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Sustainability

Achieving sustainability will enable the Earth to continue supporting human life aswe know it. "Blue Marble" NASA composite images: 2001 (left), 2002 (right).

Sustainability is the capacity to endure. Inecology the word describes how biologicalsystems remain diverse and productive overtime. For humans it is the potential forlong-term maintenance of wellbeing, whichin turn depends on the wellbeing of thenatural world and the responsible use ofnatural resources.

Sustainability has become a wide-rangingterm that can be applied to almost everyfacet of life on Earth, from local to a globalscale and over various time periods.Long-lived and healthy wetlands and forests are examples of sustainable biological systems. Invisible chemicalcycles redistribute water, oxygen, nitrogen and carbon through the world's living and non-living systems, and havesustained life for millions of years. As the earth’s human population has increased, natural ecosystems have declinedand changes in the balance of natural cycles has had a negative impact on both humans and other living systems.[1]

There is abundant scientific evidence that humanity is living unsustainably, and returning human use of naturalresources to within sustainable limits will require a major collective effort.[1] Ways of living more sustainably cantake many forms from reorganising living conditions (e.g., ecovillages, eco-municipalities and sustainable cities),reappraising economic sectors (permaculture, green building, sustainable agriculture), or work practices (sustainablearchitecture), using science to develop new technologies (green technologies, renewable energy), to adjustments inindividual lifestyles that conserve natural resources.

Definition

Definitions of sustainability often refer to the"three pillars" of social, environmental and

economic sustainability (2006)[2]

The word sustainability is derived from the Latin sustinere (tenere, tohold; sus, up). Dictionaries provide more than ten meanings forsustain, the main ones being to “maintain", "support", or "endure”.[4] [5]

However, since the 1980s sustainability has been used more in thesense of human sustainability on planet Earth and this has resulted inthe most widely quoted definition of sustainability and sustainabledevelopment, that of the Brundtland Commission of the UnitedNations on March 20, 1987: “sustainable development is developmentthat meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability offuture generations to meet their own needs.”[6] [7]

At the 2005 World Summit it was noted that this requires thereconciliation of environmental, social and economic demands - the"three pillars" of sustainability.[8] This view has been expressed as an illustration using three overlapping ellipsesindicating that the three pillars of sustainability are not mutually exclusive and can be mutually reinforcing.[9]

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A representation of sustainability showing howboth economy and society are constrained by

environmental limits (2003)[3]

The UN definition is not universally accepted and has undergonevarious interpretations.[10] [11] [12] What sustainability is, what its goalsshould be, and how these goals are to be achieved is all open tointerpretation.[13] For many environmentalists the idea of sustainabledevelopment is an oxymoron as development seems to entailenvironmental degradation.[14] Ecological economist Herman Daly hasasked, "what use is a sawmill without a forest?"[15] From thisperspective, the economy is a subsystem of human society, which isitself a subsystem of the biosphere, and a gain in one sector is a lossfrom another.[16] This can be illustrated as three concentric circles.

A universally-accepted definition of sustainability is elusive because itis expected to achieve many things. On the one hand it needs to befactual and scientific, a clear statement of a specific “destination”. The simple definition "sustainability is improvingthe quality of human life while living within the carrying capacity of supporting eco-systems",[17] though vague,conveys the idea of sustainability having quantifiable limits. But sustainability is also a call to action, a task inprogress or “journey”[18] and therefore a political process, so some definitions set out common goals and values. TheEarth Charter[19] speaks of “a sustainable global society founded on respect for nature, universal human rights,economic justice, and a culture of peace.”

To add complication the word sustainability is applied not only to human sustainability on Earth, but to manysituations and contexts over many scales of space and time, from small local ones to the global balance of productionand consumption. It can also refer to a future intention: "sustainable agriculture" is not necessarily a current situationbut a goal for the future, a prediction.[20] For all these reasons sustainability is perceived, at one extreme, as nothingmore than a feel-good buzzword with little meaning or substance[21] [22] but, at the other, as an important butunfocused concept like "liberty" or "justice".[23] It has also been described as a "dialogue of values that defiesconsensual definition".[24]

HistoryIn early human history the environmental impacts of small bands of hunter-gatherers would have been relativelysmall, even though the use of fire and the desire for specific foods may have altered the natural composition of plantand animal communities.[25] The Neolithic Revolution 2,500 to 10,000 years ago marked the emergence ofagriculture and settled communities. Societies outgrowing their local food supply or depleting critical resourceseither moved on or faced collapse. In contrast, stable communities of shifting cultivators and horticulturists existedin New Guinea and South America, and large agrarian communities in China, India, Polynesia and elsewhere havefarmed in the same localities for centuries.[26] [27]

A Sumerian Harvester's sickle dated to about3000 BC

Technological advances over several millennia gave humans increasingcontrol over the environment. But it was the Western industrialrevolution of the 17th to 19th centuries that tapped into the vast growthpotential of the energy in fossil fuels to power sophisticated machinerytechnology.[28] These conditions led to a human population explosionand unprecedented industrial, technological and scientific growth thathas continued to this day. From 1650 to 1850 the global populationdoubled from around 500 million to 1 billion people.[29] By the 20thcentury, the industrial revolution had resulted in an exponential

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increase in the human consumption of resources and an increase in health, wealth and population. Ecology as a newscientific discipline was gaining general acceptance and ideas now part and parcel to sustainability were beingexplored including the recognition of the interconnectedness of living systems, the importance of global naturalcycles, the passage of energy through trophic levels of living systems.[30]

Published in 1962, Silent Spring was one of thebooks that gave momentum to the environmental

movement

After the deprivations of the Great Depression and World War II thedeveloped world entered a post-1950s "great acceleration” of growthand population (the "Golden age of capitalism") while a gatheringenvironmental movement pointed out that there were environmentalcosts associated with the many material benefits that were now beingenjoyed. Technological innovations included plastics, syntheticchemicals and nuclear energy as fossil fuels also continued totransform society. The negative influences of the new technology weredocumented by American marine biologist and naturalist RachelCarson in her influential book Silent Spring in 1962. A period of peakoil production was anticipated in 1956 by American geoscientist M.King Hubbert's peak oil theory.[31] In the 1970s environmentalism'sconcern with pollution, the population explosion, consumerism and thedepletion of finite resources found expression in Is growth obsolete?, by American economists William Nordhausand James Tobin,[32] Small Is Beautiful, by British economist Ernst Friedrich Schumacher in 1973, and The Limits toGrowth published by the global think tank, the Club of Rome, in 1975. By the late twentieth century environmentalproblems were becoming global in scale.[33] [34] [35] [36] and the 1973 and 1979 energy crises demonstrated the extentto which the global community had become dependent on a nonrenewable resource.

In 1987 the United Nation's World Commission on Environment and Development (the Brundtland Commission), inits report Our Common Future suggested that sustainable development was needed to meet human needs while notincreasing environmental problems. In 1961 almost all countries in the world had the capacity to meet their owndemand but by 2005 the situation had changed and many countries were able to meet their needs only by importingresources from other nations.[34] A move toward more sustainable living emerged, based on increasing publicawareness and adoption of recycling, and renewable energies. The development of renewable sources of energy inthe 1970s and 80's, primarily in wind turbines and photovoltaics and increased use of hydroelectricity, presentedmore sustainable alternatives to fossil fuel and nuclear energy generation.[37] [38]

In the 21st century there is heightened awareness of the threat posed by the human-induced greenhouse effect.[39] [40]

Ecological economics now seeks to bridge the gap between ecology and traditional neoclassical economics:[41] [42]

and proposes an inclusive and ethical economic model for society. Many new techniques have arisen to help measureand implement sustainability, including Life Cycle Assessment, Cradle to Cradle, Ecological Footprint Analysis, andgreen building.[43] The work of Bina Agarwal and Vandana Shiva amongst many others, has brought some of thecultural knowledge of traditional, sustainable agrarian societies into the academic discourse on sustainability, andblended that knowledge with modern scientific principles.[44]

