synopsis of the thesis entitled -...

CONTENTS Chapter 6 Job Reservation and Socio-Economic Development 153-188 Introduction 153 6.1 Monthly Income 153 6.2 Educational Attainment 155 6.3 Land Holdings 156 6.4 Size of Houses 157 6.5 Savings and Debt Position 158 6.6 Alcoholism 159 6.7 Availability of Basic Amenities 160 6.8 Access to Social Infrastructure 161 6.9 Indices of Socio-Economic Development 162 6.10 Socio-Economic Development Index 165 6.11 Summary of Various Indices 166 6.11.1 Income Index 167 6.11.2 Education Index 168 6.11.3 Amenities Index 169 6.11.4 Infrastructure Index 169 6.11.5 Freedom Index 170 6.11.6 Socio-Economic Development Index 171 6.12 Comparison of Various Indices with Respect to Job Reservation 176 6.13 Socio-Economic Status Based on the SEDI 177 6.13.1 Comparison Tribe wise 178 6.13.2 Comparison with Job Reservation 180 6.14 Development 181 6.15 Missionary Influence and Socio-Economic Development of Christian Malai- Arayans 182

6.15.1 Educational Attainment- a Comparative Analysis 184 6.15.2 Employment and Benefits of Job Reservation 184 6.15.3 Freedom from Social Evils 185 6.16 Index of Deprivation 186 Summary 187 Endnotes 188

List of Tables 6.1 Monthly Income 154 6.2 Sample t test 155 6.3 Literacy and Educational attainment of Tribes under study 155 6.4 Land Holdings 156 6.5 Size of Houses 157 6.6 Savings and Debt position 158 6.7 Alcoholism among the tribes 159 6.8 Two Sample Test for Equality of Proportions 159 6.9 Possession of Basic Amenities (Drinking water, Electricity, Sanitation) 160 6.10 Two Sample Test for Equality of Proportions 160 6.11 Access to Social Infrastructure 161 6.12 Two Sample Test for Equality of Proportions 161 6.13 Income Index 167 6.14 Education Index 168 6.15 Amenities Index (Drinking Water, Electricity and Sanitation Facility) 169 6.16 Infrastructure Index 170 6.17 Freedom Index 171 6.18 Socio economic development index 172 6.19 ANOVA Table 172 6.20 Duncan’s test - income index 173 6.21 Duncan’s test - education index 173

6.22 Duncan’s test - amenities index 174 6.23 Duncan’s test - infrastructure index 174 6.24 Duncan’s test - freedom index 175 6.25 Duncan’s test - socio-economic development index 175 6.26 ANOVA Table 176 6.27 Socio-Economic Development Index and Job Reservation 177 6.28 The Mean and standard deviations of the socio economic indices - tribe wise 178 6.29 ANOVA Table 179 6 30 Duncan’s Test 179 6.31 Mean and Standard deviations of the SEDI-BJR and non-BJR 180 6.32 SEDI and Job reservation-a cross tabulation 181 6.33 Cross tabulation of the SEDI-tribe-wise 182 6.34 Christian Malai Arayans & Educational attainment a comparative analysis 184 6.35 Employment and Benefits of Job Reservation 185 6.36 Freedom from Social Evils 185 6.37 Deprivation Indices of tribes under study 186 6.38 Index of Deprivation by Social Groups in Kerala-2001 187

List of figures

6.1 Comparison of various indices with respect to job reservation 176 6.2 Comparison of socio Economic Development Index Tribe wise. 180 6.3 Comparison of socio Economic Development Indices with respect to job reservation 181

Chapter 6

Job Reservation and Socio- Economic Development

Introduction An attempt has been made in this chapter to compare the level of socio-

economic development achieved by those households, which benefited from

the Job Reservation policy belonging to the different tribes under study. In

order to make a meaningful comparison of the level of development achieved

by the beneficiary households of job reservation and non-beneficiaries, an

index of progress is developed. But before analyzing the index, a comparison

of these groups is made based on certain significant variables. In all the tables

below the term 'Beneficiaries of Job Reservation' (BJR) refers to those

households, which have representation in organized sector employment under

the reservation policy.

6.1 Monthly Income Income represents generalized purchasing power and therefore it serves

as the vital element in determining the level of living enjoyed by the

community. Here a comparison of the households is effected based on their

monthly incomes. Each tribe has been split up into two groups viz,

beneficiaries and non- beneficiaries of job reservation.

153

Table 6.1 Monthly Income Income

level in

Rupees

MA X

Total

Number

BJR MA H

Total

Number

BJR ULL

Total

Number

BJR UR Total

Number

BJR

Below 2000 53

(36.55%)

6

(11.32%)

66

45.52%

5

(7.57%)

52

(80%)

1

(1.92%)

61

(76.25%)

1

(1.64%)

2000-3000 34

(23.45%)

Nil 44

(30.34%)

4

(9.09%)

7

(10.77%)

1

(14.28%)

13

(16.25%) Nil

3000-7000 22

(15.17%)

11

(50%)

20

(13.79%)

15

(75%)

6

(9.23%)

4

(66.66%)

5

(6.25%)

2

(40%)

Above 7000 36

(24.83%)

35

(97.22%)

15

(10.34%)

13

(86.66%) Nil Nil

1

(1.25%)

1

(100%)

Total 145 52 145 37 65 6 80 4

Source: Primary data

Note: The total number refers to the number of households belonging to that

group. Percentage shown in the brackets indicates the percentage in relation to

the group concerned.

The given table reveals many facts related to the distribution of income

among these tribes.

• Most of the households belonging to the Ulladan and Urali tribes have a

monthly income below Rs.2000/-

• Malai Arayan (Christians & Hindus) families are better placed in

earning higher incomes.

• There is considerable representation of BJR (Beneficiaries of Job

Reservation) households in the higher income groups.

• In terms of higher incomes Malai Arayan Christians comes first

followed by their Hindu brothers. This higher income is because of their

higher presence in the employment sector.

• The positive correlation between job reservation policy and higher

income is evident from the data.

154

Two-sample t test for verifying whether the incomes of the families getting job

reservation are significantly greater than the incomes of other families is given

hereunder

Table 6.2 Sample t test

Group Mean Income

Standard deviation

Value of t Significance

BJR Non-BJR

7553.5 2010.896

4816.5 1188.3

11.404 <. 0001

Conclusion: Income of families getting job reservation is significantly

greater than the income of families not getting job reservation.

