Sustainable Development: “People, Planet, Profit, Governance”The Global Mining Initiative (GMI) led bycompanies making up the mining andminerals working group of the WorldBusiness Council for SustainableDevelopment (WBCSD) commissioned theindependent Mining, Minerals andSustainable Development (MMSD) project,conducted by the International Institute forEnvironment and Development (IIED).

In the Executive Summary of the 2002MMSD report it is stated: “One of thegreatest challenges facing the world todayis integrating economic activity withenvironmental integrity, social concerns,and effective governance systems. The goalof that integration can be seen as‘sustainable development’. In the contextof the minerals sector, the goal should beto maximise the contribution to the well-being of the current generation in a waythat ensures an equitable distribution of itscosts and benefits, without reducing the

potential for future generations to meettheir own needs”.

In other words the four dimensions ofSustainable Development (SD) comprise:• Social sphere often referred to as“People” aspect.• Environment (“Planet”).• Economics (“Profit”).• Governance sphere providing thebackdrop for the other three (the three“pillars” of SD).

This builds on the most widely accepteddefinition of SD by the 1987 BrundtlandCommission on Environment andDevelopment: “Sustainable development isdevelopment that meets the needs of thepresent without compromising the abilityof future generations to meet their ownneeds”. (Fig 1)

The International Council on Mining andMetals (ICMM) developed the SDFramework comprising three elementswhich member companies are required to

implement: 1. Commitments: 10 principlesfor SD, based on the issues identified in theMMSD project; 2. Public reporting:Performance reporting against the 10principles in accordance with theguidelines of the Global ReportingInitiative (GRI); and 3. Independentassurance: Providing third-partyverification against five aspects that acompany is meeting its commitments tothe 10 principles.

Sustainability reporting guidelinesGRI’s Reporting Guidelines are the generallyaccepted framework for reporting on anorganisation’s economic, environmental,and social performance, and are used bymany Al industry majors as standard forsustainability reporting. ICMM members arecommitted to reporting against the Miningand Metals Sector Supplement (MMSS). Themining and metals sector includesexploration, mining and primary metalprocessing (refining, smelting, recycling andbasic fabrication) and covers the completeproject life cycle from development throughoperational lifetime to closure and post-closure. The Guidelines comprise (Fig 2):

Part 1 - Reporting Principles with threemain elements: Defining Report Content;Reporting Principles for Defining Quality;and Reporting Guidance for BoundarySetting.

Part 2 - Standard Disclosures specifyingbase content that should appear in asustainability report with disclosures on:Strategy and Profile; ManagementApproach; and Performance Indicatorsproviding comparable information on theeconomic, environmental, and socialperformance of the organisation.

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Aluminium International Today January/February 2014

Sustainability aspects of bauxitedeposits and alumina refineries

This article provides abackground on sustainability inthe mining and mineralsindustry, including Bauxite &Alumina (Bx & Aa), and exploresrelationships betweensustainability and quality criteriafor Bx deposits, respectivelydesign criteria for Aa refineries.By Peter-Hans ter Weer*

* TWS Services and Advice, The Netherlands

ICMM*

Sustainable development

framework

MMSD

IIED GMI

WBCSD

(international Council on Mining & Metals)

Foundations in the

(Mining, Minerals and Sustainable Development

Independent 2-year project (2000-2002)

projet

Conducted by Commissioned by

10 (Sustainable development ) Principles, underpinned by 46 elements

Public reporting in the line with GRI (Global reporting initiative)Sustainable reporting framework against MMSS (Mining and metalssector supplement)

Independent assurance against 5 aspects

(Global Mining Initiative

Led by companies that made up mining & mineral working group of

(World Business Council for Sustainable Development)

(International Institute for Environment & Development)

* set up by GMI to replace existing Int Council onMetals and the Environment

1

2

3

Fig 1 illustrates the connectionsbetween the councils, committeesand sustainability aspects discussed

Fig 1 Sustainability organisations and connections

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The sections on Management Approachand Performance Indicators are organisedby the categories Social, Environmental,and Economic, with Disclosures coveringthe following aspects (Fig 3):• Social: Labour Practices; Human Rights;Society; and Product Responsibility.• Environmental: Materials; Energy; Water;Biodiversity; Emissions, effluents, andwaste; Transport; Products and Services;and Compliance.• Economic: Economic performance;Market presence; and Indirect economicimpacts.

