATIVE DATA refer to data based on numbers and used formacro analysis.

QUALITATIVE DATA refer to information that may include words,pictures, photos, or any other type of information that comes to theresearcher in a non-numerical form.

TRIANGULATION is the process of using multiple approaches tostudy a phenomenon.

very foundations of sociology. Last, researchers have a social responsi-bility to mankind. Sociologists must remember that the work they doaffects real human lives.

Why so many rules? Because research subjects shouldnt have to beworried about their safety while being studied. If they have concerns, itwont be long before no one will want to participate in sociological research.

Quantitative and QualitativeMethodsThere are two categories of research that sociologists use. Neither of themis necessarily linked to functionalism, conflict theory, or symbolic interac-tionism. There are no set rules about which methods must be applied toeach of the theories, but sociologists have found that each framework usesdata in different ways. Quantitative and qualitative data are the foundationfor these differences.

QUANTITATIVE METHODSThe term quantitative data refers to data based on numbers and used formacro analysis. Physicians often ask their patients to rate their pain on ascale of 1 to 10. The patients response would be an example of this typeof data. Another type of quantitative data are research numbers, such asthe number of recent arrests involving domestic violence. Methods ofquantitative analysis include participant observation, case studies, andethnographies.

QUALITATIVE METHODSQualitative data may include interviews, pictures, photos, or any othertype of information that comes to the researcher in a non-numerical form.These data tend to be used for microanalysis. A good example is contentanalysis, a type of research in which sociologists look for common wordsor themes in newspapers, books, or structured interviews. Methods ofqualitative analysis include cross-sectional, comparative, and longitudinalstudies, as well as surveys and experiments.

TriangulationThink back to our discussion of overlapping theories. We learned thatsociologists often frame their thinking by borrowing ideas from thethree major paradigms. Similarly, sociologists sometimes use bothqualitative and quantitative methods to collect data from differentangles, providing a larger picture of an issue or event. Triangulation is

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the process of using multiple methods to study a phenomenon. Forexample, perhaps you want to study the influence of after-school recre-ation on high school students. First, youd want to look at quantitativedata such as the number of students who are and arent involved inafter-school activities. Then, youd conduct a qualitative study thatlooks into what these students do during their free time and how theactivity, or lack thereof, influences their education and grades. The ideais that if you cant gather the information you need from one type ofdata, the others will help fill in the gaps.

Social Policy and StatisticsSOCIAL POLICYSocial policies refer to deliberate attempts on the part of society to solvesocial problems. For example, unemployment insurance is a social policydesigned to help people survive until they regain employment. In times ofeconomic hardship, such policies keep many people from losing theirhomes.

CIVIC ENGAGEMENTStudents in my classes always seem to ask the same question, Whatcan we do? Throughout this book, well address this issue in the SocialPolicy section of each chapter. One simple thing you can do to helpresearch and understanding of your own country is to comply with theU.S. Census Bureaus population survey. The census is importantbecause it tracks data about changes in communities, which aids socialpolicy efforts. For example, a census might indicate that the number ofsenior citizens in a specific area has doubled since the last survey wasconducted, or that the number of children under five years old hasdecreased dramatically. Planning committees use this information to allo-cate resources accordingly, such as building new retirement communities

in lieu of day care centers or elementary schools. It also makes sure thatyour community receives its equal share of government funding, and itdetermines your areas representation in Congress.

The Census Bureau has made major changes to the 2010 censussurvey to ensure accuracy of the populations socioeconomic status. Asof 2010, every home will receive a short form to tally the number of resi-dents; these ask only for very basic demographic information. But anoth-er affiliated pollthe American Community Surveywill capture detailedsocioeconomic data every year, instead of every 10 years. A small sam-ple of the population will receive this survey on a rotating basis. If theprocess works, no home will receive the survey more than once in fiveyears. Similar to the Bureaus long form, The American CommunitySurvey is important because it aids government in determining whichareas need resources for issues such as health care, education, trans-portation, and regional improvements. Why is the U.S. Census Bureaumaking this change? Cost savings are the main reason. Sampling a pop-ulation is extremely expensive and difficult to do, but if the sample istaken accurately, the advantages are well worth the cost. One way youcan aid public policy research is by filling out this survey when it arrivesat your door.

