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7ýAMRL-TR-76-55
SUMMARY REPORT OF AMRL REMOTELYPILOTED VEHICLE (RPV) SYSTEM SIMULATIONSTUDY IV RESULTS
AEROSPACE MEDICAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
JUNE 1976
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AEROSPACE MEDICAL RESEARCH LABORATORYAEROSPACE MEDICAL DIVISIONAIR FORCE SYSTEMS COMMAND
WRIGHT-PATTERSON AIR FORCE BASE, OHIO 45433
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TECHNICAL REVIEW AND APPROVAL
AMRL-TR-76-55
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FOR THE COMMANDER
CHARLES BATES, JR.ChiefHuman Engineering DivisionAerospace Medical Research Laboratory
AIR FORCE - 13 AUGUST 76 - 100
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AMRL-TR-76-554. TITLE (and Subtitle) 5, TYFE O-F REPORT & PERIOD COVERED
SUMMARY REPORT OF AMRL REMOTELY PILOTED VEHICLE Summary report(RPV) SYSTEM SIMULATION STUDY IV RESULTS 6. PERFORMING ORG. REPORT NUMBER
7. AUTHOR(@) 8. CONI RACT OR GRANT NUMBER(s)
Nilss M. AumeRobert G. MillsAldo A. Gillio
S. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS 10. PROGR7AM ELEMENT, PROJECT, TASKAREA A WORK UNIT NUMBERS
Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory, AerospaceMedical Division, Air Force Systems Command, 62202F 7184-14-AA
-Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio 45433
I. CONTROLLING OFFICE NAME AND ADDRESS 12. REPORT DATE
Systems Research Branch June 1976Human Engineering Division 13. NUMBER oF PAGES
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Approved for public release; distribution unlimited
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IS. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
19. KEY WORDS (Continue on reverse aide if necessary and identify by block number)
Aeronautics Operations, Strategy, TacticsMan-Machine Relations Navigation and GuidanceComputers Combat VehiclesSubsystems
20. ABSTRACT (Continue nn reverse aide If necessary and Identify by block number)
The AMRL RPV System Simulation and Research Program was initiated inresponse to requirements for support of the design of the man-machine/environment interface of AF RPV systems. The major objectives of the AMRLRPV System Simulation and Research Program are as follows: (1) Perform RPVsystem design evaluation studies, i.e., evaluate alternative designconfigurations, assumptions, operating procedures, etc.; (2) Assess RPVsystem effectiveness, i.e. evaluate the expected effectiveness of a given
DD I JAN73 1473 EDITION OF I NOV 65 IS OBSOLETE
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system configuration such as its overall probability of achieving a target,etc.; (3) Provide man-machine/environment interface engineering data, i.e.recommend displays etc.; (4) Test bed new technology, e.g. evaluateeffectiveness of contractor designed consoles, video bandwidth compressiontechniques, etc. The results of the fourth simulation study are reportedherein. This study included automatic RPV heading correction and positionreport smoothing functions in the simulation. The study employed scenariosrequiring a limited number of support mission RPVs, via reprogramming,to-provide 'coverage for a set of Strike RPVs (or manned vehicles).The study evaluates RPV system performance under the simultaneous effectsOf RPV Automatic Heading Correction Cross Track Threshold, Total Number ofRPVs Under System Control, Ratio of Strike Set to Support Vehicle Set,and Display (Window) Sizes or Scales.
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PREFACE
The authors acknowledge the assistance of the following individuals:
Mr. Gene Sebasky and Mr. Dale Wartluft, Federal Systems Division, IBM;
Mr. Robert F. Bachert, Sgt Jon VanDonkelaar, AMRL; Mr. Jeff Baughman,
Miss Jody Kusy, Miss Suzanne Gross, and Mr. Mike Berger, University of
'Dayton. Each of these individuals has contributed substantially to
the success of the RPV System Simulation program being conducted in
this laboratory.
CONTENTS
1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.......................................
2.0 AMRL RPV SYSTEM SIMULATION TEST BED ................. 2
3.0 RPV STUDY IV MISSION SCENARIO PARAMETERS ............. 4
4.0 CONTROL/DISPLAY PARAMETERS ......................... 8
5.0 OPERATOR RESPONSIBILITIES AND PROCEDURES ........... 10
6.0 RPV STUDY IV -- SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES AND SYSTEM
PARAMETERS INVESTIGATED ............... ............ 13
7.0 OPERATOR TEAMS ................... ................ 15
8.0 RPV STUDY IV RESULTS ........................... 16
9.0 MAJOR CONCLUSIONS .................... 22
1Q.0 REV SYSTEM SIMULATION STUDY V - PLANS ............. 22
TABLES AND FIGURES ................................... 24
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1.0 The AMRL RPV System Simulation and Research Program was initiated
in April 1973 in response to requirements for support of the design of
the man-machine/environment interface of AF RPV systems. The major
objectives of the AMRL RPV System Simulation and Research Program are
listed here.
1.1.1 Perform RPV system design evaluation studies, i.e.evaluate alternative design configurations, assumptions,operating procedures, etc.
1.1.2 Assess RPV system effectiveness, i.e. evaluate theexpected effectiveness of a given system configuration suchas its overall probability of achieving a target, etc.