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Principles and conceptsThe philosophical and analytic framework of sustainability draws on and connects with many different disciplinesand fields; in recent years an area that has come to be called sustainability science has emerged. Sustainabilityscience is not yet an autonomous field or discipline of its own, and has tended to be problem-driven and orientedtowards guiding decision-making.[45]

Scale and contextSustainability is studied and managed over many scales (levels or frames of reference) of time and space and inmany contexts of environmental, social and economic organization. The focus ranges from the total carryingcapacity (sustainability) of planet Earth to the sustainability of economic sectors, ecosystems, countries,municipalities, neighbourhoods, home gardens, individual lives, individual goods and services, occupations,lifestyles, behaviour patterns and so on. In short, it can entail the full compass of biological and human activity orany part of it.[46] As Daniel Botkin, author and environmentalist, has stated: "We see a landscape that is always influx, changing over many scales of time and space."[47]

Consumption — population, technology, resourcesThe overall driver of human impact on Earth systems is the destruction of biophysical resources, and especially, theEarth's ecosystems. The total environmental impact of a community or of humankind as a whole depends both onpopulation and impact per person, which in turn depends in complex ways on what resources are being used,whether or not those resources are renewable, and the scale of the human activity relative to the carrying capacity ofthe ecosystems involved.Historically, humanity has responded to a demand for more resources by trying to increase supply. As suppliesinevitably become depleted sustainable practices are encouraged through demand management for all goods andservices — by promoting reduced consumption, using renewable resources where possible, and encouragingpractices that minimise resource intensity while maximising resource productivity. Careful resource management canbe applied at many scales, from economic sectors like agriculture, manufacturing and industry, to workorganisations, the consumption patterns of households and individuals and to the resource demands of individualgoods and services.[48] [49]

One of the initial attempts to express human impact mathematically was developed in the 70's and is called the IPAT formula. This formulation attempts to explain human consumption in terms of three components: populationnumbers, levels of consumption (which it terms "affluence", although the usage is different), and impact per unit ofresource use (which is termed "technology", because this impact depends on the technology used). The equation isexpressed:

I = P × A × TWhere: I = Environmental impact, P = Population, A = Affluence, T = Technology[50]

MeasurementBy establishing quantitative measures for sustainability it becomes possible to set goals, apply management strategies, and measure progress. The Natural Step (TNS) framework developed by Karl-Henrik Robèrt examines sustainability and resource use from its thermodynamic foundations to determine how humans use and apportion natural capital in a way that is sustainable and just. The TNS framework's system conditions of sustainability provide a means for the scientifically based measurement of sustainability.[51] Natural capital includes resources from the earth's crust (i.e., minerals, oil), those produced by humans (synthetic substances), and those of the biosphere. Equitable access to natural capital is also a component of sustainability.[51] The energy generated in use of resources—referred to as exergy[52] —can be measured as the embodied energy of a product or service over its life

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cycle. Its analysis, using methods such as Life Cycle Analysis or Ecological Footprint analysis provide basicindicators of sustainability on various scales.[53]

There are now a vast number of sustainability indicators,[54] metrics, benchmarks, indices, reporting procedures,audits and more. They include environmental, social and economic measures separately or together over many scalesand contexts. Environmental factors are integrated with economics through ecological economics, resourceeconomics and thermoeconomics, and social factors through metrics like the Happy Planet Index which measures thewell-being of people in the nations of the world while taking into account their environmental impact.[2] [55] Some ofthe best known and most widely used sustainability measures include corporate sustainability reporting, TripleBottom Line accounting, and estimates of the quality of sustainability governance for individual countries using theEnvironmental Sustainability Index and Environmental Performance Index.At the global level, and from the equation I = PAT, it is clear that measuring sustainability requires a knowledge ofthe world's expected population. We also need estimates of how many people the Earth can support. This is a tallorder but for many years now scientists have been refining models of the carrying capacity of planet Earth bymeasuring key human impacts, especially those that relate to biodiversity.

Population

Graph showing human population growth from 10,000 BC – AD 2000, illustratingcurrent exponential growth

According to the 2008 Revision of theofficial United Nations population estimatesand projections, the world population isprojected to reach 7 billion early in 2012, upfrom the current 6.9 billion (May 2009), toexceed 9 billion people by 2050. Most of theincrease will be in developing countrieswhose population is projected to rise from5.6 billion in 2009 to 7.9 billion in 2050.This increase will be distributed among thepopulation aged 15–59 (1.2 billion) and 60or over (1.1 billion) because the number ofchildren under age 15 in developingcountries will decrease. In contrast, the population of the more developed regions is expected to undergo only slightincrease from 1.23 billion to 1.28 billion, and this would have declined to 1.15 billion but for a projected netmigration from developing to developed countries, which is expected to average 2.4 million persons annually from2009 to 2050.[56] Long-term estimates of global population suggest a peak at around 2070 of nine to ten billionpeople, and then a slow decrease to 8.4 billion by 2100.[57]

Emerging economies like those of China and India aspire to the living standards of the Western world as does thenon-industrialized world in general.[58] It is the combination of population increase in the developing world andunsustainable consumption levels in the developed world that poses a stark challenge to sustainability.[59]

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Carrying capacity

Ecological footprint for different nations compared to their Human DevelopmentIndex (HDI)

More and more data are indicating thathumans are not living within the carryingcapacity of the planet. The Ecologicalfootprint measures human consumption interms of the biologically productive landneeded to provide the resources, and absorbthe wastes of the average global citizen. In2008 it required 2.7 global hectares perperson, 30% more than the naturalbiological capacity of 2.1 global hectares(assuming no provision for otherorganisms).[34] The resulting ecologicaldeficit must be met from unsustainable extrasources and these are obtained in threeways: embedded in the goods and servicesof world trade; taken from the past (e.g. fossil fuels); or borrowed from the future as unsustainable resource usage(e.g. by over exploiting forests and fisheries).

The figure (right) compares the sustainability of countries by contrasting their Ecological Footprint with their UNHuman Development Index (a measure of standard of living). The graph shows what is necessary for countries tomaintain an acceptable standard of living for their citizens while, at the same time, maintaining sustainable resourceuse. The general trend is for higher standards of living to become less sustainable. As always population growth hasa marked influence on levels of consumption and the efficiency of resource use.[50] [60] The sustainability goal is toraise the global standard of living without increasing the use of resources beyond globally sustainable levels; that is,to not exceed "one planet" consumption. Information generated by reports at the national, regional and city scalesconfirm the global trend towards societies that are becoming less sustainable over time.[61] [62]

Global human impact on biodiversityAt a fundamental level energy flow and biogeochemical cycling set an upper limit on the number and mass oforganisms in any ecosystem.[63] Human impacts on the Earth are demonstrated in a general way through detrimentalchanges in the global biogeochemical cycles of chemicals that are critical to life, most notably those of water,oxygen, carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus.[64]

Global biogeochemical cycles critical for life

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Nitrogen cycle

Water cycle

Carbon cycle

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Oxygen cycle

Phosphorus cycle

The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment is an international synthesis by over 1000 of the world's leading biologicalscientists that analyses the state of the Earth’s ecosystems and provides summaries and guidelines fordecision-makers. It concludes that human activity is having a significant and escalating impact on the biodiversity ofworld ecosystems, reducing both their resilience and biocapacity. The report refers to natural systems as humanity's"life-support system", providing essential "ecosystem services". The assessment measures 24 ecosystem servicesconcluding that only four have shown improvement over the last 50 years, 15 are in serious decline, and five are in aprecarious condition.[65]

Environmental dimensionHealthy ecosystems provide vital goods and services to humans and other organisms. There are two major ways ofreducing negative human impact and enhancing ecosystem services:

a) Environmental management. This direct approach is based largely on information gained from earthscience, environmental science and conservation biology.

