1

Supplementary Information for

Climate change patterns in Amazonia and biodiversity

Hai Cheng12 Ashish Sinha3 Francisco WCruz4 Xianfeng Wang25 R Lawrence Edwards2 Fernando M drsquoHorta6 Camila C Ribas7 Mathias Vuille8 Lowell D Stott9 Augusto S Auler10

1 Institute of Global Environmental Change Xirsquoan Jiaotong University Xirsquoan 710049 China 2 Department of Earth Sciences University of Minnesota Minneapolis MN 55455 USA 3 Department of Earth Science California State University Dominguez Hills Carson CA 90747 4 Instituto de Geociencias Universidade de Sao Paulo Sao Paulo-SP 05508-080 Brazil 5 Earth Observatory of Singapore Nanyang Technological University Singapore 639798 6 Departamento de Geneacutetica e Biologia Evolutiva Universidade de Sao Paulo 05508-090 Brazil 7 Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazocircnia Programa de Coleccedilotildees e Acervos Cientiacuteficos

69060-001 Manaus AM Brazil 8 Department of Atmospheric and Environmental Sciences University at Albany Albany USA 9 Department of Earth Science University of Southern California Los Angeles CA 90747 10 Instituto do Carste Belo Horizonte MGndashCEP 30150-170 Brazil This document includes Figures 1 to 13 References

To whom correspondence should be addressed

E-mail cheng021umnedu

2

Supplementary Figure S1 Location map of selected climate records from South America and current regional climate patterns Also shown are some major components of the South American monsoon including South Atlantic convergence zone (SACZ red circle) and low-level jet (LLJ white arrow) (adapted from ref 19) The blueorange circles indicate the South American Precipitation Dipole (SAPD) similar to the dipole of modern precipitation26 and simulation results721 Stars indicate cave locations 1 ELC 2 NAR 3 Cueva del Tigre Perdido 4 Pacupahuain 5 Paraiso 6 Rio Grande do Norte 7 Toca da Boa Vista 8 Santana and 9 Botuveraacute Rectangles and circles (10-26) show lake and ice core records respectively 10 Caccedilo 11 Carajas 12 Bella Vista 13 Chaplin 14 Serra Negra 15 Salitre 16 Pata 17 Huascaran 18 Junin 19Titicaca 20 Illimani 21 Sajama 22 Coipasa-Uyuni 23 Salar de Atacama 24 Colocircnia 25 Lakes LejiaMiscanti and 26 Santa Maria Yellow triangle (27) depicts the Surucucho pollen record which shows trivial vegetation changes during the Holocene3250 Light blue and purple symbols indicate wetter and drier LGM respectively (ref 25 and references therein) Two white stars indicate wetter conditions during the Heinrich events1420

3

Supplementary Figure S2 Age models derived from linear fit for stalagmites ELC-A and ELC-B from ELC cave and NAR-C NAR-C-D NAR-C-F NAR-D and NAR-F from NAR cave The chronologies of samples are established by linear interpolations between 230Th dates The vertical error bars depict errors of 230Th

dates (2σ) Decay Constants are described in refs 44 49 51

4

Supplementary Figure S3 The comparison between the age models derived from linear fit (between adjacent ages) and the algorithm (StalAge52) The StalAge-derived age model and corresponding 95-confidence limits are calculated by a Monte-Carlo simulation (10000 iterations) by fitting ensembles of straight lines to sub-sets (three or more) of 230Th dates using the two-sigma uncertainty of each date as constraints For most portions of each stalagmite there is very little difference between the StalAge derived and Linear-fit based age models There are however major differences in the age models at the bottom portion of stalagmite ELC-A and at the top portion of stalagmite ELC-B These differences can be understood as follows The identification of outliers (or age inversions) is performed by StalAge algorithm based on the screening performed prior to the Monte-Carlo simulation This screening utilizes three-point fits through the data points and iteratively increases the uncertainty if required This implies that every data point must lie on at least one straight line with two of its neighboring data points within the error For data points in the boundary areas of the dataset (such as for stalagmites ELC-A and ELC-B) this represents a strong criterion because these data points are part of only one or two three-point fits respectively If data points in the boundary areas of the dataset do not plot on a straight line with the subsequentprevious data points within the errors (ie the U-series ages suggest a significant change in growth rate as is the case for ELC-A and ELC-B) their error will be increased until the basic requirement is fulfilled As a consequence the StalAge derived age model will exhibit a larger uncertainty (even larger than the stated uncertainties in U-Th dates) in the boundary area In addition the data point is given less weight during the Monte-Carlo simulation due to the larger error and the age model may thus substantially deviate from the original data point For these reasons we believe that the linear-fit approach is preferable over the StalAge in these cases Regardless whether one employs StalAge or Linear-fit approach to age models the dating results here are robust This is because the age uncertainties associated with U-Th dates at discrete points are well within 95 confidence limit of the StalAge based age model and more importantly these uncertainties are considerably smaller compared to timescales of interest in this manuscript (ie precession and glacial-interglacial timescales)

5

Supplementary Figure S4 Time series of cave δ18O records from western Amazonia (A) The Cuevan del Diamante cave (NAR) record is based on three stalagmites (NAR-C (blue) NAR-D (light blue) and NAR-F

(dark blue)) (B) The El Condor cave (ELC) δ18O record is based on two stalagmites (ELC-A (light green)

and ELC-B (green)) The 230Th ages and errors (2σ error bars at bottom) are color-coded by stalagmite Austral summer (December to February) insolation at 10degS is also plotted for comparison (grey)45

6

Supplementary Figure S5 Schematic map of South America to show the continental effect (A) Wind directions are shown with arrows including trade winds and low-level jet (LLJ) (adapted from ref 19)

Five circles show the meteoric stations where the observed precipitation δ18O data were used to illustrate the continental effect53 The blue arrow indicates the approximate moisture transfer trajectory suggested by Rozanski et al (1993)53 Parallel to the above trajectory but a few degrees to the south there are three cave records available (from east to west the orange arrow) Rio Grande do Norte

Paraiso and ELC caves The numbers after cave names are δ18O values of modern calcite deposits in each cave that show a progressively decreasing trend from east to west consistent with the continental

effect (B) Schematic diagram of δ18O values of precipitation from selected stations of IAEAWMO global network in the Amazon Basin (adapted from ref 53) The locations of these stations are also shown in

(A) The arrow illustrates that δ18O values of precipitation become progressively lower westward from the Atlantic coast to the Andes This provides an example of the ldquocontinental effectrdquo The isotopic depletion along the eastndashwest trajectory was much lower than other continents because intense water recycling in the Amazon basin as a non-fractionating process constantly recharging the atmosphere with relatively enriched water vapor

7

Supplementary Figure S6 Highly idealized depiction of the hydrological patterns during high (A) and low (B) austral summer insolation periods The major components of the South American Monsoon (SAM) are as same as in Figure 1 The blueorange circles show the South American Precipitation Dipole (SAPD) White soliddashed arrows depict the strong (A)weak (B) SAM during highlow austral summer insolation periods Two wide arrows show the atmosphere circulation pattern associated with the strong SAM with ascending and descending airflows in western and eastern Amazonia respectively Three stars indicate ELC Paraiso and Rio Grande do Norte caves The numbers are cave calcite δ18O values at present (black) the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) (blue) and mid-Holocene (about 6 ka ago) (red) When the SAM was strong under high austral summer insolation condition (A) the cave data show that precipitation δ18O became progressively lower westward along the moisture transport trajectory from the Atlantic Ocean to the Andes consistent with the continental effect on the rainfall isotope compositions In contrast however precipitation δ18O values inferred from the cave data are virtually identical when the SAM was weak under low austral summer insolation conditions (B) suggesting that the moisture source of western Amazonia might be derived more from the recycled vapor from eastern Amazonia (shown by the horizontal green arrow) This is because rainfall amount was significantly enhanced in eastern Amazonia at the time (as indicated by much lower cave calcite δ18O) and the possible more water recycling might take place over the eastern Amazonia basin largely accomplished through transpiration a non-isotope fractionating process constantly recharging the atmosphere with the water vapor with essentially similar isotopic values

8

Supplementary Figure S7 Comparison of speleothem records from northern Peru to Asian Monsoon

ice core and marine records (A) The NGRIP ice core δ18O record16 (B) Measured color reflectance (550

nm) of Cariaco Basin sediments from ODP Hole 1002C17 (C) Northern Peru δ18O records from NAR (blue)

and ELC (green) caves (D) AM δ18O records from Hulu-Dongge-Sanbao caves1544 Numbers indicate Greenland interstadials The vertical bars depict H1 to H6 and the YD

9

Supplementary Figure S8 Millennial scale events in South American records (A) Western Amazon δ18O records from NAR cave (blue) and ELC cave (green) (B) The δ18O record from Pacupahuain cave (1124degS 7582degW 3800 m a s l) in the central Peruvian Andes14 (C) Botuveraacute cave δ18O records southern Brazil1854 (D) Santana cave δ18O records southern Brazil55 (E) Rio Grande do Norte cave δ18O record northeastern Brazil21 (F) Northeastern Brazil pluvial events20 (G) Biogenetic silica () Lake Titicaca southern Peru56 Numbers indicate Greenland interstadials The vertical bars depict Heinrich events (H1 to H6) and the Younger Dryas event (YD)

10

Supplementary Figure S9 Correlation map between the gridded seasonal precipitation and ENSO variations (adapted from ref 30) ENSO changes are based on the Multivariate ENSO Index (MEI)57 Gridded fields are from University of Delaware (1950ndash1999) Only correlations in excess of plusmn02 are shown (roughly the threshold of the 95 significance level) Stars depict cave locations in western Amazonia (1) eastern Amazonia (2) northeastern Brazil (3) and southern Brazil (4) (see Figure 1 for cave names) To a first order the three sites (1 to 3) in equatorial tropical South America share a similar MEI-rainfall relationship which is different from the southern Brazil site El Nintildeo and La Nintildea (positive and negative MEI) episodes are associated with below and above normal rainfalls over equatorial tropical South America (cave sites 1 to 3) respectively and the pattern is just the opposite in southern Brazil (the cave site 4)

11

Supplementary Figure S10 Comparison between ENSO and South American speleothem records Nintildeo3 temperature anomalies estimated with the Zebiak and Cane model46 depict the orbital ENSO variability Speleothem δ18O records from southern Brazil (A)18 western Amazonia (B) and northeastern Brazil-eastern Amazon (C)21 are plotted in the same direction with lower δ18O value (upward) indicating more rainfall to a first order As relations of precipitation to ENSO change are reverse in southern Brazil and in equatorial tropical South America (Supplementary Fig S9) the Nintildeo3 temperature anomalies are plotted in different directions with increasing up (El Nintildeo-like mode upward) and down (La Nintildea-like mode upward) in comparison with speleothem records from southern Brazil (A) and Amazonia-northeastern Brazil (equatorial regions B and C) respectively The brown arrow thus indicates more rainfall amount and lower δ18O values induced by ENSO change for all regions Providing that the modern spatial pattern of ENSO can be extended on longer timescales it is apparent that ENSO broadly reinforces the orbital SAM changes as recorded in speleothem records in eastern Amazonia and northeastern-southern Brazil (A and C) and however counterbalances only the orbital SAM variability in western Amazonia that is presumably induced by austral summer insolation as inferred from southern Brazil records This modulating influence of ENSO could explain at least partially why rainfall changes in western Amazonia are of smaller amplitude on orbital scales

12

Supplementary Figure S11 Peruvian δ18O records during glacial times Left panel (A) Asian Monsoon (AM) records (Hulu-Dongge-Sanbao caves)44 The grey curve is the boreal summer (JJA) insolation at 65degN45 (B) The ELC cave record and austral summer (DJF) insolation at 10degS (grey)45 (C) The NAR record and austral summer (DJF) insolation at 10degS (grey)45 Dashed red curves depict that the AM broadly follows boreal summer insolation during the ice age and in contrast both ELC and NAR records do not closely track austral summer insolation during the ice age The vertical bars show Heinrich events (H1 to H6) and the Younger Dryas event (YD) Right panel (A) The AM record (Sanbao cave)15 The grey curve is the boreal summer (JJA) insolation at 65degN45 (B) The NAR record and austral summer (DJF) insolation at 10degS (grey)45 The vertical bar shows the

Weak Monsoon Interval (WMI) in the AM record Dashed red curves depict the similar δ18O excursion between the South American Monsoon (SAM) and the AM during the last portion of the Marine Isotope Stage 6 In contrast the AM has a broadly anti-phasing relationship with the SAM during interglacial times

13

Supplementary Figure S12 Current and potential past distributions of forests in cis-Andean South America (A) Current distribution of Amazon (AF) Andean (ANF) and Atlantic Forest (ATF) Dark green humid forests Orange open vegetation areas within AF (B) Region (lime green) of possible formation of eastern corridors of humid forests connecting eastern AF and northern ATF Humid forests could have developed in regions that today are covered by Caatinga or Cerrado vegetation38 3958-67 During these periods western AF is not dry enough to cause contraction of humid tropical forest distribution (C) Region (lime green) of possible formation of western corridors of humid forest during high austral summer insolation times connecting western AF ANF and southwestern ATF Humid forests could have developed in regions that today are covered by Chaco vegetation68-70 In contrast eastern Amazonia

(hatched) was drier during these periods as inferred from large heavier excursions of δ18O values in cave records and the forest may have been replaced by drier vegetation and possibly reduced or fragmented in refugia

14

Supplementary Figure S13 Richness patterns of forest bird species shared by AFANF and southern (A) or northern (B) ATF Species with distribution restricted to southern ATF are more common in western AF and ANF than in eastern AF On the other hand a higher number of species restricted to northern ATF occur in eastern AF instead of western AF andor ANF The maps were produced with distributional data of forest bird species71-74 available in NatureServe website75 We considered all species with distribution restricted to northern or southern ATF that also occurs in AF andor ANF Map (A) species Amazona farinosa Batara cinerea Chaetura cinereiventris Chamaeza campanisona Chlorophonia cyanea Chloroceryle inda Cissopis leverianus Conopias trivirgatus Discosura langsdorffi Elaenia obscura Euphonia xanthogaster Hylophilus thoracicus Laniisoma elegans Lochmias nematura Lophornis chalybeus Malacoptila striata Nyctibius aethereus Nyctibius grandis Onychorhynchus coronatus-swainsonii Ortalis guttata Penelope obscura Percnohierax leucorrhous Phaeothlypis rivularis Philydor rufum Phyllomyias burmeisteri Phylloscartes ventralis Pipraeidea melanonota Poecilotriccus plumbeiceps Pyroderus scutatus Ramphotrigon megacephalum Selenidera maculirostris-gouldii Syndactyla rufosuperciliata Tangara mexicana Tigrisoma fasciatum Trichothraupis melanops Trogon rufus Turdus flavipes Map (B) species Arremon taciturnus Attila spadiceus Cercomacra laeta Chiroxiphia pareola Cyanerpes cyaneus Dendrocolaptes certhia Discosura longicaudus Lipaugus vociferans Mionectes oleaginous Myrmotherula axillaris Ornithion inerme Picumnus exilis Pionus menstruus Pipra rubrocapilla Poecilotriccus fumifrons Pteroglossus aracari Pteroglossus inscriptus Pyriglena leuconota Rhynchocyclus olivaceus Schiffornis turdina Sclerurus caudacutus Sclerurus mexicanus Tangara velia Thamnomanes caesius Thamnophilus aethiops Thamnophilus palliatus Tolmomyias poliocephalus Turdus fumigatus Xiphorhynchus guttatus

15

Supplementary References

50 Colinvaux P A Bush M B Steinitz-Kannan M amp Miller M C Glacial and postglacial pollen records from the Ecuadorian Andes and Amazon Quat Res 48 69ndash78 (1997)

51 Cheng H et al Improvements in 230Th dating 230Th and 234U half-life values and U-Th isotopic measurements by multi-collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy Earth Planet Sci Lett In revision (2012)

52 Scholz D amp Hoffmann D L StalAge an algorithm designed for construction of speleothem age models Quat Geochron 6 369ndash382 (2011)

53 Rozanski K Araguds-Araguds L amp Gonfiantini R Isotopic patterns in modem global precipitation In PK Swart KC Lohman J McKenzie and S Savin (eds) Climate Change in Continental Isotopic Records - Geophysical Monograph 78 American Geophysical Union Washington DC p 1ndash36 (1993)

54 Wang X F et al Millennial-scale precipitation changes in southern Brazil over the past 90000 years Geophys Res Lett 34 L23701 doi1010292007GL031149 (2007)

55 Cruz Jr F W Burns S J Karmann I Sharp W D amp Vuille M Reconstruction of regional atmospheric circulation features during the late Pleistocene in subtropical Brazil from oxygen isotope composition of speleothems Earth Planet Sci Lett 248 495ndash507 (2006)

56 Fritz S C Baker P Ekdahl E Seltzer G O amp Stevens L Millennial992256scale climate variability during the last glacial period in the tropical Andes Quat Sci Rev 29 1017ndash1024 (2010)

57 Wolter K amp Timlin M S Measuring the strength of ENSO events ndash how does 1997 98 rank Weather 53 315ndash324 (1998)

58 Bigarella J J Andrade-Lima D amp Riehs P J Consideraccedilotildees a respeito das mudanccedilas paleoambientais na distribuiccedilatildeo de algumas espeacutecies vegetais e animais no Brasil Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciecircncias 47 411ndash464 (1975)

59 Andrade-Lima D Present-day forest refuges in northeastern Brazil In Prance G T (ed) Biological Diversification in the Tropics Columbia University Press New York 245ndash251 (1982)

60 Oliveira-Filho A T amp Ratter J A A study of the origin of central Brazilian forests by the analysis of plant species distribution patterns Edinburgh Journal of Botany 52 141ndash194 (1995)

61 Vivo M Mammalian evidence of historical ecological change in the Caatinga semiarid vegetation of northeastern Brazil Jour Comparative Biology 2 65ndash73 (1997)

62 Silva J M C Distribution of Amazonian and Atlantic Birds in gallery forests of the cerrado region South America Ornitologiacutea Neotropical 7 1ndash18 (1996)

63 De Oliveira P E Barreto AM amp Suguio K Late PleistoceneHolocene climatic and vegetational history of the Brazilian caatinga the fossil dunes of the middle Satildeo Francisco River Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 152 319ndash337 (1999)

64 Auler A S et al Quaternary ecological and geomorphic changes associated with rainfall events in presently semiarid northeastern Brazil Jour Quat Sci 19 693ndash701 (2004)

65 Santos A M M Cavalcanti D R Silva J M C amp Tabarelli M Biogeographical relationships among tropical forests in north-eastern Brazil Jour Biogeography 34 437ndash446 (2007)

16

66 Carnaval A C O Q amp Moritz C M Historical climate change predicts current biodiversity patterns in the Brazilian Atlantic rainforest Jour Biogeography 35 1187-1201 (2008)

67 dHorta F M Cabanne G S Meyer D amp Miyaki C Y The genetic effects of Late Quaternary climatic changes over a tropical latitudinal gradient diversification of an Atlantic Forest passerine Molecular Ecology 20 1923ndash1935 (2011)

68 Nores M Bird speciation in subtropical South America in relation to forest expansion and retraction The Auk 109 346ndash357 (1992)

69 Nores M Quaternary Vegetational Changes and Bird Differentiation in Subtropical South America The Auk 111 499ndash503 (1994)

70 Silva J M C Can avian distribution patterns in northern Argentina be related to gallery forest expansion-retraction caused by quaternary climatic changes The Auk 111 495ndash499 (1994)

71 del Hoyo J Elliott A amp Christie DA eds Handbook of the birds of the world 8 vols Lynx Edicions Barcelona 2003ndash2010

72 del Hoyo J Elliott A amp Sargatal J eds Handbook of the birds of the world 7 vols Lynx Edicions Barcelona 1992ndash2002

73 Ridgely R S amp Tudor G The birds of South America Vol I Oxford Univ Press Tokyo (1989)

74 Ridgely R S amp Tudor G The birds of South America Vol II Univ of Texas Press Austin (1994)

75 Ridgely R S et al Digital Distribution Maps of the Birds of the Western Hemisphere version 30 NatureServe Arlington Virginia (2007)

• Climate change patterns in Amazonia and biodiversity

3

Supplementary Figure S2 Age models derived from linear fit for stalagmites ELC-A and ELC-B from ELC cave and NAR-C NAR-C-D NAR-C-F NAR-D and NAR-F from NAR cave The chronologies of samples are established by linear interpolations between 230Th dates The vertical error bars depict errors of 230Th

dates (2σ) Decay Constants are described in refs 44 49 51

4

Supplementary Figure S3 The comparison between the age models derived from linear fit (between adjacent ages) and the algorithm (StalAge52) The StalAge-derived age model and corresponding 95-confidence limits are calculated by a Monte-Carlo simulation (10000 iterations) by fitting ensembles of straight lines to sub-sets (three or more) of 230Th dates using the two-sigma uncertainty of each date as constraints For most portions of each stalagmite there is very little difference between the StalAge derived and Linear-fit based age models There are however major differences in the age models at the bottom portion of stalagmite ELC-A and at the top portion of stalagmite ELC-B These differences can be understood as follows The identification of outliers (or age inversions) is performed by StalAge algorithm based on the screening performed prior to the Monte-Carlo simulation This screening utilizes three-point fits through the data points and iteratively increases the uncertainty if required This implies that every data point must lie on at least one straight line with two of its neighboring data points within the error For data points in the boundary areas of the dataset (such as for stalagmites ELC-A and ELC-B) this represents a strong criterion because these data points are part of only one or two three-point fits respectively If data points in the boundary areas of the dataset do not plot on a straight line with the subsequentprevious data points within the errors (ie the U-series ages suggest a significant change in growth rate as is the case for ELC-A and ELC-B) their error will be increased until the basic requirement is fulfilled As a consequence the StalAge derived age model will exhibit a larger uncertainty (even larger than the stated uncertainties in U-Th dates) in the boundary area In addition the data point is given less weight during the Monte-Carlo simulation due to the larger error and the age model may thus substantially deviate from the original data point For these reasons we believe that the linear-fit approach is preferable over the StalAge in these cases Regardless whether one employs StalAge or Linear-fit approach to age models the dating results here are robust This is because the age uncertainties associated with U-Th dates at discrete points are well within 95 confidence limit of the StalAge based age model and more importantly these uncertainties are considerably smaller compared to timescales of interest in this manuscript (ie precession and glacial-interglacial timescales)