1.1.3 Provide man-machine/environment interface engineeringdata, i.e. recommend displays, etc.
1.1.4 Test bed new technology, i.e. evaluate effectivenessof contractor designed consoles, video bandwidth compressiontechniques, etc.
1.2.0 The major thrust of this program has been to bring the state-
of-the-art in system simulation and system research concepts to bear
on the problem of RPV system design and development. System simula-
tion and research concepts assert that an RPV system will be comprised
of a number of sequenced phases and events that are dynamically
interactive when multiple RPVs must be controlled in real-time by
multiple operators. If possible, then, exploratory development efforts
involving these interactive elements should provide much of the
required data for system design. Since large-scale, multiple RPV
systems in the AF are yet to be developed, the most practical approach
to performing RPV systems research and also satisfying the system
dynamics problem is via computer simulation of a "postulated" real-
world system.1
1.3.0 This technical report summarizes the data of the fourth RPV
systems simulation study (RPV Study IV) employing the AMRL RPV System
Simulation Test Bed.
2.0 AMRL RPV SYSTEM SIMULATION TEST BED.
2.1.0 RPV Study IV employed the AMRL RPV System Simulation Test Bed.
The simulation incorporates a large number of the parameters of a
postulated real-world RPV system. The simulation employs four Enroute!
Return Phase operators and one Terminal Phase Pilot operator (henceforth
referred to as pilot). Each Enroute/Return operator monitors and
operates a computer graphics terminal (IBM 2250) comprised of a graphic
display (cathode ray tube, CRT), alphanumeric keyboard, lightpen, a
programmable function keyboard, and a small panel for hand-over actions.
The pilot operates a pilot station comprised of basic flight instruments,
a joystick for controlling a camera over a terrain model, and a closed
circuit TV monitor. The simulation is executed in real-time and permits
simultaneous control over up to 35 simulated RPVs.
2.2.0 Figure 1 is a schematic layout of the simulation facility as it
is presently configured. Note that there is closed loop manual or
automatic control over the camera of the terrain model facility. Figure
2 is a photograph of a team of 5 operators performing a simulated RPV
mission in the simulation facility. Figure 3 provides a closer view of
one Enroute/Return operator's terminal and the pilot's station with
video from the terrain model.
2.3.0 The AMRL RPV system simulation can be briefly characterized in
terms of the major submodels that are dynamically interfaced in the
simulation. These submodels are listed below.
2
2.3.1 Simulated RPV heading, altitude, and velocity flightparameters with automatic or manual, digital updatecapability while in the automatic flight mode or manual,continuous update capability while in the continuous controlflight mode (Terminal Phase).
2.3.2 Three data links (Command, Position Reporting, andVideo) for each simulated RPV and with interference para-meters.
2.3.3 Simulated RPV fuel load and rate of usage as afunction of velocity and altitude.
2.3.4 Simulated RPV attrition probability parameters basedon altitude and on the extent of (lateral) cross track devia-tion from the programmed flight plan.
2.3.5 Simulated RPV subsystem reliability operating in real"operational" time in conjunction with a simulated RPVinventory..
2.3.6 Simulated RPV navigation system parameters (RPV StudyIV employed parameters for Inertial, Doppler, and Basic DeadReckoning systems).
2.4.0 Specific displays and controls available in the simulation,
and operating procedures are described in "Remotely Piloted Vehicle
(RPV) Simulation Program Instruction Manual". This manual is
intended for operator instruction and generally interested persons.
It is being continually expanded and updated, and therefore is in
draft form. A copy can be obtained from AMRL/HEB, Wright-Patterson
AFB, Ohio 45433.
2.5.0 Enroute/Return operators are provided with displays (updated
in real-time) showing, for each RPV, a flight plan, a track signature
and vector displayed according to reported position, expected times
of arrivals (ETAs) to waypoints, status of Command data link, command
velocity and altitude, fuel remaining, lateral distance of the RPV from
flight plan, various alarm conditions, etc. The CRT display in Figure 3
3
shows four flight plans, a listing of RPV tail numbers and associated
information down the right side of the display, a status information
block in the lower left corner, and two other message blocks in the
lower center and the lower right areas. Operators also have the
capability to window (zoom) around an RPV at two display scaling
levels. Each operator can make use of all control devices (i.e.
light pen, alphanumeric keyboard, programmable function keyboard,
and the hand-over switch panel).
3.0 RPV STUDY IV MISSION SCENARIO PARAMETERS
3.1.0 RPV Study II* employed a "generalized" mission scenario,
intended to establish base-line data, and represented a cross-
section of specific scenarios in that it contained system task
elements considered to be present in most real-world RPV missions.
RPV Study III** employed a slightly more specialized mission scenario
assuming that a limited set of support RPVs (Electronic Warfare and
Low Altitude Reconnaissance) is available for coverage of a large
number of strike RPVs or manned aircraft. RPV Study IV continued to
use this type of mission scenario.
* Mills, R. G.; Bachert, R. B. and Aume, N. M.; Summary Report ofAMRL Remotely Piloted Vehicle (RPV) System Simulation Study IIResults, AMRL-TR-75-13, Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory,Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, Feb. 1975, AD 006 142.
**Mills, R. G.; Aume, N. M. and Bachert, R. F.; Summary Report ofAMRL Remotely Piloted Vehicle (RPV) System Simulation Study IIIResults, AMRL-TR-75-126, Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory,Wright-Patterson AFB Ohio, December 1975, AD A020064.
