Successful IndigenousCommunity in Canada

Prepared for the Strategic Policy and Planning UnitFirst Nations and Inuit Health Branch

Health Canada

by Kishk Anaquot Health Research June 2007

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Table of Contents

Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii

Definitions and Acronyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv

1.0 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1 Rationale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2.0 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

3.0 Emerging Themes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.1 The General Characteristics of Successful Communities . . . . . . . . . 4

3.1.1 Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53.1.2 Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83.1.3 Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

3.2 Specific Communities Identified as Successful . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143.3 Is Success Predictable or Random? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173.4 Can Successful Communities be Created? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

4.0 Measuring ‘Successful Community’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

5.0 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Appendix A - Business Vitality Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29Appendix B - References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

List of Figures

Figure 1) Proposed First Nations Holistic Policy and Planning Model . . . . . . . . 13Figure 2) Nation Building Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

List of Tables

Table 1) Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7Table 2) Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9Table 3) Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10Table 4) Highlights of Success from Published Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12Table 5) Comparison between Short and Long Term

Approaches to Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

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Executive Summary

The Strategic Policy and Planning Division of the First Nations and Inuit HealthBranch has commissioned this work to articulate a First Nation’s perspective on whatconstitutes successful community. This effort is primarily exploratory with an intent togenerating hypotheses for future research. Information was gathered through literatureand document review as well as telephone interviews with twelve Indigenous leaders inhealth or more generally. Print information was culled and interviews directed toanswer the following questions:

< Which communities would you identify as ‘‘successful’’? and why?< What are the top five most successful communities in your mind? Why have you

selected these communities? < Are successful communities random or predictable? Why do you say this?< Can successful communities be created? If so, how? If not, why not?

The characteristics associated with success fell roughly into three categories:

1) Relationship - the extent to which individuals and groups engage in social actionthat recognizes their roles and responsibilities to each other, the family, group orsociety. Successful community living meant that individual obligations to provide,nurture, teach, guard, create or guide were being fulfilled by those charged withsuch roles. Successful communities mobilize and maximize individualstrengths and capacity, enjoy collaborative and cohesive environments wherehuman needs are acknowledged openly and addressed appropriately and theyhave strong community identity, pride, agency and family functioning.

2) Institution - this term refers to systems both formal and informal created tomeet human needs for survival and expression. Responses under this categorymost commonly referred to localized access to goods and services as well as thequality or functioning of such systems. Successful First Nation’s communitieshave localized access to resources, services and opportunity and thoseresources and institutions are “owned” (based in/controlled and supported) bycommunity. There is a stable and strong economic base or movement towardsdeveloping one and cultural strength is guarded and obvious through a variety ofmeans including but not limited to an integrated approach to community issues.

3) Leadership - Good governance almost always implied reputable leadership whowere proactive visionaries motivated by collective gain and able to mobilize andmeaningfully engage their membership in setting a course for success. Goodleaders acknowledge and own their challenges without transferring responsibility: they recognize and warmly welcome allies in the quest to meet their challengesand they are first internally accountable.

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This categorization system was induced and is intended to offer an evolving analyticstructure to the discourse. The interview results were reinforced by published literatureas well as the health policy and planning model generated by the AFN. Manycommunities across the nation were identified as successful for a variety of reasons.

Measuring success in First Nations has historically taken into consideration avariety of indices related to social conditions and physical health. More recent effortshave included the development of a well being index as well as the measurement ofsocial capital. The results of this effort suggest that a more comprehensivemeasurement of ‘success’ may be needed that is positively focused and takes intoconsideration the key elements of the analytical structure that has emerged, namely,relationship, institutions and leadership. In addition, several key policy points areidentif ied below

Policy Implications< A fundamental shift towards optimizing potential rather than averting crisis is

possible. < The emergence of a tailored and evidence based approach to collaboration is

more available than ever before through the use of the well being index, themeasurement of social capital and consideration of the degree of institutionalquality and completeness and leadership characteristics.

< External allies must be responsive to community initiative and visioningexercises because pro-activity is consistently more effective than reactivity.

< Support for between and supra or extra community action would maximizevicarious learning and recognize that reinforcing internal moral authority andcultural cogence have enormous decolonizing potential.

While many questions remain, the obvious hypotheses to be tested are:

Successful First Nations communities can be created through the support ofproactive efforts that are germane and tailored to meet the social, institutionaland governance priorities identified by the community.

Collective and between community approaches to resolving issues is adecolonizing and powerful way of restoring Indigenous communities to theirrightful place of healthy balance.

At last, this appreciative inquiry represents a decided shift in the discourse aboutIndigenous community in Canada.

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Definitions and Acronyms

Aboriginal - a term commonly used to refer to those peoples who originate in a specificterritory (i.e. they and their ancestors were the first to inhabit the land) this term isavoided in this document because it has historically been defined as less technologicallyadvanced peoples and its usage is reserved exclusively for those with brown skin (e.g.British subjects, no matter how long their lineage can be traced to the isle are nevercalled Aboriginal and the Sami in Finland are always referred to as Indigenous).

acculturation - the process of cultural transition where one group comes to resembleanother culturally

appreciative inquiry - positively focused questions generated to maximize and focusupon strengths and innovation

autonomy - independent; not controlled by others

BVI - Business Vitality Index developed by the Centre for Innovation andEntrepreneurial Leadership

colonization - large-scale emigration of an established population to a 'new' locationwith respect to Indigenous groups it is the process of acculturation, often imposed bythe newcomers, to the newly emigrated groups norms or codes of behavior

collective - a grouping based upon Indigenous nationhood that extends beyond thegeographic and politico-legal boundaries imposed by the Indian Act

community a collection of people in social relationship with one another or with somebasis of commonality

community development - movement or action within a community that seeks toimprove current conditions in any or all sectors or aspects of community life

culture - the sum total of ways of living built up by a group of human beings andtransmitted from one generation to another that may include such things as language,dress, foods and other manners of day to day life

FNIHB - First Nations and Inuit Health Branch

good governance - leadership that uses resources with collective interest in mind andsupports the initiative of community members and groups to address issues of collectiveinterest: those who govern well draw their power from their intentions and expertise toserve the family, community and nation

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holistic - complete or all-inclusive

holistically healthy - consideration of health as determined by multiple factors:physically, mentally, spiritually

Indigenous - of the land

internal moral authority - those institutions or groups within an Indigenous communitythat operate under the traditional code that the collective is primary, contemporaryexamples include Indigenous women’s organizations or health agencies, traditionalexamples would include Elder’s councils or clan mothers.

interconnectedness - bonding and relating to others

pluralism - when variations (i.e. social, religious, cultural and other ideologicalperspectives) coexist in a climate of respect and recognition within a group

self-actualized potential - realizing one’s full capabilities

self-determination - being in control of one’s thoughts, actions; state of beingindependent

social capital - refers to a network of relationships that allow for advantageousoutcomes for those involved

social justice - entitlement to equal rights and services

success - the accomplishment of what is desired or the achievement of a goal

successful - a person or thing that succeeds

successful community - a collection of people in social relationship with one anotheror with some basis of commonality that attain their desired outcomes whatever thoseoutcomes might be.

US - United States (of America)

1http://appreciativeinquiry.case.edu/intro/whatisai.cfm

2Cook e, M., Be avon, D ., & McH ardy, M. (20 04). Measuring the Well-Being of Aboriginal People:

An Application of the United Nations’ Human Development Index to Registered Indians in Canada,

1981–2001. Strategic Research and Analysis Directorate, Indian and Northern Affairs Canada: 1-31.

