systems engineering – a summary...systems engineering – a summary 3 1 introduction integral...
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SY
ST
EM
S E
NG
INE
ER
ING
– A
Sum
mary
1
S
yste
ms E
ng
ineerin
g –
A S
um
mary
T
his
su
mm
ary
is b
ase
d o
n:
“Ein
stie
g in
s S
yste
ms E
ngin
ee
ring - O
ptim
ale
, na
ch
ha
ltige
Lö
su
nge
n e
ntw
icke
ln
un
d u
mse
tze
n“, 3
nd A
usga
be
, Zü
rich
: Ve
rlag In
du
strie
lle O
rga
nis
atio
n, 2
00
4,
ISB
N 9
78
-3-8
57
43
-72
1-2
Purp
ose
Pro
ject w
ork
ers
, as w
ell a
s p
roje
ct m
an
age
rs, w
ho
wa
nt to
ap
ply
the
Syste
ms
En
gin
ee
ring m
eth
od
olo
gy to
the
ir pro
jects
, ge
t an
ea
sily
un
de
rsta
nd
ab
le g
uid
e
with
this
bo
ok. T
he
mo
st im
po
rtan
t prin
cip
les a
nd
ele
me
nts
of S
yste
ms E
ngi-
ne
erin
g
are
e
xp
lain
ed
b
riefly
in
clu
din
g
the
ir in
terre
latio
ns.
Fu
rthe
rmo
re,
a
ch
ecklis
t is p
rovid
ed
wh
ich
sim
plifie
s d
ete
rmin
ing th
e p
rima
ry w
ork
ste
ps.
To
all c
olle
agu
es w
ho
su
pp
orte
d a
nd
en
co
ura
ge
d u
s in
pre
pa
ring th
is b
oo
k, w
e
wo
uld
like
to e
xp
ress o
ur h
ea
rtfelt th
an
ks.
Konta
kt
Ra
ine
r Zü
st: ra
ine
r.zu
est@
zu
este
ngin
ee
ring.c
h
Zü
st E
ngin
ee
ring A
G: w
ww
.zu
este
ngin
ee
ring.c
h
SY
ST
EM
S E
NG
INE
ER
ING
– A
Sum
mary
2
Co
nte
nts
1
Intro
du
ctio
n
3
1.1
S
usta
ina
ble
So
lutio
ns a
re in
de
ma
nd
3
1
.2
An
Ove
rvie
w o
f Syste
ms E
ngin
ee
ring
4
2
Sy
ste
ms
Th
ink
ing
6
2
.1
So
cio
-tech
nic
al S
yste
ms
6
3
Ge
ne
ral W
ork
ing
Prin
cip
les
9
3
.1
Co
nsid
erin
g T
ime
-rela
ted
Ch
an
ge
s
9
3.2
T
hin
kin
g in
Alte
rna
tive
s
9
3.3
F
rom
an
Ove
rall to
a D
eta
iled
Vie
w
9
4
Life
Cy
cle
Mo
de
l 1
1
4.1
A
n o
ve
rvie
w o
f the
Life
Cycle
Mo
de
l 1
1
4.2
In
itiativ
e fo
r Syste
ms D
esig
n
12
4
.3
Pre
limin
ary
Stu
dy
12
4
.4
Ma
in S
tud
y
13
4
.5
De
taile
d S
tud
ies
14
4
.6
Syste
ms R
ea
lisa
tion
1
5
4.7
S
yste
ms In
sta
llatio
n
15
4
.8
Syste
ms U
tilisa
tion
1
6
4.9
In
itiativ
es fo
r ne
w D
esig
n, R
ed
esig
n o
r Dis
po
sa
l 1
6
4.1
0
Dis
po
sa
l Ph
ase
1
6
5
Pro
ble
m-S
olv
ing
Co
nc
ep
t 1
8
5.1
A
n O
ve
rvie
w o
f the
Pro
ble
m-s
olv
ing c
on
ce
pt
18
5
.2
Situ
atio
n A
na
lysis
2
1
5.3
G
oa
l De
finitio
n
27
5
.4
Co
nce
pt S
yn
the
sis
an
d C
on
ce
pt A
na
lysis
3
2
5.5
E
va
lua
tion
an
d D
ecis
ion
3
5
6
Sp
ec
ific M
eth
od
s
39
7
S
ys
tem
s E
ng
ine
erin
g a
nd
Pro
jec
t Ma
na
ge
me
nt
41
8
R
efe
ren
ce
s
46
SY
ST
EM
S E
NG
INE
ER
ING
– A
Sum
mary
3
1
Intro
du
ctio
n
Inte
gra
l pla
nn
ing m
eth
od
olo
gie
s a
re n
ece
ssa
ry to
allo
w c
om
pa
nie
s to
de
sig
n
su
cce
ssfu
l pro
du
cts
1 an
d s
erv
ice
s. In
the
pa
st, v
ario
us c
on
tribu
tion
s o
n th
e
top
ic o
f pro
ble
m-s
olv
ing m
eth
od
olo
gie
s w
ere
pu
blis
he
d w
orld
wid
e. O
ne
of th
e-
se
wa
s th
e “Z
uric
h” S
yste
ms E
ngin
ee
ring.
