A Critical Perspective on Confucianism: From Yin-Yang Harmony with Nature to Oppression Toward WomenSung Hyun Yun, PhD, MSWMarch 21st, 2012Freed Orman Centre AssumptionUniversity Building

Acknowledgement

2011 2012 HRG FellowshipHumanities Research Group With special thanks to Dr. Antonio Rossini Director, Humanities Research Group Languages, Literatures & Cultures Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences

ContentsIntroductionPurpose of the StudyWhy Confucianism and gender?Confucianism Ideology From Yin -Yang (-) Harmony to Gender HierarchyWomen as Daughters, Wives, and MothersGender-Based OppressionFootbindings and Female InfanticideConclusionImplications/Limitations

Confucianism IdeologyThe central doctrine of Confucianism encompasses goodness, benevolence, consideration, humanity, and kind-heartedness. Related teachings emphasize such qualities as loyalty to government, respect for authority, reciprocity, self-cultivation, and neighborliness.

Goal of the StudyThis study introduces basic concepts of Confucianism related to gender and their evolution, and explores its unique contribution to socio-cultural practices on gender-based oppression.

My Experience in ConfucianismTraditional Social Ethics ([Nam Yeo Chil Se Bu Dong Seok]) Boys and girls should not seat next to each other when they reach 7 years old.Boys/girls only schoolDifferent Gender Roles & ExpectationKitchenMilitary experience

My Experience in ConfucianismOld proverbs:It is a sad house where the hen crows louder than the rooster. ([Sam Jong]: Three Submissions)1) Women must be obedient to her father before being married, 2) Women must be obedient to her husband after being married, &3) Women must be obedient to her son after her husband dies.

Professional ExperienceBIP (Batterer Intervention Program)

Confucianism in East AsiaThe Asian culture is not homogenous: nonetheless, gender-based studies, such as violence against women, show certain common characteristics within the diverse Asian cultural traditions and customs. A study on Asian family violence in Massachusetts found that Cambodian respondents generally believed that women had no right to divorce and should not leave an abusive husband (Yoshioka, Dang, Shewmangal, Chan, & Tan, 2009).

Confucianism in East AsiaAsian women are more likely to be held responsible for marital problems (Caplan, 1987). Asian women report that they would talk softly and/or do nothing (DAvanzo, Frye, & Froman, 1994, p. 72). Vietnamese respondents believed that a husband was the home ruler with the right to discipline his wife and that wives deserved beatings (Yoshioka et al., 2009).

Confucianism in East AsiaPatriarchal beliefs play an important role in domestic abuse (Bui, 1999).Some prominent Korean cultural factors and family values may influence the development of attitudes supportive of family violence (Rhee, 1996).

Confucianism in East AsiaAsian American subgroups share certain common characteristics originating from agricultural backgrounds such as Buddhism and Confucianism (Lee, 1997). Confucian civilization is coessential with the East Asian region (Rozman, 1991).

Confucianism in East Asia Literature on gender-specific problems in the Asian communities can be explained by a certain cultural commonality imbedded in their lifestyle, their ways of thinking, their behavior, and their relationships with others.

Research InquiryThe author hypothesizes that Confucianism infuses such Asian cultural norms as respect for authority, hierarchy, family dependence, and role expectations based on age, gender, and social class.Confucianisms ying-yang harmony with nature was evolved into gender-based oppression toward women.

Research MethodHistorical and Critical Analysis on Confucian Texts & Case ExamplesUsing one of the most important ancient Chinese classical writings such as Wujing (: the Five Classics) and Nusishu (: the Four Books for Women)Case ExamplesThe Chinese Footbinding Tradition Female Infanticide

Research MethodWujing (: the Five Classics) are one of the most important ancient Chinese classical writings.The Five Classics formed the core curriculum in the education of Chinese people/scholars throughout most of the imperial period According to such as Wujing (: Five Classics),

Research MethodThe Five Classics include:Yinjing (: Book of Change), Shijing (: Book of Odes), Liji (: Book of Rites), Shujing (: Book of History), and Chunqiu Fanlu (: Luxuriant Dew of The Spring and Autumn Annals)

Research MethodNusishu (: Four Books for Women)The influence of Confucianism on womens social relations can be specifically found in various classic Confucian texts, especially in Nusishu (: Four Books for Women), the standard text, first compiled as a collection by Wang Xiang (1789 1852) in the mid-Qing (, 1616 1912) (Rosenlee, 2006).

