sustainable planning and architecture

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Sustainable Planning and Architecture | Sathish Lakshmikanthan

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Sustainable Planning andArchitecture

Edited and Compiled by

Sathish Lakshmikanthan

Associate Professor, School of Architecture

Meenakshi College of Engineering, Chennai


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1 Table of Contents

1 Unit I - Concept of Sustainability ................................................................................. 4

1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 4

1.2 Carrying capacity .............................................................................................. 4

1.3 Sustainable development .................................................................................... 61.4 Bruntland report .............................................................................................. 6

1.5 Ethics and Visions of sustainability ........................................................................ 8

2 Unit II ................................................................................................................ 13

2.1 Eco system and food chain ................................................................................ 13

2.2 Threats to Ecosystems ...................................................................................... 13

2.2.1 Habitat Destruction ...................................................................................... 14

2.2.2 Pollution ................................................................................................... 14

2.2.3 Eutrophication ............................................................................................ 14

2.2.4 Invasive species........................................................................................... 15

2.2.5 Overharvesting............................................................................................ 15

2.2.6 UV Radiation .............................................................................................. 15

2.3 Food chains ................................................................................................... 15

2.3.1 Food chain length ........................................................................................ 16

2.3.2 Cycles of the Earth System ............................................................................. 17

2.4 Ecologival footprint ......................................................................................... 17


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1

Unit I - Concept of Sustainability

1.1

Introduction

In ecology, sustainability is how biological systems remain diverse and productive. Long-lived andhealthy wetlands and forests are examples of sustainable biological systems. In more general terms,

sustainability is the endurance of systems and processes.The organizing principle forsustainability is sustainable development, which includes the four interconnected domains:

1.2

Carrying capacity

Sustainability science is the study of sustainable development and environmental science.

At the global scale, scientific data now indicates that humans are living beyond the carryingcapacity of planet Earth and that this cannot continue indefinitely. This scientific evidence

Ecology

Economics

Politics

Culture


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comes from many sources but is presented in detail in the Millennium Ecosystem Assessmentand the planetary boundaries framework. An early detailed examination of global limits waspublished in the 1972 book Limits to Growth, which has prompted follow-up commentary andanalysis. A 2012 review in Nature by 22 international researchers expressed concerns that theEarth may be "approaching a state shift" in its biosphere.

The Ecological footprint measures human consumption in terms of the biologically productiveland needed to provide the resources, and absorb the wastes of the average global citizen. In2008 it required 2.7 global hectares per person, 30% more than the natural biological capacityof 2.1 global hectares (assuming no provision for other organisms). The resulting ecologicaldeficit must be met from unsustainable extra sources and these are obtained in three ways:embedded in the goods and services of world trade; taken from the past (e.g. fossil fuels); orborrowed from the future as unsustainable resource usage (e.g. by over exploiting forests andfisheries).


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The figure examines sustainability at the scale of individual countries by contrasting theirEcological Footprint with their UN Human Development Index (a measure of standard of living).The graph shows what is necessary for countries to maintain an acceptable standard of livingfor their citizens while, at the same time, maintaining sustainable resource use.

The general trend is for higher standards of living to become less sustainable. As always,population growth has a marked influence on levels of consumption and the efficiency ofresource use. The sustainability goal is to raise the global standard of living without increasingthe use of resources beyond globally sustainable levels; that is, to not exceed "one planet"consumption. Information generated by reports at the national, regional and city scales confirm

the global trend towards societies that are becoming less sustainable over time.

1.3 Sustainable development

The word sustainability is derived from the Latin sustinere. Sustain can mean maintain", "support", or"endure.Since the 1980s sustainability has been used more in the sense of human sustainability onplanet Earth and this has resulted in the most widely quoted definition of sustainability as a part of theconcept sustainable development, that of the Brundtland Commission of the United Nations on March

20, 1987: sustainable development is development that meets the needs of thepresent without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their ownneeds.

