Successful Emotions

Katharina Lochner

Successful Emotions

How Emotions Drive Cognitive Performance

With a preface by Prof. Dr. Michael Eid

123

Katharina LochnerHamburg, Germany

Dissertation at Freie Universität Berlin, 2015

ISBN 978-3-658-12230-0 ISBN 978-3-658-12231-7 (eBook)DOI 10.1007/978-3-658-12231-7

Library of Congress Control Number: 2015959157

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I d e d i c a t e t h i s b o o k t o m y p a r e n t s R e n a t e a n d N o r b e r t L o c h n e r who a l w a y s s u p p o r t e d m e .

P r e f a c e

I n t e l l i g e n c e is t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t g e n e r a l p r e d i c t o r f o r p r o f e s s i o n ­al s u c c e s s a n d is o n e o f t h e m o s t o f t e n a s s e s s e d a b i l i t i e s i n p e r s o n ­n e l s e l e c t i o n . I n t e l l i g e n c e is c o n s i d e r e d a r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e t r a i t a n d t h e a s s e s s m e n t o f i n t e l l i g e n c e s h o u l d d e p e n d o n o n e ' s a b i l i t y a n d n o t o n s i t u a t i o n a l i n f l u e n c e s . I n o r d e r t o m a k e v a l i d d e c i s i o n s i n p e r s o n n e l s e l e c t i o n t h e r e s u l t o f a n i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s h o u l d t h e r e ­fore n o t b e p r o n e to t h e m o m e n t a r y s t a t e o f a c a n d i d a t e . H o w e v e r , p s y c h o l o g i c a l m e a s u r e m e n t s a l w a y s t a k e p l a c e i n a s i t u a t i o n a l c o n t e x t . T e s t s c o r e s c a n b e i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e o u t e r s i t u a t i o n s u c h as t h e t e s t i n g r o o m b u t a l s o b y t h e i n n e r s i t u a t i o n o f a n i n d i v i d u a l s u c h as t h e c u r r e n t m o o d o r e m o t i o n s . I n t h e p r e s e n t b o o k K a t h a r i n a L o c h n e r a n a l y z e s t h e i n f l u e n c e o f m o o d a n d e m o t i o n s o n r e a s o n i n g , a n i m p o r t a n t f a c e t o f i n t e l l i ­g e n c e , i n a c o m p l e x e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d y t h a t g o e s b e y o n d p r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h o n t h i s t o p i c . S h e g i v e s a v e r y t h o r o u g h o v e r v i e w o f p r e ­v i o u s r e s e a r c h o n t h e i n f l u e n c e s o f m o o d a n d e m o t i o n s o n i n t e l l e c ­t u a l p e r f o r m a n c e s , a n d d e s c r i b e s d i f f e r e n t p r o m i n e n t t h e o r i e s i n detail. E v e r y o n e w h o is i n t e r e s t e d i n g e t t i n g a c u r r e n t u p - t o - d a t e o v e r v i e w o f t h i s i m p o r t a n t t o p i c w i l l f i n d a c o n c i s e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e s t a t e o f t h e a r t i n r e s e a r c h o n a f f e c t a n d i n t e l l i g e n c e . I n h e r e m p i r i c a l s t u d y s h e f o c u s e s o n a w i d e r a n g e o f d i f f e r e n t e m o t i o n s a n d h y p o t h e s i z e s t h a t p o s i t i v e e m o t i o n s h a v e a s t r o n g e r i n f l u e n c e t h a n n e g a t i v e e m o t i o n s a n d t h a t a c t i v a t i n g e m o t i o n s are m o r e i m p o r t a n t than d e a c t i v a t i n g e m o t i o n s . H e r h y p o t h e s e s a r e s c r u t i n i z e d u s i n g t h e i n t e r n e t a s s c i e n t i f i c t o o l f o r c o n d u c t i n g r a n ­d o m i z e d e x p e r i m e n t s . D i f f e r e n t e m o t i o n a l s t a t e s are s u c c e s s f u l l y i n d u c e d b y d i f f e r e n t m o v i e s a n d h e r h y p o t h e s e s are a n a l y z e d i n a l o n g i t u d i n a l study. T h e r e s u l t s o f t h i s s t u d y s h o w t h a t h e r h y p o t h e ­s e s c a n n o t b e c o n f i r m e d . B e c a u s e t h e s t a t i s t i c a l p o w e r o f h e r s t u d y w a s s t r o n g e n o u g h , t h i s r e s u l t is o f h i g h i m p o r t a n c e f o r r e s e a r c h

P r e f a c e V I I

o n e m o t i o n , i n t e l l i g e n c e a n d p e r s o n n e l s e l e c t i o n . I t shows t h a t t h e e m o t i o n a l q u a l i t y o f t h e c u r r e n t s t a t e o f a c a n d i d a t e is o f m i n o r i m p o r t a n c e f o r t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f r e a s o n i n g scores. T h i s r e s u l t s h e d s n e w l i g h t o n t h e e m o t i o n a l b a s i s o f i n t e l l e c t u a l a b i l i t i e s a n d w i l l h a v e i m p o r t a n t c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a b i l i t y t e s t scores. T h e b o o k is t h e r e f o r e n o t o n l y o f i n t e r e s t f o r r e s e a r c h ­ers b u t a l s o f o r p r a c t i t i o n e r s i n t h e f i e l d o f a p t i t u d e a s s e s s m e n t . T h e c l e a r a n d c o n c i s e s t y l e i n w h i c h t h e b o o k is w r i t t e n m a k e s i t a c c e s s i b l e to a b r o a d a u d i e n c e a n d I a m c o n v i n c e d t h a t t h e b o o k w i l l find t h e a t t e n t i o n t h a t i t d e s e r v e s .

