Sun Symbolismand Cosmologyin Michelangelo’s“Last Judgment”

Habent sua fata libelli

SIXTEENTH CENTURY ESSAYS & STUDIES SERIES

General EditorRAYMOND A. MENTZER

Montana State University—Bozeman

EDITORIAL BOARD OF SIXTEENTH CENTURY ESSAYS & STUDIES

ELAINE BEILIN MARY B. MCKINLEY

Framingham State College University of Virginia

MIRIAM USHER CHRISMAN HELEN NADER

University of Massachusetts—Amherst University of Arizona

BARBARA B. DIEFENDORF CHARLES G. NAUERT

Boston University University of Missiouri, Colmubia

PAULA FINDLEN THEODORE K. RABB

Stanford University Princeton University

SCOTT H. HENDRIX MAX REINHART

Princeton Theological Seminary University of Georgia

JANE CAMPBELL HUTCHISON JOHN D. ROTH

University of Wisconsin—Madison Goshen College

CHRISTIANE JOOST-GAUGIER ROBERT V. SCHNUCKER

University of New Mexico Truman State University, emeritus

ROBERT M. KINGDON NICHOLAS TERPSTRA

University of Wisconsin, Emeritus University of Toronto

ROGER MANNING MERRY WIESNER-HANKS

Cleveland State University University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee

Copyright © 2000Truman State University Press, Kirksville, MO 63501www2.truman.edu/tsupAll rights reservedPrinted in the United States of America

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Shrimplin, ValerieSun-symbolism and cosmology in Michelangelo’s Last Judgment / by Valerie

Shrimplin.p. cm. — (Sixteenth century essays & studies ; v. 46)Based on the author’s thesis (doctoral—University of the Witwatersrand,

Johannesburg, 1991).Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 0-943549-65-5 (Alk. paper)1. Michelangelo Buonarroti, 1475–1564. Last Judgment. 2. Michelangelo

Buonarroti, 1475–1564 Themes, motives. 3. Cosmology in art. 4. Symbolismin art. 5. Judgment Day in art. I. Title. II. Series.ND623.B9 A69 2000759.5—dc 21 98-006646

CIP

Cover: Teresa Wheeler, Truman State University designerComposition: BookComp, Inc.Printing: Sheridan BooksBody text: Berkeley Display type: Morticia

No part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in any format by any means,electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording or by an informationstorage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

�� The paper in this publication meets or exceeds the minimum requirements of theAmerican National Standard—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSIZ39.48 (1984).

Photo Credits

Figs. 1, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61,62, 63, 112, 113, 114, 124. Monumenti eGallerie Pontificie, Citta del Vaticano.

Fig. 2, Houghton Library, Harvard University.

Figs. 5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 19, 20, 29, 30, 31,33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 43, 44, 46,47, 48, 63, 66, 70, 72, 73, 75, 81, 83, 87,107, 112, 117, 118. Alinari/Art Resource,New York.

Fig. 6, Bayerisches National Museum.

Fig. 7, Prado, Madrid.

Figs. 14, 15, Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana.

Figs. 16, 65, 78, 95, Biblioteque Nationale deFrance.

Fig. 17, Herzong Library, Wolfenbuttel.

Figs. 22, 23, 24, 26, 28, 68, Giraudon, Paris.

Fig. 25, Katy Shrimplin.

Figs. 27, 81, Metropolitan Museum of Art.

Fig. 41, Pinacoteca, Bologna.

Figs, 42, 69, 84, 118, Bayer, Staatgemaldesam-melugen, Munich.

Fig. 46, Chapin Library, Williams College, Mass.

Fig. 50, Doucet, S.P.A.D.E.M.

Figs. 51, 52, 126, 127, Valerie Shrimplin.

Fig. 70, RIBA.

Fig. 82, Staatliche Graphische Sammlung,Munich.

Figs. 87, 89, British Museum.

Fig. 89, Royal Library, Windsor Castle,reproduced by permission of Her Majestythe Queen.

Fig. 91, Barry Moser/University of CaliforniaPress.

Fig. 97, Biblioteca Trivulziana/Foto SaporettiMilan.

Figs. 98, 103, 104, 105, 107, BildarchivPreussischer Kulturbesitz Berlin.

Fig. 99, Biblioteca nationale Florence/DonatoPineider, Florence.

Figs. 101, 102, 106, 108, British Library.

Fig. 117, Kunshistorisches Museum, Vienna.

Fig. 116, Courtesy ofMuseum of the JagiellonianUniversity, Kracow. Photo by JanuszKozina, 1992.

Figs. 119, 120, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek,Munich.

Fig. 125, Huntington Library, San Marino,California.

Contents

Illustrations ixPreface xiii

1 Introduction 1

2 Theology, Cosmology, and Christian Iconography 11Cosmology and Religion 11Cosmology and Christian Iconography 13Cosmology and the Last Judgment 18The Meaning of the Last Judgment 24

3 Iconography of the Last Judgment 39Origins and Early Examples 39The Last Judgment in Northern Europe 47The Last Judgment in the Italian Renaissance 55Influence of Changes in Cosmology 70

4 Michelangelo’s Last Judgment 79The Commission of the Last Judgment 79Formal Analysis 80Previous Interpretations 96Twentieth-Century Criticism 104Current State of Research 111

5 Religious Sources 129Christian Light Symbolism 129Michelangelo and Catholic Revival of Early Christian Ideas 134Michelangelo and Early Christian Iconography 138Continuation of the Sun-Christ Tradition 147

6 Literary Sources 169Italian Renaissance Literature 169

The Divina Commedia of Dante Alighieri 170Visual Images 171Dante’s Cosmology 173Sun-Symbolism and Cosmology in Dante 178Michelangelo and Vittoria Colonna 195

7 Philosophical Sources 211Florentine Neoplatonism 211Michelangelo and Neoplatonism 213Neoplatonic Themes 215Ficino’s Cosmology 219Michelangelo’s Hell and Plato’s Cave 228Other Philosophical Sources; the Hermetic Writings. 232Christian Neoplatonism 237

8 Scientific Sources 251The Importance of Copernicus 251Tolnay, Copernicus, and Michelangelo 252The Waning of Medieval Cosmology 253Renaissance Predecessor of Copernicus 255Neoplatonic Influences on Copernicus 256Copernicus and His Writings 258Copernicus in Art 260Reaction of the Church 263Clement VII and the Vatican Lecture 266Paul III and the Heresy Question 270

9 The Central Point 287Art Historical Method 287The Centralized Format Around Christ 288Fresco Construction—Formal and Iconological 290The Symbolism of Revelation 19:16 298

10 New Hypotheses 307Art Historical Interpretation 307Hypothesis or Truth? 310A Valid Framework 311

Appendix 1 Selected Versions of the Last Judgment 321Appendix 2 Important Dates 325Appendix 3 Letter of Nicholas Schönberg 327Appendix 4 Copernicus’ Preface to De Revolutionibus 328Bibliography 331Index 361

Illustrations

1. Michelangelo, Last Judgment 22. Copernicus, De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium, Houghton Library, Harvard

University 33. Sistine Chapel, interior, looking toward the altar 44. Sistine Chapel, reconstruction of its fifteenth-century appearance 145. Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, Ravenna 156. Resurrection of Christ, fifth century 167. Zanobbi Strozzi (or Fra Angelico), Annunciation 178. Andrea Verrochio, Baptism of Christ 179. Unknown Sicilian-Byzantine artist, God Creating the Universe 1810. Christ Enthroned on the Sphere of the Universe 1911. Theophany 1912. Joshua Stopping the Sun 2013. Cosmas Indicopleustes, Christian Topography 4114. Cosmas Indicopleustes, Christian Topography 4215. Cosmas Indicopleustes, Last Judgment 4216. Sacra Parallela 4417. Last Judgment, 1194 4418. Last Judgment, 1110 4519. Last Judgment, 1072–87 4620. Last Judgment, twelfth century 4721. Last Judgment, twelfth century 4822. Last Judgment, 1130–1140 4923. Last Judgment, c. 1140 5024. Last Judgment, 1135–1140 5025. Last Judgment, 1163–1250 5126. Last Judgment, 1230–1265 5127. Jan van Eyck, Last Judgment 5428. Rogier van der Weyden, Last Judgment 5429. Giovanni Pisano, Last Judgment 56

ix

[ x ] Illustrations

30. Last Judgment, before 1246 5731. Lorenzo Maitani, Last Judgment 5832. Pietro Cavallini, Last Judgment 5833. Coppo di Marcovaldo (attributed), Last Judgment 5934. Detail of fig. 33, Christ in Judgment 6035. Cimabue, Last Judgment 6036. Giotto, Last Judgment 6137. Nardo di Cione, Paradise 6438. Nardo di Cione, Hell 6439. Andrea Orcagna, Last Judgment 6540. Francesco Traini, Last Judgment 6541. Unknown Bolognese artist, Last Judgment 6642. Master of the Bambino Vispo or Gherardo Starnina, Last Judgment 6643. Fra Angelico, Last Judgment 6744. Fra Angelico (otherwise attributed to Zanobi Strozzi), Last Judgment 6845. Fra Bartolommeo, Last Judgment 6846. Illustration to Savonarola, Predica dell’arte del ben morire 7047. Luca Signorelli, Resurrection of the Dead 7148. Luca Signorelli, The Damned 7149. Michelangelo, Sketch for the Composition of the Last Judgment 8250. Michelangelo, Study for the Last Judgment 8351. Michelangelo, Last Judgment, schematic diagram (with circles) 8452. Michelangelo, Last Judgment, schematic diagram (with diagonal rays) 8653. Detail, inner circle of figures, Christ the Judge and the Virgin, with Saint John the

