Studying Theory, Doing Research

Articles collated by Kyo Zapanta

COM 630

2nd Semester SY 2013-2014

DISCLAIMER: This is a compilation of excerpts from the references I used for my report. None this is my original word.

What is Theory?

A theory is an explanation of something. It is typically an explanation of a class of phenomena, rather than a single specific event. Instead of explaining why there is a brown stain on my tie, a theory would explain why men's ties often have brown stains.

Theories are often expressed as chains of causality: this happens because this and that happened just when something else happened and this in turn happened because ... you get the idea!

Theories are sometimes confused with hypotheses, because both seem to consist of statements relating one variable to another. Well, it's true that some theories are little more than hypotheses. But good theories are a bit different. Here are some of the differences:

theories are more general

theoriesexplain whythings are related, whereas hypotheses just say they are related

theories generate hypotheses; hypotheses are implicit in theories

As discussed in the next section, one way that theoriesexplainis by providing a sense ofprocess or mechanismfor how one thing is related to another. This is very important.

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Theory is a statement of concepts and their interrelationships that shows how and/or why a

phenomenon occurs. (Corley & Gioia 2011)

A system of constructs (conceptual abstractions of a phenomenon that cannot be directly observed)

Set of concepts that open up a perspective on empirical phenomena

A theory [as a frame] does not present a prediction of the results; it only suggests a particular, explicitly defined framework within which the details of a case and the data can be assessed (Alasuutari 1996, 376)

Longino (1996): Theory is a specification of a structure, which is not true or false but just a structure that is realized in some systems

Bacharach (1989): theory is a statement of relations among concepts within a boundary set of assumptions and constraints. It is no more than a linguistic device used to organize a complex empirical world. . . . the purpose of a theoretical statement is twofold: to organize (parsimoniously) and to communicate (clearly) (p. 496).

Theory is an interpretive framework: set of concepts that offer a way of looking at the research phenomena

What Theory is Not

Sutton, R. I., & Staw, B. M. (1995). What theory is not.Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 40, No. 3, pp. 371-384.

In the article "What theory is not" by Sutton and Staw (1995), it is noted that many researchers mistake references, data, variables/constructs, diagrams, and hypotheses for theory. The authors also urged journals and editors to be more receptive to papers that investigate a part of rather than an entire theory, and utilise illustrative (qualitative) rather than definitive (quantitative) data.

Sutton and Staw (1995) explained that:

References are not theory, because researchers need to explain which concepts and arguments are adopted from sources and how they are linked to the theory.

Data are not theory, because data merely describes which empirical patterns were observed and theory explains why empirical patterns were observed. It does not constitute a theory. Researchers who use qualitative data must develop causal arguments (theory) to explain why findings are observed.

Concepts/Variables/constructs are not theory. The key issue is why certain variables are more important and thus chosen, not what variables/construct are in the theoretical model.

Diagrams are not theory, because they don't explain why. However, the authors acknowledged that a good theory is often representational and verbal.

Hypothesis (or predictions) are not theory, because hypotheses are statements about what is expected to occur, not why it is expected to occur.

A strong theory answers why and delves into the underlying processes. According to the authors, strong theories are missing in many quantitative research papers, as they seem to be overly concerned with methodology. There is a need to rebalance the selection process between theory and method. However, the authors also noted that theory is often over-emphasized in qualitative research. In light of these findings, the authors argued that the best papers are those that strike a fine balance between theory and method.

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Integrating Theory and Research

Note: The presentation from which this was lifted had no name of the creator, but this was taken from www.slideshare.net. And the data were pasted as they appeared on the slides.

Three ways of thinking about theory

That which underpins research design

Theory as paradigm

That which may inform our understanding of the phenomenon under investigation

Theory as a lens

That which may emerge from our study

Theory as new knowledge

Theory as paradigm

Philosophical assumptions about what constitutes social reality (ontology)

What we accept as valid evidence of that reality (epistemology)

The means by which we investigate that context (methodology)

The means by which we gather evidence (methods)

4 key paradigm questions

1. What do we believe exists? (Ontology)

Fundamental beliefs that someone holds about the nature of the social world and its relationship to individual social actors.