5

Supplementary Figure S4 Time series of cave δ18O records from western Amazonia (A) The Cuevan del Diamante cave (NAR) record is based on three stalagmites (NAR-C (blue) NAR-D (light blue) and NAR-F

(dark blue)) (B) The El Condor cave (ELC) δ18O record is based on two stalagmites (ELC-A (light green)

and ELC-B (green)) The 230Th ages and errors (2σ error bars at bottom) are color-coded by stalagmite Austral summer (December to February) insolation at 10degS is also plotted for comparison (grey)45

6

Supplementary Figure S5 Schematic map of South America to show the continental effect (A) Wind directions are shown with arrows including trade winds and low-level jet (LLJ) (adapted from ref 19)

Five circles show the meteoric stations where the observed precipitation δ18O data were used to illustrate the continental effect53 The blue arrow indicates the approximate moisture transfer trajectory suggested by Rozanski et al (1993)53 Parallel to the above trajectory but a few degrees to the south there are three cave records available (from east to west the orange arrow) Rio Grande do Norte

Paraiso and ELC caves The numbers after cave names are δ18O values of modern calcite deposits in each cave that show a progressively decreasing trend from east to west consistent with the continental

effect (B) Schematic diagram of δ18O values of precipitation from selected stations of IAEAWMO global network in the Amazon Basin (adapted from ref 53) The locations of these stations are also shown in

(A) The arrow illustrates that δ18O values of precipitation become progressively lower westward from the Atlantic coast to the Andes This provides an example of the ldquocontinental effectrdquo The isotopic depletion along the eastndashwest trajectory was much lower than other continents because intense water recycling in the Amazon basin as a non-fractionating process constantly recharging the atmosphere with relatively enriched water vapor

7

Supplementary Figure S6 Highly idealized depiction of the hydrological patterns during high (A) and low (B) austral summer insolation periods The major components of the South American Monsoon (SAM) are as same as in Figure 1 The blueorange circles show the South American Precipitation Dipole (SAPD) White soliddashed arrows depict the strong (A)weak (B) SAM during highlow austral summer insolation periods Two wide arrows show the atmosphere circulation pattern associated with the strong SAM with ascending and descending airflows in western and eastern Amazonia respectively Three stars indicate ELC Paraiso and Rio Grande do Norte caves The numbers are cave calcite δ18O values at present (black) the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) (blue) and mid-Holocene (about 6 ka ago) (red) When the SAM was strong under high austral summer insolation condition (A) the cave data show that precipitation δ18O became progressively lower westward along the moisture transport trajectory from the Atlantic Ocean to the Andes consistent with the continental effect on the rainfall isotope compositions In contrast however precipitation δ18O values inferred from the cave data are virtually identical when the SAM was weak under low austral summer insolation conditions (B) suggesting that the moisture source of western Amazonia might be derived more from the recycled vapor from eastern Amazonia (shown by the horizontal green arrow) This is because rainfall amount was significantly enhanced in eastern Amazonia at the time (as indicated by much lower cave calcite δ18O) and the possible more water recycling might take place over the eastern Amazonia basin largely accomplished through transpiration a non-isotope fractionating process constantly recharging the atmosphere with the water vapor with essentially similar isotopic values

8

Supplementary Figure S7 Comparison of speleothem records from northern Peru to Asian Monsoon

ice core and marine records (A) The NGRIP ice core δ18O record16 (B) Measured color reflectance (550

nm) of Cariaco Basin sediments from ODP Hole 1002C17 (C) Northern Peru δ18O records from NAR (blue)

and ELC (green) caves (D) AM δ18O records from Hulu-Dongge-Sanbao caves1544 Numbers indicate Greenland interstadials The vertical bars depict H1 to H6 and the YD

9

Supplementary Figure S8 Millennial scale events in South American records (A) Western Amazon δ18O records from NAR cave (blue) and ELC cave (green) (B) The δ18O record from Pacupahuain cave (1124degS 7582degW 3800 m a s l) in the central Peruvian Andes14 (C) Botuveraacute cave δ18O records southern Brazil1854 (D) Santana cave δ18O records southern Brazil55 (E) Rio Grande do Norte cave δ18O record northeastern Brazil21 (F) Northeastern Brazil pluvial events20 (G) Biogenetic silica () Lake Titicaca southern Peru56 Numbers indicate Greenland interstadials The vertical bars depict Heinrich events (H1 to H6) and the Younger Dryas event (YD)

10

Supplementary Figure S9 Correlation map between the gridded seasonal precipitation and ENSO variations (adapted from ref 30) ENSO changes are based on the Multivariate ENSO Index (MEI)57 Gridded fields are from University of Delaware (1950ndash1999) Only correlations in excess of plusmn02 are shown (roughly the threshold of the 95 significance level) Stars depict cave locations in western Amazonia (1) eastern Amazonia (2) northeastern Brazil (3) and southern Brazil (4) (see Figure 1 for cave names) To a first order the three sites (1 to 3) in equatorial tropical South America share a similar MEI-rainfall relationship which is different from the southern Brazil site El Nintildeo and La Nintildea (positive and negative MEI) episodes are associated with below and above normal rainfalls over equatorial tropical South America (cave sites 1 to 3) respectively and the pattern is just the opposite in southern Brazil (the cave site 4)

11

Supplementary Figure S10 Comparison between ENSO and South American speleothem records Nintildeo3 temperature anomalies estimated with the Zebiak and Cane model46 depict the orbital ENSO variability Speleothem δ18O records from southern Brazil (A)18 western Amazonia (B) and northeastern Brazil-eastern Amazon (C)21 are plotted in the same direction with lower δ18O value (upward) indicating more rainfall to a first order As relations of precipitation to ENSO change are reverse in southern Brazil and in equatorial tropical South America (Supplementary Fig S9) the Nintildeo3 temperature anomalies are plotted in different directions with increasing up (El Nintildeo-like mode upward) and down (La Nintildea-like mode upward) in comparison with speleothem records from southern Brazil (A) and Amazonia-northeastern Brazil (equatorial regions B and C) respectively The brown arrow thus indicates more rainfall amount and lower δ18O values induced by ENSO change for all regions Providing that the modern spatial pattern of ENSO can be extended on longer timescales it is apparent that ENSO broadly reinforces the orbital SAM changes as recorded in speleothem records in eastern Amazonia and northeastern-southern Brazil (A and C) and however counterbalances only the orbital SAM variability in western Amazonia that is presumably induced by austral summer insolation as inferred from southern Brazil records This modulating influence of ENSO could explain at least partially why rainfall changes in western Amazonia are of smaller amplitude on orbital scales

12

Supplementary Figure S11 Peruvian δ18O records during glacial times Left panel (A) Asian Monsoon (AM) records (Hulu-Dongge-Sanbao caves)44 The grey curve is the boreal summer (JJA) insolation at 65degN45 (B) The ELC cave record and austral summer (DJF) insolation at 10degS (grey)45 (C) The NAR record and austral summer (DJF) insolation at 10degS (grey)45 Dashed red curves depict that the AM broadly follows boreal summer insolation during the ice age and in contrast both ELC and NAR records do not closely track austral summer insolation during the ice age The vertical bars show Heinrich events (H1 to H6) and the Younger Dryas event (YD) Right panel (A) The AM record (Sanbao cave)15 The grey curve is the boreal summer (JJA) insolation at 65degN45 (B) The NAR record and austral summer (DJF) insolation at 10degS (grey)45 The vertical bar shows the

Weak Monsoon Interval (WMI) in the AM record Dashed red curves depict the similar δ18O excursion between the South American Monsoon (SAM) and the AM during the last portion of the Marine Isotope Stage 6 In contrast the AM has a broadly anti-phasing relationship with the SAM during interglacial times

13

Supplementary Figure S12 Current and potential past distributions of forests in cis-Andean South America (A) Current distribution of Amazon (AF) Andean (ANF) and Atlantic Forest (ATF) Dark green humid forests Orange open vegetation areas within AF (B) Region (lime green) of possible formation of eastern corridors of humid forests connecting eastern AF and northern ATF Humid forests could have developed in regions that today are covered by Caatinga or Cerrado vegetation38 3958-67 During these periods western AF is not dry enough to cause contraction of humid tropical forest distribution (C) Region (lime green) of possible formation of western corridors of humid forest during high austral summer insolation times connecting western AF ANF and southwestern ATF Humid forests could have developed in regions that today are covered by Chaco vegetation68-70 In contrast eastern Amazonia

(hatched) was drier during these periods as inferred from large heavier excursions of δ18O values in cave records and the forest may have been replaced by drier vegetation and possibly reduced or fragmented in refugia

14

Supplementary Figure S13 Richness patterns of forest bird species shared by AFANF and southern (A) or northern (B) ATF Species with distribution restricted to southern ATF are more common in western AF and ANF than in eastern AF On the other hand a higher number of species restricted to northern ATF occur in eastern AF instead of western AF andor ANF The maps were produced with distributional data of forest bird species71-74 available in NatureServe website75 We considered all species with distribution restricted to northern or southern ATF that also occurs in AF andor ANF Map (A) species Amazona farinosa Batara cinerea Chaetura cinereiventris Chamaeza campanisona Chlorophonia cyanea Chloroceryle inda Cissopis leverianus Conopias trivirgatus Discosura langsdorffi Elaenia obscura Euphonia xanthogaster Hylophilus thoracicus Laniisoma elegans Lochmias nematura Lophornis chalybeus Malacoptila striata Nyctibius aethereus Nyctibius grandis Onychorhynchus coronatus-swainsonii Ortalis guttata Penelope obscura Percnohierax leucorrhous Phaeothlypis rivularis Philydor rufum Phyllomyias burmeisteri Phylloscartes ventralis Pipraeidea melanonota Poecilotriccus plumbeiceps Pyroderus scutatus Ramphotrigon megacephalum Selenidera maculirostris-gouldii Syndactyla rufosuperciliata Tangara mexicana Tigrisoma fasciatum Trichothraupis melanops Trogon rufus Turdus flavipes Map (B) species Arremon taciturnus Attila spadiceus Cercomacra laeta Chiroxiphia pareola Cyanerpes cyaneus Dendrocolaptes certhia Discosura longicaudus Lipaugus vociferans Mionectes oleaginous Myrmotherula axillaris Ornithion inerme Picumnus exilis Pionus menstruus Pipra rubrocapilla Poecilotriccus fumifrons Pteroglossus aracari Pteroglossus inscriptus Pyriglena leuconota Rhynchocyclus olivaceus Schiffornis turdina Sclerurus caudacutus Sclerurus mexicanus Tangara velia Thamnomanes caesius Thamnophilus aethiops Thamnophilus palliatus Tolmomyias poliocephalus Turdus fumigatus Xiphorhynchus guttatus

15

Supplementary References

50 Colinvaux P A Bush M B Steinitz-Kannan M amp Miller M C Glacial and postglacial pollen records from the Ecuadorian Andes and Amazon Quat Res 48 69ndash78 (1997)

51 Cheng H et al Improvements in 230Th dating 230Th and 234U half-life values and U-Th isotopic measurements by multi-collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy Earth Planet Sci Lett In revision (2012)

52 Scholz D amp Hoffmann D L StalAge an algorithm designed for construction of speleothem age models Quat Geochron 6 369ndash382 (2011)

53 Rozanski K Araguds-Araguds L amp Gonfiantini R Isotopic patterns in modem global precipitation In PK Swart KC Lohman J McKenzie and S Savin (eds) Climate Change in Continental Isotopic Records - Geophysical Monograph 78 American Geophysical Union Washington DC p 1ndash36 (1993)

54 Wang X F et al Millennial-scale precipitation changes in southern Brazil over the past 90000 years Geophys Res Lett 34 L23701 doi1010292007GL031149 (2007)

55 Cruz Jr F W Burns S J Karmann I Sharp W D amp Vuille M Reconstruction of regional atmospheric circulation features during the late Pleistocene in subtropical Brazil from oxygen isotope composition of speleothems Earth Planet Sci Lett 248 495ndash507 (2006)

56 Fritz S C Baker P Ekdahl E Seltzer G O amp Stevens L Millennial992256scale climate variability during the last glacial period in the tropical Andes Quat Sci Rev 29 1017ndash1024 (2010)

57 Wolter K amp Timlin M S Measuring the strength of ENSO events ndash how does 1997 98 rank Weather 53 315ndash324 (1998)

58 Bigarella J J Andrade-Lima D amp Riehs P J Consideraccedilotildees a respeito das mudanccedilas paleoambientais na distribuiccedilatildeo de algumas espeacutecies vegetais e animais no Brasil Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciecircncias 47 411ndash464 (1975)

59 Andrade-Lima D Present-day forest refuges in northeastern Brazil In Prance G T (ed) Biological Diversification in the Tropics Columbia University Press New York 245ndash251 (1982)

60 Oliveira-Filho A T amp Ratter J A A study of the origin of central Brazilian forests by the analysis of plant species distribution patterns Edinburgh Journal of Botany 52 141ndash194 (1995)

61 Vivo M Mammalian evidence of historical ecological change in the Caatinga semiarid vegetation of northeastern Brazil Jour Comparative Biology 2 65ndash73 (1997)

62 Silva J M C Distribution of Amazonian and Atlantic Birds in gallery forests of the cerrado region South America Ornitologiacutea Neotropical 7 1ndash18 (1996)

63 De Oliveira P E Barreto AM amp Suguio K Late PleistoceneHolocene climatic and vegetational history of the Brazilian caatinga the fossil dunes of the middle Satildeo Francisco River Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 152 319ndash337 (1999)

64 Auler A S et al Quaternary ecological and geomorphic changes associated with rainfall events in presently semiarid northeastern Brazil Jour Quat Sci 19 693ndash701 (2004)

65 Santos A M M Cavalcanti D R Silva J M C amp Tabarelli M Biogeographical relationships among tropical forests in north-eastern Brazil Jour Biogeography 34 437ndash446 (2007)

16

66 Carnaval A C O Q amp Moritz C M Historical climate change predicts current biodiversity patterns in the Brazilian Atlantic rainforest Jour Biogeography 35 1187-1201 (2008)

67 dHorta F M Cabanne G S Meyer D amp Miyaki C Y The genetic effects of Late Quaternary climatic changes over a tropical latitudinal gradient diversification of an Atlantic Forest passerine Molecular Ecology 20 1923ndash1935 (2011)

68 Nores M Bird speciation in subtropical South America in relation to forest expansion and retraction The Auk 109 346ndash357 (1992)

69 Nores M Quaternary Vegetational Changes and Bird Differentiation in Subtropical South America The Auk 111 499ndash503 (1994)

70 Silva J M C Can avian distribution patterns in northern Argentina be related to gallery forest expansion-retraction caused by quaternary climatic changes The Auk 111 495ndash499 (1994)

71 del Hoyo J Elliott A amp Christie DA eds Handbook of the birds of the world 8 vols Lynx Edicions Barcelona 2003ndash2010

72 del Hoyo J Elliott A amp Sargatal J eds Handbook of the birds of the world 7 vols Lynx Edicions Barcelona 1992ndash2002

73 Ridgely R S amp Tudor G The birds of South America Vol I Oxford Univ Press Tokyo (1989)

74 Ridgely R S amp Tudor G The birds of South America Vol II Univ of Texas Press Austin (1994)

75 Ridgely R S et al Digital Distribution Maps of the Birds of the Western Hemisphere version 30 NatureServe Arlington Virginia (2007)

• Climate change patterns in Amazonia and biodiversity

4

Supplementary Figure S3 The comparison between the age models derived from linear fit (between adjacent ages) and the algorithm (StalAge52) The StalAge-derived age model and corresponding 95-confidence limits are calculated by a Monte-Carlo simulation (10000 iterations) by fitting ensembles of straight lines to sub-sets (three or more) of 230Th dates using the two-sigma uncertainty of each date as constraints For most portions of each stalagmite there is very little difference between the StalAge derived and Linear-fit based age models There are however major differences in the age models at the bottom portion of stalagmite ELC-A and at the top portion of stalagmite ELC-B These differences can be understood as follows The identification of outliers (or age inversions) is performed by StalAge algorithm based on the screening performed prior to the Monte-Carlo simulation This screening utilizes three-point fits through the data points and iteratively increases the uncertainty if required This implies that every data point must lie on at least one straight line with two of its neighboring data points within the error For data points in the boundary areas of the dataset (such as for stalagmites ELC-A and ELC-B) this represents a strong criterion because these data points are part of only one or two three-point fits respectively If data points in the boundary areas of the dataset do not plot on a straight line with the subsequentprevious data points within the errors (ie the U-series ages suggest a significant change in growth rate as is the case for ELC-A and ELC-B) their error will be increased until the basic requirement is fulfilled As a consequence the StalAge derived age model will exhibit a larger uncertainty (even larger than the stated uncertainties in U-Th dates) in the boundary area In addition the data point is given less weight during the Monte-Carlo simulation due to the larger error and the age model may thus substantially deviate from the original data point For these reasons we believe that the linear-fit approach is preferable over the StalAge in these cases Regardless whether one employs StalAge or Linear-fit approach to age models the dating results here are robust This is because the age uncertainties associated with U-Th dates at discrete points are well within 95 confidence limit of the StalAge based age model and more importantly these uncertainties are considerably smaller compared to timescales of interest in this manuscript (ie precession and glacial-interglacial timescales)

5

Supplementary Figure S4 Time series of cave δ18O records from western Amazonia (A) The Cuevan del Diamante cave (NAR) record is based on three stalagmites (NAR-C (blue) NAR-D (light blue) and NAR-F

(dark blue)) (B) The El Condor cave (ELC) δ18O record is based on two stalagmites (ELC-A (light green)

and ELC-B (green)) The 230Th ages and errors (2σ error bars at bottom) are color-coded by stalagmite Austral summer (December to February) insolation at 10degS is also plotted for comparison (grey)45

6

Supplementary Figure S5 Schematic map of South America to show the continental effect (A) Wind directions are shown with arrows including trade winds and low-level jet (LLJ) (adapted from ref 19)

Five circles show the meteoric stations where the observed precipitation δ18O data were used to illustrate the continental effect53 The blue arrow indicates the approximate moisture transfer trajectory suggested by Rozanski et al (1993)53 Parallel to the above trajectory but a few degrees to the south there are three cave records available (from east to west the orange arrow) Rio Grande do Norte

Paraiso and ELC caves The numbers after cave names are δ18O values of modern calcite deposits in each cave that show a progressively decreasing trend from east to west consistent with the continental

effect (B) Schematic diagram of δ18O values of precipitation from selected stations of IAEAWMO global network in the Amazon Basin (adapted from ref 53) The locations of these stations are also shown in

(A) The arrow illustrates that δ18O values of precipitation become progressively lower westward from the Atlantic coast to the Andes This provides an example of the ldquocontinental effectrdquo The isotopic depletion along the eastndashwest trajectory was much lower than other continents because intense water recycling in the Amazon basin as a non-fractionating process constantly recharging the atmosphere with relatively enriched water vapor

7

Supplementary Figure S6 Highly idealized depiction of the hydrological patterns during high (A) and low (B) austral summer insolation periods The major components of the South American Monsoon (SAM) are as same as in Figure 1 The blueorange circles show the South American Precipitation Dipole (SAPD) White soliddashed arrows depict the strong (A)weak (B) SAM during highlow austral summer insolation periods Two wide arrows show the atmosphere circulation pattern associated with the strong SAM with ascending and descending airflows in western and eastern Amazonia respectively Three stars indicate ELC Paraiso and Rio Grande do Norte caves The numbers are cave calcite δ18O values at present (black) the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) (blue) and mid-Holocene (about 6 ka ago) (red) When the SAM was strong under high austral summer insolation condition (A) the cave data show that precipitation δ18O became progressively lower westward along the moisture transport trajectory from the Atlantic Ocean to the Andes consistent with the continental effect on the rainfall isotope compositions In contrast however precipitation δ18O values inferred from the cave data are virtually identical when the SAM was weak under low austral summer insolation conditions (B) suggesting that the moisture source of western Amazonia might be derived more from the recycled vapor from eastern Amazonia (shown by the horizontal green arrow) This is because rainfall amount was significantly enhanced in eastern Amazonia at the time (as indicated by much lower cave calcite δ18O) and the possible more water recycling might take place over the eastern Amazonia basin largely accomplished through transpiration a non-isotope fractionating process constantly recharging the atmosphere with the water vapor with essentially similar isotopic values

8

Supplementary Figure S7 Comparison of speleothem records from northern Peru to Asian Monsoon

ice core and marine records (A) The NGRIP ice core δ18O record16 (B) Measured color reflectance (550

nm) of Cariaco Basin sediments from ODP Hole 1002C17 (C) Northern Peru δ18O records from NAR (blue)

and ELC (green) caves (D) AM δ18O records from Hulu-Dongge-Sanbao caves1544 Numbers indicate Greenland interstadials The vertical bars depict H1 to H6 and the YD