However, this is management at the end of a long series of indirect causal factors that are initiated by humanconsumption, so a second approach is through demand management of human resource use.

b) Management of human consumption of resources, an indirect approach based largely on information gainedfrom economics. Herman Daly has suggested three broad criteria for ecological sustainability: renewableresources should provide a sustainable yield (the rate of harvest should not exceed the rate of regeneration); fornon-renewable resources there should be equivalent development of renewable substitutes; waste generationshould not exceed the assimilative capacity of the environment.[66]

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Environmental managementAt the global scale and in the broadest sense environmental management involves the oceans, freshwater systems,land and atmosphere, but following the sustainability principle of scale it can be equally applied to any ecosystemfrom a tropical rainforest to a home garden.[67] [68]

Atmosphere

In March 2009 at a meeting of the Copenhagen Climate Council 2,500 climate experts from 80 countries issued akeynote statement that there is now "no excuse" for failing to act on global warming and that without strong carbonreduction targets "abrupt or irreversible" shifts in climate may occur that "will be very difficult for contemporarysocieties to cope with".[69] [70] Management of the global atmosphere now involves assessment of all aspects of thecarbon cycle to identify opportunities to address human-induced climate change and this has become a major focusof scientific research because of the potential catastrophic effects on biodiversity and human communities (seeEnergy below).Other human impacts on the atmosphere include the air pollution in cities, the pollutants including toxic chemicalslike nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxides, volatile organic compounds and particulate matter that produce photochemicalsmog and acid rain, and the chlorofluorocarbons that degrade the ozone layer. Anthropogenic particulates such assulphate aerosols in the atmosphere reduce the direct irradiance and reflectance (albedo) of the Earth's surface.Known as global dimming the decrease is estimated to have been about 4% between 1960 and 1990 although thetrend has subsequently reversed. Global dimming may have disturbed the global water cycle by reducing evaporationand rainfall in some areas. It also creates a cooling effect and this may have partially masked the effect ofgreenhouse gases on global warming.[71]

Oceans

A selection of the world's saltwater fish

Ocean circulation patterns have a strong influence on climate andweather and, in turn, the food supply of both humans and otherorganisms. Scientists have warned of the possibility, under theinfluence of climate change, of a sudden alteration in circulationpatterns of ocean currents that could drastically alter the climate insome regions of the globe.[72] Major human environmental impactsoccur in the more habitable regions of the ocean fringes – the estuaries,coastline and bays. Ten per cent of the world's population – about 600million people – live in low-lying areas vulnerable to sea level rise.Trends of concern that require management include: over-fishing(beyond sustainable levels);[73] coral bleaching due to ocean warmingand ocean acidification due to increasing levels of dissolved carbon dioxide;[74] and sea level rise due to climatechange. Because of their vastness oceans also act as a convenient dumping ground for human waste.[75] Remedialstrategies include: more careful waste management, statutory control of overfishing by adoption of sustainablefishing practices and the use of environmentally sensitive and sustainable aquaculture and fish farming, reduction offossil fuel emissions and restoration of coastal and other marine habitat.[76]

Freshwater

Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface. Of this, 97.5% is the salty water of the oceans and only 2.5% freshwater, most of which is locked up in the Antarctic ice sheet. The remaining freshwater is found in lakes, rivers, wetlands, the soil, aquifers and atmosphere. All life depends on the solar-powered global water cycle, the evaporation from oceans and land to form water vapour that later condenses from clouds as rain, which then becomes the renewable part of the freshwater supply.[77] Awareness of the global importance of preserving water for ecosystem services has

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only recently emerged as, during the 20th century, more than half the world’s wetlands have been lost along withtheir valuable environmental services. Biodiversity-rich freshwater ecosystems are currently declining faster thanmarine or land ecosystems[78] making them the world's most vulnerable habitats.[34] Increasing urbanization pollutesclean water supplies and much of the world still does not have access to clean, safe water.[77] In the industrial worlddemand management has slowed absolute usage rates but increasingly water is being transported over vast distancesfrom water-rich natural areas to population-dense urban areas and energy-hungry desalination is becoming morewidely used. Greater emphasis is now being placed on the improved management of blue (harvestable) and green(soil water available for plant use) water, and this applies at all scales of water management.[78]

Land

Loss of biodiversity stems largely from the habitat loss and fragmentation produced by the human appropriation ofland for development, forestry and agriculture as natural capital is progressively converted to man-made capital.Land use change is fundamental to the operations of the biosphere because alterations in the relative proportions ofland dedicated to urbanisation, agriculture, forest, woodland, grassland and pasture have a marked effect on theglobal water, carbon and nitrogen biogeochemical cycles and this can impact negatively on both natural and humansystems.[79] At the local human scale major sustainability benefits accrue from the pursuit of green cities andsustainable parks and gardens.[80] [81]

Forests

Since the Neolithic Revolution about 47% of the world’s forests have been lost to human use. Present-day forestsoccupy about a quarter of the world’s ice-free land with about half of these occurring in the tropics[82] In temperateand boreal regions forest area is gradually increasing (with the exception of Siberia), but deforestation in the tropicsis of major concern.[83]

Beech Forest – Grib Skov, Denmark

Forests moderate the local climate and the global water cycle throughtheir light reflectance (albedo) and evapotranspiration. They alsoconserve biodiversity, protect water quality, preserve soil and soilquality, provide fuel and pharmaceuticals, and purify the air. Thesefree ecosystem services are not given a market value under mostcurrent economic systems, and so forest conservation has little appealwhen compared with the economic benefits of logging and clearancewhich, through soil degradation and organic decomposition returnscarbon dioxide to the atmosphere.[84] The United Nations Food andAgriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that about 90% of thecarbon stored in land vegetation is locked up in trees and that theysequester about 50% more carbon than is present in the atmosphere.Changes in land use currently contribute about 20% of total global

carbon emissions (heavily logged Indonesia and Brazil are a major source of emissions).[84] Climate change can bemitigated by sequestering carbon in reafforestation schemes, plantations and timber products. Also wood biomasscan be utilized as a renewable carbon-neutral fuel. The FAO has suggested that, over the period 2005–2050,effective use of tree planting could absorb about 10–20% of man-made emissions – so monitoring the condition ofthe world's forests must be part of a global strategy to mitigate emissions and protect ecosystem services.[85]

However, climate change may pre-empt this FAO scenario as a study by the International Union of Forest ResearchOrganizations in 2009 concluded that the stress of a 2.5C (4.5F) temperature rise above pre-industrial levels couldresult in the release of vast amounts of carbon[86] so the potential of forests to act as carbon "sinks" is "at risk ofbeing lost entirely".[87]

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Cultivated land

A rice paddy. Rice, wheat, corn and potatoesmake up more than half the world's food supply

Feeding more than six billion human bodies takes a heavy toll on theEarth’s resources. This begins with the appropriation of about 38% ofthe Earth’s land surface[88] and about 20% of its net primaryproductivity.[89] Added to this are the resource-hungry activities ofindustrial agribusiness – everything from the crop need for irrigationwater, synthetic fertilizers and pesticides to the resource costs of foodpackaging, transport (now a major part of global trade) and retail. Foodis essential to life. But the list of environmental costs of foodproduction is a long one: topsoil depletion, erosion and conversion todesert from constant tillage of annual crops; overgrazing; salinization;sodification; waterlogging; high levels of fossil fuel use; reliance oninorganic fertilisers and synthetic organic pesticides; reductions ingenetic diversity by the mass use of monocultures; water resourcedepletion; pollution of waterbodies by run-off and groundwater contamination; social problems including the declineof family farms and weakening of rural communities.[90]

All of these environmental problems associated with industrial agriculture and agribusiness are now being addressedthrough such movements as sustainable agriculture, organic farming and more sustainable business practices.[91]

Extinctions

Although biodiversity loss can be monitored simply as loss of species, effective conservation demands the protectionof species within their natural habitats and ecosystems. Following human migration and population growth, speciesextinctions have progressively increased to a rate unprecedented since the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event.Known as the Holocene extinction event this current human-induced extinction of species ranks as one of the worldssix mass extinction events. Some scientific estimates indicate that up to half of presently existing species maybecome extinct by 2100.[92] [93] Current extinction rates are 100 to 1000 times their prehuman levels with more than10% birds and mammals threatened, about 8% of plants, 5% of fish and more than 20% of freshwater species.[94]