1.4 Bruntland report

Part I. Common Concerns

1. A Threatened Future

I. Symptoms and Causes

II. New Approaches to Environment and Development

2. Towards Sustainable Development

I. The Concept of Sustainable Development


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II. Equity and the Common Interest

III. Strategic Imperatives

IV. Conclusion

3. The Role of the International Economy

I.The International Economy, the Environment, and DevelopmentII. Decline in the 1980s

III. Enabling Sustainable Development

IV. A Sustainable World Economy

Part II. Common Challenges

4. Population and Human Resources

I. The Links with Environment and Development

II. The Population Perspective

III. A Policy Framework

5. Food Security: Sustaining the Potential

I. Achievements

II. Signs of Crisis

III. The Challenge

IV. Strategies for Sustainable Food Security

V. Food for the Future

6. Species and Ecosystems: Resources for Development

I. The Problem: Character and Extent

II. Extinction Patterns and Trends

III. Some Causes of Extinction

IV. Economic Values at Stake

V. New Approach: Anticipate and Prevent

VI. International Action for National Species

VII. Scope for National Action

VIII. The Need for Action

7. Energy: Choices for Environment and Development

I. Energy, Economy, and Environment

II. Fossil Fuels: The Continuing DilemmaIII. Nuclear Energy: Unsolved Problems

IV. Wood Fuels: The Vanishing Resource

V. Renewable Energy: The Untapped Potential

VI. Energy Efficiency: Maintaining the Momentum

VII. Energy Conservation Measures

VIII. Conclusion


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8. Industry: Producing More With Less

I. Industrial Growth and its Impact

II. Sustainable Industrial Development in a Global Context

III. Strategies for Sustainable Industrial Development

9. The Urban ChallengeI. The Growth of Cities

II. The Urban Challenge in Developing Countries

III. International Cooperation

Part III. Common Endeavours

10. Managing The Commons

I. Oceans: The Balance of Life

II. Space: A Key to Planetary Management

III. Antarctica: Towards Global Cooperation

11. Peace, Security, Development, and the Environment

I. Environmental Stress as a Source of Conflict

II. Conflict as a Cause of Unsustainable Development

III. Towards Security and Sustainable Development

12. Towards Common Action: Proposals For Institutional and Legal Change

I. The Challenge for Institutional and Legal Change

II. Proposals for Institutional and Legal Change

III. A Call for Action

1.5

Ethics and Visions of sustainability


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2

Unit II

2.1

Eco system and food chain

What is an Ecosystem?

An ecosystemis acommunity of living organisms (plants, animals and microbes) in conjunction with

thenonliving components of their environment (things like air, water and mineral soil), interacting as asystem. These biotic and abiotic components are regarded as linked together through nutrient cycles andenergy flows. As ecosystems are defined by the network of interactions among organisms, and betweenorganisms and their environment, they can be of any size but usually encompass specific, limited spaces

An ecosystem includes all of the living things (plants, animals and organisms) in a given area, interactingwith each other, and also with their non-living environments (weather, earth, sun, soil, climate,atmosphere).

In an ecosystem, each organism has its' own niche, or role to play.Consider a small puddle at the back of your home. In it, you may find all sorts of living things, frommicroorganisms, to insects and plants. These may depend on non-living things like water, sunlight,turbulence in the puddle, temperature, atmospheric pressure and even nutrients in the water for life.

This very complex, wonderful interaction of living things and their environment, has been the foundationsof energy flow and recycle of carbon and nitrogen.

Anytime a stranger (living thing(s) or external factor such as rise in temperature) is introduced to anecosystem, it can be disastrous to that ecosystem. This is because the new organism (or factor) candistort the natural balance of the interaction and potentially harm or destroy the ecosystem.