3Mignone, J., O’Neil, J. (2005). Conceptual Understanding of Social Capital in First Nations

Com mun ities: An Illustrative Desc ription. Pimatziw in: A journa l of Aborigina l and indige nous c omm unity

health , 3(2): 7-44.

4 W here co mm unity is defined as peo ple living near one ano ther and in social relation ship or w ith

a faith, profession or way of life in common taken from W ebster’s Encyclopedic Dictionary of the English

Language (1988) Canadian Edition, Lexicon Publications, Inc. New York, page 198.

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1) Introduction

To guide policy and program directions that support the positively focusedaspirations of Canadian Indigenous communities, Health Canada is exploring thefactors that create and sustain successful communities. The first in a series of plannedresearch, this work is open ended and exploratory in nature, an appreciative inquiry1

that seeks promise in First Nations communities; whatever makes them most alive,most effective, and most constructively capable in human, ecological and economicterms. The primary intent is to generate hypotheses, questions and guide futureresearch that will strengthen First Nation’s capacity to apprehend, anticipate, andheighten positive potential in a way that inspires imagination, discovery, dream, anddesign rather than negation, criticism, and spiraling diagnosis.

While some work has been done to measure community well being2 and socialcapital3 in First Nation communities, little is published that reflects the perspective ofIndigenous authorities about how successful communities are generated and sustained. This inquiry is focused primarily on the perspectives of Indigenous authorities from avariety of regions and professional backgrounds. Before the exploration begins inearnest however, it is important to form a solid basis of understanding around the term‘successful community’. ‘Success’, quite literally, refers to the attainment of wealth,fame or prosperity leading most to associate it with playing and winning in a casheconomy. For the purposes of this endeavor, ‘successful’ will be defined as theaccomplishment of what is desired and the adjective should not over shadow the noun.In other words, maintaining emphasis on community in the phrase ‘successfulcommunity’ more aptly focuses attention to community4. ‘Successful community’ thenis a collection of people in social relationship with one another or with some basis ofcommonality that attain their desired outcomes whatever those outcomes might be.

5Kesse n, W . "The A mer ican Ch ild and O ther Cu ltural Artifacts ." Invited address to Division 7,

Meetings of the American Psychological Association. Toronto, 1978.

6Kirma yer, L; Sim pson, C .; Cargo, M : Healing T raditions: C ulture, Co mm unity and M ental He alth

Prom otion with C anadian Aborigina l peoples . Australian Psychiatry, Volume 11, Supplelment (2003) 15-

23, page 21.

7 Human Resources and Development Canada undertook a large scale study called

Understanding the Early Years that collected detailed community context data that was linked to the

Nationa l Longitudin al Survey o f Children and You th to determ ine how th e social en vironm ent affec ts

develop men t.

8Harkness, S., and C. M. Super. "Introduction to Parents Cultural Belief Systems: Their Origins,

Expressions and Consequences." Eds. S. Harkness and C. M. Super. New York, N. Y.: Guilford Press,

1996. 1-55.

9Super, C. M., and S. Harkness. "The Developmental Niche: A Conceptualization at the Interface

of Child an d Culture ." International Journal of Behavioural Development 9 (1986): 545-69.

10W illms, J. D . "Resea rch Find ings Be aring on C anadian Social Po licy." Vulnerable Children:

Findings from Cana da's Na tional Long itudinal Surv ey of Childre n and Yo uth. Ed. J. D. W illms: Un iversity

of Alberta Press , 2002. 33 1-58.

11Coop er, M., Ka rlberg, A.M ., & Pelletier Ad ams , L. Aboriginal Suicide in British Columbia: An

Overview, 1992.

12Cha ndler, M . J., and C. Lalo nde. "C ultural C ontinu ity as a H edge agains t Suicid e in Ca nada 's

First Na tions." Transcultural Psychiatry 35 (1998): 191-219.

13Sloat, E., an d J. D. W illms. "A G radient A pproac h to the Stu dy of Childh ood Vu lnerability. ,

Univers ity of Alberta Pr ess an d Hum an Re source s Deve lopm ent Can ada." Vulnerable Children: Findings

from Cana da's Na tional Long itudinal Surv ey of Childre n and Yo uth. Ed. J.D. Willms. Ottawa, ON: Human

Resources Development Canada, 2000.

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1.1) Rationale

While remedial intervention may save a life, it rarely changes it. No matter howwell designed and effective clinical and programmatic efforts are in the short term,environmental factors have enormous power to override gains prompting many to viewthe individual in context as the only appropriate focus of intervention and analysis.5,6, 7 After all, individuals develop in “niches”8,9 and evidence strongly points to variation inrisk between Canadian Indigenous communities.10,11,12 Examination of the individual incommunity ensures that the inherent weaknesses of a singular analytic focus (eitherclinical or social) are cancelled.13

14 Patton, M ichael Q uinn: How to Use Qualitative Methods in Evaluation, Sage Publications, 1987.

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2) Methods

To clarify the methods used in this undertaking, key conceptual and technicalissues14 are described. The conceptual issues address key stakeholders, purpose,approach and political considerations associated with the endeavor. The discussionalso profiles the type of effort and the criteria for its judgment. At last, key questionsthat this exercise is designed to answer are highlighted.

The primary stakeholders will be First Nation health authorities both national (e.g.the Assembly of First Nations) and community based (e.g. local health authorities andleaders) as well as the Strategic Policy and Planning Division of the First Nations andInuit Health Branch. The purpose of the effort is primarily exploratory with an intent togenerate hypotheses for future research. The political considerations associated withthe effort are that it is focused exclusively upon First Nations communities andrepresents a decided shift away from problem identification. The Strategic Policy andPlanning Division is a national entity within a federal government department workingcollaboratively with the Assembly of First Nations in this effort. It is anticipated that thiswork will be judged by the extent to which it answers key questions, shares Indigenousthoughts on the issues and offers guidance for future research.

Information was gathered through literature and document review as well astelephone interviews. Print information was culled and interviews directed to answerthe following questions:

< Which communities would you identify as‘‘successful’’? and why?

< What are the top five most successful communities inyour mind? Why have you selected thesecommunities?

< Are successful communities random or predictable?Why do you say this?

< Can successful communities be created? If so, how?If not, why not?

Indigenous leaders in health were consulted and asked to share theirimpressions about what constitutes ‘successful community’. The following databaseswere searched: Scholars Portal, Journal Storage (JSTOR), ABNI/INFORM, EarlyCanadiana Online, Anthropology Plus, First Nations Periodic Index, Academic SearchPremier and Google Scholar with the following search terms: Aboriginal, Métis,Indigenous, First Nations and development, community development, Canadian, wellbeing, community, nation building, successful, healthy and group. Informants wereselected for telephone interview by the Assembly of First Nation’s Health Director and

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members of the Strategic Policy and Planning Division. All informants were FirstNations individuals operating either in a leadership, administrative or clinical capacity inthe community either at a local, regional or national level. If they were not available,then they were asked to recommend someone in their place who could speak to theissue of successful First Nation community.

Although the validity and reliability of the information can be called into questionwith such a small sample size (only 12 informants) and a limited range of methods (i.e. literature/document review and telephone interviews), the reader is reminded that theexercise is exploratory and analyses are primarily inductive. Although much of the dataare qualitative and anecdotal, points of divergence and convergence between datasources are still possible and the sampling strategy attempted to ensure representationfrom regions, all operational levels (i.e. community, regional and national) and a varietyof professional angles.