The extinct Dodo (Raphus cucullatus)

The 2008 IUCN Red List warns that long-term droughts and extreme weatherput additional stress on key habitats and, for example, lists 1,226 bird speciesas threatened with extinction, which is one-in-eight of all bird species.[95] [96]

The Red List Index also identifies 44 tree species in Central Asia as underthreat of extinction due to over-exploitation and human development andthreatening the region's forests which are home to more than 300 wildancestors of modern domesticated fruit and nut cultivars.[97]

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Biological invasions

Kudzu (Pueraria lobata) infesting trees inAtlanta, Georgia, USA

In many parts of the industrial world land clearing for agriculture hasdiminished and here the greatest threat to biodiversity, after climatechange, has become the destructive effect of invasive species.[98]

Increasingly efficient global transport has facilitated the spread oforganisms across the planet. The potential danger of this aspect ofglobalization is starkly illustrated through the spread of human diseaseslike HIV AIDS, mad cow disease, bird flu and swine flu, but invasiveplants and animals are also having a devastating impact on nativebiodiversity. Non-indigenous organisms can quickly occupy disturbedland and natural areas where, in the absence of their natural predators,they are able to thrive.[99] At the global scale this issue is being addressed through the Global Invasive SpeciesInformation Network but there is improved international biosecurity legislation to minimise the transmission ofpathogens and invasive organisms. Also, through CITES legislation there is control the trade in rare and threatenedspecies. Increasingly at the local level public awareness programs are alerting communities, gardeners, the nurseryindustry, collectors, and the pet and aquarium industries, to the harmful effects of potentially invasive species.[100]

Management of human consumption

Helix of sustainability – the carbon cycle ofmanufacturing

The underlying driver of direct human impacts on the environment ishuman consumption.[101] This impact is reduced by not onlyconsuming less but by also making the full cycle of production, useand disposal more sustainable. Consumption of goods and services canbe analysed and managed at all scales through the chain ofconsumption, starting with the effects of individual lifestyle choicesand spending patterns, through to the resource demands of specificgoods and services, the impacts of economic sectors, through nationaleconomies to the global economy.[102] Analysis of consumptionpatterns relates resource use to the environmental, social and economicimpacts at the scale or context under investigation. The ideas ofembodied resource use (the total resources needed to produce a productor service), resource intensity (the resources needed for each dollar spent on a good or service), and resourceproductivity (the amount of good or service produced for a given input of resource) are important tools forunderstanding the impacts of consumption with simple key resource categories indicating human needs being food,energy, materials and water.

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Energy

Flow of CO2 in an ecosystem

The Sun's energy, stored by plants (primary producers) duringphotosynthesis, passes through the food chain to other organisms toultimately power all living processes. Since the industrial revolutionthe concentrated energy of the Sun stored in fossilized plants as fossilfuels has been a major driver of technology which, in turn, has been thesource of both economic and political power. In 2007 climate scientistsof the IPCC concluded that there was at least a 90% probability thatatmospheric increase in CO2 was human-induced, mostly as a result offossil fuel emissions but, to a lesser extent from changes in land use.Stabilizing the world’s climate will require high income countries toreduce their emissions by 60-90% over 2006 levels by 2050 whichshould hold CO2 levels at 450-650 ppm from current levels of about 380 ppm. Above this level and temperaturescould rise by more than 2 °C (36 °F) to produce “catastrophic” climate change.[103] [104] Reduction of current CO2levels must be achieved against a background of global population increase and developing countries aspiring toenergy-intensive high consumption Western lifestyles.[105]

Reducing greenhouse emissions, referred to as decarbonization, is being tackled at all scales, ranging from trackingthe passage of carbon through the carbon cycle[106] to the exploration of renewable energies, developing lesscarbon-hungry technology and transport systems and attempts by individuals to lead carbon neutral lifestyles bymonitoring the fossil fuel use embodied in all the goods and services they use.[107]

Water

Water security and food security are inextricably linked. In the decade 1951-60 human water withdrawals were fourtimes greater than the previous decade. This rapid increase resulted from scientific and technological developmentsimpacting through the economy - especially the increase in irrigated land, growth in industrial and power sectors,and intensive dam construction on all continents. This altered the water cycle of rivers and lakes, affected their waterquality and had a significant impact on the global water cycle.[108] Currently towards 35% of human water use isunsustainable, drawing on diminishing aquifers and reducing the flows of major rivers: this percentage is likely toincrease if climate change worsens, populations increase, aquifers become progressively depleted and suppliesbecome polluted and unsanitary.[109] From 1961 to 2001 water demand doubled - agricultural use increased by 75%,industrial use by more than 200%, and domestic use more than 400%.[110] Humans currently use 40-50% of theglobally available freshwater in the approximate proportion of 70% for agriculture, 22% for industry, and 8% fordomestic purposes and the total volume is progressively increasing.[108]

Water efficiency is being improved on a global scale by increased demand management, improved infrastructure,improved water productivity of agriculture, minimising the water intensity (embodied water) of goods and services,addressing shortages in the non-industrialised world, concentrating food production in areas of high productivity;and planning for climate change. At the local level people are becoming more water-self-sufficient by harvestingrainwater and reducing use of mains water.[78] [111]

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Food

Feijoada - A typical black bean food dish fromPortugal

The American Public Health Association (APHA) defines a"sustainable food system"[112] [113] as "one that provides healthy foodto meet current food needs while maintaining healthy ecosystems thatcan also provide food for generations to come with minimal negativeimpact to the environment. A sustainable food system also encourageslocal production and distribution infrastructures and makes nutritiousfood available, accessible, and affordable to all. Further, it is humaneand just, protecting farmers and other workers, consumers, andcommunities."[114] Concerns about the environmental impacts ofagribusiness and the stark contrast between the obesity problems of theWestern world and the poverty and food insecurity of the developingworld have generated a strong movement towards healthy, sustainableeating as a major component of overall ethical consumerism.[115] The environmental effects of different dietarypatterns depend on many factors, including the proportion of animal and plant foods consumed and the method offood production.[116] [117] [118] [119] The World Health Organization has published a Global Strategy on Diet,Physical Activity and Health which was endorsed by the May 2004 World Health Assembly. It recommends theMediterranean diet which is associated with health and longevity and is low in meat, rich in fruits and vegetables,low in added sugar and limited salt, and low in saturated fatty acids; the traditional source of fat in the Mediterraneanis olive oil, rich in monounsaturated fat. The healthy rice-based Japanese diet is also high in carbohydrates and lowin fat. Both diets are low in meat and saturated fats and high in legumes and other vegetables; they are associatedwith a low incidence of ailments and low environmental impact.[120]

At the global level the environmental impact of agribusiness is being addressed through sustainable agriculture andorganic farming. At the local level there are various movements working towards local food production, moreproductive use of urban wastelands and domestic gardens including permaculture, urban horticulture, local food,slow food, sustainable gardening, and organic gardening.[121] [122]

Materials, toxic substances, waste

FSC sustainable teca wood from Brazil. Exampleof correct use of tropical forest resources.