Baptist, Saint Peter, with other apostles, saints, and the saved 8754. Detail, Christ 8855. Detail, Saint John the Baptist 8956. Detail, Saint Peter 9057. Detail, Saints Lawrence and Bartholomew 9058. Detail, outer circle of figures 9259. Detail, the left lunette (showing the cross) 9360. Detail, the right lunette (showing the column) 9361. Detail, group of trumpeting angels 9462. Detail, group of rising figures 9463. Detail, group of falling figures 9564. Marcello Venusti, copy of the Last Judgment of Michelangelo 9865. Martinus Rota, copy of the Last Judgment of Michelangelo 9966. Jacopo Pontormo, study for Christ in Glory 10067. Giorgio Vasari, Last Judgment 10168. Jacopo Tintoretto, Paradiso 10169. Peter Paul Rubens, Last Judgment 10270. Detail from a plan of the Vatican 13271. The Good Shepherd, detail 14072. Christ in Majesty 141

Illustrations [ xi ]

73. The Raising of Lazarus 14274. Christ as the Sun-God 14475. Abraham and Three Celestial Visitors 14476. Unknown Syrian artist, Crucifixion 14577. Christ enthroned as Master of the Universe, detail from the Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus 14678. Christ in Majesty 14879. The Creation and Fall of Man, Pantheon Bible 14980. Christ the Saviour, thirteenth century 15081. Albrecht Durer, Sol Iustitiae or The Judge 15182. Albrecht Durer, St John devouring the Book 15183. Andrea del Castagno, Resurrection 15284. Sandro Botticelli, Lamentation 15385. Sandro Botticelli, Transfiguration 15386. Domenico Ghirlandaio, Trigram and Solar Symbol 15487. Michelangelo, Resurrection of Christ 15588. Michelangelo, Resurrection of Christ 15689. Michelangelo, Crucifixion (for Vittoria Colonna) 15690. Domenico di Francesco (called Michelino), Dante and his Poem 17291. Modern Diagram of Dante’s system of the Universe, drawn by Barry Moser 17492. Modern Diagram of Dante’s system of the Universe (Provenzal) 17593. Diagram of the Cosmos 17794. Dante Confronts the Three Beasts in the Dark Wood 18095. Bartolommeo di Fruosino, Topography of Hell 18196. Charon ferries Dante, Virgil and Some Souls across Acheron, illustration to Inferno III 18297. Minos, illustration to Inferno V 18298. Sandro Botticelli, Lucifer, illustration to Inferno XXXIC 18399. Topography of Hell, schematic diagram of Dante’s Inferno and Purgatorio 184100. Dante before Beatrice, who points to the Stars and the Sun, illustration to Purgatorio

XXXIII, North Italian, 1456 185101. Giovanni di Paolo, Beatrice and Dante hover beside the Heaven of the Sun, illustration to

Paradiso X 186102. Giovanni di Paolo, Beatrice and Dante hover beside a circle of stars surrounding Christ,

illustration to Paradiso X 188103. Sandro Botticelli, illustration to Paradiso XXIII 188104. Sandro Botticelli, illustration to Paradiso XXIV 189105. Sandro Botticelli, illustration to Paradiso XXVI 189106. Giovanni di Paolo, Beatrice and Dante hover before Christ within the Heaven of the

Primum Mobile 191107. Sandro Botticelli, illustration to Paradiso XXVII, detail 192108. Giovanni di Paolo, Heaven of the Primum Mobile, with God in the Centre 193109. Pietro Buonaccorsi, Diagram of Paradiso, from Il cammino di Dante, Florentine 194110. Domenico Ghirlandaio, Ficino, Landino and Poliziano. Fresco, detail from Scenes in the

Life of John the Baptist 212111. Raphael, School of Athens 218

[ xii ] Illustrations

112. Detail, rear of nude figure in the Cave 230113. Detail, figures emerging from the Cave 230114. Detail, altar of the Sistine Chapel, in front of the Cave 231115. Unknown Sienese master, Hermes Trismegistus 235116. Anonymous, Portrait of Nicholas Copernicus 261117. Giorgione, Three Philosophers 261118. Albrecht Altdorer, The Battle of Alexandeer 262119. Codex Graecus Monacensis 151, title page showing inscription 267120. Codex Graecus Monacensis 151, detail 268121. Domenico Ghirlandaio, The Confirmation of the Rule of Saint Francis 293122. Leonardo da Vinci, The Last Supper 294123. Raphael, Disputa (Disputation over the Sacrament) 295124. Michelangelo’s Last Judgment, detail of Christ’s thigh 297125. Gregor Reisch, Margarita Philosophica, detail, The Human Body and Signs of the Zodiac 299126. Florence Palazzo della signoria 301127. Photographic study of sun and cloud effects 313

Preface

Michelangelo has imitated those great philosopherswho hid the greatest mysteries of human and divinephilosophy under a veil of poetry that they might notbe understood by the vulgar.

Pietro Aretino on Michelangelo’s Last Judgment

Contemporary comment by Pietro Aretino on Michelangelo’s fresco ofthe Last Judgment in the Sistine Chapel indicates an awareness of hiddensymbolic meaning in the fresco soon after its completion and unveilingin 1541. Explanation of the “most profound allegorical meanings,understood by few” and the identification and importance of biblical andliterary sources which Michelangelo might have used for the Last Judgmentcontinue to provoke discussion as further attention is focused on the frescosince its cleaning and restoration in the early 1990s. The question remainsas to whether the hidden symbolism of the fresco and the meaning of itsthematic deviations from the norms of Last Judgment iconography mightever be fathomed by anyone except the artist—and especially at a distanceof more than four hundred fifty years.

Problems of art historical interpretation are concerned with theinnate meaning of a work in the context of its time and place of creation.Difficulties arise as the attempt is made to determine the intention of theartist and the possible underlying meaning in the work by an elaboratereconstruction of the sources and influences which had contemporarysignificance and which might have contributed to the formation of histhinking. No single source of religious, philosophical, or cultural influencemay be argued for Michelangelo’s Sistine Last Judgment, but the attempt canbe made to consider the broad spectrum of the complex prevailing theoriesand ideas of his age which contributed to the multilayered intention of thefresco’s final program.

xiii

[ xiv ] Sun Symbolism and Cosmology in Michelangelo’s “Last Judgment”

An interdisciplinary approach to the art historical problem ofMichelangelo’s Last Judgment can shed new light on the work in questionand increase our understanding of the artist himself. Meaning derivesfrom the historical or intellectual context from which a work emanates.However, as Erwin Panofsky, Ernst H. Gombrich, and others have pointedout, it is important to remain wary of reading too much into a work or offorcing it into a predetermined scheme. The writer should always considerthe extent to which the interpretation is in keeping with the knownpersonality and tendencies of the master, and also remain aware of thedifference between what may be regarded as hypothesis and what may beregarded as truth. On the other hand, is unwise to accept unquestioninglytraditional interpretations of famous works and simply reiterate theusual platitudes.

After examining the background to Last Judgment iconographyin general and the existing interpretations of Michelangelo’s fresco inparticular, consideration is given to the sources—religious, literary, andphilosophical, for instance—which likely contributed to the final programof the work. A major problem with this approach (which is broadlyconcerned with the history of ideas as much as the history of art itself) isthat each section or chapter of this book easily could be developed intoa separate volume. As the discussion ventures into other disciplines, theattempt is made to be as thorough as possible within the constraints ofa single work in order to demonstrate the ubiquity of the concepts andmotifs being examined. Themain viewpoint remains that of an art historianrather than theologian, historian, philosopher, or still less a scientist; butan interdisciplinary, sixteenth-century outlook has been assumed as far asthis is possible.

This work is based on my doctoral thesis (University of theWitwatersrand,Johannesburg, 1991)which was supervised by Professor Elizabeth Rankin,whose helpful criticism and suggestions are gratefully acknowledged. I amalso particularly indebted to a number of anonymous readers and refereeswho provided valuable comment and suggestions as the work progressed,and to those who helped see the work through to publication, particularlyProfessor Charles G. Nauert and Professor Robert V. Schnucker. Assistancereceived from libraries, museums, and art galleries in Rome, Florence,London, Cambridge, Munich, and Bayonne as well as in Pretoria andJohannesburg is also acknowledged. I am particularly grateful to theVatican authorities for cooperation in providing illustrations for the workand for enabling me to visit the Sistine Chapel and view the restorationsfrom the scaffolding in March 1989 (before the submission of my thesis)and again in July 1993, when the Last Judgment was undergoing cleaningand restoration. I should also like to acknowledge discussion of myideas held with the late Dr. Fabrizio Mancinelli as the fresco underwent

Preface [ xv ]

the cleaning and restoration process. Financial assistance in the formof research grants from the University of the Witwatersrand, the SouthAfricanHuman Sciences Research Council, the University of Luton, and theDr. M. Aylwin Cotton Foundation all helped to make this work possible.Special thanks are due to Dr. E. A. Evangelidis and to my children, Annaand Aleko.

Chapter 1

Introduction

In the midst of all assuredly dwells the Sun. For in thismost beautiful temple who would place this luminaryin any other or better position from which he canilluminate the whole at once? Indeed, some rightlycall Him the Light of the World, others, the Mind orthe Ruler of the Universe: Hermes Trismegistus nameshim the visible God, Sophocles’ Electra calls him theall-seeing. So indeed the Sun remains, as if in hiskingly dominion, governing the family of Heavenlybodies which circles around him.