9

Supplementary Figure S8 Millennial scale events in South American records (A) Western Amazon δ18O records from NAR cave (blue) and ELC cave (green) (B) The δ18O record from Pacupahuain cave (1124degS 7582degW 3800 m a s l) in the central Peruvian Andes14 (C) Botuveraacute cave δ18O records southern Brazil1854 (D) Santana cave δ18O records southern Brazil55 (E) Rio Grande do Norte cave δ18O record northeastern Brazil21 (F) Northeastern Brazil pluvial events20 (G) Biogenetic silica () Lake Titicaca southern Peru56 Numbers indicate Greenland interstadials The vertical bars depict Heinrich events (H1 to H6) and the Younger Dryas event (YD)

10

Supplementary Figure S9 Correlation map between the gridded seasonal precipitation and ENSO variations (adapted from ref 30) ENSO changes are based on the Multivariate ENSO Index (MEI)57 Gridded fields are from University of Delaware (1950ndash1999) Only correlations in excess of plusmn02 are shown (roughly the threshold of the 95 significance level) Stars depict cave locations in western Amazonia (1) eastern Amazonia (2) northeastern Brazil (3) and southern Brazil (4) (see Figure 1 for cave names) To a first order the three sites (1 to 3) in equatorial tropical South America share a similar MEI-rainfall relationship which is different from the southern Brazil site El Nintildeo and La Nintildea (positive and negative MEI) episodes are associated with below and above normal rainfalls over equatorial tropical South America (cave sites 1 to 3) respectively and the pattern is just the opposite in southern Brazil (the cave site 4)

11

Supplementary Figure S10 Comparison between ENSO and South American speleothem records Nintildeo3 temperature anomalies estimated with the Zebiak and Cane model46 depict the orbital ENSO variability Speleothem δ18O records from southern Brazil (A)18 western Amazonia (B) and northeastern Brazil-eastern Amazon (C)21 are plotted in the same direction with lower δ18O value (upward) indicating more rainfall to a first order As relations of precipitation to ENSO change are reverse in southern Brazil and in equatorial tropical South America (Supplementary Fig S9) the Nintildeo3 temperature anomalies are plotted in different directions with increasing up (El Nintildeo-like mode upward) and down (La Nintildea-like mode upward) in comparison with speleothem records from southern Brazil (A) and Amazonia-northeastern Brazil (equatorial regions B and C) respectively The brown arrow thus indicates more rainfall amount and lower δ18O values induced by ENSO change for all regions Providing that the modern spatial pattern of ENSO can be extended on longer timescales it is apparent that ENSO broadly reinforces the orbital SAM changes as recorded in speleothem records in eastern Amazonia and northeastern-southern Brazil (A and C) and however counterbalances only the orbital SAM variability in western Amazonia that is presumably induced by austral summer insolation as inferred from southern Brazil records This modulating influence of ENSO could explain at least partially why rainfall changes in western Amazonia are of smaller amplitude on orbital scales

12

Supplementary Figure S11 Peruvian δ18O records during glacial times Left panel (A) Asian Monsoon (AM) records (Hulu-Dongge-Sanbao caves)44 The grey curve is the boreal summer (JJA) insolation at 65degN45 (B) The ELC cave record and austral summer (DJF) insolation at 10degS (grey)45 (C) The NAR record and austral summer (DJF) insolation at 10degS (grey)45 Dashed red curves depict that the AM broadly follows boreal summer insolation during the ice age and in contrast both ELC and NAR records do not closely track austral summer insolation during the ice age The vertical bars show Heinrich events (H1 to H6) and the Younger Dryas event (YD) Right panel (A) The AM record (Sanbao cave)15 The grey curve is the boreal summer (JJA) insolation at 65degN45 (B) The NAR record and austral summer (DJF) insolation at 10degS (grey)45 The vertical bar shows the

Weak Monsoon Interval (WMI) in the AM record Dashed red curves depict the similar δ18O excursion between the South American Monsoon (SAM) and the AM during the last portion of the Marine Isotope Stage 6 In contrast the AM has a broadly anti-phasing relationship with the SAM during interglacial times

13

Supplementary Figure S12 Current and potential past distributions of forests in cis-Andean South America (A) Current distribution of Amazon (AF) Andean (ANF) and Atlantic Forest (ATF) Dark green humid forests Orange open vegetation areas within AF (B) Region (lime green) of possible formation of eastern corridors of humid forests connecting eastern AF and northern ATF Humid forests could have developed in regions that today are covered by Caatinga or Cerrado vegetation38 3958-67 During these periods western AF is not dry enough to cause contraction of humid tropical forest distribution (C) Region (lime green) of possible formation of western corridors of humid forest during high austral summer insolation times connecting western AF ANF and southwestern ATF Humid forests could have developed in regions that today are covered by Chaco vegetation68-70 In contrast eastern Amazonia

(hatched) was drier during these periods as inferred from large heavier excursions of δ18O values in cave records and the forest may have been replaced by drier vegetation and possibly reduced or fragmented in refugia

14

Supplementary Figure S13 Richness patterns of forest bird species shared by AFANF and southern (A) or northern (B) ATF Species with distribution restricted to southern ATF are more common in western AF and ANF than in eastern AF On the other hand a higher number of species restricted to northern ATF occur in eastern AF instead of western AF andor ANF The maps were produced with distributional data of forest bird species71-74 available in NatureServe website75 We considered all species with distribution restricted to northern or southern ATF that also occurs in AF andor ANF Map (A) species Amazona farinosa Batara cinerea Chaetura cinereiventris Chamaeza campanisona Chlorophonia cyanea Chloroceryle inda Cissopis leverianus Conopias trivirgatus Discosura langsdorffi Elaenia obscura Euphonia xanthogaster Hylophilus thoracicus Laniisoma elegans Lochmias nematura Lophornis chalybeus Malacoptila striata Nyctibius aethereus Nyctibius grandis Onychorhynchus coronatus-swainsonii Ortalis guttata Penelope obscura Percnohierax leucorrhous Phaeothlypis rivularis Philydor rufum Phyllomyias burmeisteri Phylloscartes ventralis Pipraeidea melanonota Poecilotriccus plumbeiceps Pyroderus scutatus Ramphotrigon megacephalum Selenidera maculirostris-gouldii Syndactyla rufosuperciliata Tangara mexicana Tigrisoma fasciatum Trichothraupis melanops Trogon rufus Turdus flavipes Map (B) species Arremon taciturnus Attila spadiceus Cercomacra laeta Chiroxiphia pareola Cyanerpes cyaneus Dendrocolaptes certhia Discosura longicaudus Lipaugus vociferans Mionectes oleaginous Myrmotherula axillaris Ornithion inerme Picumnus exilis Pionus menstruus Pipra rubrocapilla Poecilotriccus fumifrons Pteroglossus aracari Pteroglossus inscriptus Pyriglena leuconota Rhynchocyclus olivaceus Schiffornis turdina Sclerurus caudacutus Sclerurus mexicanus Tangara velia Thamnomanes caesius Thamnophilus aethiops Thamnophilus palliatus Tolmomyias poliocephalus Turdus fumigatus Xiphorhynchus guttatus

15

Supplementary References

50 Colinvaux P A Bush M B Steinitz-Kannan M amp Miller M C Glacial and postglacial pollen records from the Ecuadorian Andes and Amazon Quat Res 48 69ndash78 (1997)

51 Cheng H et al Improvements in 230Th dating 230Th and 234U half-life values and U-Th isotopic measurements by multi-collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy Earth Planet Sci Lett In revision (2012)

52 Scholz D amp Hoffmann D L StalAge an algorithm designed for construction of speleothem age models Quat Geochron 6 369ndash382 (2011)

53 Rozanski K Araguds-Araguds L amp Gonfiantini R Isotopic patterns in modem global precipitation In PK Swart KC Lohman J McKenzie and S Savin (eds) Climate Change in Continental Isotopic Records - Geophysical Monograph 78 American Geophysical Union Washington DC p 1ndash36 (1993)

54 Wang X F et al Millennial-scale precipitation changes in southern Brazil over the past 90000 years Geophys Res Lett 34 L23701 doi1010292007GL031149 (2007)

55 Cruz Jr F W Burns S J Karmann I Sharp W D amp Vuille M Reconstruction of regional atmospheric circulation features during the late Pleistocene in subtropical Brazil from oxygen isotope composition of speleothems Earth Planet Sci Lett 248 495ndash507 (2006)

56 Fritz S C Baker P Ekdahl E Seltzer G O amp Stevens L Millennial992256scale climate variability during the last glacial period in the tropical Andes Quat Sci Rev 29 1017ndash1024 (2010)

57 Wolter K amp Timlin M S Measuring the strength of ENSO events ndash how does 1997 98 rank Weather 53 315ndash324 (1998)

58 Bigarella J J Andrade-Lima D amp Riehs P J Consideraccedilotildees a respeito das mudanccedilas paleoambientais na distribuiccedilatildeo de algumas espeacutecies vegetais e animais no Brasil Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciecircncias 47 411ndash464 (1975)

59 Andrade-Lima D Present-day forest refuges in northeastern Brazil In Prance G T (ed) Biological Diversification in the Tropics Columbia University Press New York 245ndash251 (1982)

60 Oliveira-Filho A T amp Ratter J A A study of the origin of central Brazilian forests by the analysis of plant species distribution patterns Edinburgh Journal of Botany 52 141ndash194 (1995)

61 Vivo M Mammalian evidence of historical ecological change in the Caatinga semiarid vegetation of northeastern Brazil Jour Comparative Biology 2 65ndash73 (1997)

62 Silva J M C Distribution of Amazonian and Atlantic Birds in gallery forests of the cerrado region South America Ornitologiacutea Neotropical 7 1ndash18 (1996)

63 De Oliveira P E Barreto AM amp Suguio K Late PleistoceneHolocene climatic and vegetational history of the Brazilian caatinga the fossil dunes of the middle Satildeo Francisco River Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 152 319ndash337 (1999)

64 Auler A S et al Quaternary ecological and geomorphic changes associated with rainfall events in presently semiarid northeastern Brazil Jour Quat Sci 19 693ndash701 (2004)

65 Santos A M M Cavalcanti D R Silva J M C amp Tabarelli M Biogeographical relationships among tropical forests in north-eastern Brazil Jour Biogeography 34 437ndash446 (2007)

16

66 Carnaval A C O Q amp Moritz C M Historical climate change predicts current biodiversity patterns in the Brazilian Atlantic rainforest Jour Biogeography 35 1187-1201 (2008)

67 dHorta F M Cabanne G S Meyer D amp Miyaki C Y The genetic effects of Late Quaternary climatic changes over a tropical latitudinal gradient diversification of an Atlantic Forest passerine Molecular Ecology 20 1923ndash1935 (2011)

68 Nores M Bird speciation in subtropical South America in relation to forest expansion and retraction The Auk 109 346ndash357 (1992)

69 Nores M Quaternary Vegetational Changes and Bird Differentiation in Subtropical South America The Auk 111 499ndash503 (1994)

70 Silva J M C Can avian distribution patterns in northern Argentina be related to gallery forest expansion-retraction caused by quaternary climatic changes The Auk 111 495ndash499 (1994)

71 del Hoyo J Elliott A amp Christie DA eds Handbook of the birds of the world 8 vols Lynx Edicions Barcelona 2003ndash2010

72 del Hoyo J Elliott A amp Sargatal J eds Handbook of the birds of the world 7 vols Lynx Edicions Barcelona 1992ndash2002

73 Ridgely R S amp Tudor G The birds of South America Vol I Oxford Univ Press Tokyo (1989)

74 Ridgely R S amp Tudor G The birds of South America Vol II Univ of Texas Press Austin (1994)

75 Ridgely R S et al Digital Distribution Maps of the Birds of the Western Hemisphere version 30 NatureServe Arlington Virginia (2007)

• Climate change patterns in Amazonia and biodiversity

5

Supplementary Figure S4 Time series of cave δ18O records from western Amazonia (A) The Cuevan del Diamante cave (NAR) record is based on three stalagmites (NAR-C (blue) NAR-D (light blue) and NAR-F

(dark blue)) (B) The El Condor cave (ELC) δ18O record is based on two stalagmites (ELC-A (light green)

and ELC-B (green)) The 230Th ages and errors (2σ error bars at bottom) are color-coded by stalagmite Austral summer (December to February) insolation at 10degS is also plotted for comparison (grey)45

6

Supplementary Figure S5 Schematic map of South America to show the continental effect (A) Wind directions are shown with arrows including trade winds and low-level jet (LLJ) (adapted from ref 19)

Five circles show the meteoric stations where the observed precipitation δ18O data were used to illustrate the continental effect53 The blue arrow indicates the approximate moisture transfer trajectory suggested by Rozanski et al (1993)53 Parallel to the above trajectory but a few degrees to the south there are three cave records available (from east to west the orange arrow) Rio Grande do Norte

Paraiso and ELC caves The numbers after cave names are δ18O values of modern calcite deposits in each cave that show a progressively decreasing trend from east to west consistent with the continental

effect (B) Schematic diagram of δ18O values of precipitation from selected stations of IAEAWMO global network in the Amazon Basin (adapted from ref 53) The locations of these stations are also shown in

(A) The arrow illustrates that δ18O values of precipitation become progressively lower westward from the Atlantic coast to the Andes This provides an example of the ldquocontinental effectrdquo The isotopic depletion along the eastndashwest trajectory was much lower than other continents because intense water recycling in the Amazon basin as a non-fractionating process constantly recharging the atmosphere with relatively enriched water vapor

7

Supplementary Figure S6 Highly idealized depiction of the hydrological patterns during high (A) and low (B) austral summer insolation periods The major components of the South American Monsoon (SAM) are as same as in Figure 1 The blueorange circles show the South American Precipitation Dipole (SAPD) White soliddashed arrows depict the strong (A)weak (B) SAM during highlow austral summer insolation periods Two wide arrows show the atmosphere circulation pattern associated with the strong SAM with ascending and descending airflows in western and eastern Amazonia respectively Three stars indicate ELC Paraiso and Rio Grande do Norte caves The numbers are cave calcite δ18O values at present (black) the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) (blue) and mid-Holocene (about 6 ka ago) (red) When the SAM was strong under high austral summer insolation condition (A) the cave data show that precipitation δ18O became progressively lower westward along the moisture transport trajectory from the Atlantic Ocean to the Andes consistent with the continental effect on the rainfall isotope compositions In contrast however precipitation δ18O values inferred from the cave data are virtually identical when the SAM was weak under low austral summer insolation conditions (B) suggesting that the moisture source of western Amazonia might be derived more from the recycled vapor from eastern Amazonia (shown by the horizontal green arrow) This is because rainfall amount was significantly enhanced in eastern Amazonia at the time (as indicated by much lower cave calcite δ18O) and the possible more water recycling might take place over the eastern Amazonia basin largely accomplished through transpiration a non-isotope fractionating process constantly recharging the atmosphere with the water vapor with essentially similar isotopic values

8

Supplementary Figure S7 Comparison of speleothem records from northern Peru to Asian Monsoon

ice core and marine records (A) The NGRIP ice core δ18O record16 (B) Measured color reflectance (550

nm) of Cariaco Basin sediments from ODP Hole 1002C17 (C) Northern Peru δ18O records from NAR (blue)

and ELC (green) caves (D) AM δ18O records from Hulu-Dongge-Sanbao caves1544 Numbers indicate Greenland interstadials The vertical bars depict H1 to H6 and the YD

9

Supplementary Figure S8 Millennial scale events in South American records (A) Western Amazon δ18O records from NAR cave (blue) and ELC cave (green) (B) The δ18O record from Pacupahuain cave (1124degS 7582degW 3800 m a s l) in the central Peruvian Andes14 (C) Botuveraacute cave δ18O records southern Brazil1854 (D) Santana cave δ18O records southern Brazil55 (E) Rio Grande do Norte cave δ18O record northeastern Brazil21 (F) Northeastern Brazil pluvial events20 (G) Biogenetic silica () Lake Titicaca southern Peru56 Numbers indicate Greenland interstadials The vertical bars depict Heinrich events (H1 to H6) and the Younger Dryas event (YD)

10

Supplementary Figure S9 Correlation map between the gridded seasonal precipitation and ENSO variations (adapted from ref 30) ENSO changes are based on the Multivariate ENSO Index (MEI)57 Gridded fields are from University of Delaware (1950ndash1999) Only correlations in excess of plusmn02 are shown (roughly the threshold of the 95 significance level) Stars depict cave locations in western Amazonia (1) eastern Amazonia (2) northeastern Brazil (3) and southern Brazil (4) (see Figure 1 for cave names) To a first order the three sites (1 to 3) in equatorial tropical South America share a similar MEI-rainfall relationship which is different from the southern Brazil site El Nintildeo and La Nintildea (positive and negative MEI) episodes are associated with below and above normal rainfalls over equatorial tropical South America (cave sites 1 to 3) respectively and the pattern is just the opposite in southern Brazil (the cave site 4)

11

Supplementary Figure S10 Comparison between ENSO and South American speleothem records Nintildeo3 temperature anomalies estimated with the Zebiak and Cane model46 depict the orbital ENSO variability Speleothem δ18O records from southern Brazil (A)18 western Amazonia (B) and northeastern Brazil-eastern Amazon (C)21 are plotted in the same direction with lower δ18O value (upward) indicating more rainfall to a first order As relations of precipitation to ENSO change are reverse in southern Brazil and in equatorial tropical South America (Supplementary Fig S9) the Nintildeo3 temperature anomalies are plotted in different directions with increasing up (El Nintildeo-like mode upward) and down (La Nintildea-like mode upward) in comparison with speleothem records from southern Brazil (A) and Amazonia-northeastern Brazil (equatorial regions B and C) respectively The brown arrow thus indicates more rainfall amount and lower δ18O values induced by ENSO change for all regions Providing that the modern spatial pattern of ENSO can be extended on longer timescales it is apparent that ENSO broadly reinforces the orbital SAM changes as recorded in speleothem records in eastern Amazonia and northeastern-southern Brazil (A and C) and however counterbalances only the orbital SAM variability in western Amazonia that is presumably induced by austral summer insolation as inferred from southern Brazil records This modulating influence of ENSO could explain at least partially why rainfall changes in western Amazonia are of smaller amplitude on orbital scales

12

Supplementary Figure S11 Peruvian δ18O records during glacial times Left panel (A) Asian Monsoon (AM) records (Hulu-Dongge-Sanbao caves)44 The grey curve is the boreal summer (JJA) insolation at 65degN45 (B) The ELC cave record and austral summer (DJF) insolation at 10degS (grey)45 (C) The NAR record and austral summer (DJF) insolation at 10degS (grey)45 Dashed red curves depict that the AM broadly follows boreal summer insolation during the ice age and in contrast both ELC and NAR records do not closely track austral summer insolation during the ice age The vertical bars show Heinrich events (H1 to H6) and the Younger Dryas event (YD) Right panel (A) The AM record (Sanbao cave)15 The grey curve is the boreal summer (JJA) insolation at 65degN45 (B) The NAR record and austral summer (DJF) insolation at 10degS (grey)45 The vertical bar shows the

Weak Monsoon Interval (WMI) in the AM record Dashed red curves depict the similar δ18O excursion between the South American Monsoon (SAM) and the AM during the last portion of the Marine Isotope Stage 6 In contrast the AM has a broadly anti-phasing relationship with the SAM during interglacial times

13

Supplementary Figure S12 Current and potential past distributions of forests in cis-Andean South America (A) Current distribution of Amazon (AF) Andean (ANF) and Atlantic Forest (ATF) Dark green humid forests Orange open vegetation areas within AF (B) Region (lime green) of possible formation of eastern corridors of humid forests connecting eastern AF and northern ATF Humid forests could have developed in regions that today are covered by Caatinga or Cerrado vegetation38 3958-67 During these periods western AF is not dry enough to cause contraction of humid tropical forest distribution (C) Region (lime green) of possible formation of western corridors of humid forest during high austral summer insolation times connecting western AF ANF and southwestern ATF Humid forests could have developed in regions that today are covered by Chaco vegetation68-70 In contrast eastern Amazonia

(hatched) was drier during these periods as inferred from large heavier excursions of δ18O values in cave records and the forest may have been replaced by drier vegetation and possibly reduced or fragmented in refugia

14

Supplementary Figure S13 Richness patterns of forest bird species shared by AFANF and southern (A) or northern (B) ATF Species with distribution restricted to southern ATF are more common in western AF and ANF than in eastern AF On the other hand a higher number of species restricted to northern ATF occur in eastern AF instead of western AF andor ANF The maps were produced with distributional data of forest bird species71-74 available in NatureServe website75 We considered all species with distribution restricted to northern or southern ATF that also occurs in AF andor ANF Map (A) species Amazona farinosa Batara cinerea Chaetura cinereiventris Chamaeza campanisona Chlorophonia cyanea Chloroceryle inda Cissopis leverianus Conopias trivirgatus Discosura langsdorffi Elaenia obscura Euphonia xanthogaster Hylophilus thoracicus Laniisoma elegans Lochmias nematura Lophornis chalybeus Malacoptila striata Nyctibius aethereus Nyctibius grandis Onychorhynchus coronatus-swainsonii Ortalis guttata Penelope obscura Percnohierax leucorrhous Phaeothlypis rivularis Philydor rufum Phyllomyias burmeisteri Phylloscartes ventralis Pipraeidea melanonota Poecilotriccus plumbeiceps Pyroderus scutatus Ramphotrigon megacephalum Selenidera maculirostris-gouldii Syndactyla rufosuperciliata Tangara mexicana Tigrisoma fasciatum Trichothraupis melanops Trogon rufus Turdus flavipes Map (B) species Arremon taciturnus Attila spadiceus Cercomacra laeta Chiroxiphia pareola Cyanerpes cyaneus Dendrocolaptes certhia Discosura longicaudus Lipaugus vociferans Mionectes oleaginous Myrmotherula axillaris Ornithion inerme Picumnus exilis Pionus menstruus Pipra rubrocapilla Poecilotriccus fumifrons Pteroglossus aracari Pteroglossus inscriptus Pyriglena leuconota Rhynchocyclus olivaceus Schiffornis turdina Sclerurus caudacutus Sclerurus mexicanus Tangara velia Thamnomanes caesius Thamnophilus aethiops Thamnophilus palliatus Tolmomyias poliocephalus Turdus fumigatus Xiphorhynchus guttatus