As global population and affluence has increased, so has the use ofvarious materials increased in volume, diversity and distancetransported. Included here are raw materials, minerals, syntheticchemicals (including hazardous substances), manufactured products,food, living organisms and waste.[123]

MaterialsSustainable use of materials has targeted the idea of dematerialization,converting the linear path of materials (extraction, use, disposal inlandfill) to a circular material flow that reuses materials as much aspossible, much like the cycling and reuse of waste in nature.[124] Thisapproach is supported by product stewardship and the increasing use of material flow analysis at all levels, especiallyindividual countries and the global economy.[125]

Toxic substancesSynthetic chemical production has escalated following the stimulus it received during the second World War.Chemical production includes everything from herbicides, pesticides and fertilizers to domestic chemicals and

hazardous substances.[126] Apart from the build-up of greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere, chemicals of particular concern include: heavy metals, nuclear waste, chlorofluorocarbons, persistent organic pollutants and all

Sustainability 15

harmful chemicals capable of bioaccumulation. Although most synthetic chemicals are harmless there needs to berigorous testing of new chemicals, in all countries, for adverse environmental and health effects. Internationallegislation has been established to deal with the global distribution and management of dangerous goods.[127] [128]

The waste hierarchy

WasteEvery economic activity produces material that can be classified aswaste. The average human uses 45-85 tonnes of materials eachyear.[123] To reduce waste industry, business and government are nowmimicking nature by turning the waste produced by industrialmetabolism into resource. Dematerialization is being encouragedthrough the ideas of industrial ecology, ecodesign[129] and ecolabelling(see side bar). In addition to the well-established “reduce, reuse andrecycle” shoppers are using their purchasing power for ethical consumerism.[49]

Economic dimension

The Great Fish Market, painted by Jan Brueghelthe Elder

Sustainability interfaces with economics through the social andecological consequences of economic activity.[15] Sustainabilityeconomics represents: "... a broad interpretation of ecologicaleconomics where environmental and ecological variables and issuesare basic but part of a multidimensional perspective. Social, cultural,health-related and monetary/financial aspects have to be integrated intothe analysis."[130] However the concept of sustainability is muchbroader than the concepts of sustained yield of welfare, resources orprofit margins[131] At present the average per capita consumption ofpeople in the developing world is sustainable but population numbersare increasing and individuals are aspiring to high consumption

Western lifestyles. The developed world population is only increasing slightly but consumption levels areunsustainable. The challenge for sustainability is to curb and manage Western consumption while raising thestandard of living of the developing world without increasing its resource use and environmental impact. This mustbe done by using strategies and technology that break the link between, on the one hand, economic growth and onthe other, environmental damage and resource depletion.[132]

In addressing this issue several key areas have been targeted for economic analysis and reform: the environmentaleffects of unconstrained economic growth; the consequences of nature being treated as an economic externality; andthe possibility of a more ethical economics that takes greater account of the social and environmental consequencesof market behaviour.[133]

Sustainability 16

Decoupling environmental degradation and economic growth

International Recycle Symbol

In the second half of the 20th century world population doubled, food productiontripled, energy use quadrupled, and overall economic activity quintupled.[134]

Historically there has been a close correlation between economic growth andenvironmental degradation: as communities grow, so the environment declines. Thistrend is clearly demonstrated on graphs of human population numbers, economicgrowth, and environmental indicators.[135] Unsustainable economic growth has beenstarkly compared to the malignant growth of a cancer[136] because it eats away at theEarth's ecosystem services which are its life-support system. There is concern that,unless resource use is checked, modern global civilization will follow the path ofancient civilizations that collapsed through overexploitation of their resourcebase.[26] [137] While conventional economics is concerned largely with economic growth and the efficient allocationof resources, ecological economics has the explicit goal of sustainable scale (rather than continual growth), fairdistribution and efficient allocation, in that order.[138] [139] The World Business Council for SustainableDevelopment states that "business cannot succeed in societies that fail".[140] Sustainability studies analyse ways toreduce (decouple) the amount of resource (e.g. water, energy, or materials) needed for the production, consumptionand disposal of a unit of good or service whether this be achieved from improved economic management, productdesign, new technology etc.[141] Ecological economics includes the study of societal metabolism, the throughput ofresources that enter and exit the economic system in relation to environmental quality.[142] [143]

Nature as an economic externality

Deforestation of native rain forest in Rio de Janeiro City for extraction of clay forcivil engineering (2009 picture).

The economic importance of nature isindicated by the use of the expressionecosystem services to highlight the marketrelevance of an increasingly scarce naturalworld that can no longer be regarded as bothunlimited and free.[144] In general as acommodity or service becomes more scarcethe price increases and this acts as a restraintthat encourages frugality, technicalinnovation and alternative products.However, this only applies when the productor service falls within the marketsystem.[145] As ecosystem services aregenerally treated as economic externalitiesthey are unpriced and therefore overusedand degraded, a situation sometimes referred to as the Tragedy of the Commons.[144]

One approach to this dilemma has been the attempt to "internalise" these "externalities" by using market strategieslike ecotaxes and incentives, tradeable permits for carbon, water and nitrogen use etc., and the encouragement ofpayment for ecosystem services. Community currencies such as LETS, a gift economy and Time Banking have alsobeen promoted as a way of supporting local economies and the environment.[146] [147] Green economics is anothermarket-based attempt to address issues of equity and the environment.[148] The global recession and a range ofgovernment policies that have been connected to that, are likely to bring the biggest annual fall in the world's carbondioxide emissions in 40 years.[149]

Sustainability 17

Economic opportunityTreating the environment as an externality may generate short-term profit at the expense of sustainability.[150]

Sustainable business practices, on the other hand, integrate ecological concerns with social and economic ones (i.e.,the triple bottom line).[151] Growth that depletes ecosystem services is sometimes termed "uneconomic growth" as itleads to a decline in quality of life.[152] [153] Minimising such growth can provide opportunities for local businesses.For example, industrial waste can be treated as an "economic resource in the wrong place". The benefits of wastereduction include savings from disposal costs, fewer environmental penalties, and reduced liability insurance. Thismay lead to increased market share due to an improved public image.[154] [155] Energy efficiency can also increaseprofits by reducing costs.The idea of sustainability as a business opportunity has led to the formation of organizations such as theSustainability Consortium of the Society for Organizational Learning, the Sustainable Business Institute, and theWorld Council for Sustainable Development.[156] The expansion of sustainable business opportunities can contributeto job creation through the introduction of green-collar workers.[157]

Social dimensionSustainability issues are generally expressed in scientific and environmental terms, but implementing change is asocial challenge that entails, among other things, international and national law, urban planning and transport, localand individual lifestyles and ethical consumerism.[158] "The relationship between human rights and humandevelopment, corporate power and environmental justice, global poverty and citizen action, suggest that responsibleglobal citizenship is an inescapable element of what may at first glance seem to be simply matters of personalconsumer and moral choice."[159]

Peace, security, social justiceSocial disruptions like war, crime and corruption divert resources from areas of greatest human need, damage thecapacity of societies to plan for the future, and generally threaten human well-being and the environment.[159]

Broad-based strategies for more sustainable social systems include: improved education and the politicalempowerment of women, especially in developing countries; greater regard for social justice notably equity betweenrich and poor both within and between countries; and intergenerational equity.[59] Depletion of natural resourcesincluding fresh water[160] increases the likelihood of “resource wars”.[161] This aspect of sustainability has beenreferred to as environmental security and creates a clear need for global environmental agreements to manageresources such as aquifers and rivers which span political boundaries, and to protect global systems including oceansand the atmosphere.[162]

Human settlementsSustainability principles

1. Reduce dependence upon fossil fuels,underground metals, and minerals2. Reduce dependence upon synthetic chemicalsand other unnatural substances3. Reduce encroachment upon nature4. Meet human needs fairly & efficiently[163]

One approach to sustainable living, exemplified by small-scale urban transition towns and rural ecovillages, seeks to create self-reliant communities based on principles of simple living, which maximise self-sufficiency particularly in food production. These principles, on a broader scale, underpin the concept of a bioregional economy.[164] Other approaches, loosely based around new urbanism, are successfully reducing environmental impacts by altering the

Sustainability 18

built environment to create and preserve sustainable cities which support sustainable transport. Residents in compacturban neighbourhoods drive fewer miles, and have significantly lower environmental impacts across a range ofmeasures, compared with those living in sprawling suburbs.[165]

Ultimately, the degree of human progress towards sustainability will depend on large scale social movements whichinfluence both community choices and the built environment. Eco-municipalities may be one such movement.[166]