—Nicholas CopernicusDe Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium1

L ines that seem to be descriptive of Michelangelo’s Last Judgment (fig. 1)2

were in fact written by Nicholas Copernicus in his revolutionaryheliocentric cosmology, published in 1543 (see diagram, fig. 2). The

idea that Michelangelo’s equally revolutionary design for the traditionalscheme of the Last Judgment in the Sistine Chapel (fig. 3) was anexpression of the Copernican theory of the sun-centered universe was firstconsidered by Charles de Tolnay as early as 1940.3 Commenting on thefresco’s remarkable deviation from the usual Last Judgment iconographyand composition,4 Tolnay’s interpretation here concentrated upon hisargument that Christ is unusually depicted in Michelangelo’s fresco in theform of the pagan sun god Apollo, in the center of a circular composition.He is situated as if “in the center of a solar system . . . in the unlimitedspace of the universe.”5

In the final paragraph of his paper, Tolnay suggests that the cosmicscheme seems to form an analogywith Copernicus’ theory of heliocentricityin which the sun, rather than the earth, was situated in the center of theuniverse. It seemed to Tolnay that Michelangelo, in placing Christ in

1

[ 2 ] Sun Symbolism and Cosmology in Michelangelo’s “Last Judgment”

1 Michelangelo, Last Judgment (1536–41). Fresco (13.7x 12.2 m), Sistine Chapel, Vatican City Rome. This andall other details of Michelangelo’s Last Judgment (figs.51–63, 112–13, and 124) have been reproduced fromphotographic material supplied by Monumenti e GalleriePontificie, Città del Vaticano.

Introduction [ 3 ]

2 Copernicus, De Revolu-tionibus Orbium Coelestium,book 1, chapter 10, in itsprinted form. HoughtonLibrary, Harvard University

the form of a Sun-Apollo in the center of a “macrocosmic” view ofthe universe, had arrived in his own way at a vision of the universewhich “curiously corresponded” to that of Copernicus. According toTolnay, both Michelangelo and Copernicus had taken up the heliocentrichypothesis formulated in antiquity. Tolnay wrote that Michelangelo, byhis representation of unlimited space in the fresco, was anticipating theconcept of the infinite universe as formulated later in the sixteenth centuryby men like Giordano Bruno.6

Subsequently, in 19607 Tolnay developed the theme he had raised inthis early paper. He again drew attention to his concept of the depiction ofChrist in the form of a sun symbol and commented further on what he had

[ 4 ] Sun Symbolism and Cosmology in Michelangelo’s “Last Judgment”

3 Sistine Chapel, interior,looking towards the altar.Vatican, Rome.

viewed as a curious correspondence between Michelangelo’s vision andthat of Copernicus. Tolnay expanded his hypothesis of the cosmologicaldepiction of Christ as a sun symbol, but he now explicitly dismissed thepossibility of any direct Copernican influence on Michelangelo on thegrounds that the date of publication of Copernicus’ theory postdated thecreation and completion of Michelangelo’s Last Judgment. In volume 5 ofhis definitive work on Michelangelo he wrote:

By means of the central place which Michelangelo reserved inhis composition for the Sun (Christ-Apollo) whose magic powerdetermines the unity and the movement of his macrocosmos, theartist came of himself to a vision of the universe which, surprisingly,corresponds to that of his contemporary Copernicus. Yet he couldnot have known Copernicus’ book which was published in 1543—atleast seven years after Michelangelo conceived his fresco.8

In the accompanying notes, he added his conclusion that “Michelangelo’sLast Judgment is a heliocentric image of the macrocosmos anticipating

Introduction [ 5 ]

the Copernican universe” [italics added].9 He also commented thatheliocentrism was “rejected by the official theology of the sixteenth andseventeenth centuries.”10

Because of the apparent discrepancy Tolnay found between the datingof Copernicus’ book and Michelangelo’s fresco, he felt forced to dismiss theidea of direct Copernican influence on Michelangelo and implied only thatMichelangelo “of himself” came to the same conclusions as Copernicusand independently devised the heliocentric astronomical theory. Tolnaytherefore pursued the specifically Copernican and heliocentric argumentno further, but, unwilling to abandon his cosmological view of the “Sun-Christ,” he looked elsewhere for explanations and sources and proceededto develop an alternative, complex argument for this symbolic depictionof Christ. Considering the fresco in terms of a cosmological vision,his perception of the overall composition based on circles and circularmovement around a central Sun-Christ was finally related to ancient astralmyths and legends derived from pagan sources but also linked to certainmedieval concepts.11

Although Tolnay’s study of Michelangelo’s Last Judgment embracedmany other aspects of the work,12 his interpretation of the fresco as acosmic view of the Sun-Christ remained his predominant theme. In hislater (1975) summary publication of this extensive five-volume work,13

the major stress in the interpretation of the Last Judgment is still placedon the circularity of the composition and its cosmological overtones.Describing the work as “the grandiose vision of a heliocentric universe,”14

he still appeared unwilling to dismiss the heliocentric idea as a forcein the composition of the fresco; but, because of the discrepancy indating with Copernicus’ publication, he again reverted to the astral mythsof antiquity to support his cosmological interpretation.15 He gave littledetailed explanation or further references for these ideas, but they areemphasized and proposed as source material for Michelangelo’s frescoin the absence, in Tolnay’s opinion, of the possibility of a more directcontemporary cosmological basis for the work.

Charles de Tolnay has been recognized as “the great scholar whosework is the foundation of all modern Michelangelo scholarship,”16 andhis interpretation of the Last Judgment has played a major part in theMichelangelo literature. His discussion of Michelangelo’s Last Judgment,from 1940 through to 1975, remained fundamentally cosmological, eventhough the possibility of any direct and concrete influence of contemporarysixteenth-century cosmology was discounted. His perception of the frescoas a cosmic drama and his assessment of the Apollonian Sun-Christ havecontinued to receive a great deal of attention and have exerted enormousinfluence on subsequent interpretations of Michelangelo’s Last Judgment.The cosmological interpretation of the fresco is extremely importantsince it appears to have affected the majority of art historians since the

Index

Note: Illustrations are indicated by italic numerals.

AAdoration of the Shepherds (Ghirlandaio),

145Advent, 131Agathon, 225Age of Enlightenment, 13, 32, 103Agnello, 112, 113, 126n134Alberti, Leon Battista, 15, 196, 291–92Alexander of Aphrodisias, 267Alighieri, Dante. See DanteAll Saints Day, 300All Saints Eve, 80Altdofer, Albrecht, 262Amiens Cathedral, 49, 52Anabaptists, 30Anastasis of Christ, 16, 45–46Angelico, Fra, 67, 67–69, 68, 73Angels, 43, 52, 56, 74, 91Angiolieri, Cecco, 229Annunciation, 16Apocalypse, 22–23, 29–30, 35n30, 45, 53,

97, 129–30, 148–49Apollinare Nuovo, 140–41ApolloChrist depicted as, 1, 3, 104–5, 108–9,

112, 138–41, 148, 155, 225, 308compared to Christ, 1, 55, 130, 146,

149–50, 158, 219, 227as pagan symbol, 106, 145–46as sun, 227

Apollo Belvedere, 106, 146, 157, 311Apostles, 40, 56Aquilino, Saint, 141–42Aquinas, Saint Thomas. See Thomas

AquinasArchangels, 40Architecture

of churches, 13–15, 34n19, 34n20, 73,132–33, 213

in Renaissance, 15, 291Arena Chapel, Padua, 61, 61, 83Aretino, Pietro, 100–104, 121n51, 259,

272Ariosto, Ludovico, 196Aristarchus of Samos, 254–55Aristotle, 32, 173–78, 202n37, 216, 222–

23, 253–54, 258Art historical method, 10n32, 287–88,

291–96, 307–12, 314–17Art history, 62, 105Ascension, 16Asclepius, 234Assyrians, 130Astral myths, 5, 6, 106, 107, 116Astrology, 106, 226Astronomyand comets, 268and Copernicus, 238, 252, 259–60, 264,

289, 301, 327, 329Dante on, 72, 174, 176heliocentric theory of, 5, 254medieval, 178and pagan theories of, 40scientific discipline of, 6–7, 255, 275n5and symbolism, 15–16, 57

Augustine of Hippoand Catholic doctrine, 133, 226as Church Father, 174, 179, 227on circularity, 221concepts of, 12, 24, 132–34, 187, 233,

288, 289on creation, 208n127Neoplationism of, 133on the universe, 178, 187, 197–99

361

[ 362 ] Index

Augustine of Hippo continuedwritings ofCity of God, 133Confessions, 133Immortality of the Soul, 133Magnitude of the Soul, 133

Aureole. See MandorlaAutun Cathedral, 49

BBainton, Roland H., 197Bandini, Baccio, 173Baptism, 16Baptista de Cavalieri, Giovanni, 98Barnes, Bernadine, 114Bartholomew, Saint, 74, 89, 113Bartolommeo, Fra, 55, 68, 69, 311Basilica of the Santi Quattro Coronati, 55,

56Basilicas, Cathedrals, Chapels, Churches.