STATISTICSSocial policies are often hotly debated. People on all sides seem to havestatistics to back up their points of view. But are all statistics equal? Take alook at a few pointers below to help you determine the value of the statis-tics you read.

Five Pitfalls of Statistical Analysis

Be cautious of headlines. Newspapers and newscasts willdo anything they can to sell their story. Sometimes they pres-ent faulty information in their attempts to form concisereports. For example, Eye Drops off Shelf, Man Struck byLightning Faces Battery Charge, and Lack of BrainsHinders Research are all examples of actual published head-lines. These are comical, but you can imagine how you couldbe misinformed if you took headlines at face value withoutresearching further.

SOCIAL POLICIES refer to deliberate attempts on the part of societyto solve social problems.

Participant O

bservation:

Research in w

hich the socio

lo-

gist poses as

a citizen of the

environment h

e or she is

studying. In th

e mid-1900s,

Canadian res

earcher Ervin

g

Goffman joine

d the staff of a

mental hospit

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an

assistant athle

tic director. By

getting to kno

w the patients

in

an uninhibited

, natural enviro

n-

ment, he was

able to study

them as they

really were.

Ethnographie

s:

Research aim

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lar

group of peopl

e. In his book

Appalachian V

alley, author

George Hicks

describes how

he moved to th

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Valley to stud

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the local peop

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Types of Field Reseach

Case Studies: Research investigating a person

or event in detail in order to

study a complex issue through

an individual case. In 2006,

Stanford University conducted a

study on Facebook CEO (and

Harvard dropout) Mark Zucker-

berg to investigate the growing

influence of technology and

social networking in todays

society.

Secondary Data Analysis:The process of using and analyzing data others have collected. The Internet contains many data sources for contemporary sociologists such

as census data, crime statistics, and journal entries.

Double-check the definition of terms. Becautious of studies that include terms thatmay be interpreted in various ways. Forexample, two researchers may not identi-cally define the term biracial. BarackObamas mother was a white womanof English descent, and his father wasa black man from Kenyayet he isconsidered the first African Americanto be elected president. Of course, heembraces this label, but some mightdispute its accuracy.

Investigate the source. Its importantto find out who has stake in the studyyoure researching. The agencies thatfund projects are often affected bythe outcomes. Its no surprise thatthe tobacco industry has funded andpublished multiple studies disprov-ing the harmful effects of smoking.

Beware of selective causes. Besure that the results of the data areactually attributable to the outlinedcauses. Remember our discussion onindependent and dependent variables; hasthe researcher taken into account all appli-cable explanations?

Watch out for hidden agendas. Politiciansand policymakers have timetables and goals.Be cautious of statistics and claims present-ed as factsthose people with an agendamay manipulate or adjust data to benefitthemselves.21

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From Classroom to Community Looking at Issues of Inequality}Aaron was a sophomore at Kings College inNew York City. He had worked hard in highschool and received several scholarships thatallowed him the chance at higher education.His family had lived in poverty as long as hecould remember, and he often wondered whyno one on the outside was doing anything tohelp them. The memories of his childhoodwere still very vivid in his mind, so it was nosurprise that he chose the topic of poverty forhis Social Problems final paper. When theymet during office hours, his professor askedhim exactly what he was planning to do in hisassignment. Aaron replied, Solve poverty. Noone really cares about it, and obviously noones doing anything about it.