3) Emerging Themes

3.1) The General Characteristics of Successful Communities

While some informants readily identified ‘successful communities’, others werereluctant born in part from the discomfort created by the word ‘success’. First Nationscommunities have been idealized as homogeneous sites of social consensus when inreality they have the same degree of plurality as any other collection of human beings. Their notions of success, much like everything else would be dependent upon theirhistory, geopolitical circumstance, socio-economic conditions and a whole host of othervariables. One respondent questioned how success was being defined and indicatedthat any definition could be subject to frequent change. One day success could be thebirth of a healthy baby and in other scenarios it could be a whole month free fromattempted suicide. Those who were reluctant to identify successful communitiesindicated that all communities have the potential to be successful and that eachcommunity is successful in its own way. In addition, some felt that they were not wellpositioned to comment on which communities were successful because they did not livein the community. They believed that the only way to really know if a community was‘successful’ was to be a long term resident because the outward manifestations of‘success’ did not guarantee that large portions of the populations were not oppressedand unobtrusively suffering.

Most, however, were comfortable sharing the characteristics that they wouldassociate with ‘successful community’. These characteristics fell roughly into threecategories:

1) Relationship - the extent to which individuals and groups engagein social action that recognizes their roles and responsibilities to

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each other, the family, group or society. Successful communityliving meant that individual obligations to provide, nurture, teach,guard, create or guide were being fulfilled by those charged withsuch roles.

2) Institution - this term refers to systems both formal and informalcreated to meet human needs for survival and expression. Responses under this category most commonly referred tolocalized access to goods and services as well as the quality orfunctioning of such systems.

3) Leadership - the ability of an individual or governing body toinfluence, motivate, and enable others to contribute toward the efficacy and success of the group to which they are members.

This categorization system was induced from the answers provided and is intended tooffer an evolving analytic structure to the results. These categories should not beconstrued as mutually exclusive because families are certainly ‘institutions’ however classifying relationships within institutions would miss the prominence of this element toIndigenous culture. Tables 1-3 highlight points of convergence and divergence in thecharacteristics of successful communities identified by key informants.

3.1.1) Relationship

Successful communities cultivate social climates where individual membersthrive, develop a sense of self-efficacy and are able to actualize their potentialspiritually, emotionally, physically and intellectually. Environments that support humanpotential honour their Elders and have employment, business, youth mentoring andearly learning opportunities. A critical mass of individuals who are physically healthy,excel in cultural teachings or academic endeavors were also considered benchmarks ofsuccess. When successful communities mobilize and maximize individual strengths,self help groups, services and supports are available so that people can reclaimbalance or achieve their dreams.

First Nation success is also obvious when collaboration and cohesion are clear,allies and partners are welcomed and a climate of safety, peace and openness prevails. Collaborative, cohesive efforts are directed toward collective gain: families understandtheir role as community contributors and communities are clear about their responsibilityto contribute to the nation. Cohesive relationship extends beyond the social order toinclude non-hierarchical respectful coexistence with all that is animate and inanimatewhere responsibility to the natural world is understood. A strong sense of communityidentity and pride was also commonly cited as a characteristic of successful community. Widespread understanding of cultural history and a sense of empowerment reflectedsuch pride and identity. Human needs, even those that are highly stigmatized like

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addiction, sexual abuse and mental illness, are acknowledged openly, understood andaddressed in high functioning communities. Opportunity for spiritual expression iscreated and the community acts as a support structure for family.

Strong communities are composed of strong families where role functions andresponsibilities are met and budding adults wait until they are appropriately equipped forparental duties to provide, guide, nurture and discipline lovingly. Grandparents areinvolved and collective care for children is obvious because they are happy, strong andinteract with others joyfully and freely. Children who are comfortable and at peace askquestions when they want answers and explore the world knowing that guidance will bethere when they need it. The pattern of convergence and divergence with respect tohow relationships have been characterized in successful First Nation’s communities isreflected in Table 1 on the following page.

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Table 1) Relationship

mobilizes and maximizes individual strengths /capacity 9

< appropriate care for, use and profile of Elders 4

< youth are mentored and supported to live their dreams 3

< individual physical health is obvious and supported 3

< employment opportunities exist 2

< early learning opportunities for children 2

< individuals are healthy in holistic terms (i.e. spiritually, emotionally, intellectually, etc) 1

< existence of self help groups 1

< serv ices and s upports f or pa rents in cris is 1

< support for entrepreneurs 1

collaborative, cohesive environment 8

< allies and outsiders are welcomed in the com munity and as partners 5

< a climate of safety, peace and openness 2

< fam ilies contribute to com mun ity 2

< community is clear about their contribution to the nation 1

< respec tful coexis tence w ith all that is anim ate and in anim ate 1

strong community identity, pride and agency 7

< widespre ad un ders tand ing of cultu ral

and community history

3

< sense of control and empowerment (e.g. define belonging) 2

human needs are acknowledged openly and addressed

approp riately

5

< com mu nity contribu tes to fam ily 2

< stigmatized issues are openly discussed 1

< sense that needs are understood and being met 1

< opportunities for spiritual expression 1

strong family functioning 4

< children are happy and strong 1

< men reclaim their traditional role as providers 1

< grandparents are involved in child rearing 1

< young adult s wa it until th ey are read y to accep t the re sponsib ility of pa rentin g role 1

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3.1.2) Institutions

The reader is reminded that institutions refers to those formal and informalsystems that exist to serve human needs and allow for expression whether or not theyare attached to any physical structure. With respect to ‘institutions’ in this broad senseof the word, many respondents believed that the localized access to supports andopportunities were key to successful community. More specifically, when health care,education, training, recreation and opportunities to socialize informally are close tohome, the community is more likely to experience ‘success’. Furthermore, opportunitiesto benefit from infrastructure that most Canadians take for granted (e.g. industry,highways, institutions and even the population at large) put some communities at anadvantage to experience success.

Although many recognized that the internal generation and management ofwealth provided by a stable economic base was highly desirable, it was not deemed asufficient condition or a singular guarantee of health. When communities are strong,there is respect for and pride in local ‘brick and mortar’ institutions (e.g. schools, homes,parks, roadways) that is obvious by how they are maintained. The community is free ofdebris, garbage and other obvious signs of neglect. Although the existence of ‘brickand mortar’ institutions may suggest success, one respondent cautioned that it does notreveal the silent or oppressed segments of the community that may be very unhealthy,nor does it indicate that measures are being taken to address the needs of thedispossessed. Similarly, communities without roads, hydro and running water mayseem unsuccessful in material terms but if they are safe places where children playfreely, doors remain open and a generally positive feeling about self and others prevails,then this is a successful community. In short, financial success is no guarantee thatoutrageous rates of childhood obesity would subside, that neighbours would enjoy thebenefits of reciprocity or that a grounding in culture would exist.

Successful First Nations communities promote and sustain an institutional guardfor cultural integrity by hosting cultural celebrations and ceremonies, offering the optionof traditional treatment modalities, securing access to country foods and offeringlanguage immersion programs. When examining the population by age cohort, there isa large proportion of young language speakers in communities that value and protecttheir culture. Other indicators of a culturally cogent milieu are the obvious signs ofintegration between sectors and in approaches to health. A balanced investment in allinstitutional priorities (e.g. education, land claims, economic development and humanservices to name a few) would reflect such integration. Table 2 on the following pageoutlines the convergence and divergence of opinion regarding the nature of institutions(both formal and informal) in successful First Nations communities.