6.2 Educational Attainment The light of knowledge dispels the darkness of ignorance. And the

socio-economic progress of a community is contingent on the level of

educational attainment. It initiates the people into worthwhile ways of thinking

and doing. The wealth of a nation and the health of a society are its people and

their education. Here the beneficiary households and non-beneficiary

households of job reservation are compared directly on the basis of the level of

educational achievements.

Table 6.3 Literacy and Educational attainment of Tribes under study Number of persons

Educational level MA X BJR MA H BJR ULL BJR UR BJR

Illiterates

Students

Standard 1-4

Standard 5-9

SSLC

Pre Degree/Plus two

Degree and Above

Professionally

qualified

15(2.64%)

49(8.63%)

60(10.56%)

190(33.45%)

108(19.01%)

81(14.26%)

40(7.04%)

25(4.40%)

3(20%)

16(32.65%)

17(28.33%)

40(21.05%)

48(44.44%)

24(29.62%)

24(60%)

25(100%)

43 (7.8%)

27(4.9%)

74 (13.43%)

216(39.20%)

116(21.05%)

38(6.89%)

26(4.72%)

11(2%)

3(6.97%)

6(22.22%)

18(24.32%)

40(18.51%)

39(33.62%)

18(47.36%)

11(42.30%)

6(54.54%)

19(7.75%)

36(14.69%)

49(20%)

118(48.16%)

18(7.34%)

5(2.04%)

Nil

Nil

2(10.52%)

8(22.22%)

3(6.12%)

10(90.90%)

6(33.33%)

Nil

Nil

Nil

53(18.60%)

33(11.58%)

55(19.30%)

102(35.79%)

31(10.88%)

7(2.46%)

4(1.40%)

Nil

4(7.54%)

2(6.06%)

2(3.63%)

2(20%)

2(6.45%)

2(28.57%)

2(50%)

Nil


155

In order to test whether the proportions of professionally qualified is

greater in the case of Christians: we take H0: Proportions of professionally

qualified are equal. The sample proportions are .249 and .121 respectively.

Adopting the Z-list the value of Z is found to be 2.9, which is significant at 5%

level. Hence we reject H0. Thus the proportion of professionally qualified is

greater in the case of Christians.

6.3 Land Holdings Most of the tribal groups in Kerala live in the forest areas. They do not

own the land occupied by them. This is one of the contentious issues, which

continue to haunt the tribal belt. In the district of Kottayam they own most of

the land occupied by the tribes. But in the district of Idukki tribals cultivate the

land and the ownership is with the government. In this study the land occupied

by the tribals alone is considered and there is no separate analysis of land

occupied and owned.

Table 6.4 Land Holdings Area of Land

occupied MA X Total

number

BJR MA H Total

Number

BJR ULL Total

Number

BJR Urali Total

Number

BJR

No land Nil Nil Nil Nil 4 (6.15%) Nil Nil Nil

Up to 10 cents

22 (15.77%)

3% 7 (4.82%)

1 (14.28%)

30 (46.15%)

3 (10%)

10 (12.5%)

1 (10%)

10-50 cents 25 (17.24%)

11 12 (8.27%)

2 (16.66%)

3 (4.61%) Nil 16

(20%) Nil

50cents-1 acre

36 (24.83%)

11 31 (21.38%)

6 (19.35%)

6 (9.23%) Nil 13

(16.25%) Nil

1-2 acres 33 (22.76%)

13 38 (26.21%)

8 (21.05%)

11 (16.92%) Nil 22

(27.5%) 2

(9.09%) 2-5 acres 24

(16.55%) 10 50

(34.48%) 18

(36%) 10

(15.38%) 3

(33.10%) 16

(20%) 1

(6.25%) Above 5 acres 5

(3.45%) 4 7

(4.83%) 2

(28.57%) 1

(1.53%) Nil 3 (3.75%) Nil

Total 145 52 145 37 65 6 80 4 Source: Primary data

156

• Hindu Malai Arayan households have greater command over landed

property.

• Ulladan households are poor in land holdings.

• Four households belonging to Ulladan tribe do not own land.

• Beneficiaries of Job Reservation belonging to Christian Malai Arayan

stream managed to hold more land as a proportion of their total land

holdings.

• When we consider families with landed property above one acre the

proportion of Hindu Malai Araya families is large compared with that of

the Christian families.

6.4 Size of Houses The nature and type of houses owned by the people can be considered as

an indicator of their progress. Large house is emblematic of higher income and

wealth. The size of houses owned by the Malai Arayan, Ulladan and Urali

families is considered here. The comparison is between the beneficiaries of and

non- beneficiaries of job reservation.

Table 6.5 Size of Houses Plinth

Area in square feet

MA X Total

Number

BJR MA H Total

Number

BJR ULL. Total

Number

BJR Urlai Total

Number

BJR

Below 400

38 (26.21%)

4 (10.53%)

53 (36.55%)

5 (9.43%)

44 (67.69%)

4 9.09%

46 (57.5%)

2 (4.35%)

400-800

67 (46.21%)

19 (28.36%)

73 (50.34%)

21 (28.77%)

21 (32.30%)

2 (9.52%)

34 (42.5%)

2 (5.88%)

800-1200

23 (15.86%)

13 (56.52%)

14 (9.65%)

7 (50%) Nil Nil Nil Nil

Above 1200

17 (11.72%)

16 (94.12%)

5 (3.45%)

4 (80%) Nil Nil Nil Nil

145 37 145 52 65 6 80 4 Source: Primary data

157

In terms of bigger houses owned Christian Malai Arayans are well ahead

of other tribes. Urali and Ulladan tribes have small houses. No household

belonging to these tribes owns house above 800 square feet in plinth area.

6.5 Savings and Debt position People who are able to save can enhance their future prospects. That is

why all nations are concentrating on this area of rational decision-making.

Sometimes savings become negative. Then people get into debt. For a

household, savings and debt are of crucial significance. Here the savings, debt

position and dependence on the non-banking financial intermediaries for

meeting the credit needs of the tribal people are analyzed.