Research MethodNusishu (: Four Books for Women) wereSpecialized writings on the education of womenTheir objectives lay in expounding the proper behavior for the female sex to promote the character model of "wise and worthy wives and good mothers. (e.g., the "three submissions promoted by the Confucian school)

Research MethodNusishu (: Four Books for Women) includes: Nujie (: Admonitions for Women),Nulunyn (: Analects for Women),Neixun (: Instruction for the Inner Quarters), and Nufan jielu (: Concise Selection of Model Women).

Confucianism IdeologyK'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in Shantung Province, China. Confucius (551 BCE 479 BCE) conceived of a system of moral wisdom in the Spring and Autumn Period (; 770 BCE 476 BCE) in ancient China.

Confucianism IdeologyFor over 2,500 years Confucianism has been one of the most predominant social norms, political ideologies, cultural traditions, educational systems, and ethical standards to have influenced the thoughts and behavior of people in East AsiaConfucianism is primarily a Chinese tradition but its influence has spread throughout East Asia.

Confucianism IdeologyThis region includes the East Asian countries (China, Korea, Japan, and Taiwan) and the Southeast Asian countries (Vietnam and Singapore).

Source: Wikipedia

Confucianism IdeologyIt has been formulated, adapted, and transformed through interactions with other schools of religion and philosophy such as Legalism, Monism, Taoism, Buddhism, etc. (Yao, 2000).

Yin Yang Binary As A HarmonyOne of the most important concepts of Confucianism as it relates to gender is the yin-yang (-) binary. Yin (), etymologically, means the shady side of the mountain and yang () means the sunny side (e.g., Rubin, 1982).

Yin Yang Binary As A HarmonyThe yin-yang relation is a cosmic concept that is cyclic, complementary, and correlative, but not oppositional and contradictory (Rosenlee, 2006). The dual cosmic forces of the yin and yang are understood to compose the universe in an unending chain.

Yin Yang Binary As A HarmonyThis philosophical system, based on a correlative dualism, is approved and utilized by both Confucianists and Taoists (see Gulik, 1961).Source: http://www.chinesefortunecalendar.com/yinyang.htmTai-Chi symbol What are the examples of yin and yang harmony?

From Yin-Yang (-) Harmony to Gender HierarchyDespite the complementary nature of the yin-yang union, a confucianized Chinese society consigned yang to male and yin to female.The quality of yang is rigidity that is linked to strength of men, whereas yins quality is yielding that is associated with gentleness and weakness of women (Swann, 1968).

From Yin-Yang (-) Harmony to Gender HierarchyIn Wujing (the Five Classics), the yin and yang analogies were described as hierarchal and gender-based. Social meaningtian (heaven)/yang/nan (man) are privileged over di (earth)/yin/nu (woman) (Rosenlee, 2006, p. 55).

From Yin-Yang (-) Harmony to Gender Hierarchy All things end and begin by following yang. Men, however mean, are in all cases yang; women, however hobble, are all yin Categories of evil all are yin, whereas categories of good all are yang; yang is a matter of virtue (de ), yin is a matter of punishment (xing ). (Chunqiu Fanlu, cited in Raphals, 1998, p. 163)

From Yin-Yang (-) Harmony to Gender HierarchyA song in the Shijing (: Book of Odes) demonstrates how an infant boy was treated preferentially opposed to a girl, denoting the gender-based status and destiny in future life:

From Yin-Yang (-) Harmony to Gender Hierarchy When a son is born, he is cradled on the bed. He is clothed in robes, given a jade scepter as toy. His lusty cries portend his vigour, he shall wear bright, red knee-caps, shall be the lord of a house. When a daughter is born, she is cradled on the floor. She is clothed in swaddling-bands, given a loom as toy. She shall wear no badges of honour shall only take care of food and drink, and not cause trouble to her parents. (Book of Odes, no. 189 cited by Gulik, 1961, pp. 15-16)

From Yin-Yang (-) Harmony to Gender HierarchyThe value of a clever woman is also depreciated in Shijing: A clever man builds strong ramparts, a clever woman overthrows them. Beautiful is the clever wife, but her heart as cruel as that of the owl. Women with long tongues are harbingers of evil. Disasters are not sent down from heaven, they originate in wives. (Book of Odes, no. 264, cited by Gulik, 1961, p. 29)

Women as Daughters, Wives, and MothersNusishus teaching was so highly valued that both literate men and women started their education with these four books (Lee, 1994). The major goal of Nusishu was to inculcate the character model for wise and worthy wives and good mothers promoted by the Confucian school in a feudal society (Mingqi, 1987, The Four Books for Women, para.1).