The professor providedAaron with a copy of TheEnd of Poverty, by JeffreySachs, and suggested that hestart by researching individualpeoples opinions.Over the course of a month, Aarons projectled him to investigate local attitudes towardthe poor. To his surprise, he found that themajority of students surveyed shared similarviews about the causes and nature of poverty,and had many of the same ideas about howto solve it. Claiming that no one cares is thesame as declaring that society is brokenitdoesnt tell the whole story. Poverty,

Aaron wrote in his paper, isnot an individually causedevent, but a result of collec-tive decisions made by manydifferent independent actors.However, poverty does havemany implications to the indi-viduals trapped within. Ifsociety is serious about end-ing such social problems, itmust first look into the issueof inequality. When handing back thepapers, the professor remarked that he had

the makings of a conflict theorist. Aaron simply

replied, Power to the people.

Sociologists can only collect so much data through studies, surveys, and experiments.Sometimes, the best way to understand society is to study it in action.>

>>

WHAT IS A SOCIAL PROBLEM 4any condition that affects the quality of life for an individual or societyas a whole; social problems are defined by history, cultural values, cul-tural universals, and awareness

HOW DO SOCIOLOGISTS USE THEORETICAL PARADIGMS TOFRAME THEIR THINKING? 8

macro theories such as functionalism and conflict theory help sociolo-gists understand how individuals affect society as a whole; symbolicinteractionisma micro paradigmhelps explain how events or circum-stances affect how individuals interact with each other

WHAT IS THE ROLE OF RESEARCH AND SOCIAL POLICY INUNDERSTANDING SOCIAL PROBLEMS? 12

sociologists develop solutions to social problems through specificresearch methods and organized steps; social policy functions whenpeople become aware of problems and take the initiative to solve them

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social problem is an issue that negatively affectsa persons state of being in a society. 4

sociology refers to a systematic and objectivescience that investigates human behavior in thesocial environment. 4

sociological imagination is the ability to lookbeyond the individual as the cause for successand failure and see how ones society influencesthe outcome. 4

macro is a large scaled point of view. 4

Theory

CONFLICT THEORY 8 looks at how societys structures contribute to conflict, such as the

broken economic system of the United States those in power use their dominance to benefit themselves and ignore

the pain inflicted on others

FUNCTIONALISM 8 the system evolves due to some need that must be met people create social structures to meet these needs and balance

society; society isnt broken; we just need a tune-up

Key Termsmicro is a small-scale reference. 4

objective condition is any aspect of society thatcan be viewed without bias. 5

subjectivity refers to making judgments basedon personal feelings and opinions rather thanexternal facts. 5

values are a part of a societys nonmaterial cul-ture that represent cultural standards by whichwe determine what is good, bad, right, or wrong. 6

cultural universal is any aspect of ones social lifethat is common to all societies. 6

awareness is the ability of a person or group tobring a problem into public recognition. 7

social movements are activities that support orprotest social issues organized by nongovernmen-tal organizations. 7

campaigns are organized and ongoing effortsthat make claims targeting a specific authority inthe society. 7

get the topic: WHAT IS A SOCIAL PROBLEM?

SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM 9 asks What does broken mean?; definitions vary for different

socioeconomic groups acknowledges that social definitions are always in flux to define and/or deal with social problems requires that we first

acknowledge their existence and, secondly, find new ways to viewthe situation so that they will be avoided in the future

The Sociological Imagination 4The Essential Elements of a Social

Problem 5Factors that Define a Social

Problem 5

The Three Major Paradigms of Sociology 8What Types of Questions Do Sociologists Ask? 9The Three ParadigmsHow Are They

Interrelated? 10Emerging Paradigms 10

Research Methods 12Quantitative and Qualitative Methods 15Triangulation 15Social Policy and Statistics 16

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1. Which of the following is an example of an objective condition?

a. Poverty affects education.b. Society is broken in Britain.c. The unemployment rate is higher than it was two years ago.d. Society is responsible for displaced workers and the homeless.

2. Geoff was an employee of the Chrysler Corporation for 40 years. LastJune he was laid off, causing his family to lose their home. Geoff isupset, but he understands that Chryslers bankruptcy will ultimately leadto a stronger overall economy. Geoff is approaching his crisis through

a. subjectivity.b. functionalism.c. a sociological imagination.d. a conflict theorist point of view.