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Table 2) Institutions

localized access to res ources/services/op portunity : 9

< formalized education/training 2

< hea lth pro fess ionals 3

< socialization and recreation 1

< Canadian standard of living 2

< Canadian industry/institutions/highways and population 2

< hom e owners hip is p oss ible 1

< educated, talented com munity mem bers 2

resources/institutions are “own ed” (b ased in /contro lled and supp orted) by comm unity 9

< members respect and participate in local institutions 5

< sustainable programming developed and delivered at the community level 4

stable and strong economic base or movement towards developing 8

< internal gen eration an d ma nagem ent of we alth 4

cultural strength is guarded and obvious 8

< ceremonies take place 1

< blend of western and traditional therapeutic modalities 2

< access to traditional foods 1

< language immersion programs and young speakers exist 1

integrated approach to community issues 4

< balanced support or even distribution of investment in all community sectors (e.g.

education, culture, human services, claims)

1

< holistic integration of sectors (e.g. economic development, health, education, housing) 2

< an integrated approach to m anaging health care 1

3.1.3) Leadership

Respondents were unanimous in their belief that successful First Nation’scommunities enjoy good governance and although they did not all characterize goodgovernance the same way, some overarching themes formed a foundation. Goodgovernance almost always implied reputable leadership who were proactive visionariesmotivated by collective gain. Proactive planning toward a long term vision reflects

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traditional values and requires awareness of the need to plan. Good leadersacknowledge and own their challenges without transferring responsibility: they alsorecognize and warmly welcome allies in the quest to meet their challenges. Respected,principled leaders embrace self determination either informally or by pursuing orentering into formalized self government arrangements. They catalyze and supportcommunity mobilization, pursue independent sources of revenue and often act beyondthe confounds of their current politico-legal reality under the Indian Act by establishingcreative partnerships with a wide variety of Canadian institutions and governments. They are first internally accountable and seek to meaningful engage communitymembers in decision making as well as enjoy sound administrative departments. Theirapproach is strength focused, fair and often they have enjoyed long term stability in theirleadership roles. Table 3 illustrates the divergence and convergence in defining goodgovernance.

Table 3) Leadership

good governance 12

< proactive planning toward a long term vision 8

< internally accountable 5

< freedom and support for individuals and groups to mobilize community action 4

< leaders work w ith, mea ningfully eng age, se ek direc tion from and inform com mun ity

mem bers

4

< pro development approach that seeks independent sources of revenue (i.e. not grand-

based resources)

4

< stren gths focu sed (app recia tive inq uiry) 3

< wealth not defined by money, but by such successes as education or the ability to live a

vision

3

< formalized self government agreements managed for collective gain 3

< fair access to jobs and income 3

< stable, long lived leadership 3

< engages a variety of non-traditional partners in innovative solutions 3

< sound administrative systems 3

< acknowledges and owns their challenges in achieving the vision 3

< creatively operates beyond constraints imposed by the Indian Act 2

< strives for sustain-a bility 2

< process and outcome orientation are balanced 1

< generate their own culturally appropriate success indicators 1

< stron g wo rk ethic 1

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Overall, interview results confirm what the published literature shares aboutsuccessful Indigenous community. A scan of recent literature and select documentsrecommended by the Assembly of First Nations reveals the following most commonlycited characteristics of healthy community. Successful communities had relationshipsthat were positive within and between communities. They enjoyed functional linkageswith Canadian institutions more broadly. There was a palpable cohesiveness and pridereflected in widespread and meaningful community engagement. Successfulcommunities institutionally guard cultural integrity and offer members an environmentthat supported well being and actualization. By in large, there was a fair degree ofinstitutional completeness (i.e. a wide range of goods and services) and thoseinstitutions were holistic, integrated, locally controlled and easily accessible. In additionto a positive socio-economic climate, there was also common knowledge andunderstanding of community history. Last, but perhaps most importantly, leadershipoperated with ‘defacto’ sovereignty. In other words they felt empowered, enjoyed somedegree of autonomy and functioned as self-governing entities (either informally orformally). Leadership in successful communities pro-actively responded to internalagendas, were first internally accountable and strived for sustain-ability in all theirdevelopment efforts. Successful communities were also most likely to participate inland claims negotiations. The pattern of divergence and convergence with respect tocharacteristics of successful communities that emerged from consulted sources (seereferences highlighted in blue in Appendix B) is abbreviated in Table 4 on the followingpage. Furthermore, there is a striking reinforcement of the First Nation’s Holistic Policyand Planning Model on page 20 where relationships (represented by the outermostcircle), institutions (second layer in from the circumference) and leadership (third layer infrom the circumference) form concentric circles around elements of individualityreflected in the medicine wheel with community at the core.

15When leaders are internally accountable they report first to their communities and are responsive and focussed on community aspirations /needs. External accountability is often associated with monitoring and reporting

systems for agents outside of the community; however, monitoring and evaluation systems could also serve to support internal accountability if such reports were accessible to the community.

16Essential public health functions would include: safe food and water, infectious disease control, protection from environmental threats, food and drug safety, early recognition of risk and early intervention, programs and climates

that promote safety and healthy lifestyle as well as a population health approach that addresses inequity in the distribution of material resources (e.g. income, education, employment and housing).

12

Table 4) Highlights of Success from Published Literature

Relationship #

Institutions#

Leadership#

< positive social relations within thecommunity

7 < institutional guard of cultural integrity 12 < operates with defacto’ sovereignty,empowerment, self-government, autonomy

9

< positive social connection betweencommunities

5 < environment that supports individual well being and selfactualization (education or other developmentopportunities)

7 < responds to an internal agenda or vision,goal orientation

4

< functional linkages with Canadian‘institutions’

5 < holistic and integrated approach to health, balance &harmony

4 < strives for sustain-ability 4

< community cohesiveness 4 < positive socio-economic climate 4 < culture of internal and externalaccountability15

4

< community pride and participation 4 < localized control and access to a range of goods andservices (institutional completeness)

4 < participation in land claims 4

< collective approach to decision makingand issues

4 < knowledge and understanding of community history 4 < proactive 3

< all are encouraged and able toparticipate in community

3 < spirituality is celebrated and expressed 3 < cultural integrity is guarded and celebrated 3

< inclusive, flexible and diverse networks 3 < even distribution of wealth/resources betweenindividuals/families

2 < strategic direction and informed action 2

< collaboration maximizes the pace ofprogress

3 < access to variety of healing modalities 2 < emphasize the long term 1

< nation identity 2 < holistically tailored health care for youth 2 < success is measured by social, cultural,political and economic impacts

1

< thriving and functional internal moralauthority

2 < sound institutions that work better and feel right 2 < development is the job of local leadership 1

< partnerships recognize, respect anddefer to internal moral authority

1 < systems at the community level evolve and adapt 1 < development is a political issue 1

< sense of stability and fulfilment 1 < public health systems16 1 < effective and responsible governing body 1

< recognition and acceptance ofcommunity pluralism

1 < effective community management 1 < fairness 1

< holistically healthy individuals 1 < implementation of health education programs 1

17Reproduced with permission. Assem bly of First Nations (2006) First Na tions Pub lic Health: A

Fram ework for Impro ving the H ealth of O ur Peop le and O ur Com munities , Ottawa, Ontario, page 15.