15

Supplementary References

50 Colinvaux P A Bush M B Steinitz-Kannan M amp Miller M C Glacial and postglacial pollen records from the Ecuadorian Andes and Amazon Quat Res 48 69ndash78 (1997)

51 Cheng H et al Improvements in 230Th dating 230Th and 234U half-life values and U-Th isotopic measurements by multi-collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy Earth Planet Sci Lett In revision (2012)

52 Scholz D amp Hoffmann D L StalAge an algorithm designed for construction of speleothem age models Quat Geochron 6 369ndash382 (2011)

53 Rozanski K Araguds-Araguds L amp Gonfiantini R Isotopic patterns in modem global precipitation In PK Swart KC Lohman J McKenzie and S Savin (eds) Climate Change in Continental Isotopic Records - Geophysical Monograph 78 American Geophysical Union Washington DC p 1ndash36 (1993)

54 Wang X F et al Millennial-scale precipitation changes in southern Brazil over the past 90000 years Geophys Res Lett 34 L23701 doi1010292007GL031149 (2007)

55 Cruz Jr F W Burns S J Karmann I Sharp W D amp Vuille M Reconstruction of regional atmospheric circulation features during the late Pleistocene in subtropical Brazil from oxygen isotope composition of speleothems Earth Planet Sci Lett 248 495ndash507 (2006)

56 Fritz S C Baker P Ekdahl E Seltzer G O amp Stevens L Millennial992256scale climate variability during the last glacial period in the tropical Andes Quat Sci Rev 29 1017ndash1024 (2010)

57 Wolter K amp Timlin M S Measuring the strength of ENSO events ndash how does 1997 98 rank Weather 53 315ndash324 (1998)

58 Bigarella J J Andrade-Lima D amp Riehs P J Consideraccedilotildees a respeito das mudanccedilas paleoambientais na distribuiccedilatildeo de algumas espeacutecies vegetais e animais no Brasil Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciecircncias 47 411ndash464 (1975)

59 Andrade-Lima D Present-day forest refuges in northeastern Brazil In Prance G T (ed) Biological Diversification in the Tropics Columbia University Press New York 245ndash251 (1982)

60 Oliveira-Filho A T amp Ratter J A A study of the origin of central Brazilian forests by the analysis of plant species distribution patterns Edinburgh Journal of Botany 52 141ndash194 (1995)

61 Vivo M Mammalian evidence of historical ecological change in the Caatinga semiarid vegetation of northeastern Brazil Jour Comparative Biology 2 65ndash73 (1997)

62 Silva J M C Distribution of Amazonian and Atlantic Birds in gallery forests of the cerrado region South America Ornitologiacutea Neotropical 7 1ndash18 (1996)

63 De Oliveira P E Barreto AM amp Suguio K Late PleistoceneHolocene climatic and vegetational history of the Brazilian caatinga the fossil dunes of the middle Satildeo Francisco River Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 152 319ndash337 (1999)

64 Auler A S et al Quaternary ecological and geomorphic changes associated with rainfall events in presently semiarid northeastern Brazil Jour Quat Sci 19 693ndash701 (2004)

65 Santos A M M Cavalcanti D R Silva J M C amp Tabarelli M Biogeographical relationships among tropical forests in north-eastern Brazil Jour Biogeography 34 437ndash446 (2007)

16

66 Carnaval A C O Q amp Moritz C M Historical climate change predicts current biodiversity patterns in the Brazilian Atlantic rainforest Jour Biogeography 35 1187-1201 (2008)

67 dHorta F M Cabanne G S Meyer D amp Miyaki C Y The genetic effects of Late Quaternary climatic changes over a tropical latitudinal gradient diversification of an Atlantic Forest passerine Molecular Ecology 20 1923ndash1935 (2011)

68 Nores M Bird speciation in subtropical South America in relation to forest expansion and retraction The Auk 109 346ndash357 (1992)

69 Nores M Quaternary Vegetational Changes and Bird Differentiation in Subtropical South America The Auk 111 499ndash503 (1994)

70 Silva J M C Can avian distribution patterns in northern Argentina be related to gallery forest expansion-retraction caused by quaternary climatic changes The Auk 111 495ndash499 (1994)

71 del Hoyo J Elliott A amp Christie DA eds Handbook of the birds of the world 8 vols Lynx Edicions Barcelona 2003ndash2010

72 del Hoyo J Elliott A amp Sargatal J eds Handbook of the birds of the world 7 vols Lynx Edicions Barcelona 1992ndash2002

73 Ridgely R S amp Tudor G The birds of South America Vol I Oxford Univ Press Tokyo (1989)

74 Ridgely R S amp Tudor G The birds of South America Vol II Univ of Texas Press Austin (1994)

75 Ridgely R S et al Digital Distribution Maps of the Birds of the Western Hemisphere version 30 NatureServe Arlington Virginia (2007)

• Climate change patterns in Amazonia and biodiversity

6

Supplementary Figure S5 Schematic map of South America to show the continental effect (A) Wind directions are shown with arrows including trade winds and low-level jet (LLJ) (adapted from ref 19)

Five circles show the meteoric stations where the observed precipitation δ18O data were used to illustrate the continental effect53 The blue arrow indicates the approximate moisture transfer trajectory suggested by Rozanski et al (1993)53 Parallel to the above trajectory but a few degrees to the south there are three cave records available (from east to west the orange arrow) Rio Grande do Norte

Paraiso and ELC caves The numbers after cave names are δ18O values of modern calcite deposits in each cave that show a progressively decreasing trend from east to west consistent with the continental

effect (B) Schematic diagram of δ18O values of precipitation from selected stations of IAEAWMO global network in the Amazon Basin (adapted from ref 53) The locations of these stations are also shown in

(A) The arrow illustrates that δ18O values of precipitation become progressively lower westward from the Atlantic coast to the Andes This provides an example of the ldquocontinental effectrdquo The isotopic depletion along the eastndashwest trajectory was much lower than other continents because intense water recycling in the Amazon basin as a non-fractionating process constantly recharging the atmosphere with relatively enriched water vapor

7

Supplementary Figure S6 Highly idealized depiction of the hydrological patterns during high (A) and low (B) austral summer insolation periods The major components of the South American Monsoon (SAM) are as same as in Figure 1 The blueorange circles show the South American Precipitation Dipole (SAPD) White soliddashed arrows depict the strong (A)weak (B) SAM during highlow austral summer insolation periods Two wide arrows show the atmosphere circulation pattern associated with the strong SAM with ascending and descending airflows in western and eastern Amazonia respectively Three stars indicate ELC Paraiso and Rio Grande do Norte caves The numbers are cave calcite δ18O values at present (black) the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) (blue) and mid-Holocene (about 6 ka ago) (red) When the SAM was strong under high austral summer insolation condition (A) the cave data show that precipitation δ18O became progressively lower westward along the moisture transport trajectory from the Atlantic Ocean to the Andes consistent with the continental effect on the rainfall isotope compositions In contrast however precipitation δ18O values inferred from the cave data are virtually identical when the SAM was weak under low austral summer insolation conditions (B) suggesting that the moisture source of western Amazonia might be derived more from the recycled vapor from eastern Amazonia (shown by the horizontal green arrow) This is because rainfall amount was significantly enhanced in eastern Amazonia at the time (as indicated by much lower cave calcite δ18O) and the possible more water recycling might take place over the eastern Amazonia basin largely accomplished through transpiration a non-isotope fractionating process constantly recharging the atmosphere with the water vapor with essentially similar isotopic values

8

Supplementary Figure S7 Comparison of speleothem records from northern Peru to Asian Monsoon

ice core and marine records (A) The NGRIP ice core δ18O record16 (B) Measured color reflectance (550

nm) of Cariaco Basin sediments from ODP Hole 1002C17 (C) Northern Peru δ18O records from NAR (blue)

and ELC (green) caves (D) AM δ18O records from Hulu-Dongge-Sanbao caves1544 Numbers indicate Greenland interstadials The vertical bars depict H1 to H6 and the YD

9

Supplementary Figure S8 Millennial scale events in South American records (A) Western Amazon δ18O records from NAR cave (blue) and ELC cave (green) (B) The δ18O record from Pacupahuain cave (1124degS 7582degW 3800 m a s l) in the central Peruvian Andes14 (C) Botuveraacute cave δ18O records southern Brazil1854 (D) Santana cave δ18O records southern Brazil55 (E) Rio Grande do Norte cave δ18O record northeastern Brazil21 (F) Northeastern Brazil pluvial events20 (G) Biogenetic silica () Lake Titicaca southern Peru56 Numbers indicate Greenland interstadials The vertical bars depict Heinrich events (H1 to H6) and the Younger Dryas event (YD)

10

Supplementary Figure S9 Correlation map between the gridded seasonal precipitation and ENSO variations (adapted from ref 30) ENSO changes are based on the Multivariate ENSO Index (MEI)57 Gridded fields are from University of Delaware (1950ndash1999) Only correlations in excess of plusmn02 are shown (roughly the threshold of the 95 significance level) Stars depict cave locations in western Amazonia (1) eastern Amazonia (2) northeastern Brazil (3) and southern Brazil (4) (see Figure 1 for cave names) To a first order the three sites (1 to 3) in equatorial tropical South America share a similar MEI-rainfall relationship which is different from the southern Brazil site El Nintildeo and La Nintildea (positive and negative MEI) episodes are associated with below and above normal rainfalls over equatorial tropical South America (cave sites 1 to 3) respectively and the pattern is just the opposite in southern Brazil (the cave site 4)

11

Supplementary Figure S10 Comparison between ENSO and South American speleothem records Nintildeo3 temperature anomalies estimated with the Zebiak and Cane model46 depict the orbital ENSO variability Speleothem δ18O records from southern Brazil (A)18 western Amazonia (B) and northeastern Brazil-eastern Amazon (C)21 are plotted in the same direction with lower δ18O value (upward) indicating more rainfall to a first order As relations of precipitation to ENSO change are reverse in southern Brazil and in equatorial tropical South America (Supplementary Fig S9) the Nintildeo3 temperature anomalies are plotted in different directions with increasing up (El Nintildeo-like mode upward) and down (La Nintildea-like mode upward) in comparison with speleothem records from southern Brazil (A) and Amazonia-northeastern Brazil (equatorial regions B and C) respectively The brown arrow thus indicates more rainfall amount and lower δ18O values induced by ENSO change for all regions Providing that the modern spatial pattern of ENSO can be extended on longer timescales it is apparent that ENSO broadly reinforces the orbital SAM changes as recorded in speleothem records in eastern Amazonia and northeastern-southern Brazil (A and C) and however counterbalances only the orbital SAM variability in western Amazonia that is presumably induced by austral summer insolation as inferred from southern Brazil records This modulating influence of ENSO could explain at least partially why rainfall changes in western Amazonia are of smaller amplitude on orbital scales

12

Supplementary Figure S11 Peruvian δ18O records during glacial times Left panel (A) Asian Monsoon (AM) records (Hulu-Dongge-Sanbao caves)44 The grey curve is the boreal summer (JJA) insolation at 65degN45 (B) The ELC cave record and austral summer (DJF) insolation at 10degS (grey)45 (C) The NAR record and austral summer (DJF) insolation at 10degS (grey)45 Dashed red curves depict that the AM broadly follows boreal summer insolation during the ice age and in contrast both ELC and NAR records do not closely track austral summer insolation during the ice age The vertical bars show Heinrich events (H1 to H6) and the Younger Dryas event (YD) Right panel (A) The AM record (Sanbao cave)15 The grey curve is the boreal summer (JJA) insolation at 65degN45 (B) The NAR record and austral summer (DJF) insolation at 10degS (grey)45 The vertical bar shows the

Weak Monsoon Interval (WMI) in the AM record Dashed red curves depict the similar δ18O excursion between the South American Monsoon (SAM) and the AM during the last portion of the Marine Isotope Stage 6 In contrast the AM has a broadly anti-phasing relationship with the SAM during interglacial times

13

Supplementary Figure S12 Current and potential past distributions of forests in cis-Andean South America (A) Current distribution of Amazon (AF) Andean (ANF) and Atlantic Forest (ATF) Dark green humid forests Orange open vegetation areas within AF (B) Region (lime green) of possible formation of eastern corridors of humid forests connecting eastern AF and northern ATF Humid forests could have developed in regions that today are covered by Caatinga or Cerrado vegetation38 3958-67 During these periods western AF is not dry enough to cause contraction of humid tropical forest distribution (C) Region (lime green) of possible formation of western corridors of humid forest during high austral summer insolation times connecting western AF ANF and southwestern ATF Humid forests could have developed in regions that today are covered by Chaco vegetation68-70 In contrast eastern Amazonia

(hatched) was drier during these periods as inferred from large heavier excursions of δ18O values in cave records and the forest may have been replaced by drier vegetation and possibly reduced or fragmented in refugia

14

Supplementary Figure S13 Richness patterns of forest bird species shared by AFANF and southern (A) or northern (B) ATF Species with distribution restricted to southern ATF are more common in western AF and ANF than in eastern AF On the other hand a higher number of species restricted to northern ATF occur in eastern AF instead of western AF andor ANF The maps were produced with distributional data of forest bird species71-74 available in NatureServe website75 We considered all species with distribution restricted to northern or southern ATF that also occurs in AF andor ANF Map (A) species Amazona farinosa Batara cinerea Chaetura cinereiventris Chamaeza campanisona Chlorophonia cyanea Chloroceryle inda Cissopis leverianus Conopias trivirgatus Discosura langsdorffi Elaenia obscura Euphonia xanthogaster Hylophilus thoracicus Laniisoma elegans Lochmias nematura Lophornis chalybeus Malacoptila striata Nyctibius aethereus Nyctibius grandis Onychorhynchus coronatus-swainsonii Ortalis guttata Penelope obscura Percnohierax leucorrhous Phaeothlypis rivularis Philydor rufum Phyllomyias burmeisteri Phylloscartes ventralis Pipraeidea melanonota Poecilotriccus plumbeiceps Pyroderus scutatus Ramphotrigon megacephalum Selenidera maculirostris-gouldii Syndactyla rufosuperciliata Tangara mexicana Tigrisoma fasciatum Trichothraupis melanops Trogon rufus Turdus flavipes Map (B) species Arremon taciturnus Attila spadiceus Cercomacra laeta Chiroxiphia pareola Cyanerpes cyaneus Dendrocolaptes certhia Discosura longicaudus Lipaugus vociferans Mionectes oleaginous Myrmotherula axillaris Ornithion inerme Picumnus exilis Pionus menstruus Pipra rubrocapilla Poecilotriccus fumifrons Pteroglossus aracari Pteroglossus inscriptus Pyriglena leuconota Rhynchocyclus olivaceus Schiffornis turdina Sclerurus caudacutus Sclerurus mexicanus Tangara velia Thamnomanes caesius Thamnophilus aethiops Thamnophilus palliatus Tolmomyias poliocephalus Turdus fumigatus Xiphorhynchus guttatus

15

Supplementary References

50 Colinvaux P A Bush M B Steinitz-Kannan M amp Miller M C Glacial and postglacial pollen records from the Ecuadorian Andes and Amazon Quat Res 48 69ndash78 (1997)

51 Cheng H et al Improvements in 230Th dating 230Th and 234U half-life values and U-Th isotopic measurements by multi-collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy Earth Planet Sci Lett In revision (2012)

52 Scholz D amp Hoffmann D L StalAge an algorithm designed for construction of speleothem age models Quat Geochron 6 369ndash382 (2011)

53 Rozanski K Araguds-Araguds L amp Gonfiantini R Isotopic patterns in modem global precipitation In PK Swart KC Lohman J McKenzie and S Savin (eds) Climate Change in Continental Isotopic Records - Geophysical Monograph 78 American Geophysical Union Washington DC p 1ndash36 (1993)

54 Wang X F et al Millennial-scale precipitation changes in southern Brazil over the past 90000 years Geophys Res Lett 34 L23701 doi1010292007GL031149 (2007)

55 Cruz Jr F W Burns S J Karmann I Sharp W D amp Vuille M Reconstruction of regional atmospheric circulation features during the late Pleistocene in subtropical Brazil from oxygen isotope composition of speleothems Earth Planet Sci Lett 248 495ndash507 (2006)

56 Fritz S C Baker P Ekdahl E Seltzer G O amp Stevens L Millennial992256scale climate variability during the last glacial period in the tropical Andes Quat Sci Rev 29 1017ndash1024 (2010)

57 Wolter K amp Timlin M S Measuring the strength of ENSO events ndash how does 1997 98 rank Weather 53 315ndash324 (1998)

58 Bigarella J J Andrade-Lima D amp Riehs P J Consideraccedilotildees a respeito das mudanccedilas paleoambientais na distribuiccedilatildeo de algumas espeacutecies vegetais e animais no Brasil Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciecircncias 47 411ndash464 (1975)

59 Andrade-Lima D Present-day forest refuges in northeastern Brazil In Prance G T (ed) Biological Diversification in the Tropics Columbia University Press New York 245ndash251 (1982)

60 Oliveira-Filho A T amp Ratter J A A study of the origin of central Brazilian forests by the analysis of plant species distribution patterns Edinburgh Journal of Botany 52 141ndash194 (1995)

61 Vivo M Mammalian evidence of historical ecological change in the Caatinga semiarid vegetation of northeastern Brazil Jour Comparative Biology 2 65ndash73 (1997)

62 Silva J M C Distribution of Amazonian and Atlantic Birds in gallery forests of the cerrado region South America Ornitologiacutea Neotropical 7 1ndash18 (1996)

63 De Oliveira P E Barreto AM amp Suguio K Late PleistoceneHolocene climatic and vegetational history of the Brazilian caatinga the fossil dunes of the middle Satildeo Francisco River Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 152 319ndash337 (1999)

64 Auler A S et al Quaternary ecological and geomorphic changes associated with rainfall events in presently semiarid northeastern Brazil Jour Quat Sci 19 693ndash701 (2004)

65 Santos A M M Cavalcanti D R Silva J M C amp Tabarelli M Biogeographical relationships among tropical forests in north-eastern Brazil Jour Biogeography 34 437ndash446 (2007)

16

66 Carnaval A C O Q amp Moritz C M Historical climate change predicts current biodiversity patterns in the Brazilian Atlantic rainforest Jour Biogeography 35 1187-1201 (2008)

67 dHorta F M Cabanne G S Meyer D amp Miyaki C Y The genetic effects of Late Quaternary climatic changes over a tropical latitudinal gradient diversification of an Atlantic Forest passerine Molecular Ecology 20 1923ndash1935 (2011)

68 Nores M Bird speciation in subtropical South America in relation to forest expansion and retraction The Auk 109 346ndash357 (1992)

69 Nores M Quaternary Vegetational Changes and Bird Differentiation in Subtropical South America The Auk 111 499ndash503 (1994)

70 Silva J M C Can avian distribution patterns in northern Argentina be related to gallery forest expansion-retraction caused by quaternary climatic changes The Auk 111 495ndash499 (1994)

71 del Hoyo J Elliott A amp Christie DA eds Handbook of the birds of the world 8 vols Lynx Edicions Barcelona 2003ndash2010

72 del Hoyo J Elliott A amp Sargatal J eds Handbook of the birds of the world 7 vols Lynx Edicions Barcelona 1992ndash2002

73 Ridgely R S amp Tudor G The birds of South America Vol I Oxford Univ Press Tokyo (1989)

74 Ridgely R S amp Tudor G The birds of South America Vol II Univ of Texas Press Austin (1994)

75 Ridgely R S et al Digital Distribution Maps of the Birds of the Western Hemisphere version 30 NatureServe Arlington Virginia (2007)

• Climate change patterns in Amazonia and biodiversity

7

Supplementary Figure S6 Highly idealized depiction of the hydrological patterns during high (A) and low (B) austral summer insolation periods The major components of the South American Monsoon (SAM) are as same as in Figure 1 The blueorange circles show the South American Precipitation Dipole (SAPD) White soliddashed arrows depict the strong (A)weak (B) SAM during highlow austral summer insolation periods Two wide arrows show the atmosphere circulation pattern associated with the strong SAM with ascending and descending airflows in western and eastern Amazonia respectively Three stars indicate ELC Paraiso and Rio Grande do Norte caves The numbers are cave calcite δ18O values at present (black) the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) (blue) and mid-Holocene (about 6 ka ago) (red) When the SAM was strong under high austral summer insolation condition (A) the cave data show that precipitation δ18O became progressively lower westward along the moisture transport trajectory from the Atlantic Ocean to the Andes consistent with the continental effect on the rainfall isotope compositions In contrast however precipitation δ18O values inferred from the cave data are virtually identical when the SAM was weak under low austral summer insolation conditions (B) suggesting that the moisture source of western Amazonia might be derived more from the recycled vapor from eastern Amazonia (shown by the horizontal green arrow) This is because rainfall amount was significantly enhanced in eastern Amazonia at the time (as indicated by much lower cave calcite δ18O) and the possible more water recycling might take place over the eastern Amazonia basin largely accomplished through transpiration a non-isotope fractionating process constantly recharging the atmosphere with the water vapor with essentially similar isotopic values

8

Supplementary Figure S7 Comparison of speleothem records from northern Peru to Asian Monsoon

ice core and marine records (A) The NGRIP ice core δ18O record16 (B) Measured color reflectance (550

nm) of Cariaco Basin sediments from ODP Hole 1002C17 (C) Northern Peru δ18O records from NAR (blue)

and ELC (green) caves (D) AM δ18O records from Hulu-Dongge-Sanbao caves1544 Numbers indicate Greenland interstadials The vertical bars depict H1 to H6 and the YD