2.2 Threats to Ecosystems

Anything that attempts to alter the balance of the ecosystem potentially threatens the health andexistence of that ecosystem. Some of these threats are not overly worrying as they may be naturally
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resolved provided the natural conditions are restored. Other factors can destroy ecosystems and renderall or some of its life forms extinct. Here are a few:

2.2.1 Habitat Destruction

Economic activities such as logging, mining, farming and construction often involve clearing out placeswith natural vegetative cover. Very often, tampering with one factor of the ecosystem can have a rippleeffect on it and affect many more or all other factors of that ecosystem. For example, clearing a pieceof forest for timber can expose the upper layers of the soil to the sun's heat, causing erosion and drying.It can cause a lot of animals and insects that depended on the shade and moisture from the tree to dieor migrate to other places.

2.2.2 Pollution

Water, land and air pollution all together play a crucial role in the health of ecosystems. Pollutionmay be natural or human caused, but regardless they potentially release destructive agents orchemicals (pollutants) into the environments of living things. In a lake, for example, it can createhavoc on the ecological balance by stimulating plant growth and causing the death of fish due tosuffocation resulting from lack of oxygen. The oxygen cycle will stop, and the polluted water willalso affect the animals dependent on the lake water Source: Study the effect of pollution on anecosystem, WWF.

2.2.3 Eutrophication

This is the enrichment of water bodies with plant biomass as a result of continuous inflow ofnutrients particularly nitrogen and phosphorus. Eutrophication of water fuels excessive plant andalgae growth and also hurts water life, often resulting in the loss of flora and fauna diversity. Theknown consequences of cultural eutrophication include blooms of blue-green algae (i.e.,cyanobacteria, Figure 2), tainted drinking water supplies, degradation of recreational opportunities,and hypoxia. The estimated cost of damage mediated by eutrophication in the U.S. alone isapproximately $2.2 billion annually (Dodds et al. 2009) Source: Eutrophication: Causes,Consequences, and Controls in Aquatic Ecosystems, Michael F. Chislock


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2.2.4 Invasive species

Any foreign specie (biological) that finds its way into an ecosystem, either by natural or humanintroduction can have an effect on the ecosystem. If this alien has the ability to prey on vulnerableand native members of that ecosystem, they will be wiped out, sooner or later. One devastatingimpact of introducing alien Nile Perch and Nile Tilapia into Lake Victoria in the 1970s was the

extinction of almost half of the 350+ endemic species of fish in the cichlid family.

2.2.5 Overharvesting

Fish species, game and special plants all do fall victim from time to time as a result of overharvesting or humans over dependence on them. Overharvesting leads to reduction in populations,community structures and distributions, with an overall reduction in recruitment. Lots of fish speciesare know to have reached their maximum exploitation level, and others will soon be. For exampleOreochromis karongae is one of the most valuable food fishes in Malawi, but populations collapsedin the 1990s due to overfishing, and it is now assessed as Endangered. Source: IUCN, Major Threats

2.2.6

UV RadiationThe suns rays play an important role in living things. UV rays come in three main wavelengths: UVA,UVB and UVC, and they have different properties. UVA has long wavelengths and reaches the earthssurface all the time. It helps generate vitamin D for living things. UVB and UVC are more destructiveand can cause DNA and cell damage to plants and animals. Ozone depletion is one way that exposesliving things to UVB and UVC and the harm caused can wipe lots of species, and affect ecosystemsmembers including humans.

Usually, biotic members of an ecosystem, together with their abiotics factors depend on each other. Thismeans the absence of one member, or one abiotic factor can affect all parties of the ecosystem.

Unfortunately ecosystems have been disrupted, and even destroyed by natural disasters such as fires,floods, storms and volcanic eruptions. Human activities have also contributed to the disturbance of many

ecosystems andbiomes.

2.3

Food chains

All living things need to feed to get energy to grow, move and reproduce. But what do these living thingsfeed on? Smaller insects feed on green plants, and bigger animals feed on smaller ones and so on. Thisfeeding relationship in an ecosystem is called a food chain. Food chains are usually in a sequence, withan arrow used to show the flow of energy. Below are some living things that can fit into a food chain.
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A food chainis a linear sequence of links in afood web starting from a species that are called producersin the web and ends at a species that is called decomposers species in the web. A food chain also showshow the organisms are related with each other by the food they eat. A food chain differs from a food

web, because the complex polyphagous network of feeding relations are aggregated into trophic speciesand the chain only follows linear monophagous pathways. A common metric used to quantify food webtrophic structure is food chain length. In its simplest form, the length of a chain is the number of linksbetween a trophic consumer and the base of the web and the mean chain length of an entire web is thearithmetic average of the lengths of all chains in a food web.