M i c h a e l E i d

A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t s

F i r s t a n d foremost I w o u l d like t o thank: m y supervisor, P r o f . D r M i c h a e l E i d , a n d m y boss, D r A c h i m P r e u B , for giving me t h e i r support, trust, a n d patience. W i t h o u t them, this t h e s i s w o u l d n o t have b e e n possible. D u r i n g four years t h e y w e r e a source o f i n s p i ­ration, knowledge, a n d m o t i v a t i o n t o me. I w o r k e d o n this p r o j e c t outside o f w o r k a n d I w o u l d like t o thank: D r A c h i m P r e u B a n d A n d r e a s L o h f f , t h e managing directors o f cut-e, t h e c o m p a n y I w o r k with, for the time a n d resources t h e y gave m e for this thesis. Moreover, a b i g thank: y o u goes t o D e n n i s B e e r m a n n , w i t h w h o m I s p e n t i n n u m e r a b l e h o u r s o n Skype dis­cussing o u r P h D studies, for giving me a l o t o f valuable advice a n d t h o r o u g h l y r e a d i n g a n d c o m m e n t i n g o n m y r e s u l t s section. I am v e r y grateful to m y c o l l e a g u e s C a r o l i n L e h m a n n a n d M a r i o M a r t e l l a who h e l p e d me t r e m e n d o u s l y w i t h t h e e d i t i n g o f t h e f i l m clips, and, even m o r e importantly, p r o g r a m m e d t h e online e x p e r i ­m e n t for m e w h i c h w o r k e d so e x t r e m e l y w e l l a n d allowed m e to g a t h e r t h e n e c e s s a r y data. I w o u l d like t o thank: M a r i e P i c k , M i z z i W a l k e r , a n d D r A l e x a n ­d e r Z i m m e r h o f e r who gave m e v a l u a b l e i n p u t o n m y e x p e r i m e n t i n the p r e - t e s t i n g phase. A b i g thank: y o u goes to F e n n e g r o / J e D e t e r s , M a i k e W e h r m a k e r , a n d M i z z i W a l k e r who t h o r o u g h l y p r o o f - r e a d chapters o f the m a n u s c r i p t a n d gave m e v a l u a b l e i d e a s a n d feedback o n these. I am v e r y grateful to m y colleagues A n a b e l a C o s t a , A n j a H e i n s , A n t j e E x n e r , D i a n a K i i r n e r , M a i k e W e h r m a k e r , N a d j a M i n k , N i n a G a I l e r , R i c h a r d J u s t e n h o v e n , S u s a n D i e t z , a n d T o b i a s C a s t i l l o who m a d e sure I was free o f obligations a t w o r k during p h a s e s t h a t r e q u i r e d me to c o n c e n t r a t e o n m y PhD. Finally, I w o u l d l i k e t o thank: H e t t y M a i n k a for h e r p r i c e l e s s sup­p o r t b e f o r e a n d during m y PhD disputation.

C o n t e n t

A B S T R A C T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x v n

I N T R O D U C T I O N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1 O N L I N E A S S E S S M E N T AND O N L I N E S U R V E Y S . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.1 D e f i n i t i o n , A d v a n t a g e s , a n d D i s a d v a n t a g e s ........................................ 8 1.1.1 Advantages ......................................................................................... 8 1.1.2 Disadvantages ..................................................................................... 9

1.2 Q u a l i t y o f O n l i n e D a t a ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••............................ 10 1.2.1 Equivalence o f Paper- and-Pencil and Online D a t a ........................... lO 1.2.2 Fulfilment o f T e s t Quality Criteria ................................................... 13

1.3 R e p r e s e n t a t i v e n e s s o f O n l i n e S t u d i e s ................................................ 15 1.3.1 Sampling ........................................................................................... 16 1.3.2 Retention ........................................................................................... 17 1.3.3 Standardisation and Controllability o f the Situation ......................... 18

1.4 D e s i g n o f o n l i n e s t u d i e s ...........•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 18

1.5 S u m m a r y ........•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 2 0

2 I N T E L L I G E N C E AND I N T E L L I G E N C E T E S T I N G . . . . . . . 2 1

2.1 M o d e l s o f I n t e l l i g e n c e ............................................••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 23 2.1.1 Two-Factor Theories ........................................................................ 23 2.1.2 P r i m a r y f a c t o r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 2.1.3 Integration o f the models .................................................................. 25 2.1.4 Multidimensional Model .................................................................. 30 2.1.5 Other Theories o f Intelligence .......................................................... 33 2.1.6 Summary ........................................................................................... 33

x C o n t e n t

2.2 I n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 4 2.2.1 R a v e n ' s Progressive Matrices (RPM; R a v e n e t ai., 2003) ............... .35 2.2.2 W o o d c o c k - l o h n s o n T e s t o f Cognitive Abilities ( W o o d c o c k e t al.,

2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 2.2.3 B e r l i n Intelligence Structure T e s t (BIS Test; l a g e r e t al., 1997) ..... . 3 6 2.2.4 Adaptive M a t r i c e s T e s t (AMT; H o r n k e e t al., 2 0 0 0 ) ....................... .39

2.3 S u m m a r y •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 4 0

3 A F F E C T , M O O D , AND E M O T I O N S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 3

3.1 M o d e l s o f AITect •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 44 3.1.1 Structural M o d e l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45 3 . 1 . 2 M o d e l s o f D i s c r e t e Emotions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49 3.1.3 H y b r i d M o d e l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 0 3 . 1 . 4 D o m a i n - S p e c i f i c M o d e l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53