See specific namesBassus, Junius, 145Battle of Alexander the Great (Altdorfer), 62,

62Beaulieu, 49Beck, James, 95, 110Bede, The Venerable, 40Bellini, Jacopo, 149–50, 154Bembo, Pietro, 196Benciviendi di Pepo. See CimabueBenedictine, 47Beneficio di Cristo (Mantua), 137Benesch, Otto, 262–63Berenson, Bernard, 104Bertoldo di Giovanni, 67Bertram, Anthony, 109Bessarion, Basil, 216Biagetti, Biagio, 107–8Bible. See also Gospels; New Testament; Old

Testamentbooks ofGenesis, 11, 12, 27, 40, 219, 298Exodus, 13Job, 22Psalms, 22, 40, 130Isaiah, 14, 29, 40, 106Ezekiel, 22, 29, 97, 106, 178Daniel, 22, 106Amos, 291 Corinthians, 23, 26, 27, 112Thessalonians, 23, 106Revelation, 23, 27, 29, 35n38, 106,

287, 298–302, 316–17and Christianity, 138

and cosmology, 12–13, 16, 20, 28–29,62, 73, 176, 177, 254–55, 264

and creation, 12and forgiveness, 20, 28, 70interpretation of, 11–12on judgment, 21–22, 62Newman on, 21–22and retribution, 20and sun-symbolism, 133, 147, 154,

157–58, 179, 199teaching of, 133

Bibloteca Nazionale, Florence, 183Birth of the Virgin (Ghirlandaio), 292Black Death, 62–63, 315Blunt, Anthony, 105, 215, 216Bober, Phyllis Pray, 145Boccaccio, Giovanni, 272Bondone, Giotto di. See GiottoBorsook, Eve, 292Bosch, Hieronymus, 53Botticelli, SandroChrist depicted by, 152, 154as illustrator, 173, 180–83, 187–88, 191,

311works byPietá, 152Transfiguration, 152, 153, 154

Bourges Cathedral, 49, 51, 52–53Bouts, Dieric, 53Boyde, Patrick, 176, 179Brahe, Tycho, 273Bramante, Donato, 15, 141Bratrizet, 98Bronze Age, 107Brunelleschi, Filippo, 15, 292Bruno, Giordano, 3, 233, 236, 273Buffalmacco, 63Bull, George, 116Buonarroti, Michelangelo di Lodovico. See

MichelangeloBurckhardt, Jacob, 104Buridan, Jean, 255Byzantine periodart during, 15, 43, 45–47, 55–57, 140,

143and Christianity, 21, 63and cosmology, 40, 70, 72, 74, 216

CCabala, 233–34Caird, George, 298Calcagnini, Celio, 196, 259Calvin, John, 25–26, 36n51, 163n61Camesasca, Ettore, 110Campanella, Tommaso, 233, 236

Index [ 363 ]

Camposanto, 55, 63, 67, 69, 172Capuchin order, 135–36, 269Carafa, Paul. See Paul IVCarennac, 49Carli, Enzo, 109Cassirer, Ernst, 213Castagno, Andrea del, 150, 154, 311Castiglione, Baldassare, 196Catherine, Saint, 74Catholic Missal, 300Catholic Reformation, 109, 116–17, 134–

38, 196–99, 269–71, 314, 317. See alsoCounter-Reformation; Reformation

Catholicismand Copernicus, 111, 264–66, 272–73and dogma, 113, 133, 214, 269, 273and free will, 24–25Greek concept, 26and Last Judgment iconography, 24liturgy of, 131in Middle Ages, 27, 30and Purgatory, 25and resurrection, 20–21, 26, 112–13and salvation, 24–26, 31

Cavalieri Thomas de’, 115, 198Cavallini, Pietro, 55, 57Cellini, Benvenuto, 143Cennini, Cennino, 291–92Chain of Being, 13Chartes Cathedral, 49Chastel, André, 114, 263Chosen people, 25, 37n64Christbeardless depiction, 140–41, 143, 147–

48, 157, 165n88compared to Apollo, 1, 55, 104–5, 108–

9, 112, 138–40, 146, 148–50, 155,219, 225, 227, 308

depicted by Botticelli, 152, 154depicted in Last Judgment (Michelangelo),

1, 3, 63, 67, 78n54, 81, 83, 85–89,91, 96–98, 103, 115, 119n24, 138–39, 142, 199, 222–23, 227, 290,300–302

depiction of, 49, 52–53, 56, 57, 62–63,68–69, 74–75, 106, 138–40, 288

as Good Shepherd, 140as Judge, 22–23, 30–31, 39–40, 45,

52–53, 55, 110, 131, 134, 198,299, 314–15

life of, 132as Light of the World, 129, 138resurrection of, 20–21, 26as Savior, 20, 23–28, 31, 62, 314–15

second coming of, 23–27, 30, 37n63,45, 129–30

stigmata of, 52–53, 76n23and sun-symbolism, 3–8, 98, 103, 106–

8, 114, 117, 129–30, 133, 138–40,147–50, 152, 154–55, 157–58, 169,171, 199, 212, 232–33, 237–38,274, 307

thigh of, 112, 184, 295–96, 298, 301,307–8

and Transfiguration, 131Christian Topography (Cosmas), 40, 43, 70Christianity. See also Judeo-Christian beliefsand cosmology, 40, 234dogma of, 18, 20–21, 27, 30–31, 45,

130, 212–13iconography of, 13–16, 18, 20–21, 53,

59, 61 138–47, 220, 298and Michelangelo, 134–38and Neoplatonism, 213, 232, 237–38,

257, 314philosophy of, 116, 130, 132–33, 147,

199, 215–16and Plato, 237revival of, 142traditions of, 131and view of Hell, 25and view of universe, 11, 12, 15–16, 18

Christmas, 131, 300, 312Christus, Petrus, 53Church Fathersleaders, 159n15on universe, 12, 227, 238, 287writings of, 40, 132, 158, 174–75, 179,

199Cicero, 106, 254–55Cimabue, 59, 60Cione, Andrea di, 55, 63, 65Circular motionand Dante, 190, 193in iconography, 74, 92, 106–9, 171, 233in Last Judgment (Michelangelo), 81, 83,

96–98, 115, 133, 220, 237–38,291, 295–96, 308

symbolism of, 85–89, 187–88, 217,221–24

Clement of Alexandria, 40Clement VII (pope), 79–80, 92, 135–

36, 165n88, 240n14, 264, 266–71,308–9, 315–17

Clements, Robert J., 111, 199, 214Colet, John, 233Colonna, Vittoriaand Michelangelo, 135–36, 155, 157,

170, 195–99, 314

[ 364 ] Index

Colonna, Vittoria continuedpoetry of, 8, 169, 195Redig de Campos on, 135“Spiritual Sonnets,” 196, 197and sun-symbolism, 196, 197Tolnay on, 135Triumph of the Cross of Christ, 197

Columbus, Christopher, 72, 253Commentary (Landino), 182Commentary on Plato’s Symposium (Ficino),

218–20, 224–26Commentary on the Divina Commedia

(Landino), 173Condivi, Ascanioon Divina Commedia, 170Hall on, 113on Last Judgment (Michelangelo), 53, 85,

96–99, 101, 103–4, 108–9, 269on Michelangelo, 53, 85

Confessions (Augustine), 133Confirmation of the Rule of St. Francis

(Signori), 292Consiliun de Emendanda Ecclesia, 136Constantine I, 132Contarini, Gasparo, 135–36, 271Convivio (Dante), 178–79Copernicus, Nicholasachievements of, 252, 272, 274and Aristotle, 258in art, 260, 261, 262–63on astronomy, 238, 252, 259–60, 264,

289, 301, 327, 329birth of, 110Catholics on, 111, 264–65, 272–73Church reaction to, 263–66, 275n9, 316education of, 256forerunners of, 8, 105, 178, 191, 255–56on God, 251, 257heliocentric theory of, 1–3, 107–8, 114,

117, 238, 251–60, 265–66, 269,288, 310–12, 316

hypothesis as presented, 307–11influence on Michelangelo, 1, 4–5,

110–11, 115–16, 258, 263, 316influences on, 8, 233, 255, 328–29and Paul III, 328–29on Plato, 251, 257–58Protestants on, 111and Schönberg, 327, 329Steinberg on, 6Tolnay on, 1, 3–6, 106–8, 125n122, 308works byDe Revolutionibus Orbium Coelstium,

1, 9n1, 106, 251–53, 258, 272,289, 328–29

Nicolai Copernici de HypothesibusMotuum Coelestium a de ConstitutisCommentariolus, 259–60

Coppo di Marcovaldo, 57Cosmas, 40–43, 45, 52, 70, 143, 176, 216,

253Cosmologybiblical interpretations of, 12–13, 16, 20,

28–29, 57, 62–63, 73and Cosmas, 43, 253and Dante, 72, 169, 172–79, 181–87,

188–95, 202n33, 289, 316in De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium,

1, 252–53, 289of Earth, 29, 31–32, 52, 327Ficino on, 212–13, 216, 219–28, 224,

236, 288–89and Hermetic writings, 234and hierarchical schemes, 56and iconography, 7, 12–16, 18, 74–75,

116, 134, 158in Last Judgment (Michelangelo), 1, 5–

7, 11, 16, 18, 20–24, 31–32, 70,72–75, 101–4, 112, 115, 158, 212,219–20, 224, 232, 272, 288, 308

and metaphysics, 171modern definition of, 6and philosophy, 6–7of planets, 178and Plato, 217–18, 223–25, 232, 289scientific view of, 8, 11, 12and sun-symbolism, 158, 178–81, 182–

87, 190–95, 238themes of, 7, 31–32, 43, 46, 48, 63, 106,

109, 116, 192, 198–99, 234and theology, 6–7, 11–12, 40, 169,

263–66Coughlan, Robert, 110Council of Nicaea II (787), 263Council of Trent, 108, 137, 163n63,

284n136, 316Counter-Reformation, 31, 103, 105, 113,

135–36, 237, 316. See also CatholicReformation; Reformation

Cracow library, 259Cracow (Poland), 227–28, 259Cranach, Lucas, 53Creation, 7, 11–12, 32, 40, 129, 211, 213Crucifixion, 16, 22, 150, 155Crucifixion (Castagno), 150Curtius, Matthias, 266Cusanus, Nicholas, 233