4
3.2.0 Most of the major parameters of the RPV mission scenario
for RPV Study IV are the same as for RPV Study III. All are
listed below. It is indicate d where parameters differ from those
of the RFV Study III scenario.
3.2.1 RPV Launch and Recovery Phases are assumed tooccur "1outside't the simulation.
3.2.2 Each RPV has an in dependent programmed flightplan that is assumed to be stored in the DCF (DroneControl Facility) and RPV computers.
3.2.3 'Each flight plan is assumed to be optimal withrespect to terrain and defenses. Thus, the MissionPlanning subsystem is also assumed to be outside thesimulation.
3.2.4 A round-trip of approximately 400 NM per RPV issimulated, with the center of the target area located200 NM from the launch insertion and recovery coordinates.Strike RPVs held quite closely to their path lengths. Eand L RPVs, due to repeated passes over targets, travelledconsiderably farther than the programmed path length.
3.2.5 Each RPV has an initial command velocity of 400knots and a command altitude of 200 feet.
3.2.6 Each RPV is designated one of three mission types;Strike (Weapons Delivery), EW (Electronic Warfare), andLow Recce (Low Altitude Reconnaissance).
3.2.7 In RPV Study IV scenario RPVs are launched accordingto type. The group of EW EPVs are launched first.-on 15second intervals. These are follo~wed by the Low RecceRPVs also on 15 second intervals. The Strike group islaunched last on 120 second intervals. This interval was90 seconds in RPV Study III. The number of vehicles ineach group is parametric and is determined prior to eachsimulated mission (see 6.2.1).
3.2.8 EPVs are launched from one of three launch areas.
3.2.9 For the RPV Study IV scenario each Strike, EW, andLow Recce group must be time-phased (coordinated arrivals)to target. Time-phasing is such that a single EW must be
5
within a 7 NM radius of the target assigned to the ccor-dinated Strike and a single Low Recce follows the sameStrike vehicle of 2 minutes (simulating BDA). Thesecoordination requirments will be discussed later (see5.6.0).
3.2.10 Each Strike flight plan has a designated Hand-offcoordinate (H) for Hand-off to Terminal Phase (Weaponsdelivery). Each strike flight plan has a designated way-point S, prior to H, for cueing the start of Hand-offprocedures. In addition to the S and H waypoints eachStrike flight plan has designated Target (T, one of threetargets), Hand-back (B), and Recovery (R) coordinates.
3.2.11 In RPV Study IV scenarios EW and Low Recce flightplans are programmed through all three targets (labeled 1,2, and 3). No other waypoints are designated on theseflight plans (except Recovery coordinate).
3.2.12 Prior to hand-off, an RPV is given a command toclimb to an altitude of 3000 ft. (in the case of Strikethe small area on terrain model also required a change incommand velocity to 250 knots).
3.2.13 For Strike flight plans the distance from S to His 7.77 NM, from H to T the average distance is 1.5 NM.
3.2.14 Each RPV is given just enough fuel to completethe roundtrip mission. Strike RPVs are assigned a fuelload of 2000 pounds. EW and Low Recce RPVs are assigneda load of 4000 pounds.
3.2.15 Only Strike RPVs are handed-off to Pilot controlon a first-come first-served basis.
3.2.16 It is assumed that EW and Low Recce RPVs must behanded-off but that the recipient operator is outside thesimulation (e.g., EWO, photo interpreter, etc.).
3.2.17 All EW, Low Recce, and overload Strike RPVs (Strikesnot handed-off to the Terminal Pilot operator) are handed-off to other Enroute/Return operators in the system but therecipient is passive (i.e., the only action on the operator'spart is throwing the "accept" switches; the operator does notmonitor the RPV, etc.).
6
3.2.18 Video imagery from the terrain model and continuouscontrol are available to the Pilot only during the actualTerminal Phase. Terminal Phase control will be achievedonly if the Strike RPV is within an approximate + 1500 footwide corridor to target.
3.2.19 The simulation employed for RPV Study IV included afunction to smooth raw RPV position report data. Thesmoothing function essentially fits a statistical, best-fitflight path to position reports. (See the Instruction Manualnoted in 2.4.0 for more detail.)
3.2.20 The simulation employed, for RPV Study IV included afunction to perform automatic RPV heading correction basedon smoothed position report data. The automatic correctionis ordered for an RPV when the lateral deviation or crosstrack error is in excess of a given threshold value. Thelateral deviation of an RPV is measured relative (perpen-dicular distance) to its stored flight plan. (See theInstruction Manual noted in 2.4.0 for more detail).
3.2.21 Both of the above functions (3.2.19, 3.2.20) areassumed to occur at the DCF level and not onboard the RPV.This "smarter" RPV system was initiated in RPV Study IIIand was continued in RPV Study IV. The impact of thesetwo functions was reported in an RPV Study II supplement.*
3.3.0 Figure 4 is a basic profile of scenario requirements for RPV
Study IV. In this figure one group consisting of Strike, EW, and Low
Recce flight plans are shown. The circles along flight plans and at
waypoints indicate that there will be an expected RPV position error.
In other words one can expect that given any desired point on an RPV
flight plan, true RPV position will vary inside an ellipse (shown here
as circles).