9

Supplementary Figure S8 Millennial scale events in South American records (A) Western Amazon δ18O records from NAR cave (blue) and ELC cave (green) (B) The δ18O record from Pacupahuain cave (1124degS 7582degW 3800 m a s l) in the central Peruvian Andes14 (C) Botuveraacute cave δ18O records southern Brazil1854 (D) Santana cave δ18O records southern Brazil55 (E) Rio Grande do Norte cave δ18O record northeastern Brazil21 (F) Northeastern Brazil pluvial events20 (G) Biogenetic silica () Lake Titicaca southern Peru56 Numbers indicate Greenland interstadials The vertical bars depict Heinrich events (H1 to H6) and the Younger Dryas event (YD)

10

Supplementary Figure S9 Correlation map between the gridded seasonal precipitation and ENSO variations (adapted from ref 30) ENSO changes are based on the Multivariate ENSO Index (MEI)57 Gridded fields are from University of Delaware (1950ndash1999) Only correlations in excess of plusmn02 are shown (roughly the threshold of the 95 significance level) Stars depict cave locations in western Amazonia (1) eastern Amazonia (2) northeastern Brazil (3) and southern Brazil (4) (see Figure 1 for cave names) To a first order the three sites (1 to 3) in equatorial tropical South America share a similar MEI-rainfall relationship which is different from the southern Brazil site El Nintildeo and La Nintildea (positive and negative MEI) episodes are associated with below and above normal rainfalls over equatorial tropical South America (cave sites 1 to 3) respectively and the pattern is just the opposite in southern Brazil (the cave site 4)

11

Supplementary Figure S10 Comparison between ENSO and South American speleothem records Nintildeo3 temperature anomalies estimated with the Zebiak and Cane model46 depict the orbital ENSO variability Speleothem δ18O records from southern Brazil (A)18 western Amazonia (B) and northeastern Brazil-eastern Amazon (C)21 are plotted in the same direction with lower δ18O value (upward) indicating more rainfall to a first order As relations of precipitation to ENSO change are reverse in southern Brazil and in equatorial tropical South America (Supplementary Fig S9) the Nintildeo3 temperature anomalies are plotted in different directions with increasing up (El Nintildeo-like mode upward) and down (La Nintildea-like mode upward) in comparison with speleothem records from southern Brazil (A) and Amazonia-northeastern Brazil (equatorial regions B and C) respectively The brown arrow thus indicates more rainfall amount and lower δ18O values induced by ENSO change for all regions Providing that the modern spatial pattern of ENSO can be extended on longer timescales it is apparent that ENSO broadly reinforces the orbital SAM changes as recorded in speleothem records in eastern Amazonia and northeastern-southern Brazil (A and C) and however counterbalances only the orbital SAM variability in western Amazonia that is presumably induced by austral summer insolation as inferred from southern Brazil records This modulating influence of ENSO could explain at least partially why rainfall changes in western Amazonia are of smaller amplitude on orbital scales

12

Supplementary Figure S11 Peruvian δ18O records during glacial times Left panel (A) Asian Monsoon (AM) records (Hulu-Dongge-Sanbao caves)44 The grey curve is the boreal summer (JJA) insolation at 65degN45 (B) The ELC cave record and austral summer (DJF) insolation at 10degS (grey)45 (C) The NAR record and austral summer (DJF) insolation at 10degS (grey)45 Dashed red curves depict that the AM broadly follows boreal summer insolation during the ice age and in contrast both ELC and NAR records do not closely track austral summer insolation during the ice age The vertical bars show Heinrich events (H1 to H6) and the Younger Dryas event (YD) Right panel (A) The AM record (Sanbao cave)15 The grey curve is the boreal summer (JJA) insolation at 65degN45 (B) The NAR record and austral summer (DJF) insolation at 10degS (grey)45 The vertical bar shows the

Weak Monsoon Interval (WMI) in the AM record Dashed red curves depict the similar δ18O excursion between the South American Monsoon (SAM) and the AM during the last portion of the Marine Isotope Stage 6 In contrast the AM has a broadly anti-phasing relationship with the SAM during interglacial times

13

Supplementary Figure S12 Current and potential past distributions of forests in cis-Andean South America (A) Current distribution of Amazon (AF) Andean (ANF) and Atlantic Forest (ATF) Dark green humid forests Orange open vegetation areas within AF (B) Region (lime green) of possible formation of eastern corridors of humid forests connecting eastern AF and northern ATF Humid forests could have developed in regions that today are covered by Caatinga or Cerrado vegetation38 3958-67 During these periods western AF is not dry enough to cause contraction of humid tropical forest distribution (C) Region (lime green) of possible formation of western corridors of humid forest during high austral summer insolation times connecting western AF ANF and southwestern ATF Humid forests could have developed in regions that today are covered by Chaco vegetation68-70 In contrast eastern Amazonia

(hatched) was drier during these periods as inferred from large heavier excursions of δ18O values in cave records and the forest may have been replaced by drier vegetation and possibly reduced or fragmented in refugia

14

Supplementary Figure S13 Richness patterns of forest bird species shared by AFANF and southern (A) or northern (B) ATF Species with distribution restricted to southern ATF are more common in western AF and ANF than in eastern AF On the other hand a higher number of species restricted to northern ATF occur in eastern AF instead of western AF andor ANF The maps were produced with distributional data of forest bird species71-74 available in NatureServe website75 We considered all species with distribution restricted to northern or southern ATF that also occurs in AF andor ANF Map (A) species Amazona farinosa Batara cinerea Chaetura cinereiventris Chamaeza campanisona Chlorophonia cyanea Chloroceryle inda Cissopis leverianus Conopias trivirgatus Discosura langsdorffi Elaenia obscura Euphonia xanthogaster Hylophilus thoracicus Laniisoma elegans Lochmias nematura Lophornis chalybeus Malacoptila striata Nyctibius aethereus Nyctibius grandis Onychorhynchus coronatus-swainsonii Ortalis guttata Penelope obscura Percnohierax leucorrhous Phaeothlypis rivularis Philydor rufum Phyllomyias burmeisteri Phylloscartes ventralis Pipraeidea melanonota Poecilotriccus plumbeiceps Pyroderus scutatus Ramphotrigon megacephalum Selenidera maculirostris-gouldii Syndactyla rufosuperciliata Tangara mexicana Tigrisoma fasciatum Trichothraupis melanops Trogon rufus Turdus flavipes Map (B) species Arremon taciturnus Attila spadiceus Cercomacra laeta Chiroxiphia pareola Cyanerpes cyaneus Dendrocolaptes certhia Discosura longicaudus Lipaugus vociferans Mionectes oleaginous Myrmotherula axillaris Ornithion inerme Picumnus exilis Pionus menstruus Pipra rubrocapilla Poecilotriccus fumifrons Pteroglossus aracari Pteroglossus inscriptus Pyriglena leuconota Rhynchocyclus olivaceus Schiffornis turdina Sclerurus caudacutus Sclerurus mexicanus Tangara velia Thamnomanes caesius Thamnophilus aethiops Thamnophilus palliatus Tolmomyias poliocephalus Turdus fumigatus Xiphorhynchus guttatus

15

Supplementary References

50 Colinvaux P A Bush M B Steinitz-Kannan M amp Miller M C Glacial and postglacial pollen records from the Ecuadorian Andes and Amazon Quat Res 48 69ndash78 (1997)

51 Cheng H et al Improvements in 230Th dating 230Th and 234U half-life values and U-Th isotopic measurements by multi-collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy Earth Planet Sci Lett In revision (2012)

52 Scholz D amp Hoffmann D L StalAge an algorithm designed for construction of speleothem age models Quat Geochron 6 369ndash382 (2011)

53 Rozanski K Araguds-Araguds L amp Gonfiantini R Isotopic patterns in modem global precipitation In PK Swart KC Lohman J McKenzie and S Savin (eds) Climate Change in Continental Isotopic Records - Geophysical Monograph 78 American Geophysical Union Washington DC p 1ndash36 (1993)

54 Wang X F et al Millennial-scale precipitation changes in southern Brazil over the past 90000 years Geophys Res Lett 34 L23701 doi1010292007GL031149 (2007)

55 Cruz Jr F W Burns S J Karmann I Sharp W D amp Vuille M Reconstruction of regional atmospheric circulation features during the late Pleistocene in subtropical Brazil from oxygen isotope composition of speleothems Earth Planet Sci Lett 248 495ndash507 (2006)

56 Fritz S C Baker P Ekdahl E Seltzer G O amp Stevens L Millennial992256scale climate variability during the last glacial period in the tropical Andes Quat Sci Rev 29 1017ndash1024 (2010)

57 Wolter K amp Timlin M S Measuring the strength of ENSO events ndash how does 1997 98 rank Weather 53 315ndash324 (1998)

58 Bigarella J J Andrade-Lima D amp Riehs P J Consideraccedilotildees a respeito das mudanccedilas paleoambientais na distribuiccedilatildeo de algumas espeacutecies vegetais e animais no Brasil Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciecircncias 47 411ndash464 (1975)

59 Andrade-Lima D Present-day forest refuges in northeastern Brazil In Prance G T (ed) Biological Diversification in the Tropics Columbia University Press New York 245ndash251 (1982)

60 Oliveira-Filho A T amp Ratter J A A study of the origin of central Brazilian forests by the analysis of plant species distribution patterns Edinburgh Journal of Botany 52 141ndash194 (1995)

61 Vivo M Mammalian evidence of historical ecological change in the Caatinga semiarid vegetation of northeastern Brazil Jour Comparative Biology 2 65ndash73 (1997)

62 Silva J M C Distribution of Amazonian and Atlantic Birds in gallery forests of the cerrado region South America Ornitologiacutea Neotropical 7 1ndash18 (1996)

63 De Oliveira P E Barreto AM amp Suguio K Late PleistoceneHolocene climatic and vegetational history of the Brazilian caatinga the fossil dunes of the middle Satildeo Francisco River Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 152 319ndash337 (1999)

64 Auler A S et al Quaternary ecological and geomorphic changes associated with rainfall events in presently semiarid northeastern Brazil Jour Quat Sci 19 693ndash701 (2004)

65 Santos A M M Cavalcanti D R Silva J M C amp Tabarelli M Biogeographical relationships among tropical forests in north-eastern Brazil Jour Biogeography 34 437ndash446 (2007)

16

66 Carnaval A C O Q amp Moritz C M Historical climate change predicts current biodiversity patterns in the Brazilian Atlantic rainforest Jour Biogeography 35 1187-1201 (2008)

67 dHorta F M Cabanne G S Meyer D amp Miyaki C Y The genetic effects of Late Quaternary climatic changes over a tropical latitudinal gradient diversification of an Atlantic Forest passerine Molecular Ecology 20 1923ndash1935 (2011)

68 Nores M Bird speciation in subtropical South America in relation to forest expansion and retraction The Auk 109 346ndash357 (1992)

69 Nores M Quaternary Vegetational Changes and Bird Differentiation in Subtropical South America The Auk 111 499ndash503 (1994)

70 Silva J M C Can avian distribution patterns in northern Argentina be related to gallery forest expansion-retraction caused by quaternary climatic changes The Auk 111 495ndash499 (1994)

71 del Hoyo J Elliott A amp Christie DA eds Handbook of the birds of the world 8 vols Lynx Edicions Barcelona 2003ndash2010

72 del Hoyo J Elliott A amp Sargatal J eds Handbook of the birds of the world 7 vols Lynx Edicions Barcelona 1992ndash2002

73 Ridgely R S amp Tudor G The birds of South America Vol I Oxford Univ Press Tokyo (1989)

74 Ridgely R S amp Tudor G The birds of South America Vol II Univ of Texas Press Austin (1994)

75 Ridgely R S et al Digital Distribution Maps of the Birds of the Western Hemisphere version 30 NatureServe Arlington Virginia (2007)

• Climate change patterns in Amazonia and biodiversity

8

Supplementary Figure S7 Comparison of speleothem records from northern Peru to Asian Monsoon

ice core and marine records (A) The NGRIP ice core δ18O record16 (B) Measured color reflectance (550

nm) of Cariaco Basin sediments from ODP Hole 1002C17 (C) Northern Peru δ18O records from NAR (blue)

and ELC (green) caves (D) AM δ18O records from Hulu-Dongge-Sanbao caves1544 Numbers indicate Greenland interstadials The vertical bars depict H1 to H6 and the YD

9

Supplementary Figure S8 Millennial scale events in South American records (A) Western Amazon δ18O records from NAR cave (blue) and ELC cave (green) (B) The δ18O record from Pacupahuain cave (1124degS 7582degW 3800 m a s l) in the central Peruvian Andes14 (C) Botuveraacute cave δ18O records southern Brazil1854 (D) Santana cave δ18O records southern Brazil55 (E) Rio Grande do Norte cave δ18O record northeastern Brazil21 (F) Northeastern Brazil pluvial events20 (G) Biogenetic silica () Lake Titicaca southern Peru56 Numbers indicate Greenland interstadials The vertical bars depict Heinrich events (H1 to H6) and the Younger Dryas event (YD)

10

Supplementary Figure S9 Correlation map between the gridded seasonal precipitation and ENSO variations (adapted from ref 30) ENSO changes are based on the Multivariate ENSO Index (MEI)57 Gridded fields are from University of Delaware (1950ndash1999) Only correlations in excess of plusmn02 are shown (roughly the threshold of the 95 significance level) Stars depict cave locations in western Amazonia (1) eastern Amazonia (2) northeastern Brazil (3) and southern Brazil (4) (see Figure 1 for cave names) To a first order the three sites (1 to 3) in equatorial tropical South America share a similar MEI-rainfall relationship which is different from the southern Brazil site El Nintildeo and La Nintildea (positive and negative MEI) episodes are associated with below and above normal rainfalls over equatorial tropical South America (cave sites 1 to 3) respectively and the pattern is just the opposite in southern Brazil (the cave site 4)

11

Supplementary Figure S10 Comparison between ENSO and South American speleothem records Nintildeo3 temperature anomalies estimated with the Zebiak and Cane model46 depict the orbital ENSO variability Speleothem δ18O records from southern Brazil (A)18 western Amazonia (B) and northeastern Brazil-eastern Amazon (C)21 are plotted in the same direction with lower δ18O value (upward) indicating more rainfall to a first order As relations of precipitation to ENSO change are reverse in southern Brazil and in equatorial tropical South America (Supplementary Fig S9) the Nintildeo3 temperature anomalies are plotted in different directions with increasing up (El Nintildeo-like mode upward) and down (La Nintildea-like mode upward) in comparison with speleothem records from southern Brazil (A) and Amazonia-northeastern Brazil (equatorial regions B and C) respectively The brown arrow thus indicates more rainfall amount and lower δ18O values induced by ENSO change for all regions Providing that the modern spatial pattern of ENSO can be extended on longer timescales it is apparent that ENSO broadly reinforces the orbital SAM changes as recorded in speleothem records in eastern Amazonia and northeastern-southern Brazil (A and C) and however counterbalances only the orbital SAM variability in western Amazonia that is presumably induced by austral summer insolation as inferred from southern Brazil records This modulating influence of ENSO could explain at least partially why rainfall changes in western Amazonia are of smaller amplitude on orbital scales

12

Supplementary Figure S11 Peruvian δ18O records during glacial times Left panel (A) Asian Monsoon (AM) records (Hulu-Dongge-Sanbao caves)44 The grey curve is the boreal summer (JJA) insolation at 65degN45 (B) The ELC cave record and austral summer (DJF) insolation at 10degS (grey)45 (C) The NAR record and austral summer (DJF) insolation at 10degS (grey)45 Dashed red curves depict that the AM broadly follows boreal summer insolation during the ice age and in contrast both ELC and NAR records do not closely track austral summer insolation during the ice age The vertical bars show Heinrich events (H1 to H6) and the Younger Dryas event (YD) Right panel (A) The AM record (Sanbao cave)15 The grey curve is the boreal summer (JJA) insolation at 65degN45 (B) The NAR record and austral summer (DJF) insolation at 10degS (grey)45 The vertical bar shows the

Weak Monsoon Interval (WMI) in the AM record Dashed red curves depict the similar δ18O excursion between the South American Monsoon (SAM) and the AM during the last portion of the Marine Isotope Stage 6 In contrast the AM has a broadly anti-phasing relationship with the SAM during interglacial times

13

Supplementary Figure S12 Current and potential past distributions of forests in cis-Andean South America (A) Current distribution of Amazon (AF) Andean (ANF) and Atlantic Forest (ATF) Dark green humid forests Orange open vegetation areas within AF (B) Region (lime green) of possible formation of eastern corridors of humid forests connecting eastern AF and northern ATF Humid forests could have developed in regions that today are covered by Caatinga or Cerrado vegetation38 3958-67 During these periods western AF is not dry enough to cause contraction of humid tropical forest distribution (C) Region (lime green) of possible formation of western corridors of humid forest during high austral summer insolation times connecting western AF ANF and southwestern ATF Humid forests could have developed in regions that today are covered by Chaco vegetation68-70 In contrast eastern Amazonia

(hatched) was drier during these periods as inferred from large heavier excursions of δ18O values in cave records and the forest may have been replaced by drier vegetation and possibly reduced or fragmented in refugia

14

Supplementary Figure S13 Richness patterns of forest bird species shared by AFANF and southern (A) or northern (B) ATF Species with distribution restricted to southern ATF are more common in western AF and ANF than in eastern AF On the other hand a higher number of species restricted to northern ATF occur in eastern AF instead of western AF andor ANF The maps were produced with distributional data of forest bird species71-74 available in NatureServe website75 We considered all species with distribution restricted to northern or southern ATF that also occurs in AF andor ANF Map (A) species Amazona farinosa Batara cinerea Chaetura cinereiventris Chamaeza campanisona Chlorophonia cyanea Chloroceryle inda Cissopis leverianus Conopias trivirgatus Discosura langsdorffi Elaenia obscura Euphonia xanthogaster Hylophilus thoracicus Laniisoma elegans Lochmias nematura Lophornis chalybeus Malacoptila striata Nyctibius aethereus Nyctibius grandis Onychorhynchus coronatus-swainsonii Ortalis guttata Penelope obscura Percnohierax leucorrhous Phaeothlypis rivularis Philydor rufum Phyllomyias burmeisteri Phylloscartes ventralis Pipraeidea melanonota Poecilotriccus plumbeiceps Pyroderus scutatus Ramphotrigon megacephalum Selenidera maculirostris-gouldii Syndactyla rufosuperciliata Tangara mexicana Tigrisoma fasciatum Trichothraupis melanops Trogon rufus Turdus flavipes Map (B) species Arremon taciturnus Attila spadiceus Cercomacra laeta Chiroxiphia pareola Cyanerpes cyaneus Dendrocolaptes certhia Discosura longicaudus Lipaugus vociferans Mionectes oleaginous Myrmotherula axillaris Ornithion inerme Picumnus exilis Pionus menstruus Pipra rubrocapilla Poecilotriccus fumifrons Pteroglossus aracari Pteroglossus inscriptus Pyriglena leuconota Rhynchocyclus olivaceus Schiffornis turdina Sclerurus caudacutus Sclerurus mexicanus Tangara velia Thamnomanes caesius Thamnophilus aethiops Thamnophilus palliatus Tolmomyias poliocephalus Turdus fumigatus Xiphorhynchus guttatus

15

Supplementary References

50 Colinvaux P A Bush M B Steinitz-Kannan M amp Miller M C Glacial and postglacial pollen records from the Ecuadorian Andes and Amazon Quat Res 48 69ndash78 (1997)

51 Cheng H et al Improvements in 230Th dating 230Th and 234U half-life values and U-Th isotopic measurements by multi-collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy Earth Planet Sci Lett In revision (2012)

52 Scholz D amp Hoffmann D L StalAge an algorithm designed for construction of speleothem age models Quat Geochron 6 369ndash382 (2011)

53 Rozanski K Araguds-Araguds L amp Gonfiantini R Isotopic patterns in modem global precipitation In PK Swart KC Lohman J McKenzie and S Savin (eds) Climate Change in Continental Isotopic Records - Geophysical Monograph 78 American Geophysical Union Washington DC p 1ndash36 (1993)

54 Wang X F et al Millennial-scale precipitation changes in southern Brazil over the past 90000 years Geophys Res Lett 34 L23701 doi1010292007GL031149 (2007)

55 Cruz Jr F W Burns S J Karmann I Sharp W D amp Vuille M Reconstruction of regional atmospheric circulation features during the late Pleistocene in subtropical Brazil from oxygen isotope composition of speleothems Earth Planet Sci Lett 248 495ndash507 (2006)

56 Fritz S C Baker P Ekdahl E Seltzer G O amp Stevens L Millennial992256scale climate variability during the last glacial period in the tropical Andes Quat Sci Rev 29 1017ndash1024 (2010)

57 Wolter K amp Timlin M S Measuring the strength of ENSO events ndash how does 1997 98 rank Weather 53 315ndash324 (1998)

58 Bigarella J J Andrade-Lima D amp Riehs P J Consideraccedilotildees a respeito das mudanccedilas paleoambientais na distribuiccedilatildeo de algumas espeacutecies vegetais e animais no Brasil Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciecircncias 47 411ndash464 (1975)

59 Andrade-Lima D Present-day forest refuges in northeastern Brazil In Prance G T (ed) Biological Diversification in the Tropics Columbia University Press New York 245ndash251 (1982)

60 Oliveira-Filho A T amp Ratter J A A study of the origin of central Brazilian forests by the analysis of plant species distribution patterns Edinburgh Journal of Botany 52 141ndash194 (1995)

61 Vivo M Mammalian evidence of historical ecological change in the Caatinga semiarid vegetation of northeastern Brazil Jour Comparative Biology 2 65ndash73 (1997)