Table 6.6 Savings and Debt position Description MA X

Total number

BJR MA H Total

Number

BJR ULL Total

Number

BJR Urali Total

Number

BJR

Number of Households having Bank Deposits

15 (10.34%)

13 (86.66%)

14 (9.65%)

10 (71.42%) Nil Nil Nil Nil

Number of Households having loan liabilities

105 (72.41%)

37 (35.23%)

93 (64.14%)

19 (20.43%)

51 (78.46%)

5 (9.80%)

46 (57.5%)

1 (2.17%)

Dependence on Non Banking Financial Intermediaries

25 (17.24%)

3 (12%)

54 (37.24%)

9 (16.66%)

57 (87.69%)

3 (5.26%)

29 (36.25%)

1 (3.44%)


Securing organized sector employment may not result in the generation

of savings. The Mali Arayan tribe is able to save some portion of their income.

Major share of the savings in the form of bank deposit come from the Christian

and Hindu Malai Araya streams. Urali and Ulladan households are unable to

save their incomes. This shows the extent of their poverty and deprivation.

158

They are mostly dependent on non- banking financial intermediaries to meet

their loan requirements.

6.6 Alcoholism Alcoholism has become rampant in Kerala. The per capita consumption

of alcohol in this state is well above the national average.

Table 6.7 Alcoholism among the tribes Description MA X

Total BJR MA H

Total BJR ULL

Total BJR Urlai

Total BJR

Households affected by Alcoholism

58 40%

20 34.48%

96 66.21%

23 23.95%

4 64.62%

3 7.14%

58 72.5%

2 3.45%

Freedom from all social evils

45 31.03%

15 33.33%

21 14.48%

6 28.57%

10 15.38%

Nil 13 16.25%

Nil


Alcoholism is part of tribal life. Their beliefs and habits are all

inextricably interlinked with baccanalia. But now most of the societies are

counting it as a social evil. Not only that many tribal groups are making earnest

attempts to reduce the influence of alcohol. The total number of households

affected by alcoholism is less among the Christians but in the case of that are

beneficiaries of reservation it is one of the highest.

Table 6.8 Two-Sample Test for Equality of Proportions

Type Families free from social evils

Proportion Z value Significance

BJR Non-BJR

21 68

0.212 0.202

0.23

0.4078

Conclusion: The proportion of families having freedom from social evils

is not significantly different in the case of families who have benefited from

job reservation and who have not benefited from job reservation.

159

6.7 Availability of Basic Amenities The availability of drinking water, electricity and sanitation facilities

constitute one of the rudimentary requirements of progress. Thus a comparative

analysis of the beneficiaries of job reservation and non- beneficiaries of job

reservation regarding the availability these amenities would be of great

practical value.

Table 6.9 Possessions of Basic Amenities

(Drinking water, Electricity, Sanitation) Description MA X

Total BJR MA H

Total BJR ULL

Total BJR Urali

Total BJR

Availability of Drinking water within 500 meters

71 48.96%

39 54.93%

40 27.58

%

10 25%

14 21.53%

3 21.43

23 28.75%

2 8.69%

Electricity 100 68.96%

43 43%

129 88.96

%

35 27.13%

30 46.15%

3 10%

51 63.75%

3 5.88%

Sanitation Facilities

114 78.62%

50 43.86%

107 73.79

%

35 32.71%

44 67.69%

6 13.64%

48 60%

3 6.25%

All the above available

47

32.41%

33

70.21%

39

26.89%

10

25.64%

5

7.69%

2

40%

14

17.5%

2

14.28%


Around 70% of the reservation benefited households belonging to

Christian Malai Arayans enjoy the basic amenities of drinking water, electricity

and sanitation facilities. Other tribes are very backward in this respect.


Type Families havingBasic facilities

Proportion Z value

Significance

BJR 47

58

0.475

0.173

6.17 Non -BJR

<0.0001

160

Conclusion: The proportion of families with basic facilities is

significantly larger in the case of families who have benefited from job

reservation.

6.8 Access to Social Infrastructure Access to school, health centre and bus stop would accelerate the pace

of development of a society. In the tribal areas accessibility to these social

infrastructure facilities alone cannot guarantee their effective utilization. The

response of the people to such facilities is more crucial than its accessibility.

Table 6 .11 Access to Social Infrastructure

Infrastructure Components

MA X Total

BJR MA H Total

BJR ULL Total

BJR Urali Total

BJR

School within 2 kms distance

141 97.24%

51 98.1%

134 92.41%

36 97.3%

61 93.85%

5 83.35%

69 86.25%

2 50%

Public health centre or Hospital within 2kms

120

82.75%

47

90.4%

118

81.38%

32

86.4%

60

92.30%

5

83.33%

65

81.25%

2

50%

Bus stop within 10 minutes walk

86 59.31%

42 80.7%

45 31.03%

12 32.4%

33 50.76%

4 66.6%

35 43.75%

2 50%

Possession of all the above components

83 42 39 10 28 2 34 2



Type Families having Social

infrastructure

Proportion Z value Significance

BJR 56 128

0.566 0.381

3.27

Non-BJR

0.0005

161

Conclusion: The proportion of families having social infrastructure is

significantly larger in the case of families who have benefited from job

reservation

Taking reservation-benefited households as a group, access to social

infrastructure is very poor for Urali households. Their habitats still remain

remote. But all other groups are better placed. The increased availability of

social infrastructure for the Christians might be the result of their migration to

places where these facilities are available.

6.9 Indices of Socio- Economic Development

Hitherto we have been doing an empirical analysis of the development

achieved by the households that have benefited by job reservation. But it

considered the concept of development on a broader canvas. In order to

identify the crucial factors that contribute to development some selected

variables have been taken for a comparative study. It is more appropriate to

construct a composite index of development by which comparison can be made

more effectively. One can employ any number of indicators to measure the

level of socio-economic advancement achieved by a community. This is

because of the complexity of the variables involved in the process of

development. Some relevant measures of development are mentioned here.

There are many indices of development, which are internationally

accepted and widely employed in comparative analysis. The Human

Development Index developed by UNDP1and the Physical Quality of Life

Index propounded by Morris. D. Morris2 are good examples of such indices.

Life expectancy, educational attainment and real GDP are the variables

considered in computing the Human Development Index (HDI). Life

expectancy, infant mortality and literacy are evaluated while computing the

162

Physical Quality of Life Index (PQLI). These measures help approach the

development process from a positive angle.

Human poverty Index is another measure, which indicates the extent of

deprivation of the community in the same variables employed in the calculation

of HDI. This approach is sometimes considered more realistic because it can

give a real picture of the poverty and deprivation existing in a society 3.