Social reality exists independent of the observer

Social reality is constructed by people in particular social, cultural and historical contexts

2. What constitutes reliable & valid knowledge? (Epistemology)

Causal relationships between observable phenomena

Interpretations of meaning

3. How we produce reliable and valid knowledge? (Methodology)

What Strategies of inquiry (Creswell) are appropriate to our ontological/epistemological position

(descriptive/confirmatory explanatory/exploratory)

(Flat world theory Exploring other cultures)

4. How can we collect data to test our theories or describe social phenomena? (Methods)

What data collection approaches/tools are appropriate to the the methodology

Theory as a lens

Existing theory(s) which seek to explain how aspects of social reality work (models). E.g.

Models of learning

Behaviourist (Skinner); Constructivist (Piaget); Social constructivist (Vygotsky); Deep learning (Anderson)

Models of professional/expertise development

Situated learning; Communities of practice (Lave; Wenger)

Models of second language acquisition

Krashens SLA theory; Oxfords S2R;

Theory as new knowledge

Adaptation, revision or confirmation of existing theory

Generation of new theory

Relates to conceptual framework

Thinking Quantitatively and Qualitatively

Note: this is from the same presentation as the previous item.

Models of Social Research

1. Qualitative Study

An inquiry which seeks to understand social phenomena through the exploration and interpretation of the meanings people attach to, and make sense of, their experiences of the social world

Associated with the Interpretive paradigm

Key principle: Subjectivity/interpretation

Theory developed: during and/or after (a posteriori) the study (theory generation)

Process: Inductive

2. Quantitative Study

An inquiry based on testing a theory composed of variables, measured with numbers and analysed with statistical procedures, in order to determine whether the predictive generalisations of the theory hold true

Associated with: Post/positivist paradigm

Key principle: Objectivity

Theory stated: before (a priori) the study (theory verification)

Process: Deductive

Theory of Media vs. Theory of Society

Note: I cant remember where I lifted this from, but again, theyre not mine

Social Theory explanation of a social phenomenon

Media Theory explanation of a media phenomenon in relation to society

Examples of Social Theories

Note: Again, the presentation had no name on it, but it was taken from www.slideshare.net

Functionalist Theory

Society is a combination of different parts/institutions such as:

Family, religion, economy and educational system

These institutions secure the evolution and growth of society

Functionalists see society as a homeostatic system--consisting of interrelated parts

The normal state of society is one of equilibrium

Because society is an open system, it is usually in a dynamic state, or a state of near equilibrium

Society changes as it seeks to integrate conditions which act upon it

The changes, however, are piecemeal and very gradual

The purpose of these changes is to bring society to a place of equilibrium

Liberal Theory

Freedom of individual

reason over anything

became a powerful force in the Age of Enlightenment.

was used in many countries.

gave people hope that there was still freedom around the world.

people should have the right to speak for themselves and on their own.

women should have as much freedom as men.

that people should have the rights to say, think, or do whatever they wanted as long as it did not harm or involve anyone else.

Conflict Theory

Grounded in the ideas of Karl Marx

Claims that the engine for social change is conflict between unequal social classes

More recent conflict theorists suggest that conflict between various groups, not necessarily class-based, also fuels social change

Such groups include the National Organization for Women, the Christian Coalition and many others

Examples of Media Theories

Effects Theory

(Hypodermic Syringe, Innoculation) what the media does to audiences

Mass media/mass communications make people powerless to resist messages the media carries

Consumers are drugged, addicted or hypnotised

Effects theories taken up with protection of young, link between violence and the media

Historical stuff

Frankfurt School: Marxist German intellectuals reacting against Nazi propaganda and US advertising suggested the power of big corporations and the state to control how we think

Rise of TV in the 50s and 60s fear of danger to children

Influence of behavioural scientists (think of Pavlovs dogs) media may reinforce attitudes through repetition

Bobo doll experiment (1963) Bandura and Walters children imitate adult treatment of doll seen on film

Moral panics: Concern, hostility, consensus, disproportionality, volatility

Whats wrong with effects theories?

The problems with violence are often social/psychological not to do with the media

The media can often be positive rather than harmful

Criticism of the media using the effects model is often politically motivated

There is not real grounding of research and theory for this model.