Th
e O
rigin
s o
f Sy
ste
ms
En
gin
ee
ring
Th
e o
rigin
s o
f Syste
ms E
ngin
ee
ring g
o b
ack o
ve
r 50
ye
ars
. At th
at tim
e, in
the
co
nte
xt o
f larg
e p
roje
cts
, me
tho
ds w
ere
so
ugh
t, wh
ich
wo
uld
imp
rove
pro
ject
exe
cu
tion
, as w
ell a
s th
e p
lan
ne
d o
utc
om
e. In
the
60
´s, a
s a
resu
lt, the
first
co
mp
reh
en
siv
e
pu
blic
atio
ns
on
S
yste
ms
En
gin
ee
ring
(e.g
. /H
all
19
62
/) a
p-
pe
are
d. A
t the
en
d o
f the
60
´s a
nd
the
be
gin
nin
g o
f the
70
´s, th
ese
ide
as w
ere
a
lso
ad
op
ted
by m
em
be
rs o
f ET
H Z
uric
h (S
wis
s F
ed
era
l Institu
te o
f Te
ch
no
lo-
gy) s
taff (e
.g. fro
m /B
üch
el 1
96
9/). T
his
tea
m fro
m th
e In
stitu
te o
f Ind
ustria
l En
-gin
ee
ring a
nd
Ma
na
ge
me
nt (B
WI) th
en
de
ve
lop
ed
an
d p
ub
lish
ed
a c
oh
esiv
e
an
d
co
nsis
ten
t p
lan
nin
g
me
tho
do
logy
ca
lled
„S
yste
ms
En
gin
ee
ring“
/Ha
be
rfelln
er e
t al. 1
97
6/.
In
the
m
ea
ntim
e,
this
“Z
uric
h”
Syste
ms
En
gin
ee
ring
ha
s
be
en
re
wo
rke
d
(/Ha
be
rfelln
er
et
al.
19
99
/, /Z
üst
20
04
/) a
nd
a
da
pte
d
acco
rdin
g
to
ne
w
kn
ow
led
ge
an
d re
qu
irem
en
ts. T
his
ad
ap
tatio
n m
ain
ly c
on
sis
ted
of a
stro
nge
r co
nsid
era
tion
of s
ocio
-tech
nic
al s
yste
ms a
nd
of th
e in
cre
asin
gly
imp
orta
nt a
na
l-ysis
an
d e
va
lua
tion
of d
yn
am
ic, s
tron
gly
inte
rlinke
d o
bje
cts
.
Th
e “Z
uric
h” S
yste
ms E
ngin
ee
ring o
ffers
a fra
me
wo
rk a
nd
prin
cip
les th
at le
ad
to
ob
jectiv
e a
nd
go
al-o
rien
ted
de
sig
nin
g o
f co
mp
lex s
yste
ms in
ca
se
s o
f hig
h
co
mp
lexity
a
nd
/or
exte
nsiv
e sco
pe
o
f a
p
roje
ct. S
yste
ms E
ngin
ee
ring p
ostu
-la
tes a
ran
ge
of p
rincip
les a
nd
wa
ys o
f thin
kin
g.