Amartya Sen provided a new interpretation to development by

incorporating the capability approach in the analysis of development. The

entitlements of a person are the real basis for generating capabilities. Thus the

quality of human life and the content of development coincide 4.

The National Council of Applied Economics Research constructed a

composite index of village development using certain parameters that reflect

the economic prosperity of a village such as access to land and irrigation,

education and health facilities. Availability of all weather roads, telephones,

schools, health centres and access to potable water within a reasonable distance

has been considered for compiling such as Index. The survey was conducted in

1765 villages spread over the whole of rural India5.

Bureau of Economics and Statistics Government of Kerala conducted a

Socio Economic Survey of Tribals of Kerala during 1976-786. In this survey

the socio-economic condition of the various tribes was assessed on the basis of

the demographic features, level of education, occupational details, income,

expenditure on various heads, indebtedness, housing condition, land holdings,

alienation of land and benefits of various social welfare schemes.

The Commission on the Socio Economic Conditions of Scheduled

Castes and Scheduled Tribes7 of Kerala (Dr. Babu Vijayanath Commission)

163

considered the extent of movable and immovable properly, types of houses,

income levels, food habits, their vocations, education, representation in

services, investment, family size and entrepreneurship for evaluating the level

of socio economic development achieved by these weaker sections.

Human Development Report 2005, Govt. of Kerala8 compiled an Index

of Deprivation to evaluate the extent of backwardness of the Tribes. This index

reckoned the deprivations in the quality of housing, access to water, good

sanitation and electricity lighting.

Earlier Researchers also compiled similar indices to measure the

development in the socio-economic sphere. Some such indices are mentioned

below.

S. Rajoo Krishnan9 developed a Socio-Economic Status Index using the

sex ratio, place of residence, religion, literacy and work participation. The

study was intended to assess the demographic characteristics. Therefore it is

more general in nature.

Jain10 constructed a Composite Index of Development based on the

following indices.

i) Quality of life- it includes total literacy, female literacy, sex ratio,

infant mortality rate, female work participation rate and total work

participation rate.

ii) Demographic Variables including density of population, physiological

density and degree of urbanization and decadal growth of population.

iii) Geophysical variables including normal rainfall

iv) Agricultural infrastructure and inputs comprising the extent of

irrigation, cropping intensity, net cropped area per agricultural worker

164

and the agricultural labourers as a percentage of cultivators, and per

capita cultivated land.

v) Social Infrastructure

vi) Economic Infrastructure

vii) Financial sector

viii) Agricultural productivity

ix) Industrial sector

6.10 Socio-Economic Development Index-Methodology

In order to assess the level of socio-economic development achieved

by the tribes under study a composite index is compiled. The Socio-Economic

Development Index (SEDI) is the weighted arithmetic mean of the following 5

indices with weights given as 3, 3, 2, 1and 1 respectively.

(1) Income Index. This is calculated by dividing the logarithm of monthly

per capita income (X) of the family by the logarithm of the maximum

monthly income obtained in the study, after subtracting log 100 from

each figure

Income index = log X – log 100 log Max – log 100

(2) Education Index. For calculating this index scores are given for

members of a family based on their educational attainment. The scores

for each educational level are given below.

Illiterates - 0

1-4 standard - 1

5th to 9th Std - 2

SSLC - 3

Pre Degree / Plus two - 4

165

Degree - 5

Professionally qualified - 6

Score for a family is calculated as

Score for a family = Total score of persons in the family Number of persons

Score for the family Maximum score a family can attain Education Index =

(3) Basic Amenities Index. Safe drinking water within 500 meters,

sanitation facility and electricity lighting are considered basic amenities.

For the availability of these amenities, a household is given score of 1

each and the average score is taken as the Index.

(4) Infrastructure Index. Here a score of 1 each is given to families having

school within 2 kilometers, families having public Health Centre or

Hospital within 2 kilometers and families having the nearest bus stop at

a distance of 10 minutes walk. Then the average score is taken as the

index.

(5) Freedom from Social Evils. For estimating this index a score of 1 each

is given to families having no victim of alcohol, families having no

strained marital relations and families free from social discrimination.

Then the average score is taken as index.

6.11 Summary of Various Indices

Based on the empirical data five indices are worked out by the

researcher. These indices are the Income Index, Education Index, Amenities

Index, Infrastructure Index and the Freedom Index. A classification of sample

households based on the values of Income Index and educational index is

166

undertaken here. Other Indices are also classified but not on the basis of the

value of the index.

6.11.1 Income Index

On the basis of the value of income index the sample households are

classified into those belonging to lower income group (Income Index below .5),

middle-income group (Income Index below .75) and higher income group

(Income Index above .75). The beneficiary households of job reservation and

their presence in each income category are also given separately in order to

facilitate a direct comparison.

Table 6.13 Income Index

Income

index

Total BJR MA X BJR MA H BJR ULL BJR UR BJR

Below .5 310

71.26%

14

14.14%

83

57.24%

4

7.69%

101

69.65%

9

24.32%

58

89.23%

1

16.66%

68

85%

Nil

.5-.75 96

22.06%

58

58.58%

42

28.96%

29

55.77%

35

24.13%

20

54.05%

7

10.77%

5

83.333%

12

15%

4

100%

Above .75 29

6.66%

27

27.21%

20

13.79%

19

36.54%

9

6.21%

8

21.62% Nil Nil Nil Nil


• 71% of the total households under investigation belong to the lower

income strata

• Ulladan and Urali families have not been able to reach the higher

index category. It shows their general level of poverty.

• Vast majority of the reservation beneficiary households are in the

higher income group.

167

6.11.2 Education Index

The analysis of the educational attainment of all households is done

by placing the sample households under three categories based on the value of

the education index. Households education index of which is below .4 fall

within the lower education category. The middle group has an education index

value between .4 and .6. Those who are at the highest stage of education have

an index value greater than .6.

Table 6.14 Education Index

EDN index value

All BJR MA X BJR MA H BJR ULL BJR UR BJR

Below .4

288

66.21%

34

34.34%

69

47.58%

15

28.85%

88

60.69%

12

32.43%

59

90.77%

5

83.33%

72

90%

2

50%

.4-.6

17

26.90%

44

44.44%

54

37.24%

22

42.31%

49

33.79%

19

51.35%

6

9.23%

1

16.66%

8

10%

2

50%

Above .6 30

6.9%

21

21.21%

22

15.17%

15

28.85%

8

5.52%

6

16.21% Nil Nil Nil Nil


• Majority of the tribal households under study have only a lower level

education

• Ulladan and Urali families are backward in terms of educational

attainment. No family belonging to these tribes comes in the higher

educational index category.