Uses and Gratification Theory

what audiences do with the media

Users of the media use media texts to satisfy certain needs

Based on Maslows Hierarchy of needs

U&G: Denis McQuail (1987)

Information: finding out about the world; seeking advice; satisfying curiosity; education; gaining security though knowledge

Personal Identity: reinforcement of personal values; models of behaviour; identifying with valued other; gaining insight into oneself

Integration and Social Interaction: gaining insight into circumstances of others; identifying with others; basis for conversation with others; substitute for real life companionship; helping to carry out social roles; enabling connection with family friends and society

Entertainment: escapism; diversion; relaxation; cultural or aesthetic enjoyment; filling time; emotional release; sexual arousal

U&G: James Lull (1990)

Structural

Environmental: background noise; companionship; entertainment

Regulative: keeping time; part of pattern of daily life

Relational

Communication Facilitation: experience illustration; common ground; conversation starter; anxiety reduction; agenda for talk; value clarification

Affiliation/Avoidance: physical/verbal contact/neglect; family solidarity; family relaxant/conflict reducer; relationship maintenance

Social Learning: decision making; behaviour modelling; problem solving; value transmission; legitimization; information dissemination; education

Competence/Dominance: role enactment; role reinforcement; substitute role portrayal; intellectual validation; authority exercise; gatekeeping; argument facilitation

U&G: Problems

We may not have choice about what we watch

Neglects any aspects of effects theories

Neglects socio-economic factors

Reception Theory

Reception theory states that media texts are encoded by the producer- they are loaded with values and messages.

However, the text is then decoded by spectators. However, different spectators will decode the text in different ways, perhaps not in the way the producer intended.

Stuart Hall identified three types of audience readings (or decoding) of the text:

Dominant or preferred

how the producer wants the audience to view the media text;

E.g. Watching a political speech and agreeing with it

Negotiated

a compromise between the dominant and oppositional readings, where the audience accepts parts of the producer's views, but has their own views on parts as well.

E.g. Neither agreeing or disagreeing with the political speech or being disinterested

Oppositional

when the audience rejects the preferred reading, and creates their own meaning for the text;

E.g. Total rejection of the political speech and active opposition

Lots of factors could affect whether we take the dominant, oppositional or negotiated reading.

Life experience

Mood at the time of viewing

Age

Culture

Beliefs

Gender

Normative Theories

Descriptive statements are falsifiable statements that attempt to describe reality.

By contrast, normative statements affirm how things should or ought to be, how to value them, which things are good or bad.

Normative theories of the press: Ideal views of how journalism/ media ought to, or are expected to, operate what is desirable in relation to both structure and performance): Journalists/ journalism should or could do this or that.

Authoritarian Theory

Applies to authoritarian societies, but can also be seen in less authoritarian societies (particularly in times of war, terrorism)

Depends on the media forms specially Print Journalism and TV - subject to greater control in some countries

Assumptions

Press should do nothing to undermine vested power and interests;

Press should be subordinate to vested power and authority;

Press should avoid acting in contravention of prevailing moral and political values;

Censorship justified in the application of these principles;

Criminalisation of editorial attacks on vested power, deviations from official policy, violation of moral codes.

Media as instrument / mouthpiece to publicise and propagandise government ideology and actions.

Absolute power of state versus subservience of the individual press freedom a right vested in the state.

Whatever the publications are, must to have a license for all.

Examples: Fascist regimes, some African countries, communist countries

Current example from the modern world; Albania

Libertarian Theory

Modernity: Rise of democracy, religious freedom, expansion of economic freedom, philosophical climate of the Enlightenment

Undermined authoritarianism emphasis on personal freedom and democracy

The idea that people are rational can distinguish between truth and falsehood, and between good and evil.

Classical Liberal Perspective

Free market as foundation of free media;

Freedom to publish without prior restriction independence from government;

Public has access to wide diversity of opinion (only limitation on freedom to publish is public willingness to pay);

Market-based diversity promotes public rationality free marketplace of ideas and information as a self-righting mechanism, minimises bias and exposes weak arguments and evidence.

Another Strand in Liberal Tradition

Media as representative agency (Fourth Estate alongside executive, legislative and judicial authorities)) or as a watchdog protecting the public (individuals rights), overseeing the state.

Watchdog reveals abuses in the exercise of state authority this role overrides all other functions of the media and dictates the form in which the media should be organised, i.e. the free market.

The best stories are those that afflict the comfortable and comfort the afflicted, the ones that the people of power do not want told. Peter Beaumont and John Sweeney, The Observer

But, can muckraking journalism co-exist with objective journalism?