Women as Daughters, Wives, and MothersWomen were expected to be entirely subservient to men, and their greatest virtue was supposed to be self-sacrifice for the benefit of men (Morgan, 2001).Several chapter titles in each of the Nusishu, - Humble Yielding, Bending in Submission, Serving the Husband, Filial Actions, and Being faithful to the Dead.

Women as Daughters, Wives, and MothersMale superiority and female obedience are spelled out in a practical and detailed manner in Nujie (: Admonitions for Women).

Women as Daughters, Wives, and MothersNujie says that: Though a boy is born like a wolf, it is still feared that he may grow up to be like a worm, and yet though a girl is born like a mouse, it is still feared that she may grow up to be like a tiger (originally Swann, 1968, p. 85 cited from Lee, 1994, p. 12).

Women as Daughters, Wives, and MothersThe importance of obedience as a daughter, mother, and wife was codified in the guiding principle of Sam Jong (; Three Submissions). Sam Jong states that a young girl should obey her father, a married woman should obey her husband, and a widow should obey her oldest son (e.g., Ho, 1990; Johnson, 1983; Kim, 1979).

Women as Daughters, Wives, and MothersSuch cases for expelling a wife [Qichu (; Seven Reasons for Expelling Ones Wife)] included disobedience to the husbands parents,failing to bear a son, adultery, jealousy, contracting a harmful disease, malicious gossip, and theft (Park & Cho, 1995, p. 125).

Women as Daughters, Wives, and MothersA woman faced constant fear of being divorced and abandoned by her husband (Park & Cho, 1995). Specifically, the fact that a woman could be expelled from home because of not having a boy baby, while having no right to repudiate her husband (Verschuur-Basse, 1996), was an obvious example of gender-based discrimination in Confucian society.

Case Example: FootbindingsWomen, especially upper-class women, were physically restricted to the boundaries of the house and often relegated to a certain part of the house.This social constraint is predominantly reflected in the traditional Chinese practice of Footbinding.

FootbindingsA young girls feet were tightly bound by bandages so that her feet did not grow, and the bone structure would become deformed. Source: Wikipedia

FootbindingsAlthough the origin of footbinding is empirically unknown, mothers in the Song dynasty (; 960 1279) began to bind their daughters feet to increase the opportunities in the marriage market because small feet had a strong erotic appeal to men (Ko, 2002).

FootbindingsThe harmful consequences of footbinding such as pain, immobility, and disability were accepted in most of China (except in some areas where it was customary for women to work in the field as a normal part of childhood for girls at least until the twentieth century) (Davin, 1976).

FootbindingsDespite being prohibited from 1911, this social custom was still practiced in some northern villages of China in the 1930s and only slowly extinguished (Davin, 1976; Snow, 1939, 1967). Footbinding, a thousand year old Chinese institution, is believed to be one of the most brutal and inhumane practices affecting women (Johnson, 1983; Ko, 2002).

Female InfanticideA more recent example of systematic oppression toward women in China is well evinced by female infanticide practice.This practice is one of the by-products of the one-child policy that has been implemented since the late 1970s.

Female InfanticideDo you know how many people are living in the world? How about Canada? How about China?

Female Infanticide

Female InfanticideTo decrease the population growth as well as to diminish socio-economic and environmental problems in China, this family planning policy restricts married couples to have only one child, except for special circumstances, such as living in rural areas, members of ethnic minority groups, and couples who do not have any siblings (China Sets Up, 2000).

Female InfanticideRoughly 35.9% of the entire population in China is currently subjected to this policy (Xiaofeng, 2007) and at least 250 million birth were prevented since 1980 (China Sets Up, 2000).Since the implementation of the policy, male favoritism and sexist attitude, deep-rooted in this Confucian country, have obviously been uncovered.