13

Figure 1) Proposed First Nations Holistic Policy and Planning Model17

Eliminated due to size - see their report directly

3.2) Specific Communities Identified as Successful

Discomfort was noted when respondents were asked to isolate the most successfulcommunities because they felt that all communities were successful in some way andthat all communities had the inherent potential to be successful. Those that werecomfortable identified a number of communities but the reader is reminded that this listis not exhaustive or final and that many more successful First Nation’s communitiesexist in Canada. In addition, the concentration of identified communities within anyparticular province or the absence of identified communities from any province orterritory is likely an artifact of our purposefully selected sample and not a statementupon the First Nations located there. In alphabetical order by province, the followingcommunities were named:

Alberta

< Fort McKay, Alberta was noted for charting their own future andoptimizing their proximity to oil sands industries to develop their own groupof companies and joint ventures.

< Siksika First Nation, Alberta engages with a variety of partners toachieve their health aspirations. Their regional health authorities arepursuing a number of cross jurisdictional opportunities that expand beyondthe boundaries of the Indian Act and what the federal government alonehas to offer.

< Tsuu T'ina First Nation in Alberta has boldly undertaken major economicdevelopment projects.

British Columbia

< Alkali Lake, British Columbia is internationally known for turning a

14

situation of widespread addiction to one of near complete sobriety andrealizing that vision through community initiative and enduring effort.

< First Nations in both the Kootenay and Okanagan regions of BritishColumbia were considered successful. In particular the Osoyooscommunity was cited because of the principled leadership and the highrates of employment in enterprises owned and managed by thecommunity. St. Mary's was also recognized for its emphasis oncommunity development. Emphasis on development was credited with anincreasing number of students graduating from high school and continuingon to higher education. In the Kootenay Region, traditions are alive andyoung people are directly involved.

< ’Namgis First Nation on Vancouver Island in British Columbia was alsoidentified as a successful community owing to its exploration of technologyas a means of bringing training to the community.

< West Bank and Musquem in British Columbia enjoy a cadre of welleducated talent that is taking the community in creative directions. Inparticular, opening the community to land leasing agreements with non-Indigenous partners represents innovative and bold approaches that are creatively maneuvering outside the imposed constraints of the Indian Act.

< Nak'azdli First Nation near Fort St James, British Columbia placesparticular focus on their children. The community has an early childhoodlearning centre where they bring in an active group of Elders to teach andnurture the children. Additionally, the health of children is monitoredclosely and support is in place for parents in crisis. The young people inthe community are well educated and understand their traditions.

< Tsleil Waututh (Burrard) and Squamish First Nations in BritishColumbia were noted for their economic visions and developmentalundertakings.

New Brunswick

< Big Cove, New Brunswick is successful in their direct approach to youthsuicide where they have effectively engaged young people and embracedtraditions in healing. Culture has been integrated into as many aspects ofservices as is possible.

Newfoundland

< Conn River, Newfoundland has used the unique approach of combininghealth and social services. A solid relationship with the Newfoundland

15

government has been established resulting in capitalization on linkageswith broader Canadian institutions.

Nova Scotia

< Eskasoni, Nova Scotia was credited with comprehensive communityplanning, solid relationships with partners outside of the community andresponsible ownership of community directions for the future.

< Membertou, Nova Scotia has made large economic strides in providingservices such as gas stations, restaurants as well as recreation andentertainment centres to their members and the local non-nativepopulation.

< Millbrook, Nova Scotia has experienced a number of economicsuccesses, including establishing partnerships and creating large industrialareas where community members and the local population more generallycan access services.

Ontario

< Wapole Island, Ontario is recognized as successful for theirenvironmental stewardship. In the midst of much industrialization, thecommunity is very active in the environmental movement to protectendangered species, build an economy and become more strategic in theirdevelopment efforts.

< Six Nations in Ontario has reclaimed both the Mohawk and Cayugalanguages with their immersion schools and young people are graduatingfrom these programs fluent in their language.

Québec

< Kahnawake, Quebec is considered successful based on its integratedapproach to health and the advantages and opportunities afforded to thecommunity because of its proximity to a major urban centre.

< Kipiwa First Nation, Quebec enjoys a high employment rate becausemembers of the community are highly integrated in local forestry activitiesincluding a major mill.

< Wendake, Quebec is economically successful, largely due to its proximityto a major city, and the plentiful employment opportunities this proximityprovides.

16

< Montagnais communities on the north shore of the St. Lawrence Rivernear Les Escoumins River and Bay in Quebec (northeast of Tadoussac,Quebec) have embraced the opportunities afforded them by their proximityto the river and have built outfitting camps and run whale watching tours. They are able to employ community members as well as the local non-native population.

Saskatchewan

< Sturgeon Lake, Saskatchewan has stable health leadership andsupports the initiative of local members to mobilize the community intohealthy action.

< Standing Buffalo, Saskatchewan has a long term care facility for itsElders and maximizes supportive relationships with external agents inoperating the facility. The success is largely due to current leadershipand their approach to the generation and maintenance of allies outside ofthe community.

< While not single communities, Battlefords and Meadow Lake TribalCouncils in Saskatchewan were credited for undertaking majordevelopment projects.

Manitoba

< Norway House, Manitoba has a long term strategic plan that promptsthem to actively seek, support and mentor their young talent to carry theplan and its implementation into the future. By investing in youth, theyguarantee that they will have future leaders and professionals.

Yukon

< Self-governing communities in the Yukon have more control, definetheir own success with culturally-based indicators and meaningfullyengage their membership in a long-term vision and action for a successfulfuture.

3.3) Is Success Predictable or Random?

The majority of respondents (9/12) felt that success was at least partially, if notentirely, predictable. Those who felt that success is predictable believed that it wasbased upon a history of principled leadership that earnestly endeavors to improve

18Cornell, S ., & Ka lt, J.P. (nd). Sove reign ty and Natio n Bu ilding: The deve lopm ent challen ge in

Indian co unty today. The Harvard project on American Indian Economic Development: 1-35.

http://www .ksg.ha rvard.ed u/hpaied /key. page 25.

17

community conditions using all available capacity and potential however humble. Forsome, this opinion was based on their perception of deliberate planning and effort thathad created other successful communities. Successful communities are characterizedby stable, effective institutions, systems and policies that are culturally relevant, theyhave the ability to delay gratification and utilize long-term planning and a strong workethic to achieve their long term vision. Additionally, successful communities haveeffective leadership to direct efforts toward these goals.

Some respondents discussed the importance of strategic partnerships withorganizations and businesses outside of the community as essential for creating asuccessful community. One informant suggested that research done on successfulNative American communities generated a model of nation building that supports themanifestation of ‘success’ and was cited as a basis for predictability. In short, thismodel suggests that the community first operates with ‘defacto’ sovereignty. In otherwords, the community takes charge as the moral authority to change the status quo andthis is demonstrated through initiative and planning. Moving a plan into operationrequires the development of effective institutions. Development then must proceed withfocus provided by answers to the following questions:

“What kind of society are we trying to build?What do we hope to achieve in our society?What do we hope to preserve or protect? What are wewilling to give up?What are our development priorities (e.g., sovereignty,health, employment, income, skill development, etc.)? What are our development concerns (e.g., cultural impacts,environmental impacts, changing demographics, out-migration, etc)?What assets do we have to work with?What constraints do we face?”18

Once the community has established these answers, then the strategic direction is setfor decision making and action. These ‘nation building’ blocks are illustrated in Figure1).