Objectivity: As newspapers gradually lost their party affiliations, journalists worked to establish their independence as searchers after objective truth.

Independence from government control and influence if media is subject to public regulation it will lose its bite as a watchdog.

Press is source of information and platform for expression of a range of divergent opinions; enables people to monitor government and form ideas about policy.

Curran: Society seen as an aggregation of individuals medias representative role conceived primarily in terms of articulating public opinion, which is the sum of individual opinion. How should media relate to representative structures as distinct from individuals role of media in mediating class and other conflict in society? Also, little account of how power is exercised through non-state structures, like property and patriarchy.

Is a free press and end in itself, a means to an end, or an absolute right?

Freedom can be abused. Absolute freedom is anarchy. Mill: The freedom of the individual constrained by the freedom of other individuals. (My freedom ends where yours begins).

Boundaries of freedom defined in such a way that they do not infringe the rights of the individual.

Abolition of censorship; but, also the introduction of press laws designed to protect individual rights (protection of reputation, privacy, moral development of individuals or groups, security of the state) could override the right of the presss freedom to publish.

Assumptions

Press should be free from any external censorship;

Publication and distribution should be accessible to any individual or group with a permit or license;

Attacks on governments or parties should not be punishable;

No coercion to publish anything;

Freedom of access to information.

Social Responsibility Theory

Hutchins Commission, 1947 reaffirmed the principles of freedom/ independence but added to them the notion of social responsibility.

Media operate in capitalist economy, but some believe the market can function benignly (not just in the interests of shareholders but of all people).

Premises (McQuail):

Media have important function to fulfil in society (support democratic political principles);

Media are under obligation to fulfil their social functions (transmission of information and creation of a forum for different viewpoints);

Independence of media emphasised in relation to their responsibility towards society;

Media should meet certain standards.

Solutions to Problem (of Reconciling Freedom with Responsibility)

Regulation

Promotion of political and cultural pluralism independent public institutions for control of broadcasting

Balance of public and private ownership

Professionalism:

Codes of conduct

Training and continuing development of professionalism, to advance and nurture balanced and impartial news presentation.

More Principles (McQuail):

Media should accept responsibilities towards society

Media should fulfil responsibilities by setting professional standards with regards to the supply of information and the truth, accuracy, objectivity and balance of their reporting

Media should apply self-regulation

Media should avoid publicising information that can lead to crime, violence or social disruption, as well as information that can offend ethnic or religious minorities

Media collectively should represent all social groups and reflect the diversity of society by giving people access to a variety of viewpoints and opportunity to react to them.

Society entitled to high standards and intervention justifiable if the media fail to meet these standards.

Soviet Communist Press

Western notions of freedom of press rejected by Soviet block as being fundamentally unfree because Western media are controlled by capitalist economic interests (prevent them from publishing the Marxist truth).

Communist press no profit motive. It means that it did not foreground special, elite interests in Soviet society

Assumptions

Media should act in the interests of and be controlled by the working class

Media should not be under private control

Media should perform positive functions for society, such as socialisation (to make people conform to desirable norms), education, the supply of information, motivation and mobilisation of the masses

Media should respond to the desire and needs of their recipients

Society has right to use censorship and other legal measures to prevent and punish anti-social publication

Media should reflect complete and objective view of world and society in terms of Marxist-Leninist principles

Media should support communist movements everywhere

Development Media Theory

This theory is related to Media operations and development in the third world countries

Media are seen as struggling to fulfil social and Political duties in these states

In this theory it is considered that BAD NEWS IS GOOD NEWS because it commands bigger headlines (Watson; 2003)

The theory illustrates that the bad news story must be treated very carefully as it can be damaging for the nations; specially economical growth

It also explains the importance of cultures of different culture of third world

It can be said that this theory is both; The Theory of State Support and Resistance

Democratic-Participant Theory

This theory tells about (Mcquail)

The new media trends and developments in the world

Criticism on the private and public monopoly in mass media

Democratic Participant Theory doesnt warrant a separate normative classification

About the new focus towards positive strategy of media institutions

It stands for defence against commercialization and monopoly

Resistant to centralism and bureaucracy (watson; 2003)

The role of receiver in the process of communication and incorporated receivers rights

To receive the relevant information

To reply

To be informed on the local issues

To use the new means of communication for interaction and social setting of community, interest group or sub-culture

The material I used on New Media is on a separate file. Its pdf so.you know