• Malai Arayan families are well ahead of other tribes in terms of the

index of education.

• Reservation beneficiary households from the Malai Arayan stream

have higher educational attainment.

168

6.11.3 Amenities Index

Amenities Index explains the availability of the basic requirements such

as drinking water, electricity, and sanitation. This index at a time indicates the

deprivations of the tribal people in terms of the above-mentioned amenities. In

order to provide more clarity to the analysis the beneficiaries and non-

beneficiaries of job reservation are studied separately.

Table 6.15 Amenities Index (Drinking Water, Electricity and

Sanitation Facility)

Availability of Amenities


Amenities Not

available

58

13.33%

4

4.04%

14

9.65%

1

1.92%

15

10.34%

2

5.40%

14

21.54% Nil

15

18.75%

1

25%

One Amenity

88

20.23%

5

5.05%

24

16.55%

3

5.76%

23

15.86% Nil

19

29.23%

2

33.33%

22

27.5% Nil

Two Amenities

184

42.30%

43

43.43%

60

41.38%

15

28.85%

68

46.90%

25

67.57%

27

41.54%

2

33.33%

29

36.25%

1

25%

Three Amenities 105

24.14%

47

47.47%

47

32.41%

33

63.46%

39

26.90%

10

27.02%

5

7.69%

2

33.33%

14

17.50%

2

50%


• In terms of the availability of basic amenities the sample households

as a whole are not better placed. Barely 25% of the households are in

possession of drinking water, electricity and sanitation facilities.

• Majority of the beneficiary households of reservation from all tribes

are comparatively better off in the possession of these amenities.

6.11.4 Infrastructure Index Access to the infrastructure components is well explained by the

Infrastructure Index. It seeks to explain the relative position of the beneficiary

169

and the non-beneficiary households of job reservation in terms of their access

to bus stops, schools and hospitals.

Table 6.16 Infrastructure Index

(School and Hospital within 2 kilometers and Bus stop within 10 minutes walk)

Access to

infrastructure


Not available

23

5.28%

4

4.04

4

2.76%

1

1.92%

9

6.21%

1

2.70%

1

1.54% Nil

9

11.25%

2

50%

One

Available

41

9.42%

6

6.06

18

12.41%

4

7.62%

14

9.65%

2

5.40%

2

3.07% Nil

7

8.75% Nil

Two

Available

187

42.99%

33

33.33%

40

27.59%

5

9.61%

83

57.24%

24

64.86%

34

52.31%

4

66.66%

30

37.5% Nil

Three

Available

184

42.30

56

56.56%

83

57.24%

42

80.77%

39

26.90%

10

27.02%

28

43.08%

2

33.33%

34

42.5%

2

50%

Total 435 99 145 52 145 37 65 6 80 4


• Infrastructure Index reveals the deprivation of sample households in

terms of basic infrastructure. Only 42% of the total sample

households have access to these infrastructure

• Most of the reservation beneficiary households are in possession of

these infrastructure facilities.

6.11.5 Freedom Index Freedom from the social evils like alcoholism, rocky marriages and

social discrimination constitutes the sine-qua-non of a developed society.

Within the normative parameters of social dynamics this index carries a strong

message signaling the strength of the social interaction.

170

Table 6.17 Freedom Index (Freedom from social evils like alcoholism, strained family relation and

social discrimination)

Freedom from All BJR MA X BJR MA H BJR ULL BJR UR BJR

Not Free 9 6

2.07% Nil Nil Nil

(All evils) 4.14% Nil

3

4.61% Nil Nil Nil

Freedom from

One evil

141

32.41%

32

32.32%

28

19.31%

14

26.92%

59

40.69%

15

40.54%

21

32.31%

1

16.66%

33

41.25%

2

50%

Freedom from

Two evils

196

45.06%

46

46.46%

72

49.65%

23

44.23%

59

40.69%

16

43.24%

31

47.69%

5

83.33%

34

42.5%

2

50%

Freedom from

Three evils

89


20.46%

21

21.21%

45

31.03%

15

28.85%

21

14.48%

6

16.21%

10

15.38% Nil

13

16.25% Nil

Total 435 99 145 52 145 37 65 6 80 4

• Freedom index reveals the comparative picture in terms of the freedom

from social evils like, alcoholism, strained family relation and social

discrimination. Around 20% of the total sample households are free

from these social evils.

• The Ulladan and Urali families are not free from the clutches of these

social evils.

6.11.6 Socio-Economic Development Index

Socio-economic development Index conjoins the achievements and

deprivations of a given community, containing as it does five indices signifying

different aspects of development and deprivation. Here the researcher has

endeavoured to capture the most basic elements of progress pertaining to the

ethnic groups in Kerala.

171

Table 6.18 Socio- economic development index Value of the Socio Economic Development Index

MAX Total Number

BJR MAH Total Number

BJR Ulladan Total Number

BJR Urali Total Number

BJR

≥ .6 50

(34.48%)

41

(82%)

28

(19.31%)

18

(64.29%)

2

(3.07%)

1

(50%)

3

(3.75%)

1

(33.33%)

.4-.6 83

(57.24%)

11

(13.25%)

84

(57.93%)

16

(19.05%)

36

(55.38%)

5

(13.89%)

45

(56.25%)

2

(4.35%)

Below .4 12

(8.27%) Nil

33

(22.76%)

3

(9.09%)

27

(41.54%) Nil

32

(40%)

1

(3.03%)

Total Number 145 52 145 37 65 6 80 4


Testing whether income index, education index, amenities Index, infrastructure

index, freedom index and socio economic development index differ with tribes

Table 6.19 ANOVA Table

Index Source Sum of Squares

df Mean Square

F Sig

Between Groups

1.359

3

.453

18.948

.000

Within Groups

10.308

431

2.392E-02

Income Index

Total 11.667 434 Between Groups

2.012

3

.671

41.072

.000

Within Groups

7.038

431

1.633E-02

Education Index


2.687

3

.896

9.184

.000

Within Groups

42.032

431

9.752E-02

Amenities Index

Total 44.719 434

172

Between Groups

1.221

3

.407

5.552

.001

Within Groups

31.598

431

7.331E-02

Infrastructure Index


1.935

3

.645

10.543

.000

Within Groups

26.369

431

6.118E-02

Freedom Index


1.475

3

.492

33.949 .000

Within Groups

6.242

431

1.448E-02

Socio economic development Index

Total 7.717 434

Table 6.20 Duncan’s test - income index

Subset for alpha=. 05 Tribe N 1 2 3

Ulladan Urali MAH MAX Sig.