Food chains were first introduced by the African-Arab scientist and philosopherAl-Jahiz in the 9thcentury and later popularized in a book published in 1927 byCharles Elton,which also introduced thefood web concept.

2.3.1 Food chain length

The food chain's length is acontinuous variable that provides a measure of the passage of energy and anindex of ecological structure that increases in value counting progressively through the linkages in a

linear fashion from the lowest to the highesttrophic (feeding) levels.Food chains are often used inecological modeling (such as a three species food chain). They are simplified abstractions of real foodwebs, but complex in their dynamics and mathematical implications.Ecologists have formulated andtested hypotheses regarding the nature of ecological patterns associated with food chain length, such asincreasing length increasing with ecosystem size, reduction of energy at each successive level, or theproposition that long food chain lengths are unstable. Food chain studies have had an important roleinecotoxicology studies tracing the pathways andbiomagnification ofenvironmental contaminants.

Food chains vary in length from three to six or more levels. A food chain consisting of a flower, a frog, asnake and an owl consists of four levels; whereas a food chain consisting of grass, a grasshopper, a rat,
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a snake and finally a hawk consists of five levels.Producers,such as plants, are organisms that utilizesolar energy or heat energy to synthesize starch. All food chains must start with a producer. In thedeepsea, food chains centered aroundhydrothermal vents exist in the absence of sunlight.Chemo-synthetic bacteria and archaea can usehydrogen sulfide from hydro-thermal vents as an energy source(just as plants use sunlight) to produce carbohydrates; they form the base of the foodchain.Consumers are organisms that eat other organisms. All organisms in a food chain, except the firstorganism, are consumers.

2.3.2 Cycles of the Earth System

Our planet is constantly changing. Natural cycles balance and regulate Earth and its atmosphere. Humanactivities can cause changes to these natural cycles.

Life on Earth is well adapted to our planets cycles. In our solar system, Earth is the only planet with airto breathe, liquid water to drink, and temperatures that are just right for life as we know it. Becauseour existence depends on our planet and its climate, we need to understand how what we do affects theEarth.

Scientists try to figure out how our planet works by studying Earths cycles. Changes to Earths cycle scan cause changes in the climates of our planet. The more we know about these cycles, the more wewill understand how humans are affecting them and how that might change the planet. The cycles below

to learn more about how they work!2.3.2.1The Energy BalanceEarth gets all its energy from the Sun and loses energy into space If more energy is lost into space than

is received from the Sun, the planet gets cooler. If it loses less energy than it receives, the planet will

warm up.

Have you noticed that it is often cooler when there are clouds in the sky? Some types of clouds act like

giant sun umbrellas, shading the Earth and reflecting the sunlight that hits them. Other types of clouds

act like a jacket, holding the heat in and preventing it from leaving the atmosphere. Today, most clouds

act more like a sun umbrella and help keep our climate cool. However, this could change if global

warming affects the type of clouds, their thickness, and how much water or ice they contain.

While it might be quite warm in the countryside on a summer day, it can get unbearably hot in a nearby

city! Thats because the buildings and pavement in cities absorb oodles of sunlight, much more than the

countryside. These cities are called heat islands. The countryside is also cooled by water evaporating

from lakes and given off by the plants in forests and fields. Cities have fewer plants and bodies of water

and so are not cooled very much by evaporation.