SD GoalsThe March 2013 joint UN Global Compact– WBCSD report included inputs bybusiness leaders w.r.t. scope and nature ofSD Goals. These should: 1.

Reflect the 3 pillars of SD; 2. Include adimension related to equitable economicgrowth; 3. Adequately address water,energy, food, and the effectivemanagement and maintenance ofecosystems services; and 4. Appropriate

timeframe is 15 years, with five-yearreviews involving all stakeholders.

The Responsible Aluminium ScopingPhase (RASP) was a response from aworking group of industry-basedorganisations and non-profit stakeholdersto a demand for products produced to thebest social and ecological standardsthroughout the supply chain.

Their report included a preliminary list ofidentified issues for the upstream part of Althe value chain (includes Bx mining & Aarefining):• Bx Mining: Waste and NoiseManagement; Dust Emissions.• Aa Refining: Bx Residue and CausticSoda Management; SO2 and NOxemissions.• Al Upstream: Land Use and Biodiversity;Energy efficiency; CO2 emissions; SocialDisplacement and Resettlement.• Al Value Chain: Transparency andBusiness Ethics; Human and Labour Rights;Water Management; Health and Safety;Transport and Corridor Management;Sustainability of Communities.

Building on the work done, theAluminium Stewardship Initiative (ASI) waslaunched in 2012 to enhance sustainabilityand transparency throughout the Alindustry, aiming to develop a globalstandard for Al sustainability by the end of2014, to foster responsible resourcemanagement of Al through its entire valuechain.

Corporate strategic sustainabilitytargetsThe long term (LT)/strategic sustainabilitytargets published by industry majors(Alcoa, Rusal, Rio Tinto, Hydro, BHPBilliton) are in broad terms in line with theSD goals discussed above:

Social: 1. Zero fatalities; 2. Increasediversity (w.r.t. representation by women,minorities, locals in management, etc); 3A.Zero significant community incidents; 3B.Funds and activities targeted forcommunity assistance programs andsometimes infrastructure (e.g. medicalclinics).

Fig 2 Global reporting initiative overview Fig 3 shows GRI sustainability performance indicators broken down into major sub-indicators for a Bx & Aa project

Bauxite deposit quality criterion Target Related GRI performance indicator

Economic Environmental Social

1. Country infrastructure Capex1 250 US$/Annual tA capacity max EC1, EC4 EC8, EC9 LA1, SO1, SO1-MM9

2. Distance resource - port Rail (+ other): 150km max EC1 EN4, EN29

Bx slurry pumping: 100km min

3. Disturbed acreage per tA produced2 0.35m2/tA max2,8 EC1 EN12-MM1, EN14 SO1, (SO1-MM9)

4. Material handled per tA produced, split over

4A material mined3 3.4 t/tA max (dry basis)3,8 EC1 EN1, EN21, EN22-MM3 SO1, (SO1-MM9)

4B residue to disposal4 1.2t/tA max (dry basis)4,8 EC1 EN4, EN12-MM1, EN21, EN22-MM3

5. Alumina in boehmite 2% max EC1 EN3, EN16, EN20

6. Total caustic consumption per tA produced5 75kg/tA max5,8 (100% NaOH basis) EC1 EN1, EN4

7. Ratio % extractable organic carbon/% available Al2O3 0.002 max6,8 EC1 EN3, EN21, EN22, EN22-MM3

8. Resource contained alumina 30 years min7 EC1 SO1, (SO1-MM9), SO1-MM10

1. Capex for railway, housing, roads, resettlement, and non-refinery related port items (eg jetty, power supply). 2. At in-situ bauxite SG=1.85 and mining recovery=90%. 3. Includes overburden and bauxite

beneficiation tailings (if applicable), at mining recovery=90%. 4. Bauxite residue to disposal, incl sand and lime products. 5. Incl chemical soda loss (reactive SiO2), physical soda losses (bauxite residue), and

other losses (eg oxalate, product, etc). 6. Assuming an extraction efficiency of about 50%, this means effectively a ratio of %TOC/%avail. Aa of ~0.004 (TOC= total organic carbon). 7. E.g. for a 1Mt/y alumina

refinery project: 30Mt contained alumina, or in situ bauxite about 30x3=90Mt. 8. First quartile/median of global bauxite mines excl China.