* Mills, R. G.; Bachert, R. B. and Aume, N. M. Supplementary Reportof RPV System Simulation Study II: Evaluation of RPV Position ReportSmoothing and Automatic Heading Correction. AMRL-TR-75-87, AerospaceMedical Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, Sept 1975,AD A-017 334.
7
3.4.0 Figure 4 also indicates that the EW and Low Recce shown in
the figure are to rendezvous with the Strike RPV at Target TI.
Since there are less EW and Low Recce RPVs than Strikes, the EW
RPV shown in the figure has previously covered a Strike at Target
T 2. Also, the Low Recce has previously provided BDA for a Strike
at Target T3 . In order to provide the necessary coverage at T1
operators are required to reroute (reprogram) both support RPVs
to T such that the rendezvous with the incoming Strike will occur
according to time-phasing requirements.
4.0 CONTROL/DISPLAY PARAMETERS
4.1.0 Each Enroute/Return operator station consists of an IBM 2250
Graphics CRT Terminals (there are four such terminals). These
terminals are equipped with a 12 inch CRT, light pen, alphanumeric
keyboard, and a programmable function keyboard. A small panel of
switches and lights has been added to each terminal for operator
control during hand-offs.
4.2.0 The Pilot station is equipped with a joystick, basic flight
instruments, and a TV monitor for displaying the terrain during the
Strikes or the information on one of the CRT terminals during the
rest of the mission.
4.3.0 Each CRT has the capability to display flight plans, track
signatures, geographical reference, etc., for up to 10 RPVs
simultaneously. RPV status parameters such as velocity, fuel
remaining, RPV mission type, etc., can be displayed for an individual
RPV. Other displayed parameters are ETA to the next designated way-
point, flight mode for each RPV in the system, and elapsed mission
time.
8
4.4.0 Operators can "call" displays and can make changes to RPV
flight parameters using the various control devices on their terminals.
In the case of heading changes the operator can employ any one of the
three window sizes (a 10 x 10 NM to 30 x 30 NM, a 60 x 60 NM to 140 x
140 NM, (see 6.2.4 for complete details) which are centered on the RPV
to be changed, and a 220 NM x 220 NM window which is centered on the
entire geographical area). The operator then introduces a set of
points (not to exceed 10) on the CRT face using the light pen. This
is called a "patch", and it always starts from the current RPV
position and must end on a point on the original flight path. If the
operator's prescribed points call for an impossibly tight turn, the
computer rejects the patch, in which case the operator must introduce
a new patch. Valid patches are transmitted over the command data
link to the on board computer and the RPV proceeds to fly through the
points prescribed in the patch.
4.5.0 Each attempt to communicate an instruction to an RPV is assumed
to employ the command data link. The possible commands are altitude
changes, velocity changes, navigation system changes, destruct, deploy
chutes, and heading patch (change heading). After a command to an
RPV is entered, it remains in the "outstanding commands" block (during
this time it is displayed) until it has been transmitted.
4.6.0 The displayed position of each RPV is in the form of a track
signature consisting of a heading velocity vector and an ID number.
The displayed position is computed by adding, vectorially, the position
reporting system error, navigation system error, as compounded by
operator error, to the true RPV position. The simulation frame time
(display update) is five seconds.
9
5.0 OPERATOR RESPONSIBILITIES AND PROCEDURES
5.1.0 Enroute/Return operators are required to perform the following
general tasks.
5.1.1 Monitor and update RPV position based on minimizingoverall cross track (lateral deviation) error.
5.1.2 Coordinate all RPV arrivals to the target and recoveryareas.
5.1.3 Time-phase each Strike RPV such that it achieves its"original" ETA (assigned during flight plan generation) toeach designated waypoint (S, H, T, B, R). To achieve amaximum number of hand-overs to pilot, some deviations arepermissible (also see 5.6.1).
5.1.4 Time-phase RPV recoveries such that EW and LowRecce RPVs arrive at R in any order, Strike achievesoriginal ETA to R, and the arrival interval of all RPVsis as near to, but not less than, 15 seconds as possible.
5.1.5 Perform hand-offs to other operators when required.
5.1.6 Accept RPVs (on a passive basis) handed off by otheroperators.
5.1.7 Hand-back RPVs upon request from another operator.
5.1.8 Respond to RPV failures, e.g. by Destruct, DeployChutes, Replace Navigation System, etc.
5.1.9 reprogram (recycle) RPVs to replace RPVs that arelost due to malfunction, attrition, etc.
5.1.10 Manage RPV fuel.
5.2.0 ETA adjustment for an RPV is accomplished by the operator
altering RPV velocity and/or RPV heading (i.e., increasing or
decreasing RPV flight path distance). Reprogramming an RPV is
accomplished by causing the replacement or support RPV to go to the
desired target area after it has completed its assigned mission. A
replacement RPV must be of the same type as the RPV lost and must
be time-phased with the remaining RPVs of the group. Additionally,
10
a replacement strike RPV must be assigned to the same target as the
lost RPV.
5.3.0 The Pilot is required to perform the following general tasks.
5.3.1 Direct coordination of RPV hand-offs and arrivals totarget and recovery areas during "dead-time" of Enroute andReturn Phases of the mission.