DDaniele of Volterra, 80, 101, 114, 127n146

Index [ 365 ]

Danteon Aristotle, 173–74, 202n30on astronomy, 72, 174, 176compared to Ficino, 221–22, 226condemnation of, 272and cosmology, 72, 108, 169, 172–79,

181–87, 188–95, 202n33, 289, 316on Earth’s position, 177–78and Giotto, 172, 176–17on God, 174, 176, 184–86, 188–89, 254on Heaven, 171–72, 177, 186–90and heliocentric theory, 192–93, 253–54on Hell, 171–72, 186, 194, 229and hierarchical scheme, 63and iconography, 171and influence on Michelangelo, 8, 104,

114, 169, 173, 175–76, 179–81,192, 195, 198–99, 287, 300–301,311–12

Landino on, 173, 175–76and Neoplatonism, 175–76, 179, 237,

289on Plato, 173, 175, 179portrait of, 171, 172science and, 176, 288and Signorelli, 172Steinberg on, 200n15and sun-symbolism, 117, 154, 158, 169,

194, 199Tolnay on, 106–7, 170–71and Traini, 172on the universe, 176, 178, 182–83, 238works byConvivio, 178–79, 202–3n41Divina Commedia, 24, 158, 169–72,

300–301, 316Inferno, 63, 97, 170–72, 180–82, 301Paradiso, 170–72, 180, 185, 187–88,

226, 312Purgatorio, 171

De Amore (Ficino), 218–21, 225De Caelo (Aristotle), 216, 222De Christiana Religione (Ficino), 216, 226De Lumine (Ficino), 227De Maio, Romeo, 113, 135De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium

(Copernicus),condemnation of, 264–65, 272, 284n136cosmology of, 1, 252–53, 289dedication of, 272, 328–29Neoplatonic concepts of, 251–53Pand Paul III, 328–29publication of, 258–59, 273, 276n16text of, 9n1, 307Tolnay on, 106, 252

De Sole (Ficino), 219, 233, 256De Vecchi, Pierluigi, 114, 115De Vita Libri Tres (Ficino), 216–19, 226Delacroix, Eugéne, 103–4Della Casa, Giovanni di, 98Diderot, Denis, 103Dies Irae (Thomas of Celano), 24, 104–7Dionysius the Areopagite. See Pseudo-

DionysiusDiscourse of Hermes Trismegistus to Asclepius,

234Disputa (Raphael), 294, 295Divina Commedia (Dante)Condivi on, 170depiction of, 172figures in, 170–71, 182, 229Heaven depicted in, 173–74, 176Hell depicted in, 173–74, 176, 178,

180–81illustrations to, 173, 180–81, 193Jerusalem in, 178Last Judgment motif in, 171, 178manuscripts of, 172–73moral allegory in, 174and pagan legends, 171Platonic influence on, 179Satan in, 180and sun-symbolism, 158, 169, 178–81,

184–87themes in, 173–74, 176, 179, 190, 193,

216, 238, 300–301, 316Vasari, 170visual images in, 171–73

Dixon, John W., 114Dodd, Charles Harold, 129–30, 158n4Dolce, Lodovico, 103Domenico of Novara, 256, 259Domus Aurea, 142Donatello, 293Doni, Anton Francesco, 100, 103, 157, 263Dorata, Volta, 143Dotson, Esther Gordon, 134Dunbar, Helen Flanders, 179Duomo, Florence, 144–45, 171Dürer, Albrechton Apocalypse, 148–49and Neoplatonism, 213and sun-symbolism, 262works byApocalypse, 53Judge, The, 148Last Judgment, 53Melancholia, 53Nemesis, 53Passion series, 53

[ 366 ] Index

Durer, Albrecht continuedSol Iustitiae, 148, 149

EEarthcentral position of, 12, 18, 177, 264,

271–73, 280n63cosmology of, 29, 31–32, 275n10, 327Dante on, 177–78flat view of, 12, 16, 29, 32, 52, 72, 176,

253, 274as spherical, 72, 77n48, 176, 253,

275n13Easter, 131Ebreo, Leone, 233Edict of Milan, 132Egidio, Bishop of Viterbo, 134–35, 215,

234, 266, 314Egyptians, 130, 234Elbag, Poland, 63Elements of Physics (Proclus), 267Enlightenment, Age of, 12, 32, 103Ephraim the Syrian, Saint, 24Erasmus, 233, 269Ettlinger, Leopold, 110, 300Europeart in, 43, 45, 47, 53Black Death in, 62Copernicus’ influence in, 211, 227–28northern, 47–49, 52–53, 55religion in, 30, 130, 136, 147

FFall of the Rebel Angels, 269, 271Farnese, Alessandro. See Paul IIIFatum, 105, 106, 111–12Feldhusen, R., 106Ferdinandy, Miguel de, 106Ficino, Marsiliocompared to Dante, 221–22, 226and cosmology, 212–13, 216, 219–28,

224, 236, 257–58, 288–89on God, 220on the Good, 217–20and Hermetic writings, 213, 234on hierarchical scheme, 221and immortality of soul, 113and influences on, 267, 288on Last Judgment (Michelangelo), 222,

287, 300and Medici family, 213, 234and Michelangelo, 220, 226–27, 311and Neoplatonism, 113, 213, 233and Paul of Middleburg, 259on Plato, 212, 216, 219–28, 232, 237–38

and Platonic Academy of Florence,211–13

and sun-symbolism, 8, 226–27works byCommentary on Plato’s Symposium,

217–20, 224–26De Amore, 217–21, 220, 225De Christiana Religone, 216, 226De Lumine, 227De Sole, 217, 219, 233, 256De Vita Libri Tres, 216–19, 226Letters, 216Liber de Sole, 227Opera Omnia, 216–17Orphica Comparativo Solis ad Deum,

227Phaedrus Commentary, 217, 219, 225Philebus Commentary, 217Platonic Theology, 216, 219, 226, 229,

256Sophist Commentary, 217Theologia Platonica de Immortalitate

Animorum, 214, 217, 226, 229‘Theory of Five Substances,” 224–25

Fifth Lateran Council, 113, 215, 259, 312Filarete, Antonio, 291Fiorentino, Rosso, 155Flagellation (Piombo), 155Flaminico, 137Flanders Dunbar, Helen, 179Florenceart in, 186, 300churches in, 150and Divina Commedia, 170–71, 180libraries in, 43, 183Michelangelo in, 270, 300Neoplatonism in, 211–15during Renaissance, 55–57

Florence Bapistery, 57, 62Florentine Academy, 103France, 47, 49, 72, 79Francesca, Piero della, 291Franciscans, 135Fréat, 103Free will, 24–25, 28, 316Freedberg, Sidney, 110French cathedrals, 47–49, 52–53

GGalileo, 265, 273, 282n96, 311Garden of Eden, 27Gardner, Edmund G, 179Geneva, 25–26Gerbert, 253. See also Sylvester IIGermany, 43, 45, 53

Index [ 367 ]

Ghiberti, Lorenzo, 291Ghirlandaio, Domenico, 142–43, 145, 154,

291–92Giese, Tiedemann, 329Gilio, 103Ginzburg, Carlo, 310Giorgione, 260Giotto, 55, 61, 61–63, 69, 72–73, 77n34,

172, 176–77Girardi, 198Godas center, 222, 224, 288, 308compared to Platonic Nous, 213Copernicus on, 253, 257as Creator, 12, 16, 129Dante on, 174, 176, 188–89, 254depiction of, 16, 178–79, 238Ficino on, 220as good, 219judgment of, 21, 25–28right hand of, 46, 52, 53

Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 52, 103,305n48

Golden House of Nero. See Domus AureaGoldscheider, Ludwig, 81, 105Gombrich, Ernst H., 216, 225, 309–10Gospel of Nicodemus, 129–30, 137–38,

159n12, 230–31Gospels. See also Bibleaccording to John, 22–23, 97, 129, 131,

137, 179, 238according to Luke, 22–23according to Mark, 22–23according to Matthew, 22, 39, 106, 131and classical literature, 106, 212–13

Gothic period, 52, 53, 55, 62Greek, 130, 141, 211, 220Greenstein, Jack M., 114Gregory XIII, 273Guicciardini, Francesco, 269, 315

HHall, Marcia B., 112–13Hartt, Frederick, 109, 119–20n29, 310,

314Hautecoeur, Louis, 15Heavenconcept of, 31–32, 40, 70, 72Dante on, 171–72, 177, 186–90depiction of, 171in Divina Commedia, 173–74, 176in Last Judgment (Michelangelo), 28–29position of, 12, 18, 20, 29, 32, 39, 40,

55, 72, 74, 254, 273, 289scroll of, 56

Hebrews. See Jews, JewishHeliocentric theoryCopernicus on, 1–3, 8, 107–8, 114, 117,

238, 251–60, 265–66, 269, 288,310–12, 316

Dante on, 192–93, 253–54and Last Judgment (Michelangelo), 1,

4–5, 108scientific theory of, 117and sun-symbolism, 8

Hellcave of, 74, 229, 230Dante on, 171–72, 186, 194, 229depiction of, 35n40, 49, 71, 228–32in Divina Commedia, 173–74, 176, 178,

180–81doctrine of, 24, 31–32, 70, 72fear of, 25–26in Last Judgment (Michelangelo), 28–29,

85, 228–32, 231position of, 12, 16, 18, 20, 23, 32, 39,

40, 55, 72, 74, 254, 273, 289Heninger, S. K., 253Henry VIII, 315Heptaplus (Pico della Mirandola), 233Heraclides on Pontus, 254Hermes Trismegistus, 233–34, 257Hermetic writings, 232–38, 248n139, 266,