Table 1 Bauxite deposit quality criteria & their sustainability facets

Reporting principlesdefining quality

Definingreport

content Part 1Reportingprinciples

Globalreportinginitiative

Strategy and

profile

Human rights

Labourpractices &

decent work

Productresponsibility

Economicperformance

Marketpresence

Indirecteconomicimpacts

Compliance

Environmental(planet)

Emissionseffluents,

waste

BiodiversityWater

Energy

Materials

TransportProduct

SustainableBx&Aa refinery

project

Economic(profit)

Society

Social(people)

Part 2Standard

disclosures

Performance indicators

Management approach

Guidance boundarysetting

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Environmental: 1. Reduce GreenhouseGHG or CO2 emissions; carbon basedenergy consumption/tA; and fresh waterconsumption/tA; 2. Improve ratio of newmining disturbance torehabilitation/reforestation; 3. Alcoaspecifies targets for rehab of Bx residuestorage areas and recycle/reuse of Bxresidue. Hydro has “ambitions to improveexisting situation by implementing new drydisposal technology” and “continues toinvestigate options for Bx residueutilisation”; 4. Biodiversity: Not veryspecific targets.

Economic: Only some of the majorsmention specific economic targets directlyas element of their sustainability goals,however all of them refer in their annualreport to the need to focus on reducingcosts and improving productivity andseveral refer to specifics such as improvingbeneficiation and refinery processes, etc.

Impact of Bauxite deposit qualityBasic data normally provided on Bxdeposits includes items such as Bx layerthickness, Overburden/Bx ratio, % AvailableAlumina, Reactive Silica, etc. Althoughthese are important for a resourceevaluation, they do not provide a

comprehensive understanding of itsstrengths and weaknesses. This requires areview of deposit quality in its widestsense, including elements such asstrengths and weaknesses w.r.t. energy,water, and materials consumption, andwaste (overburden, tailings, etc), projectcapital and operating costs (capex andopex), and impact on communities,resettlements, etc.

Major resource quality aspects thereforeare: Location (country, export port,relocation requirements); Logistics(accessibility of, and logistics to the port viawhich raw materials are imported andAa/Bx exported); Accessibility of thedeposit relative to the port (distance, rivercrossings, etc); Deposit characteristics(Overburden and Bx layer thickness,beneficiation requirement, etc); Refineryfeed characteristics (% Available Alumina,Boehmite, Reactive Silica, Impurities, etc) –Bx mineralogy and chemical compositioninfluence refinery process conditions andassociated raw material consumption andcapital requirements; and Resource size (aresource should be able to support arefinery project for its lifetime – typically40+ years).

Bauxite resource quality in this sense mayaffect about a third of refinery plant capex

or about half of total project capex if mineand infrastructure capex are included, andhas a more profound effect on opex thantechnology/design. The selected depositquality criteria should therefore account forthe above mentioned elements.

Deposit quality criteriaIn summary, a set of Bx deposit qualitycriteria should be limited to major issues,provide target values, and importantly:Should not be applied rigidly. In otherwords a resource not meeting one (orperhaps more) target value(s) should notnecessarily be excluded, but the overallresult should be considered. “Strategic”criteria which could result in a differentoutcome of a resource review have notbeen included here (e.g. importance to bepresent in a country for other reasons thanparticipating in a Bx and Aa project). Table 1presents a set of quality criteria for Bxdeposit review purposes addressing theabove elements, and includes references torelevant GRI performance indicators,illustrating the relationship between thesequality criteria and sustainability facets.

ConclusionsTable 1 illustrates that quality criteria forthe evaluation of a Bx deposit span

Refinery design criterion Target/benchmark Related GRI performance indicatorEconomic Environmental Social

1. Precipitation liquor yield 90+kg/m3 EC1 EN1, EN3, EN4, EN16, EN22-MM3 PR1

2. Digestion temperature Refer Table 1, item 5 EC1 EN3, EN16, EN20

3. Digestion technology Slurry heating (“single streaming”) As 1 (precipitation liquor yield)

4. Bx residue settling & washing technology High rate thickening/washing EC1 EN1, EN8, EN12-MM1, EN21, EN22-MM3

5. Heat interchange technology Direct heat transfer As 1

6. Precipitation technology High solids tanks; seed filtration;

interstage cooking; green liquor split; As 1

Split seeding; classification by hydrocyclones

7. Power & steam generation Use of gas as energy carrier EC1 EN1, EN3, EN16 SO1

Refer also Table 1, item 5 EC1 EN3, EN16, EN20

Off-gas de-sulphurisation EN16, EN20 SO1

8. Calcination technology Stationery calciners EC1 EN1, EN3, EN16, EN20 PR1

9. Bauxite residue disposal technology Dry disposal in areas lined with clay

or HDPE/PP seal with underdrains; EC1 EN4, EN12-MM1, EN21, EN22-MM3

rehabilitation/re-vegegation afterward;