65 80

145 145

.37307

.38769

.512

.44969

1.000

.51769 1.000

Income index is the highest for Christians. There is no significant

difference between Uralis and Ulladas. In every other case there is significant

difference.

Table 6.21 Duncan’s test - education index


Urali Ulladan M A H M A X Sig.

80 65

145 145

.26347

.28559

.230

.37552

1.000

.43763 1.000

173

There is no significant difference between Uralis and Ulladas, and there

is significant difference between all other tribes. Education index is highest in

the case of Christians. This can be attributed to the missionary efforts to

educate the tribals.

Table 6.22 Duncan’s test - amenities index

Subset for alpha=.05 Tribe N 1 2


65 80

145 145

.45128

.50833

.206

.63448

.65517 .646

Conclusion: There is no significant difference between Hindu and

Christian Malai Arayans. There is also no significant difference between

Uralis and Ulladas. Significant difference is seen between Uralis and Christian

Malai Arayans, between Uralis and Hindu Malai Arayans, between Ulladas and

Christian Malai Arayans and between Ulladas and Hindu Malai Arayans. Basic

Amenities index is high is the case of Christians and Hindu Malai Arayans.

Table 6.23 Duncan’s test - infrastructure index


MAH Urali

Ulladan MAX Sig.

145 80 65

145

.68276

.70417

.584

.78974

.79770 .839

Conclusion: There is no significant difference between Christians and

Ulladas. Also there is no significant difference between Hindu Malai Arayans

and Urali tribes. However, significant difference is seen between Hindus and

Christians, between Hindus and Ulladas, between Uralies and Ulladas, and

174

between Uralis and Christians. Infrastructure Index is high in the case of

Christians and Ulladas.

Table 6.24 Duncan’s test - freedom index


MAH Ulladan Urali MAX Sig.

145 65 80

145

.55172

.57949

.58333

.408

.70575 1.000

There is no significant difference between Hindus, Uralis and Ulladas,

whereas there is significant difference between Christians and other tribes.

Freedom index is also high in the case of Christians. Missionary influence in

the area of social reforms is reflected here more clearly.

Table 6.25 Duncan’s test - socio-economic development index



65 80

145 145

.42478

.42581

.953

.49791

1.000

.56797 1.000

There is no significant difference between Uralis and Ulladas. In every

other case there is significant difference. The SEDI is the highest in the case of

Christians and followed by Hindus Malai Arayans. This is a clear indication of

the veracity of the first hypothesis.

175

6.12 Comparison of Various Indices with Respect to Job Reservation

We test whether the indices of the beneficiaries of job reservation are

significantly greater than that of the non-beneficiaries using the two-sample t-

test.

6.1 Comparison of various indices with respect to job reservation

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1

incom

e

educ

ation

basic

amen

ities

socia

l infra

struc

ture

freed

om fro

m socia

l evil

s

inde

x

job reservation no job reservation


Index Group Mean S.D. Value of t

Significance

Income Index

BJR Non-BJR

.66024

.38741

.16869

9.75E-02

20.309

.000

Education Index

BJR Non-BJR

.47631

.32855

.15405

.12283

9.897 .000

Amenities Index

BJR Non-BJR

.78114

.53472

.25270

.31772

7.083

.000

Infrastructure

BJR .80808 .26122 2.783 .006

176

Index on-BJR .72123 .27620 N Freedom

dex on-BJR .60813 .25925

.736 .462 In

BJR N

.62963

.24229

Socio-EconomDevelopmeIndex

ic nt on-BJR .45467 9.75E-02

15.069 .000 BJR N

.64100

.13849

It can be seen that all the indices except the freedom index are significantly

.13 Socio-Economic Status Based on the Socio-Economic

ic development achieved by a community is

Table 6.27 Socio-Economic Development Index and Job Reservation Valu

BJR

greater in the case of families benefiting from job reservation.

6 Development Index The level of Socio-econom

evaluated here on the basis of the value of the Composite Index of

Development known as Socio Economic Development Index. The sample

households are classified into three based on the SEDI values. The first class is

considered as developed because they have a high SEDI value greater than or

equal .6. Moderately developed families are identified on the basis of SEDI

value between .4 and .6. The least developed are those whose SEDI values are

below .4. The SEDI values of all sample households are given in appendix III

e of the MAX BJR MAH BJR Ulladan BJR Urali Socio Economic DevelopmentIndex

Total Number

Total Number

Total Number

Total Number

Developed 50 (34.48%)

41 (82%)

28 (19.31%)

18 (64 )

2 (3.07%)

1 (50%)

3 (3.75%)

1 (33 %) .29% .33

Moderately Developed

83 (57.24%)

11 3(1 ) (55.38%) (1 ) (56.25%) .25%

84 (57.93%)

16 (19 ) .05%

36 5 3 %.89

45 2 (4.35%)

Least ped develo

12 (8.27%) Nil 33

(22.76%) 3

(9.09%) 27

(41.54%) Nil 32 (40%)

1 (3.03%)

Total Number 145 52 145 37 65 6 80 4 Source: Pri datamary

177

The content of the table given above shows that Malai Arayan Christians

are better placed as indicated by the Socio-Economic Development Index. The

Beneficiaries of Job Reservation (BJR) are considered more developed because

82% of them are in the class of developed households. In Hindu Malai Arayan

families also the BJR families dominate the group of the developed with a

share of 64.29%. Thus the positive relation between job reservation and socio-

economic development in the case of Christian Malai Arayans has become

axiomatic. Thus the first hypothesis stands justified.

In the case of Ulladan and Urali families the representation in organized

sector employment itself is negligible. But those households which have

benefited by job reservation have made their presence felt in the higher

development group: Malai Arayan Community (Christians and Hindus

combined) can be considered more advanced in terms of their socio-economic

development when compared with the Ulladan and Urali families. Majority of

the families belonging to Ulladan and Urali tribes cluster around the lower

strata in terms of overall development.