278n46, 300Hetoimasia (Throne), 45–46Heusinger, Lutz, 114Hibbard, Howard, 110, 114, 135Hierarchical schemearchitectural representation of, 14–15,

34n19artistic representation of, 45, 47–49, 52,

55–57, 59, 61–62, 70, 85of being, 12celestial, 13, 43of Christianity, 13, 15–16, 18Cosmas on, 41and cosmology, 56, 74–75Dante on, 63ecclesiastical, 13Ficino on, 221in literature, 43loosening of, 83

Hirst, Michael, 81, 155Holanda Francisco de, 135Holy Tabernacle (of Moses), 13–14

IIconographyByzantine, 59, 61and caves, 227–32, 247n128

[ 368 ] Index

Iconography continuedChristian, 13–16, 18, 20–21, 53, 59, 61,

138–47, 158, 220, 298Cosmas on, 40–41and cosmological theory, 7, 12–16, 18,

74–75, 116, 134, 158, 288and Dante, 171elements of, 16, 20, 62, 70, 72, 97,

108–9, 309–10, 316in Last Judgment art and literature, 24–

32, 43, 47–48, 52–53, 59, 61–62,69–70, 72–73, 105, 147, 172, 176

in Last Judgment (Michelangelo), 1, 15–16, 24, 32, 39–41, 43, 45–47, 73—74, 83–84, 87–89, 91, 171, 237

medieval, 56, 72–73and Michelangelo, 138–47, 214–15

Il Cortegiano (Castiglione), 196Il Libro dell’Arte (Cennini), 291Illuminists. See ValdésiansImmortality of the Soul (Augustine), 133Index of Prohibited Books, 264, 271–72Indicopleustes, Cosmas. See CosmasIndulgences, 25, 36n45Italyart in, 53, 55–57, 59, 61–63, 67–70,

103, 140, 155, 157iconography in, 176literature in, 72, 158, 170, 196, 199and Michelangelo, 47–48Neoplatonism in, 113, 175, 213, 233threats to, 315

JJanuszczak, Waldemar, 114–15Jerusalem, 62, 178Jesus Christ. See ChristJews, Jewish, 25. See also Judeo-Christian

beliefsJohn, Saint, 129–30John the Baptist, 74, 89Joshua, 16, 20Judeo-Christian beliefs, 11, 23, 130, 211,

219Judge, The (Dürer), 148Judgmentand Apocalypse, 129–30biblical references to, 20–22Day of, 130–31and predestination, 25–26process of, 69–70, 74, 109purpose of, 20–22, 24–32, 63and resurrection, 21, 27–28and salvation, 21–33, 232, 299, 315,

317

and sun-symbolism, 148–49Julius II (pope), 198Julius tomb, 117n5, 170, 213, 215Jung, Eva-Maria, 136Justi, Karl, 105Justification of Faith doctrine, 269

KKepler, Johannes, 233, 265, 273, 285n140King Solomon’s Temple, 13–14Koestler, Arthur, 252, 266–67Kopal, Zdenek, 265Koyré, Alexandre, 257Kubovy, Michael, 293Kuhn, Thomas S., 40, 252, 255, 257, 259

LLactantius, 40, 176, 253LaHaye, T., 299Lamarche-Vadel, Bernard, 114Lamentation (Bellini), 149–50Lamentation (Botticelli), 152Lamentation (Castagno), 150Lamentation (Tura), 152Lamentations ( Michelangelo), 170Landino, Cristoforo, 173, 179–80, 182,

185, 204n58, 211, 233Last Judgmenticonography in, 24–32, 43, 47–48,

52–53, 59, 61–62, 69–70, 72–73,77n51, 105, 172, 176

Last Judgment, depiction ofand Dante, 171–72in France, 56in Gothic art, 52in Italy, 55–57, 59, 61–63, 67–70major themes of, 39–41, 43, 45–47, 49,

51, 59, 61–62, 314–17in manuscripts, 45, 62in Northern Europe, 47–49, 52–53, 55prior to Michelangelo, 39–40, 45–49,

52–53, 55–57, 59, 61–63, 67–70,75n1, 92, 98, 172, 274, 307–8

on public buildings, 76n24in Renaissance art, 70, 73in Romanesque art, 52in sculpture, 48–49, 53

Last Judgment ( Nardo di Cione), 55, 172Last Judgment (Angelico), 67, 67–68Last Judgment (Bartolommeo), 55, 69 68Last Judgment (Bouts), 53Last Judgment (Cavallini), 55, 57, 58Last Judgment (Christus), 53Last Judgment (Cimabue), 59, 60Last Judgment (Coppo di Marcovalso), 57,

59

Index [ 369 ]

Last Judgment (Cosmas), 41, 42, 43Last Judgment (Dürer), 53Last Judgment (Giotto), 55, 61, 61–62, 69,

72, 172Last Judgment (Lochner), 53Last Judgment (Maitani), 57, 58Last Judgment (Memlinc), 53Last Judgment (Michelangelo)analysis of, 80–89, 92–93, 95–104, 111,

290, 295–98, 310Christ depicted in, 1, 3, 63, 67, 78n54,

81, 83, 85–89, 91, 96–98, 103,115, 119n24, 138–39, 142, 199,222–27

Church reaction to, 8circular design in, 133, 295–96, 308circular motion in, 81, 83, 96–98, 115,

133, 220, 237–38, 291, 295–96,308

cleaning and restoration of, 8, 80, 85, 88,93, 95–96, 115–16, 157, 232, 296,307–8

commission of, 8, 79–81, 114–15, 117–18n6, 213, 266, 269–70, 314

Condivi on, 53, 85, 96–99, 101, 103–4,108–9

cosmology in, 1, 5–7, 11, 16, 18, 20–24,31–32, 70, 72–75, 101–4, 112,115, 158, 212, 219–20, 224, 232,272, 288, 308

criticism on, 100, 104–11Dante’s influence on, 104, 170–71,

198–99drawings for, 81, 82, 119n19, 119n21,

290–91, 298Ficino on, 222, 287, 300focal point of, 85, 86, 294–96, 304n44,

307Goethe on, 103heliocentric image in, 1, 4–5, 108Hell depicted in, 85, 228–32, 231iconography in, 1, 15–16, 20, 24, 32,

39–41, 43, 45–47, 73–74, 83–84,87–89, 91, 171, 237

influences on, 7–8, 23, 26, 31–32, 43,53, 69–70, 108, 110, 147, 170–71, 224, 237–38, 266, 269, 274,289–90, 312, 316

interpretations of, 5–6, 18, 20, 175,255–56

modifications to, 80, 101, 114–15,127n146, 304n42

nudity in, 100–103, 105, 111, 120–21n38, 121n51

originality of, 96–97, 292, 296

and resurrection, 28, 85, 112–13and Revelation 19:16, 298–302significance of, 6, 110and Sistine Chapel, 1, 2, 7, 48, 57, 73,

74, 77–78n52, 85, 290–91size of, 291symbolism in, 95, 116, 132, 187, 228–

29, 237, 287theological significance of, 8, 18, 20,

108, 112, 138, 157–58, 231, 296,299, 308–9, 316–17

Tolnay on, 1, 4–6, 8, 81, 105–12, 114,147

Vasari on, 85, 96–99, 101, 103–5, 108–9Last Judgment (Orcagna), 55, 63, 65Last Judgment (Schongauer), 53Last Judgment (Signorelli), 69–70Last Judgment (Strozzi), 69Last Judgment (Traini), 63, 64Last Judgment (Van der Weyden), 53Last Judgment (Van Eyck), 53Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci), 293Laurentian Library, 43Lavin, Irvin, 310Lawrence, Saint, 74, 89Lazarus, 22, 29Le Bot, Marc, 115Lees-Milne, James, 132Leites, Nathan, 113Lenski, R. C., 298–99Leo X, 259Leonardo da Vinci, 15, 213, 234, 262, 293,

298Libraries, 43Libre de Sole (Ficino), 227Liebert, Robert S., 113, 135Light symbolism, 129–34, 138, 178–79,

186–88, 198, 218, 229Lightbown, Ronald William, 170Limbo. See Purgatory“Line of Fate in Michelangelo’s Last

Judgment” (Steinberg), 111–12Lippi, Filippino, 152, 154, 293Lochner, Stephen, 53Lomazzo, G. P., 103Lorenzo the Magnificent, 268–69Lucas van Leyden, 53Lucifer. See SatanLuther, Martin, 30, 36n51, 264, 265

MMagnitude of the Soul (Augustine), 133Maitani, Lorenzo, 57Mâle, Emile, 39–40, 49Mancinelli, Fabrizio, 304n43

[ 370 ] Index

Mandorla, 43, 63, 88, 108, 164–65n83Mantua, Benedetto da, 137Mariani, Valerio, 109Maru Magdalene, 154Masaccio, 291–92Masons, 194Mathematics, 7, 91, 251–52Mausoleum of Galla Placida, Ravenna, 14,

15Mazzeo, Joseph Anthony, 179McAuliffe, D. J., 197Medici, Cosimo de, 213, 234Medici, Giulio de. See Clement VIIMedici, Lorenzo de, 144–45, 173, 213,

312, 314Medici Catherine de, 315Medici Chapel, 117n 5, 155, 198, 213, 215Medici Church of San Lorenzo, 15Medici family, 145, 173, 211, 213Medici Palace, 154Meiss, Millard, 62–63Melanchthon, Philipp, 265Memlinc, Hans, 53Mengs, Anton Raphel, 103Michelangeloadvisors to, 264and Bramante, 141and Catholic Reformation, 135, 138classical influences on, 145–46and Clement VII, 268–69, 283n106and Colonna, 135–36, 155–56, 170,