sea water neutralisation if applicable

10. Overall plant:

10A design & layout Conventional: design accommodates

future digestion/process units

New approach: dedicated design and layout

for a specified prod, capacity

Design for disassembly

10B Production capacity General: depends on deposit size, plant

considerations, economies of scale, infrastructure

requirements, and market ecomics,

New approach: compact capacity ~300-600ktpa

10C Equipment and additives Mechanical seal pumps

Low-NOx burners (power/steam generation, calciners)

Variable speed pump drives

Anti-scalling chemicals

10D Control equipment EC1

} } }} } }} }

Table 2 Alumina refinery design criteria & their sustainability facets

SO1, SO1-MM9, SO1-MM10

SO1, (SO1-MM9),

SO1-MM10

LA1, SO1,

(SO1-MM9),

SO1-MM10

LA1, SO1,

(SO1-MM9),

SO1-MM10

EC1

EC1 EN1, EN3, EN4, EN12-MM1

EC1, EC4 EN1, EN3, EN4, EN12-MM1,

EN16, EN22, EN22-MM3

EN1, EN3, EN20, EN22

EN1, EN3, EN4, EN16

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economic, environmental and socialaspects, the three pillars of SD. In otherwords sustainability in the context of Bxdeposits is not abstract or isolated from“the real world”, but can be qualified andquantified. The table also shows thateconomic and environmental (in somecases social) aspects are mostly intertwined.Putting it differently, economically moreattractive deposits are often also moreattractive in environmental terms.

Several of the criteria of Table 1 areconsistent with the issues for the upstreamsteps of the Al value chain from RASP (e.g.waste management, land use and socialresettlement for Bx mining – refer section0). And all of them are consistent with theLT/strategic corporate sustainability targetsof industry majors (refer section 0),implying sustainability’s growing role. Itappears therefore reasonable to assumethat Bx deposit quality in its widest sense,including sustainability aspects, will play anever more important role in futuredevelopment decisions on greenfield Bxand Aa projects.

Refinery design and sustainabilityThe selection of a Bx deposit for an Aarefining project has a profound effect onthe design of the refinery as discussed

above, i.e. the choice of a specific Bx feedinfluences several important refinery designcriteria. However other design criteria arechosen (partly) independent of Bx quality:Process conditions (e.g. plant liquorproductivity/yield); Equipment technologiesand layout (e.g. for digestion, Bx residuesettling, overall plant); Plant locationspecifics affecting plant design (e.g.rainfall, country legal requirements w.r.t.emission standards); Operating andmaintenance philosophies of projectowners (e.g. with respect to outsourcingactivities, integration of maintenance andoperational activities, etc).

Design criteriaIt is not possible to cover all refinery designcriteria in the context of this article.However some of the main ones and theirsustainability facets are included in Table 2with references to relevant GRIperformance indicators, illustrating therelationship between these criteria andsustainability.

ConclusionsAs with the Bx deposit quality criteria, theemerging perspective is that key designcriteria of an Aa refinery include the threepillars of SD. Once Bx characterisation test

work has been completed and project sizedecided, sustainability in the context ofrefinery design can be qualified andquantified. Table 2 also shows thateconomic and environmental aspects aremost of the time two sides of the samecoin, while social aspects are often alsointegral to refinery design. Put differentlyoptimum refinery design in economicterms is (LT) often also the most attractiveenvironmentally (and sometimes socially).

Most of the criteria of Table 2 areconsistent with the issues for the upstreamsteps of the Al value chain from RASP (e.g.Bx residue management; SO2, CO2, andNOx emissions; energy efficiency; andcaustic soda management for Aa refining.And most are consistent with theLT/strategic company targets of industrymajors. The trend seems that sustainabilitywill play a more prominent role in futuredecisions on the design of brownfield andgreenfield Aa refinery projects. Elements ofthat trend include: a continuing push toincrease plant liquor yield (Table 2, item1); finding new approaches andtechnologies to improve plant and processefficiencies (a.o. item 10) including agrowing thrust to improve on Bx residuedisposal (item 9); and developing a moresustainable energy supply (item 7).�

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