Table 6.28 The Mean and standard deviations of the socio economic indices –tribe-wise

Tribe Mean S.D MAH .49791 12226 MAX .56797 .14147 Urali .42638 9.41 E-02 Ulladan .42478 8.88E-02 Total .49718 .13326

6.13.1 Comparison Tribe wise

Testing the equality of the socio economic indices of the four tribes using

ANOVA technique.

Null hypothesis HO: The socio economic indices are equal.

178


Source Sum of

df Mean Square

F Sig.

Between Groups Within Groups Total

1.4686.2397.707

3 431 434

.489 1.448E-02

33.815 .003

The ANOVA table indicates that we must reject H0, as the F value is very

large.

Using Duncan's test we examine which are the tribes whose indices are

significantly different when taken in pairs. The table is presented below.

Table 6 30 Duncan’s Test

Subset for alpha =.05 TRIBE N 1 2 3

Ulladan Urali Hindus Christian Sig.

6580

145145

.42478

.42638 .926

.49791 1.000

.56797 1.000

Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed. We see that the

socio economic indices of the Urali and Ulladan tribes are not significantly

different whereas if we consider any other tribes they are significantly different.

This is an inference, which prompt us to accept our fourth hypothesis that there

are perceptible differences in the socio economic well being of the tribes under

study.

179

6.2 COMPARISON OF SOCIO ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT INDICES-TRIBE WISE

19.3

34.5

3.8 3.1

57.9 57.2 57.5 55.4

22.8

8.3

38.741.5

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Hindus Christians urali Ullada

perc

enta

ge o

f fam

ilies

greater than 0.6

6.13.2 Comparison with Job Reservation

The socio economic indices of the families who got job reservation and

those who did not get are summarized and shown.

Table 6 .31 Mean and Standard deviations of the SEDI-BJR and non BJR Category Mean S.D.

BJR Non -BJR

.64146

.45467 .13764 .0975

If we apply t-test for testing whether the indices of the families getting

job reservation and those not getting job reservation are equal, we get the

value of t statistic as 15.14, which is highly significant. Hence the socio

economic indices of the families getting job reservation are significantly greater

than those of families not getting job reservation. This justifies the hypothesis

between 0.4 and 0..6 less than 0.4

180

that beneficiary families of job reservation have greater socio-economic

development compared with others.

6.3 COMPARISON OF THE SOCIO ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT INDICES WITH RESPECT TO JOB RESERVATION

61.6

34.3

4.16.5

64

29.5

0

15

30

45

60

75

greater than 0.6 between 0.4 and 0..6 less than 0.4

SOCIO ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT INDEX

perc

enta

ge o

f fam

ilies

jobreservationno jobreservatio

6.14 Development

If we take families with socio-economic index above .6 as developed,

index below .4 as under developed and the rest as moderately developed, then the

cross tabulation of the socio economic index class and the families getting job

reservation are tabulated

Table 6. 32 SEDI and Job reservation-a cross tabulation

Job Reservation Socio economic development Yes No

Total

Developed Moderately developed

d l d

61 34 4

22 215 99

83 249 103Total 99 336 435

If we test the hypothesis that socio-economic development and job

reservation are independent, the value of chi-square is 154.15, which is

181

significant at 5% level. Hence we accept that socio economic development and

job reservation are dependent

The cross tabulation of the tribes and the development of families are

presented below.

Table 6.33 Cross tabulation of the SEDI-tribe wise

TRIBESCLASS MAH MA X UR UL

Total

Developed 28 50 3 2 83

Moderately developed

84 83 46 36 249

Underdeveloped 33 12 31 27 103Total 145 145 80 65 435

For testing the hypothesis that development is independent of tribe, we

use the chi-square test. The value of the chi-square statistic with 6 df at 5%

level of significance is 67.674 which is highly significant. Hence we accept that

socio-economic development depends on tribe.

6.15 Missionary Influences and Socio-Economic Development of Christian Malai Arayans

Majority of the tribal population in India adopted the Hindu faith. The

Christian segment of the tribal folk constitutes only 5%. But the impact of

Christianity among the tribes in the form of socio-economic intervention and

development is profound. Christian missions in India propagated the ideas of

education, self-help, better health care, rational economic pursuits and social

equality. Under the influences of these ideas and activities directed at attaining

these coveted goals, the tribals of Christian religious persuasion achieved

considerable socio economic well-being. The Khasis of Meghalaya, the Bhils

of Rajasthan, the Santhals of the Northeast. The Naga tribes, Christian converts

182

of Chotanagpur, Malai Arayans of Kerala and many others bear testimony to

the philanthropic activities of the missionaries.

The literacy rate of the Christians in India (2001) was 80.3%. This rate

is higher than that of Hindus (65.1%) and Muslims (59.1%). This difference in

educational attainment is manifest in the case of Kerala too. Christians in the

state of Kerala had a literacy rate equal to 94.8% as against the general literacy

of 90.9% (2001).

The empirical evidence indicates the higher socio economic

development of the Christian Malai Arayans. The proselylization of the Malai

Arayans is a major watershed in the history of their development and

integration into the mainstream society. The pioneering missionary work done

by Henry Baker Junior brought about a sea change in the life style and

development of this tribal community “Baker’s efforts as liberator, protector,

reformer and a leader in the society, helped Malayarayans to emerge from the

clutches of oppression, exploitation and alcoholic addiction and led to the

emancipation of women, provided land to the landless and embarked on a new

agricultural life and a total change in their community life. Using the value

oriented education as an integral part of evangelism and liberation he was able

to lead the people to a world of literacy and indigenous leadership”11.

The literature on the positive role played by Christian missionaries

abounds12. Almost all historians acknowledged the perennial presence of

Christian educational work in all walks of life. But in the case of Malai

Arayans we can identify three major spheres of activity by the missionaries.

1) Educational activities

2) Efforts to secure representation in organized sector employment

3) Fight against social evils and efforts to strengthen family life

183

The outcome of missionary enterprise in the above areas can be verified

from the data available.

6.15.1 Educational Attainment- A Comparative Analysis

The sample survey clearly reveals the overall superiority of Christian

Malai Arayans in these areas. The educational attainment of the Christian

Malai Arayans of Kerala is a unique example. In terms of literacy and

professional education Christians have a definite superiority (Test result

available in pages173 and174).