19 Reproduced from Cornell, S., & Kalt, J.P. (nd). Sovereignty and Nation Building: The

deve lopm ent challen ge in In dian c oun ty toda y. The Harv ard p rojec t on A me rican Indian Economic

Develo pme nt: page 2 6. http://www .ksg.ha rvard.ed u/hpaied /key.htm

20Ibid.

18

Figure 2) Nation Building Blocks19

Over the last twenty years, Indigenous nations within the US have been shapingtheir future by creating self sustaining, nation building enterprises and growing within aself-determination and governance policy climate. Although ‘success’ has been andcontinues to be associated with playing and winning at a capitalist game, whenexamining sustainable economic development, it is clear that creating jobs and income(short term approach) is not as successful as a nation building (or long term)approach.20 The long term approach recognizes that income and job opportunities areimportant but it extends the solution to creating an environment in which people want toinvest. Whether the outcomes are profits, enhanced quality of life or tribal sovereignty,those who ‘invest’ want to be a part of the action because contributions of time, ideasskill, good will or financial means create change for the future. Though the short termapproach can occasionally lead to some quick and short-lived success, it is unlikely tobe sustainable. Although a long term approach does not assure economic success, it is

Decisions/Action

Effective Institutions

Strategic Direction

“De facto” Sovereignty

21Institutions that deal with laws, policies and codes specific to Indian nations and the rem ove

politics from business decisions as well as maintain cultural traditions.

22Adapted from Cornell, S., & Kalt, J.P. ( ). Sovereignty and Nation Building: The development

challenge in Indian county today. The Harvard project on American Indian Economic Development: page

9. http://www .ksg.ha rvard.ed u/hpaied /key.htm

19

more apt to lead to social prosperity, complete sovereignty, stable institutions21 and aeffective development. Table 5 illustrates the distinctions between reactive andproactive approaches to community development.

Table 5) Comparison between Short and Long TermApproaches to Development22

Short term Long Term

Reactive Proactive

Responds to anyone’s agenda

(from the federal government or anyone

off th e stre et - e.g . the C hief’s fam ily)

Responds to an internal agenda

(from strategic planning for the long-term future)

Empha sizes short-term payoffs

(especially jobs and income now)

Emphasizes long-term payoffs

(sustained community well-being)

Emphasizes starting businesses Emphasizes sustain-ability of business

Suc cess is m easured by eco nom ic

impact

Success is measured by social, cultural, political and

econo mic im pacts

Development is mostly the tribal

plann er’s jo b (pla nne r prop oses; co unc il

decides)

Dev elopm ent is the jo b of tr ibal an d com mu nity leaders hip

(they set vision , guidelines , policy; others implem ent)

Tre ats develo pm ent as an e conom ic

problem

Treats development as a political problem

The solution is money The solut ion is a soun d inst itution al fou nda tion, s trategic

direction, informed action

A couple of informants (2/12) thought that community success was random. Forexample, the existence of a community based and controlled school does not guaranteehigh school graduates. Behind the obvious physical structure, schools must also havewell trained professionals, competitive salary scales, stellar retention capacity,administrative and janitorial support and students that are adequately nourished toproduce graduates. One respondent was reluctant to isolate a particular set ofcircumstances or historical conditions as precursors to success because communitiesare so variable and four respondents felt that success was both random and predictable.

20

Randomness enters into the equation when there is a frequent change in leadership anddirection but greater predictability comes with historical stability both culturally andeconomically. In short, over time, success becomes more predicable. For example,there is little that a single two year administration could do to reverse or upset anestablished pattern of stable community functioning. Still, the role of the region,province or territory can have a profound impact on community success in ways that areentirely unpredictable.

Respondents acknowledged that there are certain situations in which communitieshave an increased or decreased chance at success based on their situation or location (e.g. expansion in the North, mega development projects, new found access todiamonds or oil, etc.). A community may, for instance, have an increased chance ofsuccess based on its proximity to natural resources or a decreased change of successbased on its remote geographic location and limited access to resources andopportunities that Canadian take for granted (e.g., employment, training and even roadaccess). Additionally, a community may be thrust into a situation over which it has nocontrol like a natural disaster. If the community deals with unexpected tragedysuccessfully, it can establish itself as a successful community but a positive response tomisfortune is highly dependent upon the quality of the community’s ‘institutions’ (formaland informal systems to meet human needs).

3.4) Can Successful Communities be Created?

Given that the majority felt that success was predictable, it seems logical thatrespondents were unanimous in their belief (12/12) that successful community can becreated. In unison, however, they qualified that success is catalyzed and maintainedfrom within and policy makers were cautioned that no standardized formula, particularlyone based upon an urban model, could apply. In other words, the initiative, momentum,means and direction of success had to be authored by and germane to the community. One informant was clear that success is not necessarily an end to a complicated arrayof interventions but a natural byproduct of a climate that fosters strong socialorganization, cultural cogence, community agency and resource availability. Anotherbelieved that change is initiated at an individual level and that self governance is aresponsibility and a privilege of citizenship.

Careful planning based upon shared values coupled with asset mapping, resiliencybuilding, sound organization and effective, internally accountable leadership wereconsidered essential. One credited the health transfer policy as a positive example ofhow communities could be supported in their visioning or planning exercises. The valueof continuous, careful monitoring and evaluation was clear but indicators of successmust satisfy internal agendas so that progress can be self directed. Without selfdirecting freedom, communities are left in a reactive role that does not lead to success. What communities really needed is a policy climate that supports sustainable, morally

23Muss ell, B., K. Card iff, and J. W hite. The Mental Health and Well-Being of Aboriginal Children

and Youth: Guidance for New Approaches and Services. Chilliwack, BC: Sal'i'shan Institute, 2004.

24Archiba ld, L. Decolonization and Healing: Indigenous Experiences in the United States, New

Zealand, Australia and Greenland: The Aboriginal Healing Foundation, 2006. And .Volume III: Promising

Healing Practices in Aboriginal Comm unities. Ottawa, ON: Aboriginal Healing Foundation, 2006.

21

independent, self directing freedom. For example, if FASD (Fetal Alcohol SpectrumDisorder) is the priority, then this becomes the focal point for mobilization that must besustained until the dilemma is resolved.

In any case, a few respondents were clear that it would be foolhardy to ignore thatmany are suffering under a widespread illness burden and that community agencyemerges from readiness to address tough issues. Corruption, pedophilia and otherforms of abuse rely upon silence to thrive but traditional connections and teachingsensure that such issues are addressed openly. In these scenarios, a more traditionaland collective network of support or mentorship is ideal. By supporting and generatingalliances between First Nations communities, the strong can help the weak, the learnedcan help the student and the successful can guide the struggling all while maintainingand reinforcing internal moral authority. Furthermore, if funding policies were altered sothat communities could be mutually supportive rather than in competition for limited,proposal driven resources, more traditional and culturally cogent solutions couldemerge; ones that work better and feel right. Everyone is more receptive to knowledgeif they can relate to its source. Such between group networks of care (such as tribal orregional level internal moral authorities) would also be an invaluable check and balancefor those champions of positive change who are challenged by violent or more subtleforms of oppression and the gate-keeping powers of Indian Act governments designedto be externally accountable.