3 . 2 M e a s u r e m e n t o f M o o d a n d E m o t i o n s ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 53 3.2.1 A s s e s s m e n t o f t b e P h y s i o l o g i c a l C o m p o n e n t . . ................................. 53 3 . 2 . 2 A s s e s s m e n t o f t b e E x p r e s s i v e C o m p o n e n t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53 3.2.3 A s s e s s m e n t o f t b e A f f e c t i v e C o m p o n e n t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 4

3 . 3 E l i c i t a t i o n o f M o o d a n d E m o t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 8 3.3.1 O v e r v i e w o f M o o d a n d E m o t i o n E l i c i t a t i o n M e t h o d s ..................... . 5 9 3 . 3 . 2 O n l i n e M o o d I n d u c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 3.3.3 Reviews o f M o o d and E m o t i o n I n d u c t i o n P r o c e d u r e s ..................... 65

3 . 4 S u m m a r y ........•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 66

4 A F F E C T AND C O G N I T I O N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 9

4.1 A f f e c t a n d C o g n i t i o n i n t h e B r a i n ............•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 71 4.1.1 N e u r o p s y c h o l o g i c a l T h e o r y o f Positive Emotions (Ashby, Isen, &

Turken, 1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 4.1.2 A f f e c t a n d I n f o r m a t i o n P r o c e s s i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

C o n t e n t X I

4 . 2 C o g n i t i v e A p p r o a c h e . : M o o d - I n d u c e d T h i n k i n g S t y l e ••••••............. 7 6 4 . 2 . 1 T h e T h e o r y o f P e r s o n a l i t y S y s t e m s I n t e r a c t i o n ( p S I T h e o r y ; K u h l ,

4 . 2 . 2 4 . 2 . 3

1 9 8 3 a , b ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 F e e l i n g s - a s - I n f o r m a t i o n T h e o r y ( S c h w a r z , 1 9 9 0 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 9 S o m a t i c M a r k e r s H y p o t h e s i s ( D a m a s i o , 1 9 9 4 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

4 . 2 . 4 E m p i r i c a l F i n d i n g s o n t h e T h r e e T h e o r i e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 0

4.3 C o g n i t i v e A p p r o a c h e s : M e m o r y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 4 . 3 . 1 M o o d C o n g r u e n c y and S t a t e D e p e n d e n c y ( B o w e r , 1981 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 2 4 . 3 . 2 C o g n i t i v e C o n t e x t ( I s e n , 1 9 8 4 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 4 . 3 . 3 T h e B r o a d e n - a n d - B u i l d T h e o r y o f P o s i t i v e E m o t i o n s ( F r e d r i c k s o n ,

1 9 9 8 , 2 0 0 1 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 4

4 . 4 A U e n t i o n - T h e o r e t i c a l A p p r o a c h e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 6 4 . 4 . 1 Coe U t i l i s a t i o n ( E a s t e r b r o o k , 1 9 5 9 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 6 4 . 4 . 2 T h e R e s o u r c e A l l o c a t i o n M o d e l ( E l l i s & A s h b r o o k , 1 9 8 8 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 7

4 . 5 A c t i v a t i o n - T h e o r e t i c a l A p p r o a c h e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 9

4 . 6 M o t i v a t i o n a l A p p r o a c h e s ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 91 4 . 6 . 1 M o o d M a i n t e n a n c e a n d M o o d R e p a i r ( I s e n , 1 9 8 4 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 4 . 6 . 2 T h e R u b i c o n M o d e l o f A c t i o n P h a s e s ( H e c k h a u s e n & G o l l w i t z e r ,

1 9 8 6 , 1 9 8 7 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 4 . 6 . 3 E x p e c t a n c y T h e o r y ( V r o o m , 1 9 6 4 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 4 . 6 . 4 S e o , B a r r e t t , a n d B a r t u n e k ' s ( 2 0 0 4 ) T h e o r y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

4. 7 T a . k D e m a n d - B a . e d A p p r o a c h e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 4 . 7 . 1 T h e M u l t i f a c t o r - S y s t e m D y o a m i c s T h e o r y o f E m o t i o n ( R o y c e

& D i a m o n d , 1 9 8 0 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 4 . 7 . 2 D u a l - F o r c e M o d e l ( F i e d l e r , 1 9 9 0 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 4 . 7 . 3 A f f e c t I n f u s i o n M o d e l ( A I M ; F o r g a s , 1 9 9 5 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

4 . 8 A n i n t e g r a t i v e M o d e l : T h e C o g n i t i v e - M o t i v a t i o n a l M e d i a t o r M o d e l o l t h e I m p a c t o f M o o d o n C o g n i t i v e P e r f o r m a n c e ( A b e l e , 1 9 9 5 ) •• 1 0 8

4 . 8 . 1 A f f e c t a n d P e r c e p t o a I S p e e d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 0 4 . 8 . 2 A f f e c t and C r e a t i v i t y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 0 4 . 8 . 3 A f f e c t a n d R e a s o u i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

XII Content

4.9 D i s . r e t e E m o t i o n . a n d C o g n i t i v e P e r f o r m a n . e ......................•••••••• 116

4.10 S u m m a r y o f T h e o r i e . a n d F i n d i n g ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 120

5 T H E P R E S E N T S T U D Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 5

5.1 H y p o t h e . e . o n E m o t i o n . a n d T e s t P e r f o r m a n . e ........................•••• 125

5.2 C o n . i d e r a t i o n . a b o u t t h e D e . i g o o f t h e S t u d y ................................ 128 5.2.1 Selection o f the F i l m Clips ............................................................. 129 5.2.2 Manipulation C h e c k ........................................................................ 130