Th
e “Z
uric
h” S
yste
ms E
ngin
ee
ring (S
E) h
as b
ee
n s
ucce
ssfu
lly a
pp
lied
ma
ny
time
s in
va
riou
s p
lan
nin
g a
nd
de
ve
lop
me
nta
l ap
pro
ach
es. Its
su
cce
ss is
du
e
ma
inly
to th
e fra
me
wo
rk th
at S
E o
ffers
an
inte
rdis
cip
lina
ry te
am
of w
ork
ers
. T
his
is a
lso
the
rea
so
n w
hy S
E is
inclu
de
d in
the
cu
rricu
lum
of v
ario
us u
niv
ers
i-tie
s
an
d
institu
tion
s
of
hig
he
r e
du
ca
tion
w
ithin
S
witz
erla
nd
a
nd
a
rou
nd
th
e
wo
rld.
1 T
he e
xpre
ssio
n „p
roduct“ w
ill be u
sed in
this
contrib
utio
n in
a m
uch b
roader s
ense, th
at w
ould
m
ean a
s a
phys
ical s
yste
m a
s w
ell a
s p
rocess s
yste
m. T
he e
colo
gic
al, e
conom
ical a
nd s
ocia
l im
pacts
over th
e w
hole
life tim
e h
ave to
be in
tegra
ted in
the p
rocess o
f sys
tem
s d
evelo
pm
ent
(see a
lso th
e w
ider u
nders
tandin
g o
f techniq
ue in
/Ropohl 1
996/).
SY
ST
EM
S E
NG
INE
ER
ING
– A
Sum
mary
4
1.2
A
n O
ve
rvie
w o
f Sy
ste
ms
En
gin
ee
ring
In o
rde
r to a
pp
roa
ch
pro
ble
ms c
ircu
msp
ectly
, a c
om
pre
he
nsiv
e m
eth
od
of h
an
-d
ling / d
ea
ling w
ith th
em
, in a
ll pla
nn
ing p
ha
se
s, m
ust b
e g
ua
ran
tee
d.
On
on
e h
an
d –
the
SE
-me
tho
do
logy - is
ba
se
d o
n th
e ”s
yste
ms a
pp
roa
ch
” an
d
”ba
sic
be
liefs
an
d p
rincip
les”. T
he
ma
in p
urp
ose
of th
e s
yste
ms a
pp
roa
ch
is to
e
nh
an
ce
the
un
de
rsta
nd
ing o
f syste
ms b
eh
avio
ur a
s s
uch
; wh
ile th
e b
asic
be
-lie
fs a
nd
prin
cip
les s
et p
rioritie
s fo
r the
pro
ble
m-s
olv
ing p
roce
ss (s
ee
Fig
. 1).
Fig
. 1:
Th
e
Syste
ms
En
gin
ee
ring
Fra
me
wo
rk
(in
acco
rdin
g
to
/Zü
st
19
97
/)
On
the
oth
er h
an
d –
the
SE
-me
tho
do
logy - e
nco
mp
asse
s th
e “L
ife C
ycle
Mo
d-
el” a
nd
the
“Pro
ble
m-S
olv
ing C
on
ce
pt”. T
he
life c
ycle
mo
de
l de
scrib
es th
e life
p
ha
se
s o
f an
y a
rtificia
l syste
m. T
he
pro
ble
m-s
olv
ing c
on
ce
pt s
ho
ws a
se
qu
en
ce
o
f ind
isp
en
sa
ble
wo
rk s
tep
s w
hic
h h
ave
to b
e c
arrie
d o
ut to
so
lve
a d
istin
ct
pro
ble
m.
Th
e S
E-c
on
ce
pt h
as to
be
inte
rpre
ted
for e
ach
ind
ivid
ua
l ca
se
an
d a
pp
lied
in a
ta
sk-s
pe
cific
ma
nn
er. T
he
refo
re, th
e fo
llow
ing m
ust b
e ta
ke
n in
to c
on
sid
era
tion
w
he
n u
sin
g S
yste
ms E
ngin
ee
ring.
Syste
ms E
ngin
ee
ring:
- is
no
su
bstitu
te fo
r tale
nt a
nd
exp
erie
nce
, pro
fessio
na
l kn
ow
led
ge
an
d in
-te
nsiv
e p
ers
on
al in
vo
lve
me
nt w
ith th
e p
rob
lem
.