195–99, 314as colorist, 93, 95, 308compared to Giotto, 77n34compared to Traini, 77n45Condivi on, 53, 85and Copernicus’ influence, 1, 4–5, 110,

115–16, 258, 263, 316Dante’s influence on, 8, 114, 169, 173,

175–76, 179–81, 192, 195, 198–99,287, 300–01, 311–12

drawings of, 155and Ficino, 220, 226–27, 311and iconography, 138–47, 214–15influences on, 214, 238, 255–56, 287,

300, 311–12, 314and Lamentations, 170and Masons, 194and mathematics, 91, 291and Medici family, 145, 173, 213and Neoplatonism, 173, 213–15, 217,

237and Nicodemus, 230and Piombo, 260

Plato’s influence on, 185, 187, 216,228–29

poetry of, 8, 197–99, 213, 214, 317on resurrection, 36n49scholarship of, 6and sun-symbolism, 116, 130, 169,

194–99, 226–27Tolnay on, 5–6, 171, 198, 252travels of, 47–48, 55Vasari on, 31, 81, 85

Middle Ages, 13, 15, 21, 28–29, 47, 55,179

astronomy, 178, 253, 273concepts of, 5, 43, 53, 106, 108, 133,

147–48, 173, 199, 253iconography, 56, 70, 72–73, 92, 298manuscripts, 43symbolism, 31

Middle ages, 13, 23, 27–30, 74, 176–79,222–23, 255, 264

Miechow, Matthias, 259Milan, 141–42, 293–94Milizia, 103Millenarian fervor, 30, 37n62Monreale, 47More, Thomas, 233Morgan, Charles Hill, 108Morone, Giovanni, 135Mosaics, 14, 43, 55–57, 68, 142–43, 146,

150Moses, 13, 40, 234Mueller, Johann, 256Munich, 152Munich Codex, 267Murray, Linda, 111, 114, 135Musée Bonnat, Bayonne, 81, 119n19,

119n21Museum of San Marco, 68, 69Mythology, 180–81

NNardo di Cione, 55, 62–63, 172Narratio Prima (Rheticus), 258, 265, 272,

279n52Nativity, 16, 34–35n28Nativity of Christ (Altdorfer), 262Neoplatonismand art, 147, 213of Augustine of Hippo, 133and Botticelli, 213and Christianity, 213, 232, 237–38, 257,

314and classical philosophy, 175, 212–13and Copernicus, 251, 252–53

Index [ 371 ]

Neoplatonism continuedand Dante, 175–76, 179, 237, 289doctrines of, 7–8, 13and Ficino, 113, 213in Florence, 211–16and Michelangelo, 173, 213–15, 217,

237in Renaissance, 26, 112, 113, 211Salvini on, 109and sun-symbolism, 8, 117, 213, 232,

288themes of, 215–19, 233–34

New Testament, 20–24, 27, 129, 131. Seealso Bible

Newman, John Henry, 21–22Nicene Creed, 12, 26, 46Nicholas of Cusa, 255–56Nicodemus. See also Gospel of NicodemusCardinal Carafa as, 136

Nicolai Cpernici de Hypothesibus MotuumCoelestium a de Constitutis Commentari-olus (Copernicus), 259

Notre Dame Cathedral, Paris, 49, 52–53Novara, Domenico da, 256, 259Numerology, 233

OOchino, Bernardo, 135, 136Old Testament, 20–23, 26, 28, 129, 130,

227. See also BibleOn the Celestial Hierarchy (Pseudo-

Dionysius), 13On the Ecclesiastical Hierarchy (Pseudo-

Dionysius), 13On the Heaven and the Universe (Oresme),

255On the Immobility of Heaven and the Mobility

of Earth (Calcagnini), 259On the Motion of the Eighth Sphere (Werner),

260On the Senses and Sensibilities (Alexander of

Aphrodisias), 267Opera Omnia (Ficino), 216–17Oration on the Dignity of Man (Pico), 233Orcagna, 55, 63, 65Oresme, Nicholas, 255, 276n25Original sin, 25, 27Orlando Furioso (Ariosto), 196Orphic hymns, 233Orphica Comparativo Solis ad Deum (Ficino),

227Orr, M. A., 176Orvieto Cathedral, 55, 172Osiander, Andreas, 273, 307, 310, 318n14Ovid, 174

PPacioli, Luca, 291Padua, 55, 62, 73–74, 83–84, 172, 256Pagan Mysteries of the Renaissance (Wind),

146, 214Paganism, 5, 40, 108, 131–32, 138, 158,

171, 212–13Palatine Chapel, Palermo, 47Palazzo della Signoria, 300Palermo, Italy, 47Pannini, Giovanni Paolo, 67Panofsky, Erwin, 105, 173, 211, 215, 216,

309Paolo Giovanni di, 186, 190, 191Papal chapel, 100Paradise (Nardo di Cione), 63, 64Parallela, Sacra, 43Paris, 49, 52–53Passion, 40, 74, 152Paul III (pope)advisors to, 135–36and Bembo, 196and commission of Last Judgment

(Michelangelo), 79–80, 112, 314–15

and Copernicus, 258, 264–65, 328–29on heresy, 270–74and Michelangelo, 268reaction to Last Judgment (Michelangelo),

97, 105, 120n38, 121n52Paul IV, 103, 122n61, 271Paul of Middelburg, 259, 272, 312, 314Pauline Chapel, 112, 125n127, 272Perrig, Alexander, 115Peter, Saint, 74, 89Petrarch, Francesco, 195Petrus, Johannes, 267–68Petrus, John, 266Peurbach, Georg, 256Phaedo (Plato), 215, 228Phaedrus Commentary (Ficino), 217, 219,

225Phaedrus (Plato), 214, 215, 222Philebus Commentary (Ficino), 217Philebus (Plato), 225Philosophy, 6–7, 11, 147, 158, 212, 220,

252Physics, 6–7, 174, 252Pico della Mirandola, Giovanni Conte,

233–34Pietá (Botticelli), 152Piles, Roger de, 103Piombo, Sebastiano del, 79, 117–18n6,

155, 260

[ 372 ] Index

Pisa, 55, 63, 67, 69, 145, 172Pitti, Bartolommeo, 100Pitti Tondo (Lippi), 293Planets, 177–78, 187, 217, 264, 273, 289,

311, 327Platoon Aristotle, 223Cave of, 218, 228–32, 315and Christianity, 237

Copernicus on, 251, 257–58and cosmology, 217–18, 224, 225, 232,

289Dante on, 173, 175, 179Ficino on, 212, 216, 219–28, 232,

237–38forerunners to, 234influence on Michelangelo, 185, 187,

216, 228–29philosophy of, 36n46, 113, 199, 211–13,

216, 220–21, 225revival of, 211, 223and sun-symbolism, 212, 220, 225–29works byPhaedo, 215, 228Phaedrus, 214, 215, 222Philebus, 225Republic, 179, 211, 215–20, 225,

228–29, 232–33, 238Symposium, 211, 214, 215, 225, 228Timaeus, 107, 175, 215–17, 219,

222–25, 228, 236, 289Platonic Academy of Florence, 211, 232Platonic Theology (Ficino), 216, 219, 226,

229, 256Plethon, Gemistos, 216Plotinus, 233Plutarch, 254–55Poimander, 234Pole, Reginald, 135, 137, 271, 284n128Poliziano, Angelo, 152, 195–96, 211Pomponazzi, Pietro, 233Pontormo, Jacopo DA, 155Popes. See under individual namesPredestination, 24–26Proclus, 226, 267Protestantism, 24–25, 31, 111, 264–65,

273, 315Provost, Jean, 53Psalters, 45Pseudo-Dionysius, 13, 33n9, 40, 174, 179,

220, 227, 233, 237Ptolemy, 32, 253, 254Purgatory, 25, 174, 176, 182–85, 230Pythagoras, 106, 114, 254, 328

QQuattrocento frescos, 291–93, 316

RRahner, Hugo, 132Raising of Tabitha (Masaccio), 292Ramsden, E. H., 111Raphael, 5, 217, 293–94Ravenna, Italy, 140Réau, Louis, 39–40Redig de Campos, Deoclecio, 6, 107–8,

111–12, 135, 170Reformation, 20–27, 30, 109, 135–36,

167n124, 312, 314. See also CatholicReformation; Counter-Reformation

Regiomontanus, 256Reichenau school, 43, 45Religion. See TheologyRenaissancearchitecture in, 15art in, 53, 55–57, 59, 61–63, 67–70, 86,

145–46, 149, 217, 288, 298Christian dogma during, 21, 24, 26–28classical influences in, 145–46, 216, 253,

287–88in Italy, 7, 24, 55, 56, 59, 72, 155, 195,

199, 220–23, 225literature in, 72, 158, 169, 195, 199,

216, 234, 291, 309, 317and Neoplatonism, 26, 112, 113, 211,

237Platonists, 213, 216, 229spirituality during, 33, 234and sun-symbolism, 147–48, 196, 238,

260symbolism, 31, 220theology, 134, 288, 300worldview during, 10n30, 11–12, 52,

253, 264, 316–17Republic (Plato), 179, 215–20, 228–29,

232–33, 238ResurrectionCatholic doctrine of, 20–21, 26–27, 112of Christ, 20–21, 45–46and humanity, 22, 52iconography of, 16, 49, 74, 230, 269,