62 Silva J M C Distribution of Amazonian and Atlantic Birds in gallery forests of the cerrado region South America Ornitologiacutea Neotropical 7 1ndash18 (1996)

63 De Oliveira P E Barreto AM amp Suguio K Late PleistoceneHolocene climatic and vegetational history of the Brazilian caatinga the fossil dunes of the middle Satildeo Francisco River Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 152 319ndash337 (1999)

64 Auler A S et al Quaternary ecological and geomorphic changes associated with rainfall events in presently semiarid northeastern Brazil Jour Quat Sci 19 693ndash701 (2004)

65 Santos A M M Cavalcanti D R Silva J M C amp Tabarelli M Biogeographical relationships among tropical forests in north-eastern Brazil Jour Biogeography 34 437ndash446 (2007)

16

66 Carnaval A C O Q amp Moritz C M Historical climate change predicts current biodiversity patterns in the Brazilian Atlantic rainforest Jour Biogeography 35 1187-1201 (2008)

67 dHorta F M Cabanne G S Meyer D amp Miyaki C Y The genetic effects of Late Quaternary climatic changes over a tropical latitudinal gradient diversification of an Atlantic Forest passerine Molecular Ecology 20 1923ndash1935 (2011)

68 Nores M Bird speciation in subtropical South America in relation to forest expansion and retraction The Auk 109 346ndash357 (1992)

69 Nores M Quaternary Vegetational Changes and Bird Differentiation in Subtropical South America The Auk 111 499ndash503 (1994)

70 Silva J M C Can avian distribution patterns in northern Argentina be related to gallery forest expansion-retraction caused by quaternary climatic changes The Auk 111 495ndash499 (1994)

71 del Hoyo J Elliott A amp Christie DA eds Handbook of the birds of the world 8 vols Lynx Edicions Barcelona 2003ndash2010

72 del Hoyo J Elliott A amp Sargatal J eds Handbook of the birds of the world 7 vols Lynx Edicions Barcelona 1992ndash2002

73 Ridgely R S amp Tudor G The birds of South America Vol I Oxford Univ Press Tokyo (1989)

74 Ridgely R S amp Tudor G The birds of South America Vol II Univ of Texas Press Austin (1994)

75 Ridgely R S et al Digital Distribution Maps of the Birds of the Western Hemisphere version 30 NatureServe Arlington Virginia (2007)

• Climate change patterns in Amazonia and biodiversity

9

Supplementary Figure S8 Millennial scale events in South American records (A) Western Amazon δ18O records from NAR cave (blue) and ELC cave (green) (B) The δ18O record from Pacupahuain cave (1124degS 7582degW 3800 m a s l) in the central Peruvian Andes14 (C) Botuveraacute cave δ18O records southern Brazil1854 (D) Santana cave δ18O records southern Brazil55 (E) Rio Grande do Norte cave δ18O record northeastern Brazil21 (F) Northeastern Brazil pluvial events20 (G) Biogenetic silica () Lake Titicaca southern Peru56 Numbers indicate Greenland interstadials The vertical bars depict Heinrich events (H1 to H6) and the Younger Dryas event (YD)

10

Supplementary Figure S9 Correlation map between the gridded seasonal precipitation and ENSO variations (adapted from ref 30) ENSO changes are based on the Multivariate ENSO Index (MEI)57 Gridded fields are from University of Delaware (1950ndash1999) Only correlations in excess of plusmn02 are shown (roughly the threshold of the 95 significance level) Stars depict cave locations in western Amazonia (1) eastern Amazonia (2) northeastern Brazil (3) and southern Brazil (4) (see Figure 1 for cave names) To a first order the three sites (1 to 3) in equatorial tropical South America share a similar MEI-rainfall relationship which is different from the southern Brazil site El Nintildeo and La Nintildea (positive and negative MEI) episodes are associated with below and above normal rainfalls over equatorial tropical South America (cave sites 1 to 3) respectively and the pattern is just the opposite in southern Brazil (the cave site 4)

11

Supplementary Figure S10 Comparison between ENSO and South American speleothem records Nintildeo3 temperature anomalies estimated with the Zebiak and Cane model46 depict the orbital ENSO variability Speleothem δ18O records from southern Brazil (A)18 western Amazonia (B) and northeastern Brazil-eastern Amazon (C)21 are plotted in the same direction with lower δ18O value (upward) indicating more rainfall to a first order As relations of precipitation to ENSO change are reverse in southern Brazil and in equatorial tropical South America (Supplementary Fig S9) the Nintildeo3 temperature anomalies are plotted in different directions with increasing up (El Nintildeo-like mode upward) and down (La Nintildea-like mode upward) in comparison with speleothem records from southern Brazil (A) and Amazonia-northeastern Brazil (equatorial regions B and C) respectively The brown arrow thus indicates more rainfall amount and lower δ18O values induced by ENSO change for all regions Providing that the modern spatial pattern of ENSO can be extended on longer timescales it is apparent that ENSO broadly reinforces the orbital SAM changes as recorded in speleothem records in eastern Amazonia and northeastern-southern Brazil (A and C) and however counterbalances only the orbital SAM variability in western Amazonia that is presumably induced by austral summer insolation as inferred from southern Brazil records This modulating influence of ENSO could explain at least partially why rainfall changes in western Amazonia are of smaller amplitude on orbital scales

12

Supplementary Figure S11 Peruvian δ18O records during glacial times Left panel (A) Asian Monsoon (AM) records (Hulu-Dongge-Sanbao caves)44 The grey curve is the boreal summer (JJA) insolation at 65degN45 (B) The ELC cave record and austral summer (DJF) insolation at 10degS (grey)45 (C) The NAR record and austral summer (DJF) insolation at 10degS (grey)45 Dashed red curves depict that the AM broadly follows boreal summer insolation during the ice age and in contrast both ELC and NAR records do not closely track austral summer insolation during the ice age The vertical bars show Heinrich events (H1 to H6) and the Younger Dryas event (YD) Right panel (A) The AM record (Sanbao cave)15 The grey curve is the boreal summer (JJA) insolation at 65degN45 (B) The NAR record and austral summer (DJF) insolation at 10degS (grey)45 The vertical bar shows the

Weak Monsoon Interval (WMI) in the AM record Dashed red curves depict the similar δ18O excursion between the South American Monsoon (SAM) and the AM during the last portion of the Marine Isotope Stage 6 In contrast the AM has a broadly anti-phasing relationship with the SAM during interglacial times

13

Supplementary Figure S12 Current and potential past distributions of forests in cis-Andean South America (A) Current distribution of Amazon (AF) Andean (ANF) and Atlantic Forest (ATF) Dark green humid forests Orange open vegetation areas within AF (B) Region (lime green) of possible formation of eastern corridors of humid forests connecting eastern AF and northern ATF Humid forests could have developed in regions that today are covered by Caatinga or Cerrado vegetation38 3958-67 During these periods western AF is not dry enough to cause contraction of humid tropical forest distribution (C) Region (lime green) of possible formation of western corridors of humid forest during high austral summer insolation times connecting western AF ANF and southwestern ATF Humid forests could have developed in regions that today are covered by Chaco vegetation68-70 In contrast eastern Amazonia

(hatched) was drier during these periods as inferred from large heavier excursions of δ18O values in cave records and the forest may have been replaced by drier vegetation and possibly reduced or fragmented in refugia

14

Supplementary Figure S13 Richness patterns of forest bird species shared by AFANF and southern (A) or northern (B) ATF Species with distribution restricted to southern ATF are more common in western AF and ANF than in eastern AF On the other hand a higher number of species restricted to northern ATF occur in eastern AF instead of western AF andor ANF The maps were produced with distributional data of forest bird species71-74 available in NatureServe website75 We considered all species with distribution restricted to northern or southern ATF that also occurs in AF andor ANF Map (A) species Amazona farinosa Batara cinerea Chaetura cinereiventris Chamaeza campanisona Chlorophonia cyanea Chloroceryle inda Cissopis leverianus Conopias trivirgatus Discosura langsdorffi Elaenia obscura Euphonia xanthogaster Hylophilus thoracicus Laniisoma elegans Lochmias nematura Lophornis chalybeus Malacoptila striata Nyctibius aethereus Nyctibius grandis Onychorhynchus coronatus-swainsonii Ortalis guttata Penelope obscura Percnohierax leucorrhous Phaeothlypis rivularis Philydor rufum Phyllomyias burmeisteri Phylloscartes ventralis Pipraeidea melanonota Poecilotriccus plumbeiceps Pyroderus scutatus Ramphotrigon megacephalum Selenidera maculirostris-gouldii Syndactyla rufosuperciliata Tangara mexicana Tigrisoma fasciatum Trichothraupis melanops Trogon rufus Turdus flavipes Map (B) species Arremon taciturnus Attila spadiceus Cercomacra laeta Chiroxiphia pareola Cyanerpes cyaneus Dendrocolaptes certhia Discosura longicaudus Lipaugus vociferans Mionectes oleaginous Myrmotherula axillaris Ornithion inerme Picumnus exilis Pionus menstruus Pipra rubrocapilla Poecilotriccus fumifrons Pteroglossus aracari Pteroglossus inscriptus Pyriglena leuconota Rhynchocyclus olivaceus Schiffornis turdina Sclerurus caudacutus Sclerurus mexicanus Tangara velia Thamnomanes caesius Thamnophilus aethiops Thamnophilus palliatus Tolmomyias poliocephalus Turdus fumigatus Xiphorhynchus guttatus

15

Supplementary References

50 Colinvaux P A Bush M B Steinitz-Kannan M amp Miller M C Glacial and postglacial pollen records from the Ecuadorian Andes and Amazon Quat Res 48 69ndash78 (1997)

51 Cheng H et al Improvements in 230Th dating 230Th and 234U half-life values and U-Th isotopic measurements by multi-collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy Earth Planet Sci Lett In revision (2012)

52 Scholz D amp Hoffmann D L StalAge an algorithm designed for construction of speleothem age models Quat Geochron 6 369ndash382 (2011)

53 Rozanski K Araguds-Araguds L amp Gonfiantini R Isotopic patterns in modem global precipitation In PK Swart KC Lohman J McKenzie and S Savin (eds) Climate Change in Continental Isotopic Records - Geophysical Monograph 78 American Geophysical Union Washington DC p 1ndash36 (1993)

54 Wang X F et al Millennial-scale precipitation changes in southern Brazil over the past 90000 years Geophys Res Lett 34 L23701 doi1010292007GL031149 (2007)

55 Cruz Jr F W Burns S J Karmann I Sharp W D amp Vuille M Reconstruction of regional atmospheric circulation features during the late Pleistocene in subtropical Brazil from oxygen isotope composition of speleothems Earth Planet Sci Lett 248 495ndash507 (2006)

56 Fritz S C Baker P Ekdahl E Seltzer G O amp Stevens L Millennial992256scale climate variability during the last glacial period in the tropical Andes Quat Sci Rev 29 1017ndash1024 (2010)

57 Wolter K amp Timlin M S Measuring the strength of ENSO events ndash how does 1997 98 rank Weather 53 315ndash324 (1998)

58 Bigarella J J Andrade-Lima D amp Riehs P J Consideraccedilotildees a respeito das mudanccedilas paleoambientais na distribuiccedilatildeo de algumas espeacutecies vegetais e animais no Brasil Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciecircncias 47 411ndash464 (1975)

59 Andrade-Lima D Present-day forest refuges in northeastern Brazil In Prance G T (ed) Biological Diversification in the Tropics Columbia University Press New York 245ndash251 (1982)

60 Oliveira-Filho A T amp Ratter J A A study of the origin of central Brazilian forests by the analysis of plant species distribution patterns Edinburgh Journal of Botany 52 141ndash194 (1995)

61 Vivo M Mammalian evidence of historical ecological change in the Caatinga semiarid vegetation of northeastern Brazil Jour Comparative Biology 2 65ndash73 (1997)

62 Silva J M C Distribution of Amazonian and Atlantic Birds in gallery forests of the cerrado region South America Ornitologiacutea Neotropical 7 1ndash18 (1996)

63 De Oliveira P E Barreto AM amp Suguio K Late PleistoceneHolocene climatic and vegetational history of the Brazilian caatinga the fossil dunes of the middle Satildeo Francisco River Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 152 319ndash337 (1999)

64 Auler A S et al Quaternary ecological and geomorphic changes associated with rainfall events in presently semiarid northeastern Brazil Jour Quat Sci 19 693ndash701 (2004)

65 Santos A M M Cavalcanti D R Silva J M C amp Tabarelli M Biogeographical relationships among tropical forests in north-eastern Brazil Jour Biogeography 34 437ndash446 (2007)

16

66 Carnaval A C O Q amp Moritz C M Historical climate change predicts current biodiversity patterns in the Brazilian Atlantic rainforest Jour Biogeography 35 1187-1201 (2008)

67 dHorta F M Cabanne G S Meyer D amp Miyaki C Y The genetic effects of Late Quaternary climatic changes over a tropical latitudinal gradient diversification of an Atlantic Forest passerine Molecular Ecology 20 1923ndash1935 (2011)

68 Nores M Bird speciation in subtropical South America in relation to forest expansion and retraction The Auk 109 346ndash357 (1992)

69 Nores M Quaternary Vegetational Changes and Bird Differentiation in Subtropical South America The Auk 111 499ndash503 (1994)

70 Silva J M C Can avian distribution patterns in northern Argentina be related to gallery forest expansion-retraction caused by quaternary climatic changes The Auk 111 495ndash499 (1994)

71 del Hoyo J Elliott A amp Christie DA eds Handbook of the birds of the world 8 vols Lynx Edicions Barcelona 2003ndash2010

72 del Hoyo J Elliott A amp Sargatal J eds Handbook of the birds of the world 7 vols Lynx Edicions Barcelona 1992ndash2002

73 Ridgely R S amp Tudor G The birds of South America Vol I Oxford Univ Press Tokyo (1989)

74 Ridgely R S amp Tudor G The birds of South America Vol II Univ of Texas Press Austin (1994)

75 Ridgely R S et al Digital Distribution Maps of the Birds of the Western Hemisphere version 30 NatureServe Arlington Virginia (2007)

• Climate change patterns in Amazonia and biodiversity

10

Supplementary Figure S9 Correlation map between the gridded seasonal precipitation and ENSO variations (adapted from ref 30) ENSO changes are based on the Multivariate ENSO Index (MEI)57 Gridded fields are from University of Delaware (1950ndash1999) Only correlations in excess of plusmn02 are shown (roughly the threshold of the 95 significance level) Stars depict cave locations in western Amazonia (1) eastern Amazonia (2) northeastern Brazil (3) and southern Brazil (4) (see Figure 1 for cave names) To a first order the three sites (1 to 3) in equatorial tropical South America share a similar MEI-rainfall relationship which is different from the southern Brazil site El Nintildeo and La Nintildea (positive and negative MEI) episodes are associated with below and above normal rainfalls over equatorial tropical South America (cave sites 1 to 3) respectively and the pattern is just the opposite in southern Brazil (the cave site 4)

11

Supplementary Figure S10 Comparison between ENSO and South American speleothem records Nintildeo3 temperature anomalies estimated with the Zebiak and Cane model46 depict the orbital ENSO variability Speleothem δ18O records from southern Brazil (A)18 western Amazonia (B) and northeastern Brazil-eastern Amazon (C)21 are plotted in the same direction with lower δ18O value (upward) indicating more rainfall to a first order As relations of precipitation to ENSO change are reverse in southern Brazil and in equatorial tropical South America (Supplementary Fig S9) the Nintildeo3 temperature anomalies are plotted in different directions with increasing up (El Nintildeo-like mode upward) and down (La Nintildea-like mode upward) in comparison with speleothem records from southern Brazil (A) and Amazonia-northeastern Brazil (equatorial regions B and C) respectively The brown arrow thus indicates more rainfall amount and lower δ18O values induced by ENSO change for all regions Providing that the modern spatial pattern of ENSO can be extended on longer timescales it is apparent that ENSO broadly reinforces the orbital SAM changes as recorded in speleothem records in eastern Amazonia and northeastern-southern Brazil (A and C) and however counterbalances only the orbital SAM variability in western Amazonia that is presumably induced by austral summer insolation as inferred from southern Brazil records This modulating influence of ENSO could explain at least partially why rainfall changes in western Amazonia are of smaller amplitude on orbital scales

12

Supplementary Figure S11 Peruvian δ18O records during glacial times Left panel (A) Asian Monsoon (AM) records (Hulu-Dongge-Sanbao caves)44 The grey curve is the boreal summer (JJA) insolation at 65degN45 (B) The ELC cave record and austral summer (DJF) insolation at 10degS (grey)45 (C) The NAR record and austral summer (DJF) insolation at 10degS (grey)45 Dashed red curves depict that the AM broadly follows boreal summer insolation during the ice age and in contrast both ELC and NAR records do not closely track austral summer insolation during the ice age The vertical bars show Heinrich events (H1 to H6) and the Younger Dryas event (YD) Right panel (A) The AM record (Sanbao cave)15 The grey curve is the boreal summer (JJA) insolation at 65degN45 (B) The NAR record and austral summer (DJF) insolation at 10degS (grey)45 The vertical bar shows the

Weak Monsoon Interval (WMI) in the AM record Dashed red curves depict the similar δ18O excursion between the South American Monsoon (SAM) and the AM during the last portion of the Marine Isotope Stage 6 In contrast the AM has a broadly anti-phasing relationship with the SAM during interglacial times

13

Supplementary Figure S12 Current and potential past distributions of forests in cis-Andean South America (A) Current distribution of Amazon (AF) Andean (ANF) and Atlantic Forest (ATF) Dark green humid forests Orange open vegetation areas within AF (B) Region (lime green) of possible formation of eastern corridors of humid forests connecting eastern AF and northern ATF Humid forests could have developed in regions that today are covered by Caatinga or Cerrado vegetation38 3958-67 During these periods western AF is not dry enough to cause contraction of humid tropical forest distribution (C) Region (lime green) of possible formation of western corridors of humid forest during high austral summer insolation times connecting western AF ANF and southwestern ATF Humid forests could have developed in regions that today are covered by Chaco vegetation68-70 In contrast eastern Amazonia

(hatched) was drier during these periods as inferred from large heavier excursions of δ18O values in cave records and the forest may have been replaced by drier vegetation and possibly reduced or fragmented in refugia

14

Supplementary Figure S13 Richness patterns of forest bird species shared by AFANF and southern (A) or northern (B) ATF Species with distribution restricted to southern ATF are more common in western AF and ANF than in eastern AF On the other hand a higher number of species restricted to northern ATF occur in eastern AF instead of western AF andor ANF The maps were produced with distributional data of forest bird species71-74 available in NatureServe website75 We considered all species with distribution restricted to northern or southern ATF that also occurs in AF andor ANF Map (A) species Amazona farinosa Batara cinerea Chaetura cinereiventris Chamaeza campanisona Chlorophonia cyanea Chloroceryle inda Cissopis leverianus Conopias trivirgatus Discosura langsdorffi Elaenia obscura Euphonia xanthogaster Hylophilus thoracicus Laniisoma elegans Lochmias nematura Lophornis chalybeus Malacoptila striata Nyctibius aethereus Nyctibius grandis Onychorhynchus coronatus-swainsonii Ortalis guttata Penelope obscura Percnohierax leucorrhous Phaeothlypis rivularis Philydor rufum Phyllomyias burmeisteri Phylloscartes ventralis Pipraeidea melanonota Poecilotriccus plumbeiceps Pyroderus scutatus Ramphotrigon megacephalum Selenidera maculirostris-gouldii Syndactyla rufosuperciliata Tangara mexicana Tigrisoma fasciatum Trichothraupis melanops Trogon rufus Turdus flavipes Map (B) species Arremon taciturnus Attila spadiceus Cercomacra laeta Chiroxiphia pareola Cyanerpes cyaneus Dendrocolaptes certhia Discosura longicaudus Lipaugus vociferans Mionectes oleaginous Myrmotherula axillaris Ornithion inerme Picumnus exilis Pionus menstruus Pipra rubrocapilla Poecilotriccus fumifrons Pteroglossus aracari Pteroglossus inscriptus Pyriglena leuconota Rhynchocyclus olivaceus Schiffornis turdina Sclerurus caudacutus Sclerurus mexicanus Tangara velia Thamnomanes caesius Thamnophilus aethiops Thamnophilus palliatus Tolmomyias poliocephalus Turdus fumigatus Xiphorhynchus guttatus

15

Supplementary References

50 Colinvaux P A Bush M B Steinitz-Kannan M amp Miller M C Glacial and postglacial pollen records from the Ecuadorian Andes and Amazon Quat Res 48 69ndash78 (1997)

51 Cheng H et al Improvements in 230Th dating 230Th and 234U half-life values and U-Th isotopic measurements by multi-collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy Earth Planet Sci Lett In revision (2012)

52 Scholz D amp Hoffmann D L StalAge an algorithm designed for construction of speleothem age models Quat Geochron 6 369ndash382 (2011)

53 Rozanski K Araguds-Araguds L amp Gonfiantini R Isotopic patterns in modem global precipitation In PK Swart KC Lohman J McKenzie and S Savin (eds) Climate Change in Continental Isotopic Records - Geophysical Monograph 78 American Geophysical Union Washington DC p 1ndash36 (1993)

54 Wang X F et al Millennial-scale precipitation changes in southern Brazil over the past 90000 years Geophys Res Lett 34 L23701 doi1010292007GL031149 (2007)

55 Cruz Jr F W Burns S J Karmann I Sharp W D amp Vuille M Reconstruction of regional atmospheric circulation features during the late Pleistocene in subtropical Brazil from oxygen isotope composition of speleothems Earth Planet Sci Lett 248 495ndash507 (2006)