6 P I L O T S T U D I E S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3 3

6.1 P i l o t . t u d y 1 : D e . i g o o f a n O n l i n e M o o d Q u e . t i o n n a i r e ......•••••••••• 133

6.2 P i l o t . t u d y l a : V a l i d a t i o n o f t h e V i s u a l A n a l o g u e S.a1e ...........••••• 134 6.2.1 Method ............................................................................................ 134 6.2.2 Results ............................................................................................ 136 6.2.3 Discussion ....................................................................................... 140

6.3 P i l o t S t u d y 1 b : R e f i n e m e n t o f t h e V i s u a l A n a l o g o e Seale ............. 141 6.3.1 Method ............................................................................................ 143 6.3.2 Results ............................................................................................ 144 6.3.3 Discussion ....................................................................................... 147

6.4 P i l o t s t u d y 2: D e s i g n o f a n O n l i n e Q u e . t i o n n a i r e A s . e s s i n g T e s t -R e l a t e d E m o t i o n s ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 148

6.4.1 Method ............................................................................................ 149 6.4.2 Results ............................................................................................ 150 6.4.3 Discussion ....................................................................................... 154

6.5 M a n i p u l a t i o n C h e . k u . i n g t h e A d a p t e d Q u e . t i o n n a i r e s ............... 156 6.5.1 Expected Effects o n the Mood Dimensions .................................... 157 6.5.2 Expected Effects on Motivation and Emotions ............................... 159

C o n t e n t X I I I

7 M E T H O D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 6 1

7.1 I n s t r u m e n t s Used •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 161 7.1.1 Mood ............................................................................................... 161 7.1.2 Test-Related Emotions a n d Motivation .......................................... 163 7.1.3 IQ Test Performance ....................................................................... 164 7.1.4 Induction o f Emotional States ......................................................... 166

7.2 P r o c e d u r e ........................................................................................... 167 7.2.1 Test Run .......................................................................................... 167 7 .2.2 Experiment... ................................................................................... 168

7.3 P a r t i c i p a n t s ........................................................................................ 176

8 R E S U L T S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 7 9

8.1 D r o p - O u t E f f e c t ................................................................................ 180 8.1.1 Demographic Variables .................................................................. 180 8.1.2 Performance on the first test ........................................................... 182

8.2 R a n d o m i s a t i o n ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 183 8.2.1 B l o c k Randomisation ...................................................................... 183 8.2.2 Differences with Respect t o Demographic Variables ..................... 185 8.2.3 Differences i o Test Performance .................................................... 188 8.2.4 Differences i n AfTectivity ............................................................... 191

8.3 R e l a t i o n s B e t w e e n M o o d , E m o t i o n , a n d P e r f o r m a n c e B e f o r e t h e E m o t i o n I n d u c t i o n ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 201

8.3.1 Intercorrelations o f Mood and Emotion .......................................... 201 8.3.2 Correlations o f Mood a n d Emotion with Performance on the F i r s t

T e s L ............................................................................................... 207

8.4 M a n i p u l a t i o n C h e c k ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 209 8.4.1 Chaoges i n AfTectivity after the Emotion Induction ....................... 209 8.4.2 Comparisons on AfTectivity After the Induction ............................ 220

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8 . 4 . 3 C h a n g e i n A f f e c t i v i t y D u r i n g t h e T e s t : A f t e r I n d u c t i o n v e r s u s A f t e r T e s L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 3 0

8 . 4 . 4 C h a n g e i n A f f e c t i v i t y D u r i n g t h e T e s t : B e f o r e I n d u c t i o n v e r s u s A f t e r T e s L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 3 6

8.5 E f f e c t s o f Affective S t a t e o n T e s t P e r f o r m a n c e .............................. 2 4 1 8.5.1 T e s t P e r f o r m a n c e A f t e r t h e E m o t i o n I n d u c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 8 . 5 . 2 D i f f e r c o c e s b e t w e e n t h e S c o r e s o n t h e S e c o n d T e s t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 4 3 8 . 5 . 3 E f f e c t s o f E m o t i o n o n T e s t P e r f o r m a n c e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 4 6 8 . 5 . 4 S t r u c t u r a l E q u a t i o n M o d e l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 5 2 8 . 5 . 5 S u m m a r y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 6 0

9 D I S C U S S I O N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 6 1

9 . 1 I m p a c t o f E m o t i o n s o n T e s t P e r f o r m a n c e ...................................... 2 6 2 9 .1.1 V a l e n c e o f M o o d o r E m o t i o n s a n d R e a s o n i n g T e s t P e r f o r m a n c e .. 263 9 . 1 . 2 A c t i v a t i o n o f M o o d o r E m o t i o n s a n d R e a s o n i n g T e s t P e r f o r m a n c e .....

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 7 2 9 . 1 . 3 T a s k T y p e , M o o d a n d E m o t i o n , a n d R e a s o n i n g T e s t P e r f o r m a n c e 2 7 4 9 . 1 . 4 I m p a c t o f E m o t i o n s o n T e s t P e r f o r m a n c e : L i m i t a t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 7 6 9 . 1 . 5 S u m m a r y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 7 9

9.2 O n I i n e E m o t i o n i n d u c t i o n •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 280 9 . 2 . 1 A f f e c t i v e S t a t e B e f o r e t h e E m o t i o n I n d u c t i o n P r o c e d u r e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 9 . 2 . 2 C h a n g e s i n M o o d S t a t e s d u e t o t h e E m o t i o n I n d u c t i o n P r o c e d u r e . 2 8 2 9 . 2 . 3 C h a n g e s i n E m o t i o n a l S t a t e s d u e t o t h e E m o t i o n I n d u c t i o n P r o c e d u r e