271and judgment, 21, 27–28in Last Judgment (Michelangelo), 28, 85,

112–13Michelangelo on, 36n49, 155and spring equinox, 131–32

Resurrection and Fall of Lucifer, 312Resurrection of Drusiana (Donatello), 293Reynolds, Joshua, 103

Index [ 373 ]

Rheims Cathedral (Notre Dame), 49, 52Rheticus, Georg Joachim, 258, 272Richmond, Robin, 115Richter, Jean Paul, 262Riegl, Alois, 105Risen Christ (Fiorentino), 155Robb, Nesca, 214Roman Catholic Church. See CatholicismRoman Inquisition, 136, 271–72Romanesque period, 52Romans, 130Romeart in, 142–43, 145–46churches in, 40, 57, 132libraries in, 43Michelangelo in, 55, 79, 267–68Sack of, 105, 110, 114, 315

Rosen, Edward, 257, 260, 268Roskill, Mark, 292Rota, Martinus, 98, 308Ruskin, John, 104

SSabbath, 131Sack of Rome, 105, 110, 114, 315Saints, 43, 52, 74, 89. See also individual

saints by nameSaint George Oberzell church, 45Saint John, 40Saint John de Marne, 45Saint John the Divine, 131Saint Michael Burgfelden, 45Saint Peter’s Basilica, Rome, 15, 40, 132,

141, 143Saint Simon the Cyrene, 91Sainte Denis Cathedral, 49Sainte Foy de Conques, 49Sainte Trôphimine church, Arles, 49Salmi, Mario, 114, 135Salvation. See under JudgmentSalviati, Giovanni, 268–70, 314Salviati, Jacopo, 268–69, 314Salviati, John, 266Salvini, Roberto, 6, 109–10, 135San Francisco Church, Assisi, 59, 60San Marco. See Museum of San MarcoSangallo, Antonio, 15Sant’Angelo Church, Formis, 45, 46, 56, 62Santa Cecilia, 55, 57Santa Costanza, 143Santa Croce, 55, 63Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan, 293–94Santa Maria Maggiore, Rome, 16–18, 143,

152, 167n127

Santa Maria Novella (Strozzi chapel), 55,62–63, 172, 292

Santa Maria Nuovo, Pisa, 55, 63Santa Pudenziana, 143Saponaro, M., 108Sarcophagi, 143–45Sassetti Chapel, 154Satan, 18, 26, 67, 180, 182–84Savonarola, Girolamo, 135, 154, 196–97,

272Schönberg, Nicholas, 270–71, 284n121,

314, 327, 329Schongauer, Martin, 53School of Athens (Raphael), 193–294, 217Schott, Rolf, 109Science, 158, 176–78, 192, 238, 251, 260,

274, 316Scripture references. See under BibleSculpture, 48–49, 53, 55, 72Second Coming of Christ, 23–27, 31,

129–30Seven Deadly Sins, 92Shapiro, Meyer, 298Shearman, John, 142Siena Cathedral, 234Signorelli, Luca, 55, 69–70, 71, 172Signori Loggia dei, 292Singleton, Charles S., 175, 183, 193Sistine Chapelart in, 142, 155, 262, 269, 272, 294ceiling of, 80–81, 114–15, 134, 170,

198, 215, 234, 263–64, 299, 308,314

dedication of, 299–300dimensions of, 14and Last Judgment (Michelangelo), 1, 7,

48, 55, 57, 73–74, 77–81, 78n52,85, 271, 290–91, 307–8, 314

orientation of, 80, 132restoration of, 80, 95, 157

Socrates, 173, 245n87Sol Invictus, 106, 110, 132, 147Sol Iustitiae, 106, 110, 147Sol Iustitiae (Dürer), 55, 148, 149, 154Solomon’s Temple, 13–14Sophist Commentary (Ficino), 217Soul, 52, 103–4, 107, 112–13, 214, 219,

224–25, 317“Spiritual Sonnets” (Colonna), 197Spirituali, 113, 135–36, 161n45, 196, 271.

314Steinberg, Leoon Copernicus, 6on Dante, 200n15

[ 374 ] Index

Steinberg, Leo continuedon Last Judgment (Michelangelo), 103,

137–38, 147, 171, 290, 298“Line of Fate in Michelangelo’s Last

Judgment,” 111–12Steinmann, Ernst, 104–5Strozzi, Zanobi, 67, 69Strozzi Chapel, 63. See also Santa Maria

NovellaSummers, David, 214Sun-symbolismin the Bible, 133, 147, 154, 157–58, 179,

199and Christ, 3–8, 98, 103, 106–8, 114,

117, 129–30, 133, 138–40, 147–50, 152–55, 157–58, 169, 171,199, 212, 232–33, 237–38, 274,307

Colonna on, 196, 197and cosmology, 158, 178–81, 182–87,

190–95, 238and Dante, 117, 154, 158, 169, 194, 199in Divina Commedia, 158, 169, 178–81,

184–87, 194, 199Ficino on, 8, 225–27and Gospel of Nicodemus, 230and heliocentricity, 8and Hermetic writings, 234and hierarchical schemes, 8, 57and judgment, 48, 148–49and Michelangelo, 116, 130, 169, 194–

99, 226–27and Neoplatonism, 8, 117, 213, 232,

288and Plato, 212, 220, 225–29in poetry, 196–98sources, 107, 154–55theology of, 7Tolnay on, 7–8, 106–8, 116

Supper at Emmaeus (Pontormo), 155Sylvester, Saint, 56Sylvester II (pope), 72Symbolism, 14–15, 31–32, 43, 105,

129–34, 187. See alsoIconography;Christianity; Light symbolism; Sun-symbolism

Symonds, John Addington, 104Symposium (Plato), 214, 215, 225, 228

TTabernacle (of Moses), 13–14Table Talks (Luther), 265Telesio, Bernardino, 233Temple of Solomon, 40Ten Books of Architecture (Vitruvius), 255

Testori, Giovanni, 198Theodoric of Radzyn, 270–71Theologia Platonica de Immortalitate

Animorum (Ficino), 214, 226, 229Theology, 6–7, 11, 13, 40, 134, 174, 199,

308–9“Theory of Five Substances” (Ficino), 224,

244n82Thode, Henry, 104–5Thomas Aquinas, 12, 174Thomas of Celano, 24, 104–5, 106–7Thomism, 173, 175Thorndike, Lynn, 259Three Philosophers (Giorgione), 260Timaeus (Plato), 107, 175, 215–17, 219,

222–25, 228, 236, 289Tolnay, Charles deand Benesch, 263on Christ’s depiction in Last Judgment

(Michelangelo), 103–5, 147on Colonna, 135and Copernican theory, 1–6, 106, 108,

125n122, 308on Dante, 106–7, 170–71on imagery in Last Judgment (Michelan-

gelo), 1, 4–6, 8, 81, 105–12, 114on Last Judgment (Michelangelo), 1, 4–6,

8, 81, 105–12, 114, 147, 252on Michelangelo, 171, 198on Plato, 216and Redig de Campos, 108, 135on sun-symbolism, 7–8, 106–8, 116,

159n11Torcello, 46, 56, 62, 74, 83–84, 291Torriti, Jacopo, 143Traini, Francesco, 63, 64, 69, 77n45, 172,

319n19Transfiguration (Botticelli), 152, 153, 154Tree of Life, 57Tribute Money (Masaccio), 292, 293Trinity (Masaccio), 292Trismegistus, Hermes, 233–34, 257Triumph of the Cross of Christ (Colonna), 197Triumphus Crucis (Savonarola), 196–97Tura, Cosimo, 152, 154Turks, 315

UUniversearchitectural representation of, 14–15Aristotle’s view on, 222Augustine of Hippo on, 178Christian view of, 11, 12, 15–16, 18, 74circular view, 199, 220–21, 253–54, 264,

273

Index [ 375 ]

Universe continuedcreation of, 12, 211Dante on, 176, 178, 182–83, 238depiction of, 102–3flat earth view, 12, 32, 52religious view, 254, 273, 316

University of Cracow, 256Ursino, Fra, 266

VValdés, Juan, 135–37, 199, 313, 314Valdésians, 137, 163n66, 311Varchi, Benedetto, 170Vasari, Giorgioon catacombs, 143on Divina Commedia, 170on Greek style, 141Hall on, 113on Last Judgment (Michelangelo), 85,

96–99, 101, 103–4, 108–9, 269on Michelangelo, 31, 81, 312

Vaticancatacombs, 142collections, 55gallery, 47, 294lectures, 266–70, 273Library at Rome, 43publications, 116

Vecchietta, 67Venice, 46, 148Venturi, Adolfo, 81, 105

Venusti, Marcello, 98Virgil, 174, 182, 184–85Virgin Mary, 40, 62, 63, 74, 81, 96, 113Visitation (Ghirlandaio), 292Vitale, Saint, 141Viterbo group. See also Egidio, Bishop of

Viterbo, 113, 135Vitruvius, 255, 291Volterra, Daniele of, 80, 101, 114, 127n146Von Einem, Herbert, 106, 108, 135

WWaddington, Raymond B., 233Walker, Daniel, 24, 26Weyden, Rogier Van der, 53Wheel of Fortune, 105–8, 190White, John, 292–93Widmanstadt, Albert, 266–67, 270, 310–

11, 314Widmanstadt, Johannes, 234Wilde, Johannes, 85, 108–9Winckelmann, Johann, 103Wind, Edgar, 134, 146, 214, 216, 309Winter solstice, 131

Wittkower, Rudolf, 15, 213, 216Wölfflin, Heinrich, 104, 111–12, 290Worldview, 7, 8, 10n30, 11, 39, 49, 52, 260

ZZeus, 130, 139Zoroaster, 23