Eco-municipalities take a systems approach, based on sustainability principles. The eco-municipality movement isparticipatory, involving community members in a bottom-up approach. In Sweden, more than 70 cities and towns —25 per cent of all municipalities in the country — have adopted a common set of "Sustainability Principles" andimplemented these systematically throughout their municipal operations. There are now twelve eco-municipalities inthe United States and the American Planning Association has adopted sustainability objectives based on the sameprinciples.[163]

Human relationship to natureAccording to Murray Bookchin, the idea that humans must dominate nature is common in hierarchical societies.Bookchin contends that capitalism and market relationships, if unchecked, have the capacity to reduce the planet to amere resource to be exploited. Nature is thus treated as a commodity: “The plundering of the human spirit by themarket place is paralleled by the plundering of the earth by capital.”[167] Still more basically, Bookchin argued thatmost of the activities that consume energy and destroy the environment are senseless because they contribute little toquality of life and well being. The function of work is to legitimize, even create, hierarchy. For this reasonunderstanding the transformation of organic into hierarchical societies is crucial to finding a way forward.[168]

Social ecology, founded by Bookchin, is based on the conviction that nearly all of humanity's present ecologicalproblems originate in, indeed are mere symptoms of, dysfunctional social arrangements. Whereas most authorsproceed as if our ecological problems can be fixed by implementing recommendations which stem from physical,biological, economic etc studies, Bookchin's claim is that these problems can only be resolved by understanding theunderlying social processes and intervening in those processes by applying the concepts and methods of the socialsciences.[169]

Deep ecology establishes principles for the well-being of all life on Earth and the richness and diversity of life forms.This is only compatible with a substantial decrease of the human population and the end of human interference withthe nonhuman world. To achieve this, deep ecologists advocate policies for basic economic, technological, andideological structures that will improve the quality of life rather than the standard of living. Those who subscribe tothese principles are obliged to make the necessary change happen.[170]

Sustainability 19

Transition

Old and new approaches to human use ofthe atmosphere

The earth has a finite capacity to provide resources and to absorb waste, andhuman demands already exceed that capacity.[171] Current lifestyles in thedeveloped world, to which many people in the developing world also aspire,rely on depleting natural capital and are unsustainable.[172] The UnitedNations has stated, in the Millennium Declaration, that "current unsustainablepatterns of production and consumption must be changed".[173] Yet weight ofinformation and scientific evidence is often insufficient to produce necessarysocial change, especially if that change entails moving people out of theircomfort zones.[174] This may be due to high systemic change resistance.[175]

At the global level several key principles have emerged to guide sustainabilityefforts:

• Intergenerational equity - providing future generations with the sameenvironmental potential as presently exists

• Decoupling economic growth from environmental degradation -managing economic growth to be less resource intensive and lesspolluting

• Integration of all pillars - integrating environmental, social andeconomic sectors when developing sustainability policies

• Ensuring environmental adaptability and resilience - maintaining and enhancing the adaptive capacity of theenvironmental system

• Preventing irreversible long-term damage to ecosystems and human health• Ensuring distributional equity - avoiding unfair or high environmental costs on vulnerable populations• Accepting global responsibility - assuming responsibility for environmental effects that occur outside areas of

jurisdiction• Education and grassroots involvement - people and communities investigating problems and developing new

solutions[176]

There is a wealth of advice available to individuals wishing to reduce their personal impact on the environmentthrough small, cheap and easily achievable steps.[177] [178] [179] But the transition required to reduce global humanconsumption to within sustainable limits involves much larger changes, at all levels and contexts of society.[180] TheUnited Nations has recognised the central role of education, and have declared a decade of education for sustainabledevelopment, 2005–2014, which aims to "challenge us all to adopt new behaviours and practices to secure ourfuture".[181] The Worldwide Fund for Nature proposes a strategy for sustainability that goes beyond education totackle underlying individualistic and materialistic societal values head-on and strengthen people's connections withthe natural world.[182] While The Transition Decade, an alliance of various community, social, political andenvironmental groups in Australia, optimistically seeks to transition to a sustainable Australia from 2010 to 2020.The level of change required to safeguard the life-supporting capacity of the Earth sets new challenges forcommunity and political structures.[183]

Sustainability 20

See also• Outline of sustainability• List of sustainability topics• Environmental issue• Conservation biology• Micro-Sustainability• Sustainable development• World Cities Summit• Cradle to Cradle

References• Adams, W. M. and Jeanrenaud, S. J. (2008). Transition to Sustainability: Towards a Humane and Diverse World.

[184] Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. 108 pp. ISBN 9782831710723.• Blewitt, J. (2008). Understanding Sustainable Development. London: Earthscan. ISBN 9781844074549.• Blood, K. (2001). Environmental Weeds. Mt Waverley, Victoria: C.H. Jerram & Associates. ISBN 0957908601.

An example of a local guide to invasive plants.• Botkin, D.B. (1990). Discordant Harmonies, a New Ecology for the 21st century. New York: Oxford University

Press. ISBN 9780195074697.• Bookchin, M. (2004). Post Scarcity Anarchism. Oakland: AK Press, pp. 24–25. ISBN 9781904859062.• Bookchin, M. (2005). The Ecology of Freedom: the emergence and dissolution of hierarchy." Oakland: AK Press.

ISBN 1904859267.• Bookchin, M. (2007). Social Ecology and Communalism. Oakland: AK Press, p. 19. ISBN 9781904859499.• Brower, M. & Leon, W. (1999). The Consumer's Guide to Effective Environmental Choices: Practical Advice

from the Union of Concerned Scientists. New York: Three Rivers Press. ISBN 060980281X.• Clark, D. (2006). A Rough Guide to Ethical Living. London: Penguin. ISBN 9781843537922• Clarke, R. & King, J. (2006). The Atlas of Water. London: Earthscan. ISBN 9781844071333.• Costanza, R. et al. (2007). An introduction to ecological economics. This is an online editable text available on

the Encyclopaedia of the Earth at [185]. First published in 1997 by St. Lucie Press and the International Societyfor Ecological Economics. ISBN 1884015727.

• Daly, H. & J. Cobb (1989). For the Common Good: Redirecting the Economy Toward Community, theEnvironment and a Sustainable Future. Boston: Beacon Press. ISBN 0807047031.

• Daly, H.E. & Farley, J. (2004). Ecological economics: principles and applications. Washington: Island Press.ISBN 1559633123.

• Devall, W. and G. Sessions (1985). Deep Ecology: Living As If Nature Mattered. Layton, Utah: Gibbs Smith,p. 70. ISBN 9780879052478.

• Diamond, J. (2005). Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed. New York: Viking Books. ISBN1586638637.

• Diamond, J. (1997). Guns, Germs and Steel: the Fates of Human Societies. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. ISBN0393061310.

• Emden, H.F. van & Peakall, D.B. (1996). Beyond Silent Spring. Berkeley: Springer. ISBN 9780412728105.• Fuad-Luke, A. (2006). The Eco-design Handbook. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 9780500285213.• Goodall, C. (2007). How to Live a Low-carbon Life. London: Earthscan. ISBN 9781844074266.• Goudie A. (2005). The Human Impact on the Natural Environment. 6th ed. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN

9781405127042.• Groombridge, B. & Jenkins, M.D. (2002). World Atlas of Biodiversity. Berkeley: University of California Press.

ISBN 9780520236684.