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 8 4 9 . 2 . 4 C h a n g e s i n M o o d S t a t e s a f t e r t h e T e s t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 8 5 9 . 2 . 5 O n l i n e E m o t i o n I n d u c t i o n : L i m i t a t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 8 6 9 . 2 . 6 O n l i n e E m o t i o n I n d u c t i o n : S u m m a r y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 8 9

9.3 U n s u p e r v i s e d O n I i n e E x p e r i m e n t s .................................................. 290 9 . 3 . 1 S a m p l i n g a n d R e t e n t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 9 0 9 . 3 . 2 D a t a Q u a l i t y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 9 3 9 . 3 . 3 U n s u p e r v i s e d O n l i n e E x p e r i m e n t s : L i m i t a t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 9 4 9 . 3 . 4 U n s u p e r v i s e d O n l i n e E x p e r i m e n t s : S u m m a r y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 9 8

C o n t e n t x v

9.4 S u m m a r y a n d C o n c l u . i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299

9.5 O u t l o o k a n d F u t u r e R e . e a r c h •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 3 0 0

R E F E R E N C E S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 0 5

T A B L E S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 4 1

F I G U R E S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 4 5

A P P E N D I X A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 4 7

A P P E N D I X B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 4 9

A P P E N D I X C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 6 3

A P P E N D I X D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 7 5

A P P E N D I X E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 8 5

A P P E N D I X F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 0 7

A P P E N D I X G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 2 3

A b s t r a c t

I n p e r s o n n e l s e l e c t i o n t h e r e is a n o n g o i n g t r e n d t o w a r d s t h e u s e o f u n s u p e r v i s e d on1ine a b i l i t y t e s t i n g ( B a t e s o n , W i r t z , B u r k e , & V a u g h a n , 2 0 1 3 ; c u t - e G r o u p , 2 0 1 2 ; L i e v e n s & H a r r i s , 2 0 0 3 ) . T h e a s s u m p t i o n is t h a t t h e t e s t s m e a s u r e c o g n i t i v e a b i l i t y . H o w e v ­er, p e r f o r m a n c e o n s u c h t e s t s h a s b e e n f o u n d to b e i n f l u e n c e d b y m o o d ( L y u b o m i r s k i , King, & D i e n e r , 2 0 0 5 ) . R e s u l t s a r e c o n t r a d i c ­t o r y b e c a u s e s o m e t i m e s p o s i t i v e ( A b e l e , 1995; R a d e n h a u s e n & A n k e r , 1988) a n d s o m e t i m e s n e g a t i v e m o o d ( M e l t o n , 1995) h a s b e e n f o u n d t o i m p r o v e t e s t p e r f o r m a n c e . S p e c i f i c e m o t i o n s l i k e j o y o r a n g e r h a v e o n l y b e e n s t u d i e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f a c a d e m i c p e r f o r m a n c e ( p e k r u n , E l l i o t , & M a i e r , 2 0 0 9 ) , a n d t h e r e a r e n o s t u d i e s o n t h e i m p a c t o f m o o d o r e m o t i o n s o n p e r f o r m a n c e i n u n ­s u p e r v i s e d o n l i n e t e s t i n g .

T h e r e f o r e , t h e p u r p o s e o f t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y w a s t o i n v e s t i ­g a t e t h e i m p a c t o f s p e c i f i c e m o t i o n s o n p e r f o r m a n c e o n a r e a s o n ­i n g t e s t i n a n u n s u p e r v i s e d o n l i n e e x p e r i m e n t . H y p o t h e s e s w e r e t h a t p e r f o r m a n c e w o u l d b e (1) b e t t e r i n j o y t h a n i n a n g e r , (2) b e t t e r i n c o n t e n t m e n t t h a n i n s a d n e s s , (3) b e t t e r i n j o y t h a n i n c o n t e n t ­m e n t , a n d (4) b e t t e r i n a n g e r t h a n i n s a d n e s s .

X V I I I A b s t a c t

A d i v e r s e s a m p l e o f 4 2 9 p a r t i c i p a n t s c o m p l e t e d a n o n l i n e r e a s o n i n g t e s t , o n c e b e f o r e a n d o n c e a f t e r t h e i n d u c t i o n o f o n e o f t h e five e m o t i o n a l s t a t e s o f j o y , a n g e r , s a d n e s s , c o n t e n t m e n t , o r n e u t r a l , r e s p e c t i v e l y . T h e i n d u c t i o n p r o c e d u r e s u c c e s s f u l l y e v o k e d d i s t i n c t e m o t i o n a l states.

C o n t r a r y t o t h e h y p o t h e s e s , h o w e v e r , t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l l y m a n i p u l a t e d e m o t i o n s d i d n o t a f f e c t p e r f o r m a n c e o n t h e o n l i n e r e a s o n i n g t e s t , w h i c h m i g h t b e a t t r i b u t a b l e to r e a s o n i n g t e s t s b e i n g l e s s s u s c e p t i b l e t o t h e i n f l u e n c e o f e m o t i o n s t h a n o t h e r t y p e s o f t e s t s ( F i e d l e r , 1990; F o r g a s , 1995; R o y c e & D i a m o n d , 1988). T h e r e is a l s o t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e e f f e c t s o f a f f e c t i v e s t a t e o n t e s t p e r f o r m a n c e w e r e t o o w e a k to b e d e t e c t e d i n t h e c o m p a r a t i v e ­l y u n s t a n d a r d i s e d s i t u a t i o n a n d t h e d i v e r s e s a m p l e ( S t a n t o n , 1998). A n o t h e r p o s s i b i l i t y is t h a t p a r t i c i p a n t s e n t e r e d a s t a t e o f f l o w ( C z i k s z e n t m i h a l y i , A b u h a m d e h , & N a k a m u r a , 2 0 0 7 ) i n w h i c h t h o u g h t s o r f e e l i n g s do n o t i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e t a s k .