3. A negative correlation exists when

a. variables increase or decrease together.b. a variable is not able to be measured.c. two variables move in the opposite direction.d. one factor directly causes a negative effect.

4. Which of the following is not an example of conflict theory?

a. The powerful exploiting the common citizenb. Homelessness as a sign of inequality in a societyc. The upper class controlling a communitys wealthd. Society thinking of the homeless as bums because the upper

class has labeled them as such

5. A symbolic interactionist might try to discern the expected and unex-pected consequences of an event.

a. Trueb. False

ESSAY

1. Do you agree or disagree with David Camerons assessment thatsociety is broken? On what factors do you base your opinion?

2. What are the most pressing social problems in your community?What action is your community taking to solve these issues?

3. Suppose that you wanted to study the causes of the recent housingcollapse. What research methods would you use and why?

4. Howard Becker believes that the labels assigned to a person oftenlead to self-fulfilling prophecies. What labels do you believe societyhas placed on you? Have you taken on these identities?

5. Considering what you now know of the three major paradigmsfunctionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionismwhichdo you use most often to view the world around you? Why?

WHERE TO START YOUR RESEARCH PAPER

For a wide range of information on labor economics and statistics, goto http://www.bls.gov/

For a guide to sociological Internet sources, check outhttp://www.socioweb.com/

To read an in-depth sociology dictionary, go tohttp://www.webref.org/sociology/sociology.htm

To review an abbreviated version of the American SociologicalAssociation (ASA) style guide, go to http://www.asanet.org/

For U.S. Census facts and information, go to http://www.census.gov

To learn more about social policy, see http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/

ANSWERS: 1. c; 2. b; 3. c; 4. d; 5. b

repertoire is the second element of a socialmovement. 7

WUNC refers to worthiness, unity, numbers, andcommitments, which are the characteristicsshown by members of a social movement. 7

paradigms are theoretical frameworks throughwhich scientists study the world. 8

functionalism is a theoretical framework thatdefines society as a system of interrelated parts. 8

conflict theory is a theoretical framework thatviews society as being in a constant struggleover scarce resources. 8

symbolic interactionism is a theoretical frame-work that focuses on how individual interactionsbetween people influence their behavior and howthese interactions can impact society. 9

gender-inequality theories focus on sexist pat-terns that limit womens opportunities for work,education, and other social needs. 10

theories of gender oppression refer to a situa-tion in which men purposefully maintain controlover women through discrimination and the useof power, leading to oppression. 10

structural oppression theories refer to the factthat womens oppression is rooted in capitalism;patriarchies keep women on the margins of thesocial world. 10

research methods are scientific procedures thatsociologists use to conduct research and devel-op knowledge about a particular topic. 12

objectivity refers to the ability to conductresearch without allowing personal biases orprejudices to influence them. 12

independent variables are variables that aredeliberately manipulated to test the response inan experiment. 13

dependent variables are the responses to themanipulated variable. 13

control variables are variables that are keptconstant to accurately test the impact of an inde-pendent variable. 14

causal relationships are relationships in whicha condition or variable leads to a certain consequence. 14

causation is the relationship between cause and effect. 14

(continued)

Sample Test QuestionsThese multiple-choice questions are similar to those found in the test bank that accompanies this textbook.

correlation is an indication that one factor mightbe the cause for another factor. 14

positive correlation involves two variables mov-ing in a parallel. 14

negative correlation occurs when the variablesmove in opposite directions. 15

spurious correlation occurs when two variablesappear to be related, but actually have separatecauses. 15

ethics refers to a system of values or principlesthat guide ones behavior. 15

quantitative data refer to data based on num-bers and used for macro analysis. 15

qualitative data refer to information that mayinclude words, pictures, photos, or any othertype of information that comes to the researcherin a non-numerical form. 15

triangulation is the process of using multipleapproaches to study a phenomenon. 15

social policies refer to deliberate attempts onthe part of society to solve social problems. 16

Remember to check www.thethinkspot.com for additionalinformation, downloadable flashcards, and other helpful resources.