5.3.2 Accept Strike RPVs from Enroute/Return operators.
5.3.3 Switch into Video and Continuous Control mode whena Strike RPV is successfully handed-off.
5.3.4 Perform target acquisition and simulate line-of-sighttarget lock-on or weapon release (activate Trigger switch).
5.3.5 Perform hand-back of a Strike RPV following thetarget phase.
5.4.0 Target detection and acquisition requirements were minimal
during the Terminal Phase. This is due to repeated runs to the same
targets and the small area of the terrain model. At the present time,
the lack of significant detection and acquisition problem is not
viewed as a serious deficiency. The simulation study is concerned
with the dynamic interaction of the major elements of mission phase
integration, multiple RPVs, near simultaneous hand-offs, multiple
operator interactions, etc.
5.5.0 A successful hand-off could occur (a Strike RPV achieves
continuous control) only if the RPV was within an approximate + 1500
foot wide corridor on both sides of the flight path to the target.
5.6.0 There were a number of performance requirements which the RPV
system was expected to achieve. These were prioritized for the
operators. Operators were instructed that in order to achieve the
criterion of highest priority, some accuracy might have to be
11
sacrificed on lower priority items. Furthermore, each team (see
5.7.0) was allowed to employ its own strategy for accomplishing the
criteria. The priorities are listed here.
5.6.1 Priority 1 -- Maximize the number of Strike RPVshanded-off successfully to the Pilot with the EW andLow Recce rendezvous criteria (see 3.2.9). This impliesoccasional adjustments to the prescribed ETA's,remembering to keep the squared error(difference betweenprescribed and actual ETA) to a minimum.
5.6.2 Priority 2 -- Maximize the number of Strike RPVshanded-off successfully to the Pilot but fail to meet theEW and Low Recce rendezvous criteria, (e.g., a Strike RPVproperly handed-off but not provided with BDA coveragebecause it was not possible or BDA coverage provided viaa Low Recce RPV 4 minutes after Strike instead of therequired 2 minutes).
5.6.3 Priority 3 -- Maximize the number of Strikesachieving Priority 1 or 2 and original ETA accuracy forStrikes.
5.6.4 Priority 4 -- Maximize the number of Strikesachieving above priorities and minimal position erroralong flight plan.
5.7.0 Operator teams were required to do their own planning and
scheduling of RPVs. The planning was done at the start of a
mission. Operators were provided with computer print-outs listing
original ETAs to all waypoints for each RPV flight plan. Operators
were also permitted to use electronic calculators or other devices
of their-own choosing.
5.8.0 The three targets for a given mission were chosen randomly
from a set of twenty-seven targets located on the terrain model.
12
The targets were in the form of small white disks easily identifiable
on the Pilot's video monitor. Target assignment was made at the
start of each mission. The Pilot was provided with maps and photo-
graphs of--the terrain model. It was the Pilot's task to locate the
three targets prior to performing the first strike and without the
benefit of the terrain model. (When not in the continuous-control/
video-on modes of a Terminal Phase for an RPV the Pilot has access
to closed circuit video from one of the Enroute/Return CRTs. The
display is on the same video monitor that provides the terrain video.
This display provided the Pilot with ongoing mission information, e.g.,
progress and ETA of a given RPV.)
6.0 RPV STUDY IV -- SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES AND SYSTEM PARAMETERS
INVESTIGATED
6.1.0 The objective of RPV Study IV was to evaluate RPV system
capabilities to perform the support tasks described above and to
investigate the simultaneous effects of a set of independent vari-
ables on RPV system performance. The RPV system referred to here
is strictly that system postulated by the RPV systems simulation.
6.2.0 The effects of five independent variables on RPV system
performance were investigated. These variables are listed here.
6.2.1 Number of RPVs under simultaneous control by thesystem (18, 21, 24, 27, or 30 RPVs). This parameter canbe converted to an RPV/operator Ratio assuming fourEnroute/Return operators. It can be used interchangeablywith the number of RPVs parameter'. However, RPV/OperatorRatio can be employed across systems of varying expectednumber of operators.
13
6.2.2 RPV Lateral Deviation Alarm Threshold Value (100,325, 550, 775, or 1000 ft.). This threshold determinesthe value upon which the automatic heading correctionfunction is triggered. It also triggers a counter (0-9)that displays the number of consecutive frames an RPV hasexceeded the threshold value thus, indicating a lateralerror trend. The automatic heading correction functionwould trigger on the fourth count. However, operatorscan override the function, disable it, and it is auto-matically disabled during an RPV turn and under certainother conditions (see the Instruction manual noted in2.4.0).
6.2.3 Ratio of Strikes to EW and Low Recce RPVs (1.0,2.5, 4.0, 5.5, or 7.0). This parameter is calculatedby computing the ratio of the total number of StrikeRPVs to the average of the total numbers of EW andLow Recce RPVs (i.e., (EW + Low Recce)/2). The averageis required to account for unequal numbers of EW andLow Recce RPVs. Thus, a ratio of 7.0 indicates there isonly i EW RPV and there is only 1 Low Recce RPV availableto provide coverage for 7 Strike vehicles as they arrivesequentially in the target area.
6.2.4 The callable window displays' scaling was avariable in this study. The full size, 220 x 220 NMdisplay remained unchanged, but the smaller scale windowscould take on different values. The smallest (Mod 1)could be 10, 15, 20, 25, or 30 NM square. The intermediate(Mod 2) could be 60, 80, 100, 120, or 140 NM square.During a mission, both were held at the preselected values;these values were also printed on the ETA sheets that wereavailable to the operators at the start of each mission.