Female InfanticideDespite being illegal to perform sex identification and sex-selective abortion, pregnant women and their family screen the sex of the fetuses through ultrasound machines and abort females (Hvistendahl, 2010).

Population by Sex & Age: China

CIA, China CIA World Factbook (2011)

Female InfanticideThe sex ratio at birth has continually increased in China since the 1980s, from 108.5 in 1982 to 116.9 in 2000 (National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2005, p. 18). In some areas, 135.6 males are born per 100 females (NBSC, 2005, p. 18). By 2030, the number of men is expected to outnumber that of women by 30 million (Hvistendahl, 2010).

Sex Ratios of Females to Males in Select Asian Countries, 2008World Bank, Sex Ratio at Birth: Females per 1000 males, Gender Stats.

ConclusionMy argument is not to disparage Confucianism itself. Confucianism fundamentally aims to achieve harmony and humanism among people. Confucianism holds a unique value with profound intellectual legacies in East Asia, which has been accentuated by contemporary Confucianists.

ConclusionOriginally, the core elements of Confucianism emphasize close family ties, harmonious human relations, self-cultivation, care ethics, respect/order.Unfortunately, the distortion of Confucianist thought did not discourage abuse/violence at home/societyThis often contributed to denying, minimizing, and hiding the detrimental impact of oppression toward women.

ConclusionMoreover, there are no specific Confucian teachings to guarantee womens rights and protection in such a case a husband commits physical/emotional violence to his wife.

Implications for PracticeFamily dynamic, ying-yang relations, and strength perspectives. What does the yin-yang binary suggest in those areas where human service practitioners and professionals work with Asian immigrants and families? Confucian-based family structure is often identified as unequal and patriarchal. Hierarchies, authority, and subordination are obvious characteristics of the Confucian tradition.

Implications for PracticeThe fundamental yin-yang binary signifies mutuality and reciprocity between genders and even cross-gender and beyond gender (Resenlee, 2006, p. 50).The true meanings of ying-yang relations The development of womens rights within the proper and more enabling interpretation of Confucian social structure.

Implications for PracticeThis process helps the victims and survivors of gender-based oppression to reconstruct the value of yin (femaleness) as an equal partner with yang (maleness); therefore, rebuild the value, dignity, respect, and self-esteem. Strength-based approach.

LimitationsIn addition to identifying the cultural commonalities of a client, it is also important to recognize their individuality and uniqueness, such as generational factors, SES, migration/settlement experiences, and levels of acculturation, which significantly influence newcomers life.

LimitationsMale dominant family relations are often challenged throughout the migration process/experience.In addition to experience changes in socio-economic conditions (minority status, social isolation, subtle discrimination, etc.), all family members are exposed to different Western cultures such as equality between women and men.

LimitationsPeople selectively maintain and/or discard certain values while experiencing immigration and settlement adjustment.

Thank You!Questions & Answers

**There will be several principles and teaching from Confucianism. It profoundly influenced AND influences Koreans life even in 21st Century. When I was a high school student, these principles were items tested in the college enterance exam.

() is the major teachings or doctrines of Confucius, which is the representative social norm and principle. is composed of (three principles) and (five ethical virtue)

: is the principle of hierarchy among the people, especially Korean society respects the hierarchy among the people, including men over women.

*K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible mark on the government, society, education, and family of East Asia.

Confucianism, by the first century B.C., has spread out to those East Asian countries such as Choson dynasty Korea form the fourteenth century and Tokugawa Japan from seventeenth century.

Confucianism came to Korea from China in the late fourth century A.D. as a principle of government functionaries and was established as a ruling ideology during the Chosn dynasty (1392-1910) (Craig, 1998)

Even though Confucian thoughts and ideas are most closely linked to spiritual selfcultivation and harmonious human life in a well-ordered society, Korean society has been influenced and maintained by the unequal social norms rooted in Confucianism. *K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty. But he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He devoted himself to teaching and created a group of his followers (confucianists).

Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideology, a scholarly tradition, and a way of life. a profound influence on East Asian political culture as well as East Asian spiritual life. Both in theory and practice, Confucianism has made an indelible ma