I n t r o d u c t i o n A r e c e n t a r t i c l e i n t h e H a r v a r d B u s i n e s s R e v i e w ( B a t e s o n ,

W i r t z , B u r k e , & V a u g h a n , 2 0 1 3 ) r e c o m m e n d s u s i n g w e b - b a s e d p s y c h o m e t r i c t e s t s as a f i r s t s t a g e i n t h e p r o c e s s o f r e c r u i t i n g e m ­p l o y e e s : " F i r s t T e s t , a n d T h e n I n t e r v i e w " (p. 3 4 ) . T h e i d e a b e h i n d t h i s a p p r o a c h i s t h a t o n l i n e t e s t i n g s i f t s o u t t h e l e a s t s u i t a b l e a p p l i ­c a n t s s o t h a t o n l y t h o s e w i t h t h e b e s t q u a l i f i c a t i o n s w i l l b e a l l o w e d t o p a s s t h r o u g h t o t h e m o r e c o s t l y s t a g e s o f t h e r e c r u i t m e n t p r o ­c e s s . I n fact, t h e r e i s a t r e n d t o w a r d s o n l i n e a s s e s s m e n t i n p e r s o n ­n e l s e l e c t i o n : I n a 2 0 1 2 s u r v e y o f E u r o p e a n c o m p a n i e s , 8 3 % o f t h e m i n d i c a t e d u s i n g o n l i n e a s s e s s m e n t i n t h e i r r e c r u i t m e n t p r o ­c e s s e s ( c u t - e G r o u p , 2 0 1 2 ) . T h i s i s a n i n c r e a s e o f 7 % c o m p a r e d t o 2 y e a r s p r i o r ( c u t - e G r o u p , 2 0 1 2 ) a n d r e p r e s e n t s a c o n t i n u i n g t r e n d as e v e n s o m e 1 0 y e a r s a g o , r e s e a r c h e r s h a d n o t e d t h a t t h e u s e o f o n l i n e a s s e s s m e n t f o r r e c r u i t m e n t w a s i n c r e a s i n g ( L i e v e n s & H a r ­r i s , 2 0 0 3 ) . B u r k e ( 2 0 0 9 ) q u o t e s N a n c y T i p p i n s f r o m a 2 0 0 8 s y m ­p o s i u m a t t h e a n n u a l c o n f e r e n c e o f t h e S o c i e t y o f I n d u s t r i a l a n d O r g a n i z a t i o n a l P s y c h o l o g y ( S l O P ) : " T h e i n t e m e t t e s t i n g t r a i n h a s l e f t t h e s t a t i o n ! " (p. 3 5 ) .

O n l i n e a s s e s s m e n t r e f e r s t o t h e m e a s u r e m e n t o f a p t i t u d e , u s u a l l y f o r a j o b , v i a t h e i n t e m e t ( K o m a d t & S a r g e s , 2 0 0 3 ) . I t m a y c o m p r i s e t e s t s , q u e s t i o n n a i r e s , a n d s i m u l a t i o n s t h a t a r e o f t e n c o m ­b i n e d t o m a k e m o r e a c c u r a t e p r e d i c t i o n s ( H e r t e l , K o n r a d t , & O r ­l i k o w s k i , 2 0 0 3 ) . A p t i t u d e t e s t s t h a t a s s e s s g e n e r a l m e n t a l a b i l i t i e s ( G M A ) a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y g o o d p r e d i c t o r s o f f u t u r e j o b p e r f o r m a n c e ( S c h m i d t & H u n t e r , 1 9 9 8 ) a n d a r e t h u s u s e d i n o n l i n e t e s t i n g . T h e a s s u m p t i o n i s t h a t p e r f o r m a n c e o n s u c h a t e s t i s l a r g e l y d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e t e s t t a k e r ' s c o g n i t i v e a b i l i t y .

H o w e v e r , r e c e n t r e s e a r c h f m d i n g s s u g g e s t t h a t a p p l i c a n t s ' p e r f o r m a n c e o n a b i l i t y t e s t s i s a l s o i n f l u e n c e d b y f a c t o r s o t h e r t h a n a b i l i t y , s u c h a s s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e ( e . g . , S t a n k o v & L e e , 2 0 0 8 ) , c o g n i -

2 I n t r o d u c t i o n

t i v e t r a i n i n g l e v e l ( e . g . , J a e g g i , B u s c h k u e h l , J o n i d e s , & P e r r i g , 2 0 0 8 ) , m o t i v a t i o n ( e . g . , D u c k w o r t h , Q u i n n , L y n a m , L o e b e r , & S t o u t h a m e r - L o e b e r , 2 0 1 1 ) , m o o d (e.g., A b e l e , 1995), a n d e m o ­t i o n s ( e . g . , P e k r u n , 2 0 0 6 ) . W h e r e a s s o m e o f t h e s e f a c t o r s are c u r ­r e n t l y w i d e l y s t u d i e d , m o o d a n d e m o t i o n s a n d t h e i r i m p a c t o n a b i l ­i t y t e s t p e r f o r m a n c e h a v e n o t y e t r e c e i v e d m u c h a t t e n t i o n f r o m r e s e a r c h e r s d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e is a n i n c r e a s i n g b o d y o f r e ­s e a r c h o n e m o t i o n s i n t h e w o r k p l a c e ( S e o , F e l d m a n B a r r e t t , & B a r t u n e k , 2 0 0 4 ) . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e r e a r e s t u d i e s i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e e f f e c t s o f t r a i t a f f e c t i v i t y o n i n d i v i d u a l p e r f o r m a n c e ( C r o p a n z a n o , J a m e s , & K o n o v s k y , 1 9 9 3 ) o r t h e i m p a c t t h a t m o o d s o r s t a t e e m o ­t i o n s h a v e o n a n o r g a n i s a t i o n ( F o r g a s & G e o r g e , 2 0 0 1 ) .