56 Fritz S C Baker P Ekdahl E Seltzer G O amp Stevens L Millennial992256scale climate variability during the last glacial period in the tropical Andes Quat Sci Rev 29 1017ndash1024 (2010)

57 Wolter K amp Timlin M S Measuring the strength of ENSO events ndash how does 1997 98 rank Weather 53 315ndash324 (1998)

58 Bigarella J J Andrade-Lima D amp Riehs P J Consideraccedilotildees a respeito das mudanccedilas paleoambientais na distribuiccedilatildeo de algumas espeacutecies vegetais e animais no Brasil Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciecircncias 47 411ndash464 (1975)

59 Andrade-Lima D Present-day forest refuges in northeastern Brazil In Prance G T (ed) Biological Diversification in the Tropics Columbia University Press New York 245ndash251 (1982)

60 Oliveira-Filho A T amp Ratter J A A study of the origin of central Brazilian forests by the analysis of plant species distribution patterns Edinburgh Journal of Botany 52 141ndash194 (1995)

61 Vivo M Mammalian evidence of historical ecological change in the Caatinga semiarid vegetation of northeastern Brazil Jour Comparative Biology 2 65ndash73 (1997)

62 Silva J M C Distribution of Amazonian and Atlantic Birds in gallery forests of the cerrado region South America Ornitologiacutea Neotropical 7 1ndash18 (1996)

63 De Oliveira P E Barreto AM amp Suguio K Late PleistoceneHolocene climatic and vegetational history of the Brazilian caatinga the fossil dunes of the middle Satildeo Francisco River Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 152 319ndash337 (1999)

64 Auler A S et al Quaternary ecological and geomorphic changes associated with rainfall events in presently semiarid northeastern Brazil Jour Quat Sci 19 693ndash701 (2004)

65 Santos A M M Cavalcanti D R Silva J M C amp Tabarelli M Biogeographical relationships among tropical forests in north-eastern Brazil Jour Biogeography 34 437ndash446 (2007)

16

66 Carnaval A C O Q amp Moritz C M Historical climate change predicts current biodiversity patterns in the Brazilian Atlantic rainforest Jour Biogeography 35 1187-1201 (2008)

67 dHorta F M Cabanne G S Meyer D amp Miyaki C Y The genetic effects of Late Quaternary climatic changes over a tropical latitudinal gradient diversification of an Atlantic Forest passerine Molecular Ecology 20 1923ndash1935 (2011)

68 Nores M Bird speciation in subtropical South America in relation to forest expansion and retraction The Auk 109 346ndash357 (1992)

69 Nores M Quaternary Vegetational Changes and Bird Differentiation in Subtropical South America The Auk 111 499ndash503 (1994)

70 Silva J M C Can avian distribution patterns in northern Argentina be related to gallery forest expansion-retraction caused by quaternary climatic changes The Auk 111 495ndash499 (1994)

71 del Hoyo J Elliott A amp Christie DA eds Handbook of the birds of the world 8 vols Lynx Edicions Barcelona 2003ndash2010

72 del Hoyo J Elliott A amp Sargatal J eds Handbook of the birds of the world 7 vols Lynx Edicions Barcelona 1992ndash2002

73 Ridgely R S amp Tudor G The birds of South America Vol I Oxford Univ Press Tokyo (1989)

74 Ridgely R S amp Tudor G The birds of South America Vol II Univ of Texas Press Austin (1994)

75 Ridgely R S et al Digital Distribution Maps of the Birds of the Western Hemisphere version 30 NatureServe Arlington Virginia (2007)

• Climate change patterns in Amazonia and biodiversity

11

Supplementary Figure S10 Comparison between ENSO and South American speleothem records Nintildeo3 temperature anomalies estimated with the Zebiak and Cane model46 depict the orbital ENSO variability Speleothem δ18O records from southern Brazil (A)18 western Amazonia (B) and northeastern Brazil-eastern Amazon (C)21 are plotted in the same direction with lower δ18O value (upward) indicating more rainfall to a first order As relations of precipitation to ENSO change are reverse in southern Brazil and in equatorial tropical South America (Supplementary Fig S9) the Nintildeo3 temperature anomalies are plotted in different directions with increasing up (El Nintildeo-like mode upward) and down (La Nintildea-like mode upward) in comparison with speleothem records from southern Brazil (A) and Amazonia-northeastern Brazil (equatorial regions B and C) respectively The brown arrow thus indicates more rainfall amount and lower δ18O values induced by ENSO change for all regions Providing that the modern spatial pattern of ENSO can be extended on longer timescales it is apparent that ENSO broadly reinforces the orbital SAM changes as recorded in speleothem records in eastern Amazonia and northeastern-southern Brazil (A and C) and however counterbalances only the orbital SAM variability in western Amazonia that is presumably induced by austral summer insolation as inferred from southern Brazil records This modulating influence of ENSO could explain at least partially why rainfall changes in western Amazonia are of smaller amplitude on orbital scales

12

Supplementary Figure S11 Peruvian δ18O records during glacial times Left panel (A) Asian Monsoon (AM) records (Hulu-Dongge-Sanbao caves)44 The grey curve is the boreal summer (JJA) insolation at 65degN45 (B) The ELC cave record and austral summer (DJF) insolation at 10degS (grey)45 (C) The NAR record and austral summer (DJF) insolation at 10degS (grey)45 Dashed red curves depict that the AM broadly follows boreal summer insolation during the ice age and in contrast both ELC and NAR records do not closely track austral summer insolation during the ice age The vertical bars show Heinrich events (H1 to H6) and the Younger Dryas event (YD) Right panel (A) The AM record (Sanbao cave)15 The grey curve is the boreal summer (JJA) insolation at 65degN45 (B) The NAR record and austral summer (DJF) insolation at 10degS (grey)45 The vertical bar shows the

Weak Monsoon Interval (WMI) in the AM record Dashed red curves depict the similar δ18O excursion between the South American Monsoon (SAM) and the AM during the last portion of the Marine Isotope Stage 6 In contrast the AM has a broadly anti-phasing relationship with the SAM during interglacial times

13

Supplementary Figure S12 Current and potential past distributions of forests in cis-Andean South America (A) Current distribution of Amazon (AF) Andean (ANF) and Atlantic Forest (ATF) Dark green humid forests Orange open vegetation areas within AF (B) Region (lime green) of possible formation of eastern corridors of humid forests connecting eastern AF and northern ATF Humid forests could have developed in regions that today are covered by Caatinga or Cerrado vegetation38 3958-67 During these periods western AF is not dry enough to cause contraction of humid tropical forest distribution (C) Region (lime green) of possible formation of western corridors of humid forest during high austral summer insolation times connecting western AF ANF and southwestern ATF Humid forests could have developed in regions that today are covered by Chaco vegetation68-70 In contrast eastern Amazonia

(hatched) was drier during these periods as inferred from large heavier excursions of δ18O values in cave records and the forest may have been replaced by drier vegetation and possibly reduced or fragmented in refugia

14

Supplementary Figure S13 Richness patterns of forest bird species shared by AFANF and southern (A) or northern (B) ATF Species with distribution restricted to southern ATF are more common in western AF and ANF than in eastern AF On the other hand a higher number of species restricted to northern ATF occur in eastern AF instead of western AF andor ANF The maps were produced with distributional data of forest bird species71-74 available in NatureServe website75 We considered all species with distribution restricted to northern or southern ATF that also occurs in AF andor ANF Map (A) species Amazona farinosa Batara cinerea Chaetura cinereiventris Chamaeza campanisona Chlorophonia cyanea Chloroceryle inda Cissopis leverianus Conopias trivirgatus Discosura langsdorffi Elaenia obscura Euphonia xanthogaster Hylophilus thoracicus Laniisoma elegans Lochmias nematura Lophornis chalybeus Malacoptila striata Nyctibius aethereus Nyctibius grandis Onychorhynchus coronatus-swainsonii Ortalis guttata Penelope obscura Percnohierax leucorrhous Phaeothlypis rivularis Philydor rufum Phyllomyias burmeisteri Phylloscartes ventralis Pipraeidea melanonota Poecilotriccus plumbeiceps Pyroderus scutatus Ramphotrigon megacephalum Selenidera maculirostris-gouldii Syndactyla rufosuperciliata Tangara mexicana Tigrisoma fasciatum Trichothraupis melanops Trogon rufus Turdus flavipes Map (B) species Arremon taciturnus Attila spadiceus Cercomacra laeta Chiroxiphia pareola Cyanerpes cyaneus Dendrocolaptes certhia Discosura longicaudus Lipaugus vociferans Mionectes oleaginous Myrmotherula axillaris Ornithion inerme Picumnus exilis Pionus menstruus Pipra rubrocapilla Poecilotriccus fumifrons Pteroglossus aracari Pteroglossus inscriptus Pyriglena leuconota Rhynchocyclus olivaceus Schiffornis turdina Sclerurus caudacutus Sclerurus mexicanus Tangara velia Thamnomanes caesius Thamnophilus aethiops Thamnophilus palliatus Tolmomyias poliocephalus Turdus fumigatus Xiphorhynchus guttatus

15

Supplementary References

50 Colinvaux P A Bush M B Steinitz-Kannan M amp Miller M C Glacial and postglacial pollen records from the Ecuadorian Andes and Amazon Quat Res 48 69ndash78 (1997)

51 Cheng H et al Improvements in 230Th dating 230Th and 234U half-life values and U-Th isotopic measurements by multi-collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy Earth Planet Sci Lett In revision (2012)

52 Scholz D amp Hoffmann D L StalAge an algorithm designed for construction of speleothem age models Quat Geochron 6 369ndash382 (2011)

53 Rozanski K Araguds-Araguds L amp Gonfiantini R Isotopic patterns in modem global precipitation In PK Swart KC Lohman J McKenzie and S Savin (eds) Climate Change in Continental Isotopic Records - Geophysical Monograph 78 American Geophysical Union Washington DC p 1ndash36 (1993)

54 Wang X F et al Millennial-scale precipitation changes in southern Brazil over the past 90000 years Geophys Res Lett 34 L23701 doi1010292007GL031149 (2007)

55 Cruz Jr F W Burns S J Karmann I Sharp W D amp Vuille M Reconstruction of regional atmospheric circulation features during the late Pleistocene in subtropical Brazil from oxygen isotope composition of speleothems Earth Planet Sci Lett 248 495ndash507 (2006)

56 Fritz S C Baker P Ekdahl E Seltzer G O amp Stevens L Millennial992256scale climate variability during the last glacial period in the tropical Andes Quat Sci Rev 29 1017ndash1024 (2010)

57 Wolter K amp Timlin M S Measuring the strength of ENSO events ndash how does 1997 98 rank Weather 53 315ndash324 (1998)

58 Bigarella J J Andrade-Lima D amp Riehs P J Consideraccedilotildees a respeito das mudanccedilas paleoambientais na distribuiccedilatildeo de algumas espeacutecies vegetais e animais no Brasil Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciecircncias 47 411ndash464 (1975)

59 Andrade-Lima D Present-day forest refuges in northeastern Brazil In Prance G T (ed) Biological Diversification in the Tropics Columbia University Press New York 245ndash251 (1982)

60 Oliveira-Filho A T amp Ratter J A A study of the origin of central Brazilian forests by the analysis of plant species distribution patterns Edinburgh Journal of Botany 52 141ndash194 (1995)

61 Vivo M Mammalian evidence of historical ecological change in the Caatinga semiarid vegetation of northeastern Brazil Jour Comparative Biology 2 65ndash73 (1997)

62 Silva J M C Distribution of Amazonian and Atlantic Birds in gallery forests of the cerrado region South America Ornitologiacutea Neotropical 7 1ndash18 (1996)

63 De Oliveira P E Barreto AM amp Suguio K Late PleistoceneHolocene climatic and vegetational history of the Brazilian caatinga the fossil dunes of the middle Satildeo Francisco River Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 152 319ndash337 (1999)

64 Auler A S et al Quaternary ecological and geomorphic changes associated with rainfall events in presently semiarid northeastern Brazil Jour Quat Sci 19 693ndash701 (2004)

65 Santos A M M Cavalcanti D R Silva J M C amp Tabarelli M Biogeographical relationships among tropical forests in north-eastern Brazil Jour Biogeography 34 437ndash446 (2007)

16

66 Carnaval A C O Q amp Moritz C M Historical climate change predicts current biodiversity patterns in the Brazilian Atlantic rainforest Jour Biogeography 35 1187-1201 (2008)

67 dHorta F M Cabanne G S Meyer D amp Miyaki C Y The genetic effects of Late Quaternary climatic changes over a tropical latitudinal gradient diversification of an Atlantic Forest passerine Molecular Ecology 20 1923ndash1935 (2011)

68 Nores M Bird speciation in subtropical South America in relation to forest expansion and retraction The Auk 109 346ndash357 (1992)

69 Nores M Quaternary Vegetational Changes and Bird Differentiation in Subtropical South America The Auk 111 499ndash503 (1994)

70 Silva J M C Can avian distribution patterns in northern Argentina be related to gallery forest expansion-retraction caused by quaternary climatic changes The Auk 111 495ndash499 (1994)

71 del Hoyo J Elliott A amp Christie DA eds Handbook of the birds of the world 8 vols Lynx Edicions Barcelona 2003ndash2010

72 del Hoyo J Elliott A amp Sargatal J eds Handbook of the birds of the world 7 vols Lynx Edicions Barcelona 1992ndash2002

73 Ridgely R S amp Tudor G The birds of South America Vol I Oxford Univ Press Tokyo (1989)

74 Ridgely R S amp Tudor G The birds of South America Vol II Univ of Texas Press Austin (1994)

75 Ridgely R S et al Digital Distribution Maps of the Birds of the Western Hemisphere version 30 NatureServe Arlington Virginia (2007)

• Climate change patterns in Amazonia and biodiversity

12

Supplementary Figure S11 Peruvian δ18O records during glacial times Left panel (A) Asian Monsoon (AM) records (Hulu-Dongge-Sanbao caves)44 The grey curve is the boreal summer (JJA) insolation at 65degN45 (B) The ELC cave record and austral summer (DJF) insolation at 10degS (grey)45 (C) The NAR record and austral summer (DJF) insolation at 10degS (grey)45 Dashed red curves depict that the AM broadly follows boreal summer insolation during the ice age and in contrast both ELC and NAR records do not closely track austral summer insolation during the ice age The vertical bars show Heinrich events (H1 to H6) and the Younger Dryas event (YD) Right panel (A) The AM record (Sanbao cave)15 The grey curve is the boreal summer (JJA) insolation at 65degN45 (B) The NAR record and austral summer (DJF) insolation at 10degS (grey)45 The vertical bar shows the

Weak Monsoon Interval (WMI) in the AM record Dashed red curves depict the similar δ18O excursion between the South American Monsoon (SAM) and the AM during the last portion of the Marine Isotope Stage 6 In contrast the AM has a broadly anti-phasing relationship with the SAM during interglacial times

13

Supplementary Figure S12 Current and potential past distributions of forests in cis-Andean South America (A) Current distribution of Amazon (AF) Andean (ANF) and Atlantic Forest (ATF) Dark green humid forests Orange open vegetation areas within AF (B) Region (lime green) of possible formation of eastern corridors of humid forests connecting eastern AF and northern ATF Humid forests could have developed in regions that today are covered by Caatinga or Cerrado vegetation38 3958-67 During these periods western AF is not dry enough to cause contraction of humid tropical forest distribution (C) Region (lime green) of possible formation of western corridors of humid forest during high austral summer insolation times connecting western AF ANF and southwestern ATF Humid forests could have developed in regions that today are covered by Chaco vegetation68-70 In contrast eastern Amazonia

(hatched) was drier during these periods as inferred from large heavier excursions of δ18O values in cave records and the forest may have been replaced by drier vegetation and possibly reduced or fragmented in refugia

14

Supplementary Figure S13 Richness patterns of forest bird species shared by AFANF and southern (A) or northern (B) ATF Species with distribution restricted to southern ATF are more common in western AF and ANF than in eastern AF On the other hand a higher number of species restricted to northern ATF occur in eastern AF instead of western AF andor ANF The maps were produced with distributional data of forest bird species71-74 available in NatureServe website75 We considered all species with distribution restricted to northern or southern ATF that also occurs in AF andor ANF Map (A) species Amazona farinosa Batara cinerea Chaetura cinereiventris Chamaeza campanisona Chlorophonia cyanea Chloroceryle inda Cissopis leverianus Conopias trivirgatus Discosura langsdorffi Elaenia obscura Euphonia xanthogaster Hylophilus thoracicus Laniisoma elegans Lochmias nematura Lophornis chalybeus Malacoptila striata Nyctibius aethereus Nyctibius grandis Onychorhynchus coronatus-swainsonii Ortalis guttata Penelope obscura Percnohierax leucorrhous Phaeothlypis rivularis Philydor rufum Phyllomyias burmeisteri Phylloscartes ventralis Pipraeidea melanonota Poecilotriccus plumbeiceps Pyroderus scutatus Ramphotrigon megacephalum Selenidera maculirostris-gouldii Syndactyla rufosuperciliata Tangara mexicana Tigrisoma fasciatum Trichothraupis melanops Trogon rufus Turdus flavipes Map (B) species Arremon taciturnus Attila spadiceus Cercomacra laeta Chiroxiphia pareola Cyanerpes cyaneus Dendrocolaptes certhia Discosura longicaudus Lipaugus vociferans Mionectes oleaginous Myrmotherula axillaris Ornithion inerme Picumnus exilis Pionus menstruus Pipra rubrocapilla Poecilotriccus fumifrons Pteroglossus aracari Pteroglossus inscriptus Pyriglena leuconota Rhynchocyclus olivaceus Schiffornis turdina Sclerurus caudacutus Sclerurus mexicanus Tangara velia Thamnomanes caesius Thamnophilus aethiops Thamnophilus palliatus Tolmomyias poliocephalus Turdus fumigatus Xiphorhynchus guttatus

15

Supplementary References

50 Colinvaux P A Bush M B Steinitz-Kannan M amp Miller M C Glacial and postglacial pollen records from the Ecuadorian Andes and Amazon Quat Res 48 69ndash78 (1997)

51 Cheng H et al Improvements in 230Th dating 230Th and 234U half-life values and U-Th isotopic measurements by multi-collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy Earth Planet Sci Lett In revision (2012)

52 Scholz D amp Hoffmann D L StalAge an algorithm designed for construction of speleothem age models Quat Geochron 6 369ndash382 (2011)

53 Rozanski K Araguds-Araguds L amp Gonfiantini R Isotopic patterns in modem global precipitation In PK Swart KC Lohman J McKenzie and S Savin (eds) Climate Change in Continental Isotopic Records - Geophysical Monograph 78 American Geophysical Union Washington DC p 1ndash36 (1993)

54 Wang X F et al Millennial-scale precipitation changes in southern Brazil over the past 90000 years Geophys Res Lett 34 L23701 doi1010292007GL031149 (2007)

55 Cruz Jr F W Burns S J Karmann I Sharp W D amp Vuille M Reconstruction of regional atmospheric circulation features during the late Pleistocene in subtropical Brazil from oxygen isotope composition of speleothems Earth Planet Sci Lett 248 495ndash507 (2006)

56 Fritz S C Baker P Ekdahl E Seltzer G O amp Stevens L Millennial992256scale climate variability during the last glacial period in the tropical Andes Quat Sci Rev 29 1017ndash1024 (2010)

57 Wolter K amp Timlin M S Measuring the strength of ENSO events ndash how does 1997 98 rank Weather 53 315ndash324 (1998)

58 Bigarella J J Andrade-Lima D amp Riehs P J Consideraccedilotildees a respeito das mudanccedilas paleoambientais na distribuiccedilatildeo de algumas espeacutecies vegetais e animais no Brasil Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciecircncias 47 411ndash464 (1975)

59 Andrade-Lima D Present-day forest refuges in northeastern Brazil In Prance G T (ed) Biological Diversification in the Tropics Columbia University Press New York 245ndash251 (1982)

60 Oliveira-Filho A T amp Ratter J A A study of the origin of central Brazilian forests by the analysis of plant species distribution patterns Edinburgh Journal of Botany 52 141ndash194 (1995)

61 Vivo M Mammalian evidence of historical ecological change in the Caatinga semiarid vegetation of northeastern Brazil Jour Comparative Biology 2 65ndash73 (1997)

62 Silva J M C Distribution of Amazonian and Atlantic Birds in gallery forests of the cerrado region South America Ornitologiacutea Neotropical 7 1ndash18 (1996)

63 De Oliveira P E Barreto AM amp Suguio K Late PleistoceneHolocene climatic and vegetational history of the Brazilian caatinga the fossil dunes of the middle Satildeo Francisco River Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 152 319ndash337 (1999)

64 Auler A S et al Quaternary ecological and geomorphic changes associated with rainfall events in presently semiarid northeastern Brazil Jour Quat Sci 19 693ndash701 (2004)

65 Santos A M M Cavalcanti D R Silva J M C amp Tabarelli M Biogeographical relationships among tropical forests in north-eastern Brazil Jour Biogeography 34 437ndash446 (2007)

16

66 Carnaval A C O Q amp Moritz C M Historical climate change predicts current biodiversity patterns in the Brazilian Atlantic rainforest Jour Biogeography 35 1187-1201 (2008)

67 dHorta F M Cabanne G S Meyer D amp Miyaki C Y The genetic effects of Late Quaternary climatic changes over a tropical latitudinal gradient diversification of an Atlantic Forest passerine Molecular Ecology 20 1923ndash1935 (2011)

68 Nores M Bird speciation in subtropical South America in relation to forest expansion and retraction The Auk 109 346ndash357 (1992)

69 Nores M Quaternary Vegetational Changes and Bird Differentiation in Subtropical South America The Auk 111 499ndash503 (1994)

70 Silva J M C Can avian distribution patterns in northern Argentina be related to gallery forest expansion-retraction caused by quaternary climatic changes The Auk 111 495ndash499 (1994)