6.2.5 RPV Position Reporting error was held constant at525 ft. range error and 0.6 miliradian azimuth error.
6.3.0 The five variables were varied in combination with each
other according to a Central Composite/Fractional Factorial
experimental design.* This type of design allows one to investigate
a large, multivariate, experimental space by taking a minimum number
of observations. An observation constitutes a single execution of
the RPV system simulation (i.e., a simulated mission).
*Experimental Designs, Cochran, W. G. and Cos, G. M., New York:Wiley, 1957. 14
6.4.0 In RPV Study IV 32 observations (5 of them were replications)
were obtained on each of four operator teams, yielding a total of
128 observations. Each observation required approximately 1 3/4 to
2 1/4 hours of execution time.
7.0 OPERATOR TEAMS
7.1.0 Operators were obtained from universities in the Dayton, Ohio
area. They were required to be undergraduates for program longevity
purposes and to have at least a "B" average. Howevei, because many
had been incoming freshmen at the start of the research program and
there were occasional immediate needs, the grade requirement was
sometimes relaxed. Teams were comprised of five operators. Four
primary teams were formed. A fifth secondary team served as a
back-up pool of trained operators. Data were collected on all teams.
7.2.0 Individual operators acquired a minimum of 5 months training.
Most operators had completed 6 months initial training, RPV Studies
I, II and III, or some combination thereof. No member of the prin-
cipal teams had less than the 5 months training. This training had
been acquired durinig the initial training in the program or as a
member of the back-up team. Pilots had been given additional training
(2 weeks) in instrument flight simulators, as well as controlling the
camera over the terrain model. In addition, each team executed a
number of practice missions. Data collection was started after a
unanimous vote of the primary teams that they were ready to start.
15
8.0 RPV STUDY IV RESULTS
8.1.0 In order to allow readers to gain the information most relevant
to their needs, interpretation of results will be kept to a minimum and
will be general in nature.
8.2.0 Approximately 100 dependent variable measures of RPV system
performance were taken in RPV Study IV. The mean and standard deviation
of each of these measures are presented in Table I. This table lists
each dependent variable in terms of the following categories.
8.2.1 RPV Position error Variables--relate the deviationbetween "True" RPV position known only to the simulationto "Ideal" RPV position (where it should have been) tovarious mission phases and major waypoints.
8.2.2 Enroute/Terminal/Return Transition Related Variables--are primarily concerned with phase transition and TerminalPhase performance.
8.2.3 Command Data Link Usage Variables--attempt to quantifysystem transmission rates, etc.
8.2.4 RPV Scheduling Variables--quantify system capabilitiesto achieve the various time-phasing requirements of RPVStudy II.
8.2.5 Miscellaneous Variables--are simply those that do notfit conveniently into a large enough category.
8.2.6 Coordination Variables Involving Timing and RangeCriteria--express capabilities to meet the support ofStrike vehicles with EW and Low Recce RPV coverage require-ments.
8.3.0 Table I presents means and standard deviations of data that have
been collapsed over all teams and missions which implies that some
missions yielded better and some worse results than those shown. By
collapsing over missions the assumption has been made that the variables
of Table I are system non-parametric. In other words the five experimental
independent variables (see 6.2.0) are assumed to have had no practical
16
effect on system performance. Under this assumption, it is possible
to get a summary perspective of system performance despite the large
number of measures and the complexity of the system problem. The
examination of Table I can provide insight into the objectives of the
missions as well as lead to additional questions. (Since EW and Low
Recce RPVs underwent considerable reprogramming during a mission,
position error data and scheduling data relative to the flight plans
for these RPVs are not relevant; thus, these data are not presented
in Table I.)
8.3.1 A review of the data in Table I shows that ingeneral, ETA management and RPV position control aresatisfactory. Cross track error under the variousmission phases showed a general decrease as comparedto RPV Study III. This can be explained by the factthat in the previous study, subjects relied entirelyon the automatic heading correction to keep the RPVson course. In RPV Study IV, they were instructed tointroduce manual heading corrections if and when thesituation demanded it (see variables 1, 3, 5, 7, 9,11, and 13, Table 1). The added manual headingcorrections are also reflected in the slight increasein heading commands per vehicle (variables 19, 20,and 23).
8.3.2 The major new variable investigated in RPVStudy IV was the effect of various window sizes.No major overall influence was expected, and nonewas observed. The effect of the various sizes ismainly on visual resolution along the outboundand return legs. The size can become a limitingfactor while rerouting EW and Low Recce RPVs aroundthe targets. Very small sizes may not have enoughspace to make a good heading change, and at verylarge sizes the displayed situation may become toocluttered and cramped.
8.3.3 A note of explanation on variables 25 and 26:variable 25 pertains to the time between commandsfor a single RPV, while 26 pertains to the entirefleet consisting of a large number of RPVs.
8.3.4 One might note that for EW and Low Recce RPVs,the recovery rate is of the order of 2 percent, while
17
about 16 percent are lost due to malfunctions andattrition. The remainder were lost because theyran out of fuel, which may have to be consideredan experimental artifact.