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• Hak, T. et al. (2007). Sustainability Indicators, SCOPE 67. London: Island Press. ISBN 1597261319.• Hassall, K.A. (1990). The Biochemistry and Uses of Pesticides. London: Macmillan. ISBN 0333497899.• Hawken, P, Lovins, A.B. & L.H. (1999). Natural Capitalism: Creating the next Industrial Revolution. Snowmass,

USA: Rocky Mountain Institute. ISBN 0316353000.• Krebs, C.J. (2001). Ecology: the Experimental Analysis of Distribution and Abundance. Sydney: Benjamin

Cummings. ISBN 0321042891.• Leakey, R. & Lewin, R. (1995). The Sixth Extinction: Patterns of Life and the Future of Humankind. New York:

Bantam Dell Publishing Group. ISBN 0385468091• Lindenmayer, D. & Burgman, M. (2005). Practical Conservation Biology. Collingwood, Victoria: CSIRO

Publishing. ISBN 0643090894.• Lutz W., Sanderson W.C., & Scherbov S. (2004). The End of World Population Growth in the 21st Century

London: Earthscan. ISBN 1844070891.• Macy, J. & Young Brown, M. (1998). Coming Back to Life: Practices to Reconnect Our Lives, Our World.

Gabriola Island: New Society Publishers, pp. 25–37. ISBN 086571391X.• Mason, J. & Singer, P. (2006). The Way We Eat: Why Our Food Choices Matter. London: Random House. ISBN

157954889X• Meadows, D.H., D.L. Meadows, J. Randers, and W. Behrens III. (1972). The Limits to Growth. New York:

Universe Books. ISBN 0876631650.• Nordhaus, W. and J. Tobin (1972) Is growth obsolete?. Columbia University Press, New York.• Pearce, D., Barbier, E.. & Markandya, A. (2000). Sustainable Development Economics and Environment in the

Third World. London: Earthscan. ISBN 9781853830884.• Porritt, J. (2006). Capitalism as if the world mattered. London: Earthscan. ISBN 9781844071937.• Randall, R. (2002). A Global Compendium of Weeds. Meredith, Victoria, Australia: R.G. & F.J. Richardson.

ISBN 9780958743983.• Smil, V. (2000). Cycles of Life. New York: Scientific American Library. ISBN 9780716750796.• Soederbaum, P. (2008). Understanding Sustainability Economics. London: Earthscan. ISBN 9781844076277.• Tudge, C. (2004). So Shall We Reap. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 0141009500.• Wright, R. (2004). A Short History of Progress. Toronto: Anansi. ISBN 0887847064.• Wilson, E.O. (2002). The Future of Life. New York: Knopf. ISBN 0679450785.

Further reading• Atkinson, G., Dietz, S. & Neumayer, E. (2007). Handbook of Sustainable Development. Cheltenham: Edward

Elgar. ISBN 9781843765776.• Bartlett, A. (1998). Reflections on Sustainability, Population Growth, and the Environment—Revisited [186]

revised version (January 1998) paper first published in Population & Environment 16(1): 5–35. Retrieved on:2009-03-12.

• Benyus, J. (1997). Biomimicry: Innovations Inspired by Nature. New York: William Morrow. ISBN 0060533226.• Blackburn, W.R. (2007). The Sustainability Handbook. London: Earthscan. ISBN 9781844074952.• Costanza, R., Graumlich, L.J. & Steffen, W. (eds), (2007). Sustainability or Collapse? An Integrated History and

Future of People on Earth. Cambridge, MA.: MIT Press. ISBN 9780262033664.• Norton, B. (2005). Sustainability, A Philosophy of Adaptive Ecosystem Management. Chicago: The University of

Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226595214.

Sustainability 22

External links• Breaking news in sustainability [187] at Microdocs• Compilation of Fact Sheets Published by the University of Michigan's Center for Sustainable Systems [188]

• Elements of sustainability [189] at Microdocs• Learning for sustainability [190]

• Roadmap for a Sustainable Earth [191] on-line book by Hiroshi Komiyama and Steven Kraines• Sustainability [192] at the Open Directory Project• Sustainable Food Guidelines [193] published by Sustain: The alliance for better food and farming (UK)• Dossier: On the Path to a Culture of Sustainability [194] by the Goethe-Institut

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Article Sources and Contributors 28