71 del Hoyo J Elliott A amp Christie DA eds Handbook of the birds of the world 8 vols Lynx Edicions Barcelona 2003ndash2010

72 del Hoyo J Elliott A amp Sargatal J eds Handbook of the birds of the world 7 vols Lynx Edicions Barcelona 1992ndash2002

73 Ridgely R S amp Tudor G The birds of South America Vol I Oxford Univ Press Tokyo (1989)

74 Ridgely R S amp Tudor G The birds of South America Vol II Univ of Texas Press Austin (1994)

75 Ridgely R S et al Digital Distribution Maps of the Birds of the Western Hemisphere version 30 NatureServe Arlington Virginia (2007)

• Climate change patterns in Amazonia and biodiversity

13

Supplementary Figure S12 Current and potential past distributions of forests in cis-Andean South America (A) Current distribution of Amazon (AF) Andean (ANF) and Atlantic Forest (ATF) Dark green humid forests Orange open vegetation areas within AF (B) Region (lime green) of possible formation of eastern corridors of humid forests connecting eastern AF and northern ATF Humid forests could have developed in regions that today are covered by Caatinga or Cerrado vegetation38 3958-67 During these periods western AF is not dry enough to cause contraction of humid tropical forest distribution (C) Region (lime green) of possible formation of western corridors of humid forest during high austral summer insolation times connecting western AF ANF and southwestern ATF Humid forests could have developed in regions that today are covered by Chaco vegetation68-70 In contrast eastern Amazonia

(hatched) was drier during these periods as inferred from large heavier excursions of δ18O values in cave records and the forest may have been replaced by drier vegetation and possibly reduced or fragmented in refugia

14

Supplementary Figure S13 Richness patterns of forest bird species shared by AFANF and southern (A) or northern (B) ATF Species with distribution restricted to southern ATF are more common in western AF and ANF than in eastern AF On the other hand a higher number of species restricted to northern ATF occur in eastern AF instead of western AF andor ANF The maps were produced with distributional data of forest bird species71-74 available in NatureServe website75 We considered all species with distribution restricted to northern or southern ATF that also occurs in AF andor ANF Map (A) species Amazona farinosa Batara cinerea Chaetura cinereiventris Chamaeza campanisona Chlorophonia cyanea Chloroceryle inda Cissopis leverianus Conopias trivirgatus Discosura langsdorffi Elaenia obscura Euphonia xanthogaster Hylophilus thoracicus Laniisoma elegans Lochmias nematura Lophornis chalybeus Malacoptila striata Nyctibius aethereus Nyctibius grandis Onychorhynchus coronatus-swainsonii Ortalis guttata Penelope obscura Percnohierax leucorrhous Phaeothlypis rivularis Philydor rufum Phyllomyias burmeisteri Phylloscartes ventralis Pipraeidea melanonota Poecilotriccus plumbeiceps Pyroderus scutatus Ramphotrigon megacephalum Selenidera maculirostris-gouldii Syndactyla rufosuperciliata Tangara mexicana Tigrisoma fasciatum Trichothraupis melanops Trogon rufus Turdus flavipes Map (B) species Arremon taciturnus Attila spadiceus Cercomacra laeta Chiroxiphia pareola Cyanerpes cyaneus Dendrocolaptes certhia Discosura longicaudus Lipaugus vociferans Mionectes oleaginous Myrmotherula axillaris Ornithion inerme Picumnus exilis Pionus menstruus Pipra rubrocapilla Poecilotriccus fumifrons Pteroglossus aracari Pteroglossus inscriptus Pyriglena leuconota Rhynchocyclus olivaceus Schiffornis turdina Sclerurus caudacutus Sclerurus mexicanus Tangara velia Thamnomanes caesius Thamnophilus aethiops Thamnophilus palliatus Tolmomyias poliocephalus Turdus fumigatus Xiphorhynchus guttatus

15

Supplementary References

50 Colinvaux P A Bush M B Steinitz-Kannan M amp Miller M C Glacial and postglacial pollen records from the Ecuadorian Andes and Amazon Quat Res 48 69ndash78 (1997)

51 Cheng H et al Improvements in 230Th dating 230Th and 234U half-life values and U-Th isotopic measurements by multi-collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy Earth Planet Sci Lett In revision (2012)

52 Scholz D amp Hoffmann D L StalAge an algorithm designed for construction of speleothem age models Quat Geochron 6 369ndash382 (2011)

53 Rozanski K Araguds-Araguds L amp Gonfiantini R Isotopic patterns in modem global precipitation In PK Swart KC Lohman J McKenzie and S Savin (eds) Climate Change in Continental Isotopic Records - Geophysical Monograph 78 American Geophysical Union Washington DC p 1ndash36 (1993)

54 Wang X F et al Millennial-scale precipitation changes in southern Brazil over the past 90000 years Geophys Res Lett 34 L23701 doi1010292007GL031149 (2007)

55 Cruz Jr F W Burns S J Karmann I Sharp W D amp Vuille M Reconstruction of regional atmospheric circulation features during the late Pleistocene in subtropical Brazil from oxygen isotope composition of speleothems Earth Planet Sci Lett 248 495ndash507 (2006)

56 Fritz S C Baker P Ekdahl E Seltzer G O amp Stevens L Millennial992256scale climate variability during the last glacial period in the tropical Andes Quat Sci Rev 29 1017ndash1024 (2010)

57 Wolter K amp Timlin M S Measuring the strength of ENSO events ndash how does 1997 98 rank Weather 53 315ndash324 (1998)

58 Bigarella J J Andrade-Lima D amp Riehs P J Consideraccedilotildees a respeito das mudanccedilas paleoambientais na distribuiccedilatildeo de algumas espeacutecies vegetais e animais no Brasil Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciecircncias 47 411ndash464 (1975)

59 Andrade-Lima D Present-day forest refuges in northeastern Brazil In Prance G T (ed) Biological Diversification in the Tropics Columbia University Press New York 245ndash251 (1982)

60 Oliveira-Filho A T amp Ratter J A A study of the origin of central Brazilian forests by the analysis of plant species distribution patterns Edinburgh Journal of Botany 52 141ndash194 (1995)

61 Vivo M Mammalian evidence of historical ecological change in the Caatinga semiarid vegetation of northeastern Brazil Jour Comparative Biology 2 65ndash73 (1997)

62 Silva J M C Distribution of Amazonian and Atlantic Birds in gallery forests of the cerrado region South America Ornitologiacutea Neotropical 7 1ndash18 (1996)

63 De Oliveira P E Barreto AM amp Suguio K Late PleistoceneHolocene climatic and vegetational history of the Brazilian caatinga the fossil dunes of the middle Satildeo Francisco River Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 152 319ndash337 (1999)

64 Auler A S et al Quaternary ecological and geomorphic changes associated with rainfall events in presently semiarid northeastern Brazil Jour Quat Sci 19 693ndash701 (2004)

65 Santos A M M Cavalcanti D R Silva J M C amp Tabarelli M Biogeographical relationships among tropical forests in north-eastern Brazil Jour Biogeography 34 437ndash446 (2007)

16

66 Carnaval A C O Q amp Moritz C M Historical climate change predicts current biodiversity patterns in the Brazilian Atlantic rainforest Jour Biogeography 35 1187-1201 (2008)

67 dHorta F M Cabanne G S Meyer D amp Miyaki C Y The genetic effects of Late Quaternary climatic changes over a tropical latitudinal gradient diversification of an Atlantic Forest passerine Molecular Ecology 20 1923ndash1935 (2011)

68 Nores M Bird speciation in subtropical South America in relation to forest expansion and retraction The Auk 109 346ndash357 (1992)

69 Nores M Quaternary Vegetational Changes and Bird Differentiation in Subtropical South America The Auk 111 499ndash503 (1994)

70 Silva J M C Can avian distribution patterns in northern Argentina be related to gallery forest expansion-retraction caused by quaternary climatic changes The Auk 111 495ndash499 (1994)

71 del Hoyo J Elliott A amp Christie DA eds Handbook of the birds of the world 8 vols Lynx Edicions Barcelona 2003ndash2010

72 del Hoyo J Elliott A amp Sargatal J eds Handbook of the birds of the world 7 vols Lynx Edicions Barcelona 1992ndash2002

73 Ridgely R S amp Tudor G The birds of South America Vol I Oxford Univ Press Tokyo (1989)

74 Ridgely R S amp Tudor G The birds of South America Vol II Univ of Texas Press Austin (1994)

75 Ridgely R S et al Digital Distribution Maps of the Birds of the Western Hemisphere version 30 NatureServe Arlington Virginia (2007)

• Climate change patterns in Amazonia and biodiversity

14

Supplementary Figure S13 Richness patterns of forest bird species shared by AFANF and southern (A) or northern (B) ATF Species with distribution restricted to southern ATF are more common in western AF and ANF than in eastern AF On the other hand a higher number of species restricted to northern ATF occur in eastern AF instead of western AF andor ANF The maps were produced with distributional data of forest bird species71-74 available in NatureServe website75 We considered all species with distribution restricted to northern or southern ATF that also occurs in AF andor ANF Map (A) species Amazona farinosa Batara cinerea Chaetura cinereiventris Chamaeza campanisona Chlorophonia cyanea Chloroceryle inda Cissopis leverianus Conopias trivirgatus Discosura langsdorffi Elaenia obscura Euphonia xanthogaster Hylophilus thoracicus Laniisoma elegans Lochmias nematura Lophornis chalybeus Malacoptila striata Nyctibius aethereus Nyctibius grandis Onychorhynchus coronatus-swainsonii Ortalis guttata Penelope obscura Percnohierax leucorrhous Phaeothlypis rivularis Philydor rufum Phyllomyias burmeisteri Phylloscartes ventralis Pipraeidea melanonota Poecilotriccus plumbeiceps Pyroderus scutatus Ramphotrigon megacephalum Selenidera maculirostris-gouldii Syndactyla rufosuperciliata Tangara mexicana Tigrisoma fasciatum Trichothraupis melanops Trogon rufus Turdus flavipes Map (B) species Arremon taciturnus Attila spadiceus Cercomacra laeta Chiroxiphia pareola Cyanerpes cyaneus Dendrocolaptes certhia Discosura longicaudus Lipaugus vociferans Mionectes oleaginous Myrmotherula axillaris Ornithion inerme Picumnus exilis Pionus menstruus Pipra rubrocapilla Poecilotriccus fumifrons Pteroglossus aracari Pteroglossus inscriptus Pyriglena leuconota Rhynchocyclus olivaceus Schiffornis turdina Sclerurus caudacutus Sclerurus mexicanus Tangara velia Thamnomanes caesius Thamnophilus aethiops Thamnophilus palliatus Tolmomyias poliocephalus Turdus fumigatus Xiphorhynchus guttatus

15

Supplementary References

50 Colinvaux P A Bush M B Steinitz-Kannan M amp Miller M C Glacial and postglacial pollen records from the Ecuadorian Andes and Amazon Quat Res 48 69ndash78 (1997)

51 Cheng H et al Improvements in 230Th dating 230Th and 234U half-life values and U-Th isotopic measurements by multi-collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy Earth Planet Sci Lett In revision (2012)

52 Scholz D amp Hoffmann D L StalAge an algorithm designed for construction of speleothem age models Quat Geochron 6 369ndash382 (2011)

53 Rozanski K Araguds-Araguds L amp Gonfiantini R Isotopic patterns in modem global precipitation In PK Swart KC Lohman J McKenzie and S Savin (eds) Climate Change in Continental Isotopic Records - Geophysical Monograph 78 American Geophysical Union Washington DC p 1ndash36 (1993)

54 Wang X F et al Millennial-scale precipitation changes in southern Brazil over the past 90000 years Geophys Res Lett 34 L23701 doi1010292007GL031149 (2007)

55 Cruz Jr F W Burns S J Karmann I Sharp W D amp Vuille M Reconstruction of regional atmospheric circulation features during the late Pleistocene in subtropical Brazil from oxygen isotope composition of speleothems Earth Planet Sci Lett 248 495ndash507 (2006)

56 Fritz S C Baker P Ekdahl E Seltzer G O amp Stevens L Millennial992256scale climate variability during the last glacial period in the tropical Andes Quat Sci Rev 29 1017ndash1024 (2010)

57 Wolter K amp Timlin M S Measuring the strength of ENSO events ndash how does 1997 98 rank Weather 53 315ndash324 (1998)

58 Bigarella J J Andrade-Lima D amp Riehs P J Consideraccedilotildees a respeito das mudanccedilas paleoambientais na distribuiccedilatildeo de algumas espeacutecies vegetais e animais no Brasil Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciecircncias 47 411ndash464 (1975)

59 Andrade-Lima D Present-day forest refuges in northeastern Brazil In Prance G T (ed) Biological Diversification in the Tropics Columbia University Press New York 245ndash251 (1982)

60 Oliveira-Filho A T amp Ratter J A A study of the origin of central Brazilian forests by the analysis of plant species distribution patterns Edinburgh Journal of Botany 52 141ndash194 (1995)

61 Vivo M Mammalian evidence of historical ecological change in the Caatinga semiarid vegetation of northeastern Brazil Jour Comparative Biology 2 65ndash73 (1997)

62 Silva J M C Distribution of Amazonian and Atlantic Birds in gallery forests of the cerrado region South America Ornitologiacutea Neotropical 7 1ndash18 (1996)

63 De Oliveira P E Barreto AM amp Suguio K Late PleistoceneHolocene climatic and vegetational history of the Brazilian caatinga the fossil dunes of the middle Satildeo Francisco River Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 152 319ndash337 (1999)

64 Auler A S et al Quaternary ecological and geomorphic changes associated with rainfall events in presently semiarid northeastern Brazil Jour Quat Sci 19 693ndash701 (2004)

65 Santos A M M Cavalcanti D R Silva J M C amp Tabarelli M Biogeographical relationships among tropical forests in north-eastern Brazil Jour Biogeography 34 437ndash446 (2007)

16

66 Carnaval A C O Q amp Moritz C M Historical climate change predicts current biodiversity patterns in the Brazilian Atlantic rainforest Jour Biogeography 35 1187-1201 (2008)

67 dHorta F M Cabanne G S Meyer D amp Miyaki C Y The genetic effects of Late Quaternary climatic changes over a tropical latitudinal gradient diversification of an Atlantic Forest passerine Molecular Ecology 20 1923ndash1935 (2011)

68 Nores M Bird speciation in subtropical South America in relation to forest expansion and retraction The Auk 109 346ndash357 (1992)

69 Nores M Quaternary Vegetational Changes and Bird Differentiation in Subtropical South America The Auk 111 499ndash503 (1994)

70 Silva J M C Can avian distribution patterns in northern Argentina be related to gallery forest expansion-retraction caused by quaternary climatic changes The Auk 111 495ndash499 (1994)

71 del Hoyo J Elliott A amp Christie DA eds Handbook of the birds of the world 8 vols Lynx Edicions Barcelona 2003ndash2010

72 del Hoyo J Elliott A amp Sargatal J eds Handbook of the birds of the world 7 vols Lynx Edicions Barcelona 1992ndash2002

73 Ridgely R S amp Tudor G The birds of South America Vol I Oxford Univ Press Tokyo (1989)

74 Ridgely R S amp Tudor G The birds of South America Vol II Univ of Texas Press Austin (1994)

75 Ridgely R S et al Digital Distribution Maps of the Birds of the Western Hemisphere version 30 NatureServe Arlington Virginia (2007)

• Climate change patterns in Amazonia and biodiversity

15

Supplementary References

50 Colinvaux P A Bush M B Steinitz-Kannan M amp Miller M C Glacial and postglacial pollen records from the Ecuadorian Andes and Amazon Quat Res 48 69ndash78 (1997)

51 Cheng H et al Improvements in 230Th dating 230Th and 234U half-life values and U-Th isotopic measurements by multi-collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy Earth Planet Sci Lett In revision (2012)

52 Scholz D amp Hoffmann D L StalAge an algorithm designed for construction of speleothem age models Quat Geochron 6 369ndash382 (2011)

53 Rozanski K Araguds-Araguds L amp Gonfiantini R Isotopic patterns in modem global precipitation In PK Swart KC Lohman J McKenzie and S Savin (eds) Climate Change in Continental Isotopic Records - Geophysical Monograph 78 American Geophysical Union Washington DC p 1ndash36 (1993)

54 Wang X F et al Millennial-scale precipitation changes in southern Brazil over the past 90000 years Geophys Res Lett 34 L23701 doi1010292007GL031149 (2007)

55 Cruz Jr F W Burns S J Karmann I Sharp W D amp Vuille M Reconstruction of regional atmospheric circulation features during the late Pleistocene in subtropical Brazil from oxygen isotope composition of speleothems Earth Planet Sci Lett 248 495ndash507 (2006)

56 Fritz S C Baker P Ekdahl E Seltzer G O amp Stevens L Millennial992256scale climate variability during the last glacial period in the tropical Andes Quat Sci Rev 29 1017ndash1024 (2010)

57 Wolter K amp Timlin M S Measuring the strength of ENSO events ndash how does 1997 98 rank Weather 53 315ndash324 (1998)

58 Bigarella J J Andrade-Lima D amp Riehs P J Consideraccedilotildees a respeito das mudanccedilas paleoambientais na distribuiccedilatildeo de algumas espeacutecies vegetais e animais no Brasil Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciecircncias 47 411ndash464 (1975)

59 Andrade-Lima D Present-day forest refuges in northeastern Brazil In Prance G T (ed) Biological Diversification in the Tropics Columbia University Press New York 245ndash251 (1982)

60 Oliveira-Filho A T amp Ratter J A A study of the origin of central Brazilian forests by the analysis of plant species distribution patterns Edinburgh Journal of Botany 52 141ndash194 (1995)

61 Vivo M Mammalian evidence of historical ecological change in the Caatinga semiarid vegetation of northeastern Brazil Jour Comparative Biology 2 65ndash73 (1997)

62 Silva J M C Distribution of Amazonian and Atlantic Birds in gallery forests of the cerrado region South America Ornitologiacutea Neotropical 7 1ndash18 (1996)

63 De Oliveira P E Barreto AM amp Suguio K Late PleistoceneHolocene climatic and vegetational history of the Brazilian caatinga the fossil dunes of the middle Satildeo Francisco River Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 152 319ndash337 (1999)

64 Auler A S et al Quaternary ecological and geomorphic changes associated with rainfall events in presently semiarid northeastern Brazil Jour Quat Sci 19 693ndash701 (2004)

65 Santos A M M Cavalcanti D R Silva J M C amp Tabarelli M Biogeographical relationships among tropical forests in north-eastern Brazil Jour Biogeography 34 437ndash446 (2007)

16

66 Carnaval A C O Q amp Moritz C M Historical climate change predicts current biodiversity patterns in the Brazilian Atlantic rainforest Jour Biogeography 35 1187-1201 (2008)

67 dHorta F M Cabanne G S Meyer D amp Miyaki C Y The genetic effects of Late Quaternary climatic changes over a tropical latitudinal gradient diversification of an Atlantic Forest passerine Molecular Ecology 20 1923ndash1935 (2011)

68 Nores M Bird speciation in subtropical South America in relation to forest expansion and retraction The Auk 109 346ndash357 (1992)

69 Nores M Quaternary Vegetational Changes and Bird Differentiation in Subtropical South America The Auk 111 499ndash503 (1994)

70 Silva J M C Can avian distribution patterns in northern Argentina be related to gallery forest expansion-retraction caused by quaternary climatic changes The Auk 111 495ndash499 (1994)

71 del Hoyo J Elliott A amp Christie DA eds Handbook of the birds of the world 8 vols Lynx Edicions Barcelona 2003ndash2010

72 del Hoyo J Elliott A amp Sargatal J eds Handbook of the birds of the world 7 vols Lynx Edicions Barcelona 1992ndash2002

73 Ridgely R S amp Tudor G The birds of South America Vol I Oxford Univ Press Tokyo (1989)

74 Ridgely R S amp Tudor G The birds of South America Vol II Univ of Texas Press Austin (1994)

75 Ridgely R S et al Digital Distribution Maps of the Birds of the Western Hemisphere version 30 NatureServe Arlington Virginia (2007)

• Climate change patterns in Amazonia and biodiversity

16

66 Carnaval A C O Q amp Moritz C M Historical climate change predicts current biodiversity patterns in the Brazilian Atlantic rainforest Jour Biogeography 35 1187-1201 (2008)

67 dHorta F M Cabanne G S Meyer D amp Miyaki C Y The genetic effects of Late Quaternary climatic changes over a tropical latitudinal gradient diversification of an Atlantic Forest passerine Molecular Ecology 20 1923ndash1935 (2011)

68 Nores M Bird speciation in subtropical South America in relation to forest expansion and retraction The Auk 109 346ndash357 (1992)

69 Nores M Quaternary Vegetational Changes and Bird Differentiation in Subtropical South America The Auk 111 499ndash503 (1994)

70 Silva J M C Can avian distribution patterns in northern Argentina be related to gallery forest expansion-retraction caused by quaternary climatic changes The Auk 111 495ndash499 (1994)

71 del Hoyo J Elliott A amp Christie DA eds Handbook of the birds of the world 8 vols Lynx Edicions Barcelona 2003ndash2010

72 del Hoyo J Elliott A amp Sargatal J eds Handbook of the birds of the world 7 vols Lynx Edicions Barcelona 1992ndash2002

73 Ridgely R S amp Tudor G The birds of South America Vol I Oxford Univ Press Tokyo (1989)

74 Ridgely R S amp Tudor G The birds of South America Vol II Univ of Texas Press Austin (1994)

75 Ridgely R S et al Digital Distribution Maps of the Birds of the Western Hemisphere version 30 NatureServe Arlington Virginia (2007)

• Climate change patterns in Amazonia and biodiversity