2.4 Ecologival footprint

The ecological footprint is a measure of human demand on the Earth's ecosystems. It is a standardized

measure of demand for natural capital that may be contrasted with the planet's ecological capacity toregenerate. It represents the amount of biologically productive land and sea area necessary to supply

the resources a human population consumes, and to assimilate associated waste. Using this assessment,

it is possible to estimate how much of the Earth (or how many planet Earths) it would take to support

humanity if everybody followed a given lifestyle. For 2007, humanity's total ecological footprint wasestimated at 1.5 planet Earths; that is, humanity uses ecological services 1.5 times as quickly as Earth

can renew them. Every year, this number is recalculated to incorporate the three-year lag due to the

time it takes for the UN to collect and publish statistics and relevant research.

Although the term ecological footprint is widely used and well known, it goes beyond the metaphor. It

represents an accounting system for biocapacity that tracks how much biocapacity there is, and how
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much biocapacity people use. Calculation methods have converged thanks to standards released in 2006

and updated in 2009.

The first academic publication about the ecological footprint was byWilliam Rees in 1992. The ecologicalfootprint concept and calculation method was developed as the PhD dissertation ofMathis Wackernagel,

under Rees' supervision at theUniversity of British Columbia in Vancouver, Canada, from 19901994.

Originally, Wackernagel and Rees called the concept "appropriated carrying capacity". To make the idea

more accessible, Rees came up with the term "ecological footprint", inspired by a computer technician

who praised his new computer's "small footprint on the desk". In early 1996, Wackernagel and Rees

published the book Our Ecological Footprint: Reducing Human Impact on the Earth with illustrations by

Phil Testemale.

Ecological footprint analysis compares human demands on nature with the biosphere's ability to

regenerate resources and provide services. It does this by assessing the biologically productive land and

marine area required to produce the resources a population consumes and absorb the corresponding

waste, using prevailing technology. Footprint values at the end of a survey are categorized for Carbon,

Food, Housing, and Goods and Services as well as the total footprint number of Earths needed to sustain

the world's population at that level of consumption. This approach can also be applied to an activity such

as the manufacturing of a product or driving of a car. This resource accounting is similar to life cycle

analysis wherein the consumption ofenergy,biomass (food,fiber),building material,water andotherresources are converted into a normalized measure of land area calledglobal hectares (gha).

Per capita ecological footprint (EF), or ecological footprint analysis (EFA), is a means of comparing

consumption and lifestyles, and checking this against nature's ability to provide for this consumption.The tool can inform policy by examining to what extent a nation uses more (or less) than is available

within its territory, or to what extent the nation's lifestyle would be replicable worldwide. The footprint

can also be a useful tool to educate people aboutcarrying capacity andover-consumption,with the aimof altering personal behavior. Ecological footprints may be used to argue that many current lifestyles are

notsustainable.Such a global comparison also clearly shows the inequalities of resource use on this

planet at the beginning of the twenty-first century.

In 2007, the average biologically productive area per person worldwide was approximately 1.8global

hectares (gha) per capita. TheU.S. footprint per capita was 9.0 gha, and that ofSwitzerland was 5.6 gha,whileChina's was 1.8 gha. TheWWF claims that the human footprint has exceeded thebiocapacity (the

available supply of natural resources) of the planet by 20%. Wackernagel and Rees originally estimated

that the available biological capacity for the 6 billion people on Earth at that time was about 1.3 hectares

per person, which is smaller than the 1.8 global hectares published for 2006, because the initial studies

neither used global hectares nor included bioproductive marine areas.

A number of NGOs offer ecological footprint calculators (seeFootprint Calculator,below).

Ecological footprint analysis is now widely used around the Earth as an indicator of

environmentalsustainability.It can be used to measure and manage the use of resources throughout the

economy. It can be used to explore the sustainability of individual lifestyles, goods and services,

organizations, industry sectors, neighborhoods, cities, regions and nations. Since 2006, a first set of

ecological footprint standards exist that detail both communication and calculation procedures.
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Kyoto protocol

166 nation representatives meet in Kyoto, Japan in December 1997 to negotiate treaty to

reduce emissions of co2 and other greenhouse gases.

Figure 1 Sustainable Solutions

2.5 Climate change and sustainability

sociallydesirable

ecologicallyviable

economicallyfeasible

sustainable planning and architecture

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