T h u s , i t is i m p o r t a n t to a s k h o w a n d t o w h a t e x t e n t m o o d s a n d e m o t i o n s i m p a c t p e r f o r m a n c e i n o c c u p a t i o n a l t e s t i n g . W h e r e ­as t h e s t u d y o f e m o t i o n s h a d p r e v i o u s l y n o t r e c e i v e d m u c h a t t e n ­t i o n i n w o r k a n d o r g a n i s a t i o n a l p s y c h o l o g y , a n i n c r e a s i n g n u m b e r o f s t u d i e s o n e m o t i o n s c a n n o w b e f o u n d i n t h o s e a r e a s ( S e o e t al., 2 0 0 4 ) . H o w e v e r , t h e f i n d i n g s o n m o o d s a n d e m o t i o n s a n d t h e i r i m p a c t o n a p t i t u d e t e s t p e r f o r m a n c e a r e s t i l l s c a r c e a n d c o n t r a d i c ­tory. P a r t i c u l a r l y w h e n i t c o m e s to t e s t s t h a t m e a s u r e r e a s o n i n g , " t h e c o r e c o n s t r u c t o f i n t e l l i g e n c e " ( W i l h e l m & M c K n i g h t , 2 0 0 2 , p. 156), o n l y a few s t u d i e s e x i s t .

W h e r e a s o n e o f t h e s e s t u d i e s f o u n d t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s i n a p o s i t i v e m o o d o u t p e r f o r m s u b j e c t s i n a n e g a t i v e o r n e u t r a l m o o d o n a s y l l o g i s m t e s t ( R a d e n h a u s e n & A n k e r , 1 9 8 8 ) , a n o t h e r f o u n d t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s i n a p o s i t i v e m o o d a c t u a l l y do w o r s e o n s u c h a t e s t t h a n i n d i v i d u a l s i n a n e u t r a l m o o d (MeJton, 1995). A r a t h e r c o m ­p r e h e n s i v e s t u d y ( A b e l e , 1 9 9 5 ) t h a t u s e d v e r b a l a n d n o n v e r b a l r e a s o n i n g t e s t s i n s e v e r a l e x p e r i m e n t s f o u n d t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s i n a p o s i t i v e m o o d p e r f o r m e d b e t t e r o n t h e t e s t s t h a n s u b j e c t s i n a n e g ­a t i v e m o o d . I n a 2005 m e t a - a n a l y s i s o n t h e b e n e f i t s o f f r e q u e n t p o s i t i v e a f f e c t , L y u b o m i r s k i , King, a n d D i e n e r ( 2 0 0 5 ) s u m m a r i s e d

I n t r o d u c t i o n 3

t h e i r f i n d i n g s o n m o o d a n d t e s t p e r f o r m a n c e : " T h e e v i d e n c e s h o w s t h a t p e o p l e e x p e r i e n c i n g h a p p y m o o d s h a v e p o t e n t i a l d e f i c i t s w h e n i t c o m e s t o p r o b l e m s o l v i n g , b u t t h e y c a n o v e r c o m e t h e s e d e f i c i t s i f t h e y a r e m o t i v a t e d t o p e r f o r m w e l l a t t h e t a s k " (p. 840). M o r e o v e r , t h e y n o t e d t h a t a n i m p o r t a n t t o p i c f o r future i n v e s t i g a ­t i o n w o u l d b e t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n p o s i t i v e a n d n e g a t i v e e m o ­t i o n s o n a g e n e r a l l e v e l a n d s p e c i f i c p o s i t i v e a n d n e g a t i v e e m o ­t i o n s s u c h a s c o n t e n t m e n t o r j o y .

H o w e v e r , to d a t e , t h e r e a r e no s t u d i e s o n d i s c r e t e e m o t i o n s a n d p e r f o r m a n c e o n c l a s s i c a l I Q t e s t s t h a t m e a s u r e r e a s o n i n g , o n l y s t u d i e s o n d i s c r e t e e m o t i o n s a n d a c a d e m i c p e r f o r m a n c e . H e r e , again, i t w a s s h o w n t h a t p o s i t i v e e m o t i o n s a r e b e n e f i c i a l f o r p e r ­f o r m a n c e o n a c a d e m i c t e s t s , w h e r e a s n e g a t i v e e m o t i o n s u s u a l l y i m p a i r p e r f o r m a n c e u n l e s s t h e y a r e a c t i v a t i n g e m o t i o n s s u c h a s a n g e r ( p e k r u n , 2 0 0 6 ) . M o r e o v e r , e m o t i o n s a n d t h e i r i m p a c t o n t e s t p e r f o r m a n c e h a v e n o t b e e n s t u d i e d i n o n l i n e s e t t i n g s , a l t h o u g h , a s o u t l i n e d i n t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n , t h i s m o d e o f t e s t i n g i s i n c r e a s i n g l y b e i n g u s e d b y e m p l o y e r s a n d r e s e a r c h e r s a l i k e ( v a n S e l m & J a n k o w s k i , 2 0 0 6 ) .