8.4.0 In order to assess the effects of the five experimental variables
a regression analysis of variance was performed on each variable listed
in Table 1. This analysis yielded second order regression equations,
confidence interval estimates, analysis of variance, and a multiple
regression coefficient (NRC) for each variable. The MRC is an indication
of the extent to which the experimental variables have an influence on
the measured variable. Nineteen variables with the highest MRCs were
selected and are presented in Table II according to the rank order of
their MRC. (The same analysis can be provided for any other variable in
Table I and any other measurable variable on request.) Thus, the first
variable is Number of Heading Commands Transmitted per Vehicle for'the
Enroute Phase (Strike only) with the highest MRC, R = 0.9711. It is note-
worthy that the first eleven variables are concerned with various facets
of heading commands. Table II lists the MRCs for the variables as well
as the regression equations.
These equations can be employed by engineers etc., to assist them
in the specification of system parameters or making up "expected" data
profiles given selected values of the equation parameters. However, low
correlation coefficient (e.g., less than R = 0.85) in combination with
an experimental hyperspace (i.e., five dimensions) may cause the
equations to produce unexpected or illogical results, especially if
used with values outside of the ranges that were employed in the
experimentation. Therefore, one should exercise caution and good
reason in performing analyses with these equations.
18
8.4.1 The analyses performed did not reveal the existence ofof a dominant system parameter in a practical sense. Althoughthere are a number of statistically significant relationships,with the exception of the Lateral Deviation Threshold parameter,none could be even remotely practically significant. The para-meter of Ratio of Strike RPVs to EW and Low Recce RPVs had onlya minimal effect on any of the performance variables, a findingthat is similar to the one arrived at in RPV Study III. Aftera review of all performance variables, it was concluded thatthis Ratio could account for less than 1.0% of the total vari-ability in most of the variables. The ratio accounted for alarger percentage (5 to 15%) of the variability in the numberof altitude and velocity change commands for EW and Low RecceRPVs, and in the coverage provided for Strikes by the supportRPVs. While the behavior of the above variables disallows thepinpointing of an optimum Ratio, all these variables distinctlyworsen in the range of 5.0 to 7.0. Some of the variables alsoworsen as the Ratio approaches 1.0, which suggests that theRatio of Strikes to EW and Low Recce RPVs should be somewherein the range of 2.0 to 4.0. It is possible that the absolutenumber of support RPVs is a significant parameter, in that withvery few support RPVs the loss of one can result in the loss ofcoverage, and with a large number of support RPVs the manage-ment of the fleet becomes confusing and difficult.
8.4.2 The only system parameter of any significance is theLateral Deviation Threshold. It is the parameter solely res-ponsible for the high correlations obtained for RPV Cross Trackand Command Data Link usage variables, In RPV Study III, theenroute/return operators relied entirely on the automaticheading correction to keep RPVs on course. In RPV Study IV,they were instructed to introduce manual corrections when thethreshold value was large and when an RPV was observed to bedeviating from its flight-path by some decision value deter-mined by each team. Such a situation then influences twogroups of variables: one relating to cross track errors andthe other relating to command data link usage. It should beobvious that the basic driving function is RPV navigationerror, or the tendency to drift off course. As long as thistendency is constant, attempts to keep RPVs on course will re-quire a large number of heading commands; and an attempt tokeep the number of heading commands low will result in an in-creased cross track error. A review of the analyses and theregression equations discloses that a large number of systemperformance variables (in the "number of heading commands"and in the "cross track error" categories) are determined toa great extent by the lateral deviation threshold. A review
19
of cross track error data revealed that the magnitude of crosstrack error is approximately one half of the threshold value.The implication here is that the operators did not uniformlyand consistently introduce manual heading corrections, but stillrelied largely on automatic heading corrections, although therewas some manual heading correction. If a real-world RPV systemis to have an automatic course correction capability, then itshould be so designed as to make manual corrections unnecessary.In the design process, one should consider the desired accuracyor the maximum allowable cross track error to determine theautomatic threshold value. However, the inherent error of theposition reporting system also has to be considered, and thethreshold should not be set so low that it is triggered fre-quently by the random errors produced by the position report-ing system. Manual heading changes, such as for recyclingsupport RPVs around a target, of course, are in a differentcategory; the system must have a manual heading change capabi-lity in addition to the automatic course correction.
8.4.3 While it is possible to make a general statement aboutthe magnitude of the cross track error as a function of auto-matic threshold, the number of heading commands cannot be gene-ralized as easily, as the latter depends not only on thethreshold value but also on the tendency of the RPVs to driftoff course and on mission duration.
8.4.4 The largest recorded influence of the combination ofdisplay window sizes was on the Ratio of Distance Travelledto Length of Flight Path (variable 15 in Table I and variable17 in Table II). According to the data, optimum performancecan be expected with the windows approximately 20 and 70 NMsquare. These numbers, though, may be specific to the scena-rios of RPV Study IV, and other scenarios may require differentsizes. Furthermore, it was the interaction term which wasstatistically significant, but it accounted for only 18.09%of the variability in performance, which makes it a weak in-fluence. It also must be pointed out that the Ratio of Dis-
-tance Travelled to Length of Flight Path is not a very goodvariable to base judgements on. As a general rule, it can bestated that a single window size is insufficient because itlacks flexibility. There is the possibility of allowingoperators to select the window size they want as they dealwith real time events - and this is completely within thestate-of-art of computer graphics. With such a feature, theoperator would type in a number which determines the windowsize until such time when the operator decides to change it.