Some suggested using a source of strength as an entry point for development andmobilization with Elders and traditional practices singled out as crucial in this regard. Recognizing, tapping and celebrating strengths in individuals through the NationalAboriginal Achievement Awards should be extended to include profiling successfulcommunities recommended one informant. The literature confirms these opinionsbecause worldwide, community-based healing initiatives with a focus on traditionalsources of strength have been reported as most successful for Indigenouspopulations.23,24 From the literature, community agency and cultural integrity were also

25Natcher, D. C., & Hickey, C. G. (2002). Putting the community back into community-based

resour ce m anage men t: A Criteria an d Indicato rs Appr oach to Sustaina bility. Human Organization 61(4):

350-36 3.

26Ham pton , M., H am pton , E., Kin unw a, G. , & Kin unw a, L. (1 995 ). Alas ka R ecovery and Spirit

Cam ps: First N ations C omm unity Deve lopm ent. Community Development Journal 30(3): 257-264.

27Hurst, S., & Nader, P. (2006). Quality in practice: Building community involvement in cross-

cultural Indig enous health pro gram s. International Journal for Quality in Health Care, 18(4): 294-298.

28Lee, B. (1 992). C olonization a nd the C omm unity: Implica tions for F irst Nations Develop men t.

Community Development Journal 23(3): 211-219.

29Hutchinson, J.P., (2006) First Nation/State Relationships and First Nation Health: An Exp loratory

Analysis of Linkag e Socia l Capital as a Determ inant of H ealth. Pimatziwin: A journal of Aboriginal and

indigeno us com munity h ealth, 4 (1): 105-118.

30Salée, D. (2006). Quality of life of Aboriginal people in Canada: An analysis of current research.

IRPP Choices 12(6): 1-38.

31Mignone, J., O’Neil, J. (2005). Conceptual Understanding of Social Capital in First Nations

Com mun ities: An Illustrative Desc ription. Pimatziw in: A journa l of Aborigina l and indige nous c omm unity

health , 3(2): 7-44.

32Hutchinson, J.P., (2006) First Nation/State Relationships and First Nation Health: An Exp loratory

Analysis of Linkag e Socia l Capital as a Determ inant of H ealth. Pimatziwin: A journal of Aboriginal and

indigeno us com munity h ealth, 4 (1): 105-118.

22

recognized as key elements underlying success across a variety of sectors 25,26,27,28,29,30

Naturally, the smallest building blocks of successful community are individuals reachingtheir full potential but the development of social capital both within the community,between communities and with Canadian institutions more generally are alsoconsidered very important.31,32 Having laid a foundation of understanding around howsuccess is conceived within the Indigenous community, it is important to examine howsuccess has been and is being measured.

4) Measuring ‘Successful Community’

There is a long history of measuring social conditions in First Nations communitiesthat have examined a variety of physical and infrastructure related indices. Over theyears various efforts to assess health more systematically have also been undertaken(e.g. First Nations Health Information System, Treatment Activity Report System andcommunicable disease control efforts) all of which had little or marginal regard to datacomparability either provincially, nationally or internationally and almost all had apathogenic focus. More recently, efforts to measure well being have adapted the use of

33Cook e, M., Be avon, D ., & McH ardy, M. (20 04). Measuring the Well-Being of Aboriginal People:

An Application of the United Nations’ Human Development Index to Registered Indians in Canada,

1981–2001. Strategic Research and Analysis Directorate, Indian and Northern Affairs Canada: 1-31.

34The Hum an D evelo pm ent In dex (HD I) is a c om para tive m easure o f life ex pec tanc y, literac y,

education, and standard of living for countries worldwide. It is a standard means of measuring well-being,

especially child welfare. It is used to determine and indicate whether a country is a developed, developing,

or unde rdevelop ed cou ntry and also to me asure th e impa ct of eco nom ic policies on quality of life.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Development_Index.

35Kishk Anaquot H ealth Research (2006) Canadian Coalition for Global Health Research

Integrated Wor k Plan: F ocus o n Indigen ous H ealth ,

http://www .ccg hr.ca /defa ult.cfm? con tent= indige nous&la ng=e &su bnav=library.

23

international indices33 (e.g. the United Nation’s Human Development Index [HDI] 34) orhave focused more intently upon the quality of social relationships within the group. Thewell being index developed by Strategic Research and Analysis Directorate of theDepartment of Indian and Northern Affairs and based upon the HDI is enormouslyimportant because it offers comparability.

Although the motives for dis-aggregated, standardized and widely respected datahave been criticized as racist, these data would reveal the alarming differences in healthstatus for Indigenous peoples and allow for a more effective response to their healthissues. Those doing research on Indigenous health nationally and internationally arecontinually challenged by the lack of a standardized, rigorous and comparable index thatwould serve as a tangible target to catalyze action. In fact the Canadian Coalition forGlobal Health Research has been prompted by respected Indigenous healthresearchers to support the creation of basic health indicators for Indigenous populationsor to advocate for a dis-aggregated human development index.35 As long as equityremains a tenet of Canadian nationalism, indices with a high degree of comparability willbe invaluable. Still, the well being index hones in on individual educational attainment,life expectancy and income and while it is true that communities are collections ofindividuals, they are also much more. Communities or societies form systems orinstitutions and their collective actions create opportunities that individuals alone couldnot.

Looking beyond individuals to communities and their systems, some work hasfocused upon the measurement of social capital in First Nations communities. For thepurposes of this work, social capital refers to the extent to which there are social bondswithin the community, social bridges with other communities and linkages with broaderbased institutions and the degree to which:

“< the community’s resources are socially invested; < there is the existence of a culture of trusts, norms of reciprocity,

collective action and participation; and,

36Mignone, J. and O’Neil. J (2005) Social Capital as Health Determinant in First Nations: An

Explora tory Study in T hree C omm unities. Journa l of Aborigina l Health , 2(1), pag e 27.

37Cha ndler, M . J., and C. Lalo nde. "C ultural C ontinu ity as a H edge agains t Suicid e in Ca nada 's

First Na tions." Transcultural Psychiatry 35 (1998): 191-219.

38http://www.theciel.com/

24

< the community possesses inclusive flexible and diverse networks”36

It is clear that measures of social capital most closely resemble the notion ofrelationship, while the well-being index could arguably be a proxy for elements from bothrelationship or institutions and arguably leadership but neither tool nor historical effortsto assess social and physical health cover the full range of potential indices identifiedhere. While the business and exploration of measuring ‘success’ in First Nationscommunities will continue to be challenged by varying priorities and little consensus, theinclusion of institutional completeness and quality (perhaps starting with the protectivefactors identified by Chandler and Lalonde37) as well as leadership capacity can nolonger be ignored. To refine measurement within the institutional realm, one respondentrecommended the adaptation of the Business Vitality Index (BVI) prepared by theCentre for Innovation and Entrepreneurial Leadership.38 Another respondent suggestedthat a pathological orientation be shifted to measure desired outcomes. In other words,instead of focusing on high school drop out rates, there should be a focus on highschool graduation rates. In any case, much evidence suggests that a morecomprehensive and salutogenic approach that includes examination of relationship,institutions and leadership is needed.