F r o m a s c i e n t i f i c p o i n t o f v i e w , a n i m p a c t o f m o o d o r e m o ­t i o n s o n I Q t e s t p e r f o r m a n c e w o u l d a f f e c t t h e c o n s t r u c t v a l i d i t y o f t h e s e tests: I f t h e r e is a n i m p a c t o f m o o d a n d e m o t i o n s o n p e r f o r ­m a n c e o n IQ t e s t s , t h e n w h a t do t h e s e t e s t s m e a s u r e ? T h i s q u e s t i o n i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t i n t h e f i e l d o f u n s u p e r v i s e d o n l i n e t e s t s w h e r e c o n s t r u c t v a l i d i t y is f r e q u e n t l y q u e s t i o n e d b e c a u s e o f t h e u n s t a n d a r d i s e d e n v i r o n m e n t t h e y a r e t a k e n i n ( L i e v e n s & B u r k e , 2 0 1 1 ) . F r o m a s c i e n t i f i c a s w e l l as a p r a c t i t i o n e r ' s p o i n t o f v i e w , w e s h o u l d a l s o a s k i f a n d t o w h a t e x t e n t c r i t e r i o n - r e l a t e d v a l i d i t y i s a l s o a f f e c t e d . H o w a c c u r a t e l y c a n s u c h a t e s t p r e d i c t j o b p e r f o r ­m a n c e i f i t is a f f e c t e d b y m o o d o r e m o t i o n s ?

T h i s i s w h e r e t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y c o m e s in. T h e p r e s e n t s t u d y t e s t e d t h e i m p a c t o f d i f f e r e n t d i s c r e t e e m o t i o n s Goy, s a d n e s s , an-

4 Introduction

ger, a n d contentment) o n p e r f o r m a n c e o n an IQ t e s t assessing rea­soning. I t also m e a s u r e d m o o d to aid in c o m p a r i n g the c u r r e n t r e ­sults t o p r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h a n d i n c l u d e d n o t o n l y the valence b u t also t h e arousal c o m p o n e n t i n the analyses. The s t u d y was an un­s u p e r v i s e d online study, t h e s e t t i n g t h a t is q u i c k l y i n c r e a s i n g i n p o p u l a r i t y i n the field o f personnel selection. Moreover, a g o a l o f this study w a s to m a k e u s e o f o n e o f t h e opportunities t h a t t h e in­t e m e t offers: t o reach o u t t o a v e r y diverse sample i n terms o f age, education, a n d c u r r e n t o c c u p a t i o n a n d thus t o find results t h a t c a n b e g e n e r a l i s e d across a w i d e range o f people.

The following four chapters w i l l provide an o v e r v i e w o f r e s e a r c h i n the r e l e v a n t fields. F i r s t , I w i l l be b r i e f l y o u t l i n e w h a t online a s s e s s m e n t a n d online studies are, the e x t e n t to w h i c h online d a t a are comparable to p a p e r - a n d - p e n c i l data, w h e t h e r d a t a g a t h e r e d o n l i n e c a n be c o n s i d e r e d as reliable a n d v a l i d , a n d w h a t needs t o be t a k e n into a c c o u n t when d e s i g n i n g online instruments or studies. This w i l l p r o v i d e some b a c k g r o u n d for t h e s t u d y d e s i g n a n d w i l l l a t e r a i d in c o m p a r i n g t h e c u r r e n t results with the results o f previous studies, w h i c h h a v e a l l b e e n c o n d u c t e d i n p a p e r - a n d ­p e n c i l formats u n d e r supervision. The n e x t c h a p t e r w i l l p r o v i d e an overview o f w h a t i n t e l l i g e n c e is, w h a t models there are, a n d h o w i n t e l l i g e n c e c a n b e measured. This b a c k g r o u n d w i l l provide a clas­sification for t h e a b i l i t y m e a s u r e d i n the p r e s e n t s t u d y (i.e., reason­ing) a n d t h e t e s t u s e d t o m e a s u r e it. The following c h a p t e r w i l l summarise w h a t m o o d a n d emotions are, w h a t models o f affect exist, a n d h o w a f f e c t c a n b e measured. This b a c k g r o u n d w i l l l a t e r help t h e r e a d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d h o w t h e emotions u s e d i n the p r e s e n t s t u d y w e r e classified a n d h o w the hypotheses w e r e derived. I n addition, as t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y w a s experimental a n d the emotions were induced, I w i l l p r e s e n t a s e c t i o n o n t h e i n d u c t i o n o f m o o d a n d emotions. Subsequently, as t h e l a s t p a r t o f the literature sec­tion, an o v e r v i e w o f theories a n d models l i n k i n g a f f e c t a n d cogni-

I n t r o d u c t i o n 5

t i v e p e r f o r m a n c e w i l l b e g i v e n , a l o n g w i t h e m p i r i c a l e v i d e n c e s u p p o r t i n g t h e s e m o d e l s . A f t e r t h a t c h a p t e r , t h e h y p o t h e s e s for t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y w i l l b e p r e s e n t e d , a l o n g w i t h a n o v e r v i e w o f t h e p r e ­s e n t study. T h e e m p i r i c a l s e c t i o n w i l l b e g i n w i t h t w o s t u d i e s t h a t n e e d e d to b e c o n d u c t e d to a d a p t t h e i n s t r u m e n t s u s e d to m e a s u r e m o o d a n d e m o t i o n s t o t h e i n t e m e t . A f t e r t h a t c h a p t e r , t h e m a i n s t u d y o n e m o t i o n s a n d I Q t e s t p e r f o r m a n c e w i l l b e r e p o r t e d a n d t h e n , i n t h e final c h a p t e r , t h e y w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d .