Table 6.34 Christian Malai Arayans & Educational attainment

a comparative analysis

Variable MA X MA H ULL UR Literacy (%) Female literacy

97.9% 97.9%

92.2% 90.4%

92.5% 92.1%

82.2% 82.1%

Comparison by Education Index

Below .4 69 47.59%

88 60.69%

59 90.77%

72 90%

.4 - .6 54 37.24%

49 33.79%

6 9.23%

8 10%

Above .6 22 15.17%

8 5.51%

0 (0%)

0 (0%)


The education index well explains this phenomenon. But there is a

significant shortfall in the case of Ulladans and Uralies in terms of acquiring

the light of learning.

6.15.2 Employment and Benefits of Job Reservation

The proportion of the beneficiary households of job reservation is high

among the Christians. (Details are available in pages128 and 129) This is one

of the significant factors that contributed to the socio-economic advancement

of the Malai Arayans.

184

Table 6.35 Employment and Benefits of Job Reservation

MA X MA H Ulladan Urali Number of Beneficiary households of Job Reservation

52

37

6

4

% Of such families to the total

35.86% 25.52% 9.23% 5%

Total Number of Employees who secured job through Reservation

94

48

6

5

Male Female ratio of such employees

Male 55

Female 39

Male 40Female 8

Male 4 Female 2

Male 1Female

4


The sample survey reveals that the Uralies and the Ulladans have not

benefited considerably from reservation in employment. The impact of the

higher presence of Christians in organized sector employment enabled them to

earn more income and to achieve considerable educational advancement. This

linkage between income and education is mutually reinforcing and it results in

overcoming the ‘inherited deprivations’ of this community.

6.15.3 Freedom from Social Evils A society free from social evils like alcoholism, social discrimination

and disintegration of the family due to strained family relation can command

higher social acceptability and economic welfare. The freedom index compiled

can provide us with this information.

Table 6.36 Freedom from Social Evils

Class MA X MA H ULL UR Households suffering from all the three social evils

0 6 3 0

Households free from one social evil

28 59 21 33

Households free from two social evils

72 59 31 34

Households free from all the three social evils

45 21 10 13


185

The well being of the Christian Malai Arayans can be attributed to the

enterprising initiatives of the Church in the areas of learning, social

participation and social reform. (For test results see page 175) Even today the

Church serves as an efficient administrative catalyst to accomplish spiritual and

temporal achievements. Therefore the second hypothesis of the study stands

vindicated.

6.16 Index of Deprivation Using the same variables employed in the construction of the index of

deprivation developed in the Human Development Report 2005; Government

of Kerala13, the researcher estimated the extent of deprivation among the tribes

under study. Those households which are not in possession of a house with

permanent wall and roof, not having drinking water within 500 meters distance,

not having electricity lighting and toilets are included in the calculation of the

Index of Deprivation. The sample households are at different levels of

destitution. The deprivation indices of the tribes under study follow.

Table 6.37 Deprivation Indices of tribes under study

Tribes under study Index of Deprivation

Christian Malai Arayan Malai Arayan Hindu Ulladan Urali

35.1 46.4 55.2 49.1


The Index of Deprivation of the Christian Malai Arayans is less. This is

an indicator of their socio-economic development. Ulladan community has

more hardships than all other communities under study

186

Table 6.38 Index of Deprivation by Social Groups in Kerala-2001

Category Deprivation

Index Kerala

Kottayam

(District)

Idukki

(District)

Scheduled Castes

Scheduled Tribes

Others

General

45.5

57.9

26.9

29.5

42.1

43.1

23.1

25.1

40.8

65.3

40.9

42.7

Source: Human Development Report – 2005- Govt. of Kerala

Of all the social groups deprivations are the highest in the case of the

Scheduled Tribes in Kerala. Again the general deprivation when Kerala

population taken as a whole is only 29.5%. The tribal groups in Idukki district

have an index of deprivation greater than that of the state average. But the

people of Kottayam district are better placed in this area. A comparison of the

deprivation index of the Christian Malai Arayans and that of the general

population really reveals the prevalence of greater poverty among this so called

‘developed’ tribal community.

Summary

The comparison of the socio-economic development of the BJR and

Non-BJR households highlighted many facts related to their progress and well-

being. In terms of all-round progress the beneficiaries of job reservation are

well ahead of others. Even though the reservation is available to all tribal

communities, some tribal groups are very effective in utilizing the concessions

and preferences. Thus the Christians belonging to the Malai Arayan tribe

secured a high representation in government service utilizing the reservation

provisions. This has resulted in a higher level of socio-economic achievement

of the Christians. The deprivation index is employed here to cross check the

main conclusions of this study. In terms of deprivations also Christians occupy

a fortunate place. This is because of their high presence in the organized sector

employment.

187

Endnotes 1 United Nations Development Programme. Human Development Report Oxford University Press 1990 2 Morris D. Morris- Measuring the Condition of the World’s Poor: The Physical Quality of Life Index, New York, Pergamon Press. 1979 3 See UNDP Human Development Report 1997, technical note pp122-5 4 Amartya Sen. Development as Freedom: New York; Alfred. A. knopf. Inc. 1999 page 75 5 NCAER, India Human Development Report, A Profile of Indian States in 1990s 6 Bureau of Economics & Statistics Govt. of Kerala: Report on Socio- Economic Survey of Tribals in Kerala 1976-78, September – 1979 7 Dr. Babu Vijayanath: Commission on the Socio Economic Conditions of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. Report 1982 8 Government of Kerala. Human Development Report-2005: Centre of Development Studies TVM 2006 9 S. Rajoo Krishnan: Changing Demographic and Socio-Economic Profile of India’s Population since 1961: An Analytical Study, Ph.D. Thesis. Department. of Demography, University of Kerala-2002. 10 Hansa Jain-Scheduled Tribes: Changes in Socio-Economic Conditions. Classical Publishing Company-New Delhi page 79, 2004 11 P.T. George: ‘No People to God’s People’: A Study of Henry Baker Junior’s Work among the Malayarayans. Ph.D. Thesis. Department of Theology. The University of Birmingham, 2003. page 275 12 For references read-A Sreedhara Menon, K.P.P. Menon, Arby Varghese, V. Mathew Kurian. 13 Government of Kerala. Human Development Report-2005. Centre for Development Studies.Thiruvananthapuram.2006, page 62

188

Chapter 7

SUMMARY AND

CONCLUSIONS

synopsis of the thesis entitled -...

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