5) Concluding Remarks

Several points of convergence between respondents and the literature are clear. The extent to which individuals and groups engage in social action that recognizes theirroles and responsibilities to each other, the family, group or society appearsfundamental. Successful communities mobilize and maximize individual strengths,enjoy collaborative and cohesive environments where human needs are acknowledgedopenly and addressed appropriately and they have strong community identity, pride,agency and family functioning. Their systems, both formal and informal, created to meethuman needs for survival and expression were locally accessible, high functioning and “owned” (based in/controlled and supported) by community. They enjoy a stable andstrong economic base or movement towards developing one and cultural strength isguarded and obvious through a variety of means including but not limited to anintegrated approach to community issues. In addition, their governance structuremeaningfully engages community members in the development and implementation ofan internal agenda in a way that motivates and enables contributions toward the

25

A fundamental shift towards optimizing potential rather than averting crisis ispossible.

The emergence of a tailored and evidence based approach to partnership ismore available to health strategists than ever before. Rigorously developedinformation such as the well being index and the measurement of socialcapital are readily available. Alternatively developing measurement toolsthat consider the degree of institutional quality and completeness, leadershipcharacteristics together with the nature of relationship should flavorcollaboration strategies.

Most importantly, opportunities must be created for external allies to beresponsive to community initiative and visioning exercises because pro-activity is consistently more effective than reactivity.

Support for between and supra or extra community action would maximizevicarious learning and recognize that the decolonizing effect of a reinforcedinternal moral authority and cultural cogence are the best medicine.

efficacy and sustainable success of the collective.

These findings suggest that many communities have unlocked the secret todecolonization and have much to share with other Indigenous communities acrossCanada. The first and most obvious opportunity is for Canada to say something newabout the inherent strengths that can be found within Indigenous communities. The keypolicy points that have emerged from this work are profiled graphically below so thatthey leap from the text.

Policy Implication 1

Policy Implication 2

Policy Implication 3

Policy Implication 4

26

Still, questions remain like where do we begin, what is the best way and how will weknow that we are getting what we want. Of course, this series of questions each comewith their own sub-questions generated below:

Where to begin?< Does initiating development through a wide variety of strengths always

lead to ‘success’ more holistically?< What strategies are most effectively paired with unique community

strengths?< What is the entry point where little or no strength can be found?< Is the exercise of ‘defacto’ sovereignty or empowerment always the

first step?

What is the most promising practice?< Is institution building a way toward nation building in all scenarios (e.g.

isolated, remote, rural and near urban)?< Can institution and nation building rise above geographic isolation?< What are the anticipated risks or challenges of a community to

community approach to partnership and intervention?< How can Canadian institutions be leveraged to recognize and respect

internal moral authority or ‘defacto’ sovereignty?< Does maximizing individual strengths always take care of community?

Are we there yet?< How can the measurement of well-being and social capital be used

right now to partner with First Nations communities and intervenestrategically?

< Are there other indices of relationship, institutionalcompleteness/quality and leadership that need to be taken intoconsideration or developed? How can these be used strategically?

While these questions can guide future research, the obvious hypotheses to be testedare:

Successful First Nations communities can be created through the support ofproactive efforts that are germane and tailored to meet the social, institutionaland governance priorities identified by the community.

Collective and between community approaches to resolving issues is adecolonizing and powerful way of restoring Indigenous communities to theirrightful place of healthy balance.

Further exploration and testing of these hypotheses should proceed with Elder’sguidance and draw parallels between Canada and other Indigenous communities

39 Robe rt K. Yin. Case Study Research. Design and Methods. Third Edition. Applied socialresearch method series Volume 5. Sage Publications. California, 2002

40 Bent Flyvb jerg, "Five M isunder standing s Abou t Case S tudy Res earch." Qualitative Inquiry, vol.12, no. 2, April 2006, pp. 219-245

27

globally. To test these hypotheses, case studies would be ideal. Case studiesgenerally enjoy relative freedom from specific types of evidence39 or methods and so fitbetter with the exploration. Most case studies are qualitative research endeavorsaccessible to general audiences that offer in-depth, longitudinal examination of a singlesituation or event within its real life context so that a better understanding of why andhow circumstances have unfolded can emerge. By their very nature, case studies lendthemselves to both generating and testing hypotheses40. In any case, this appreciativeinquiry represents a decided shift in the discourse and may be just the opportunity FirstNations have been waiting for to create germane solutions that guard cultural integrity,facilitate respect for internal moral authorities as well as set and measure the coursetoward success.

28

Appendix A - Components of the Business Vitality Index

Section Definition Key E leme nts

Opportunities &

Attitudes

The ability of the community and

its citizens to recognize, take

action, and follow through on

available opportunities.

ü Entrepreneurial Mindset

ü Embrac ing O pportunity

ü Motivated Workforce

Quality of Life The ability of th e com mun ity to

attract & retain businesses &

citizens, es pecially tho se wh o are

young, skilled workers.

ü Health & Education

ü Arts & C ulture

ü Lifestyle Opportunities

Commitment to Business

ü Daily Services

Education &

Training

The ability of th e com mun ity to

develop entrepreneurial skills &

attitudes in the non-business

population , and to upgrade skills

in the b usine ss co mm unity in

orde r to rem ain co mpe titive in

larger markets.

ü Ongoing Skills & Personal

Development

ü Entrepreneurial Development

ü Access to Business Training

ü Effectiveness & Quality of

Training

Innovation The ability of th e com mun ity to

innovate, that is, think of and

develop new ideas.

Consideration of new ideas

increases the ability of the

community to adapt to changes,

recognize unusual and new

opportunities and technologies,

and share ideas with like-minded

people.

ü Information Access

ü Attitude toward Innovation

ü Innovation in the C omm unity

ü Application of Innovation

Leadership,

Teamwork &

Networking

The ability of th e com mun ity to

take action on an idea or

opportunity as a whole group,

with good leadersh ip, effective

teamwork, and clear

communication

ü Community Leadership &

Teamwo rk

ü Networking & Communication

ü Leadership Development

Opportunities

ü Attitudes tow ard C omm unity

Cooperation

29

Governm ent &

Organizations

The ability of lo cal go vernm ents

and o ther organization s to wo rk

with business to design

processes and programs that

mak e it as e asy as poss ible to

start o r expa nd a busin ess.

ü Governing Body’s Attitude

Toward Business

ü Government Assistance &

Processes

ü Availability of Business

Support & Programs

ü Delivery of Business

Development Support & Programs

Capital & Funding The ability of th e com mun ity to

financ ially suppo rt entrepre neurs

through ensur ing ac cess to

capital, and educating

businesses about financial

management and supports.

ü Lenders’ Ability to Understand

& W ork with Entrepreneurs

ü Businesses’ Access to &

Management of Capital

ü Types of Capital

Infrastructure &

Business Services

The ability of th e com mun ity to

provide necessary and high

quality support services and

infrastructure to business at

reasonable costs, allowing

businesses to be as com petitive

as possible.

ü Prese nce o f a Bus iness C ore

(cluster)

ü Existence of Business Services

Adequacy of Utilities for Business

ü Availability of Business Space

Communications &

Con nectiv ity

The ability of b usine sses to

conn ect with each other and with

outside markets.

ü Methods of Communication

ü Tran spor tation S ervice s within

Com munity

ü Inter-community Transportation

ü Shipping & Freighting

Markets &

Marketing

The ability of b usine sses to

capture and expand markets,

both locally, regionally, and

outside the region, thus

sustaining and building local

wealth.

ü Market Savvy

ü Market Reputation

ü Local Marketing

ü Regional Marketing

30

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