20
Otherwise, window sizes can be decided upon by consideringhow large an area has to be available (e.g., for makinggood heading changes for recycyling RPVs around a target)and how fine a resolution is needed (e.g., to visuallydetect deviations from flight path). There still should bethe capability to change the window sizes if a radicallydifferent situation demands it.
8.4.5 Table III provides a list of confidence intervalestimates for the 19 variables based on 0.95 probability.In other words 0.95 expresses the fact that one is toexpect the variable to be within the tolerance valueslisted 95% of the time as long as the system parametervalues are within the parameter continuum quantified andinvestigated. The intervals presented in Table IV can bequite useful in that they provide estimates on the limitsof system performance. For example, for the first vari-able, Number of Heading Commands Transmitted per Vehiclefor the Enroute Phase only (Strike Only), one can expectthe number to be greater than 15.13 but less than 95% ofthe time. This is not to say that some specific missionswill not yield numbers outside these limits because thelimits are based on expectation. It is also noted that thelimits, while valid for present purposes, are approximate,This is due to the experimental design procedure selectedfor the study. However, the approximation is minor and thedetails of how it comes about need not be discussed here.
8.5.0 The lack of practically significant parametric effects had
three major implications. First, the data in Table I and of the type
in Table III are adequate for estimating expected system performance.
Second, the result is consistent with all previous RPV system simula-
tion studies performed under the present program. This observation
may be very important. It suggests that the RPV system as postulated
herein is compensatory, i.e. it can make real-time adjustments to
parametric and dynamic change such that specific effects of outside
influences, i.e., IVs "wash out." It also suggests that the "acceptable"
21
range of a parameter may be quite wide and only extreme or catastrophic
changes will in fact perturb the system. Third, it is not possible at
present to optimize the parameters in the strict mathematical sense.
The effects are too small and the trade-offs are too complex. The only
recourse then, is to apply equations to a specific parameter set.
Unfortunately, systems technology does not as yet, possess the tools
to deal with these latter two implications.
9.0 MAJOR CONCLUSIONS
9.1.0 The system as postulated by the AMRL RPV System Simulation Test
Bed is capable of effective, multiple control and time-phasing of
principal (Strike in this case) RPVs. The system is only partially
successful at coordinating support RPVs (EW and Low Recce in this
case) with principal RPVs. The capability of the system to perform
such tasks, given selected parametric values, can be estimated by
solving the regression equations presented herein or made available
upon request.
9.2.0 There are, in general, no practical effects of the system
independent parameters investigated. The implications of this conclusion
were discussed earlier (section 8.5.0).
9.3.0 All other conclusions are consistent with those arrived at in the
previous RPV Simulation Studies.
10.0 RPV SYSTEM SIMUIATION STUDY V - PLANS
10.1.0 The fidelity of the simulation will be increased by introducing
more realistic dynamic changes in RPV altitude and speed in flight plan
22
follow mode instead of the instantaneous changes used up to now.
To investigate the effects of a limited data processing capability,
various delays will be introduced in the system's reactions to
operator commands (such as speed and altitude changes, and heading
commands). These modifications have been made possible by an increase
in computer capability (from IBM 360/40 to IBM 370/155), allowing the
parametric study of data transmission rate requirements and other
refinements and additions to the simulation of future RPV systems.
23
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28
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TABLE III
95% CONFIDENCE INTERVALS FOR EACH OF 19 SELECTED DEPENDENT
RPV SYSTEM VARIABLES
Measure Minimum MaximumLimit Limit
1) Number of heading commands transmitted 15.13 20.11per vehicle for the enroute phase(strikes only)
2) Number of heading commands transmitted 33.71 46.95per vehicle over all mission phases(strikes only)
3) Number of heading commands attempted 34.99 48.31per vehicle over all mission phases(strikes only)
4) Number of transmitted commands per 46,29 57.45RPV, all types of vehicles
5) Number of heading commands transmitted 17,67 24,95per vehicle for the return phase(strikes only)
6) Time between transmitted commands per 82.88 110.32RPV, all types of vehicles (seconds)
7) Time interval between transmitted commands, 4.04 5.28all types of vehicles (seconds)
8) Number of heading commands transmitted 18.98 30,88per vehicle over all mission phases(EW only)
9) Number of heading commands transmitted 10.47 22.31per vehicle for enroute phase(EW only)
10) Number of heading commands transmitted 10.47 22.27per vehicle fdr enroute phase(Low Recce only)
ll)Number of heading commands attempted per 22.81 36.31vehicle over all mission phases(EW only)
32
TABLE III CONTINUED
Measure Minimum MaximumLimit Limit
12) Cross track error during enroute phase 218.03 288.37(strikes only)
13) Number of heading commands attempted per 22.02 36.90vehicle over all mission phases(Low Recce only)
14) Number of heading commands transmitted 18.16 32.84per. vehicle over all mission phases(Low Recce only)
15) Cross track error for enroute and return 249.37 367.53phases (strikes only)
16) Proportion of vehicles recovered (EW only) 0.000 0.075
17) Ratio of distance actually traveled to the 1.0012 1.0028length of flight path
18) Cross track error from H waypoint when 243.16 612.22pilot took control
19) Ground speed error from H waypoint when 907.86 2652.90pilot took control
33
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35
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