Article Sources and ContributorsSustainability  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=362586499  Contributors: (jarbarf), 128.104.truth, A8UDI, Aaroncrick, AbendigoReebs, Abendigoreebs, Aboalbiss,Acschwim, AdenR, Adi4094, Aixime, Akradecki, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Alex Rio Brazil, AlexHorovitz, Alexblainelayder, All Is One, Amh1000, Andersabrahamsson, Andrewa, AndriuZ,Andy Marchbanks, Angela, Angela.mcclowry, Angr, Animum, Anlace, Anna Lincoln, Annie Warmke, Anthearowe, Anthony Appleyard, Apapadop, AppleJuggler, Apteva, Aptw01, Arawn,Arkuat, Armontfort, Arthur Rubin, Ash, Astudent, Atmoz, Auntof6, Avala, Avogadro94, BGlassman, Baa, Bclavier, Beddowve, Beetstra, Behun, Belligero, Benandorsqueaks, Bethyboots,Bhanumurthykv, Bigorganicnetwork, Bill.albing, Billtubbs, Bkermath, Black Mamba, Blake999, Bluemoose, Bluemosquito, Bluenijin, Bobo192, Bongwarrior, Bonjour68, Boofox, Boyd Reimer,Breathejustice, Brian Crawford, Brimba, Brosi, Buddy budster123, Bumpoh, C mon, CL, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanadianLinuxUser, Carbenium, Cassbeth, Catgut, Causa sui, Cazort,Cfrayne, Charliebrown, Chas martin, Chemingway, ChildofMidnight, Chopchopwhitey, Chrism, Chrismacrae, Christopher Parham, Chriswaterguy, Chriswiki, Chuflip, Ckatz, Cleugh,Cometstyles, Corvus cornix, CrazyChemGuy, Crim010, Crohnie, CulArtsTeacher, Cyberbrook, D6, DVD R W, Daarznieks, DagErlingSmørgrav, Daniadania, Daniel Collins, DanielCD,Danielcollins1, Danleary25, Dawn Bard, Dcarli, Ddelcourt, DerHexer, Dialectic, Discospinster, Discus2000, Djhyperman, Donal Lang, Download, Doyley, Dr.enh, DrTanNguyen, Dragons flight,Drbreznjev, DuncanHill, Durnthalerk, E Wing, E2eamon, ENeville, Earthdenizen, EazieCheeze, Ebbatten, Ecologic Solutions, El C, Ellipsis, Ellol, Encycl wiki 01, Endangered11, Epbr123,EphemeralKnowlege, Epipelagic, Ericbritton, Ericeze, Erkan Yilmaz, Evan, Evercat, Excesses, Faiwiki, Farnell starfinder, Fastifex, Fba2605, Feministo, Fernagut, Filipw, Finetooth, Flybmr,Fmuratozdemir, Fortdj33, Fortenium, Frankavery, Freechild, Fruits, Frymaster, Gabriel Kielland, Gaius Cornelius, Geniac, Geojacob, Georgekao, Giftlite, Ginsengbomb, Givemoregetless, Glenn,Glst2, Gogo Dodo, Goinggreen, Gomm, Gracenotes, Gralo, Granitethighs, Grantrowe, Gregalton, GregorB, Grubber, Gurch, Guðsþegn, Gwen Gale, Halrhp, Hankwang, Hawstom, Hazel77,Hdante, Hearthstone, Heroeswithmetaphors, Heron, Hfcom, Hintswen, Hosking40, Hu12, IRP, Iacchus, Iceman3132, Ifca, Illustria, Im dead- not really, Inferno, Lord of Penguins, Iridescent,Isaac Dupree, Isiaunia, Iwillseetheworld, J.delanoy, J04n, JForget, JLMadrigal, JPRenaut, JRR Trollkien, JTURI, Jack Harich, Jackalus, Jaknouse, Jbarber, Jcwandemberg, Jenniferperryuk,Jerseyan111, Jespinos, Jfurr1981, JoanneB, JodyB, Joel Russ, John D. Croft, JohnKunich, Johnfos, Johnpseudo, JonahSmiles, Jonathan Kovaciny, Jorfer, Jprovino, Jscpowser, Jwanders, JzG,KFP, Ka5nom, Kaihsu, Kathdalmeny, Katieh5584, Kenao, Kenstandfield, Khanya-aicdd, Kill bills balls, Killiondude, King of Hearts, KnowledgeOfSelf, Kofiannansrevenge, Kotar, Koyoto123,Kozuch, Kristen Eriksen, Kuru, Kznf, LFaraone, LRR44, La Pianista, Landon1980, Laurel Bush, Lawrencekhoo, Ld100, Lekriner, Letranova, Leventozler, Levineps, Lightlowemon, Lights ofzenthor, Lil miss serena, LindsayH, Lispp, Lmastny, Lombarch, Lredman, Luna Santin, MER-C, Mac, Mahlum, Mailseth, Malcolm Farmer, Marcelo1229, Markisgreen, Markxuereb, MattGerber, Matt Mellen, Mauricevdkooij, Maurizio.Cattaneo, Maxfrisch, Mcha6677, Mcsbozeman, Mdd, Meaningmaker, Meno25, Menwith, Mereda, Mevertz, Michael Devore, Michael Hardy,Michael Johnson, MichaelBillington, Mietchen, MikeWren, Mikeramz1, Mion, Mjvande, Mkdriscoll, Mnemeson, Moe Epsilon, MoxRox, Mpwrmnt, Mr3641, MrGF, MrOllie, Mwanner,Mwomersley, NJGW, Natkeeran, Naught101, NawlinWiki, Nbarth, Neelix, New England, Nick carson, Nickenge, Notedgrant, Nsaa, Ntmoe, Numbersinstitute, Nurg, OStewart, OhanaUnited,Omnist, On2Leggs, Onebravemonkey, Onorem, Orion11M87, OrionK, Otwguy, Oxbox, PChalmer, POLIS Project, Parhamr, ParticleMan, PaulGarner, Paultx, Pea73, Pengo, Perklund,Peruvianllama, Peter Campbell, Pfhenshaw, Phantomsteve, Phenylalanine, Phil Boswell, PhilKnight, Philip Sutton, Philip Trueman, Philralph, Piano non troppo, Pinethicket, Pkgx, Pkrecker,Planet108, Pnastu, Ppe42, Prakash021, Princess Tiswas, Psreilly, Pstudier, Publunch, Quester67, R Lowry, RCX, RPH, Radiofreebc, Rbohlen, Reconsider the static, Reinyday, Reubster1, RexNL,Rich Farmbrough, Richard001, RichardF, Rjbo, Rjtedge, Rjwilmsi, Rkitko, Rmhermen, Robcarol, RodC, Ruralface, RyanGerbil10, Ryulong, SDC, SSDconsult, Salix alba, Salty!, Sam Hocevar,San Saba, Saperaud, Sardanaphalus, Sava chankov, Sbandrews, Sbridge, SchfiftyThree, Schi, Scjessey, Sean Whitton, Serious Business, Shadesofx, Shadowjams, Sheogorath, Shera99, Shoefly,Shoeofdeath, Sholto Maud, Shoreline, Shoreranger, Shoumyo.m, Silkox, Singhalawap, SiobhanHansa, Sirtin, Sjakkalle, Skier Dude, Skipsievert, Smappy, Solipsist, Sossie7, SpK, Spl tu 60,Spuddy2010, Stathisgould, Stephenb, Sting au, Storm Rider, Sunray, Sustainability, Sustainability rocks, Swikid, Switpi84, Syra987, T griffen, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Tangerines, Tarquin,TastyPoutine, Taticchipaolo, Techman224, Tedder, Tedichi, Temanning, Tempodivalse, The Teleosis Institute, The Thing That Should Not Be, The Transhumanist, The Way, TheBlackAvenger,TheKMan, TheOtherBob, Themfromspace, Thermoproteus, Thingg, Tide rolls, Time4this, Tkn20, Tobby72, Tony Sidaway, Torchwood5, Tractor, Travelplanner, Travis.Thurston, Trebuchi,Trevor1332, Tsavage, Tsunade, Uirauna, UltraMagnus, Ultramarine, Ultrogothe, Uncle Dick, Uncle G, UrbanRePlanner, V.B., Valentinian, Versus22, Verthomme, Vicenarian, Victorjwilli,Voiceofreason01, Vsmith, WAS 4.250, WalkerMW, Wavelength, Wbcsd snv, Weiners, Wesley, Wesplan3rs, WhatamIdoing, WikHead, Wikibofh, William Pietri, Willow4, Wimt, Wittyname,Wmahan, Wtb2001, Wæng, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yamla, Yerocdiamond, Yifengsy, ZabMilenko, Zen611, Zenedinho, Zeno Gantner, Ziggurat, Zodon, 1138 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:BlueMarble-2001-2002.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BlueMarble-2001-2002.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Apoc2400File:Sustainable development.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sustainable_development.svg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Nojhan,User:Pro_bug_catcherFile:Nested sustainability-v2.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nested_sustainability-v2.gif  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:User:SunrayFile:ClaySumerianSickle.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ClaySumerianSickle.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Maksim, Phirosiberia,Wst, 1 anonymous editsFile:Silent Spring Book-of-the-Month-Club edition.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Silent_Spring_Book-of-the-Month-Club_edition.JPG  License: unknown Contributors: Ragesoss, 6 anonymous editsFile:Population curve.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Population_curve.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: w:Cser:El TEl TFile:Human welfare and ecological footprint sustainability.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Human_welfare_and_ecological_footprint_sustainability.jpg  License:Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:TravelplannerImage:Nitrogen_Cycle.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nitrogen_Cycle.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Environmental Protection AgencyImage:Water cycle.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Water_cycle.png  License: unknown  Contributors: AdiJapan, Helt, Juliancolton, Lupo, MARKELLOS, Marcbel,Masao jp, Saperaud, Seb az86556, Slady, 9 ,לורק לארשי anonymous editsImage:Carbon cycle-cute diagram.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Carbon_cycle-cute_diagram.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:FischXImage:Oxygen Cycle.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Oxygen_Cycle.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Cbusch01Image:phoscycle-EPA.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Phoscycle-EPA.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Monkeybait, Vsmith, 3 anonymous editsFile:Pieni 2 0139.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pieni_2_0139.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Pieni TietosanakirjaFile:Grib skov.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Grib_skov.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: See belowFile:Rice Field.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rice_Field.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: SF007, Takeaway, 2 anonymous editsFile:ExtinctDodoBird.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ExtinctDodoBird.jpeg  License: unknown  Contributors: ChrisRuvolo, Er Komandante, GeorgHH,Herbythyme, LSDSL, Mattes, Pristigaster, Vaffel, 7 anonymous editsFile:Kudzu on trees in Atlanta, Georgia.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kudzu_on_trees_in_Atlanta,_Georgia.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:User:SCEhardtFile:Helix of sustainability.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Helix_of_sustainability.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Design: LynnTucker, Graphic art: Astrid ErasmusonFile:Genomics GTL Program Payoffs.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Genomics_GTL_Program_Payoffs.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: MddFile:Feijoada 01.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Feijoada_01.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Jurema Oliveira, Kintetsubuffalo, Ras67,Zephynelsson VonFile:FSC Teca Wood in Stainless Steel Talbe.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:FSC_Teca_Wood_in_Stainless_Steel_Talbe.JPG  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Alex Rio BrazilFile:Waste hierarchy.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Waste_hierarchy.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:StanneredFile:An Brueghel the Elder-Great Fish market.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:An_Brueghel_the_Elder-Great_Fish_market.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors:Jan Brueghel the ElderFile:Recycling symbol.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Recycling_symbol.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:KrdanFile:DEFORASTATION RAIN FOREST RIO DE JANEIRO BRAZIL.JPG  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:DEFORASTATION_RAIN_FOREST_RIO_DE_JANEIRO_BRAZIL.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Alex Rio Brazil

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 29

File:Eolienne et centrale thermique Nuon Sloterdijk.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Eolienne_et_centrale_thermique_Nuon_Sloterdijk.jpg  License: CreativeCommons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Aloxe

LicenseCreative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unportedhttp:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/