- in
no
wa
y in
hib
its in
tuitio
n a
nd
cre
ativ
ity. S
yste
ms E
ngin
ee
ring in
tegra
tes
the
se
ab
ilities in
ord
er to
ach
ieve
a g
oa
l.
- is
n
ot
a re
ad
y-m
ad
e re
cip
e,
bu
t a
ge
ne
ral
pro
ble
m-s
olv
ing m
eth
od
olo
gy
wh
ich
sh
ou
ld b
e a
pp
lied
task-s
pe
cific
ally
SY
ST
EM
S E
NG
INE
ER
ING
– A
Sum
mary
5
Sin
ce
the
se
lectio
n a
nd
ap
plic
atio
n o
f pro
pe
r me
tho
ds is
de
cis
ive
for s
ucce
ssfu
l syste
ms d
esig
n a
nd
syste
ms c
on
trol, th
e fo
llow
ing w
ill de
lve
de
ep
er in
to th
e
me
tho
dic
al a
sp
ects
of p
rob
lem
-so
lvin
g.
Th
is b
oo
k w
as c
on
ce
ive
d a
s a
pe
rso
na
l ma
nu
al. F
or th
at re
aso
n, th
ere
is e
xtra
sp
ace
at th
e e
nd
of e
ach
ch
ap
ter fo
r pe
rso
na
l no
tes.
Pe
rso
na
l no
tes
:
SY
ST
EM
S E
NG
INE
ER
ING
– A
Sum
mary
6
2
Syste
ms A
pp
roach
Th
e S
yste
ms a
pp
roa
ch
su
pp
orts
the
p
roce
ss o
f syste
ms d
esig
n a
nd
the
in
tegra
tion
o
f th
e d
ive
rse
e
nga
ge
d
kn
ow
led
ge
-are
as
an
d
dis
cip
line
s,
esp
ecia
lly
the
go
al-o
rien
ted
co
m-
mu
nic
atio
n
with
in
the
p
lan
nin
g
tea
m.
Sy
ste
ms
Ap
pro
ac
h a
nd
Sy
ste
ms
Mo
de
ls
“Aw
are
ne
ss o
f the
va
riety
an
d in
terd
ep
en
de
ncy o
f rele
va
nt fa
cto
rs h
as le
d to
a
me
tho
do
log
ica
l de
ve
lop
me
nt in
all d
iscip
line
s a
nd
field
s o
f wo
rk, i.e
. a s
yste
ms
ap
pro
ach
. A
firs
t su
pe
rficia
l co
nsid
era
tion
w
ou
ld b
ring
d
iffere
nt
syste
ms a
p-
pro
ach
es to
min
d. T
he
y a
ll sh
ow
, esp
ecia
lly w
ith re
ga
rd to
term
ino
log
y, th
eir
de
riva
tion
from
the
field
of k
no
wle
dg
e o
n w
hic
h th
eir d
eve
lop
me
nt is
ba
se
d.
Th
oro
ug
h
co
nte
mp
latio
n
reve
als
th
e u
nifo
rmity
o
f th
e b
asic
a
pp
roa
ch
q
uite
cle
arly
. Esp
ecia
lly in
rece
nt y
ea
rs, in
an
ab
stra
ct w
ay, th
is c
on
sis
ten
cy h
as re
-su
lted
in a
stro
ng
ly d
eve
lop
ed
syste
ms th
eo
ry.
Of s
pe
cia
l imp
orta
nce
is th
e h
olis
tic c
on
ce
ptio
n, th
at a
ny p
rob
lem
atic
en
tity c
an
b
e c
on
sid
ere
d to
be
a s
yste
m, c
on
sis
ting
of e
lem
en
ts w
ith d
istin
ct re
latio
nsh
ips.
Th
e q
ue
stio
n o
f wh
eth
er o
r no
t an
en
terp
rise
, a c
om
pa
ny, a
n in
du
stry
or a
bio
-to
pe
is a
syste
m is
irrele
va
nt. M
uch
mo
re im
po
rtan
t is th
e fa
ct th
at th
ey a
ll ma
y
be
de
alt w
ith a
s v
ery
co
mp
lex e
ntitie
s, w
hic
h, w
ith a
ll the
ir div
ers
e fu
nctio
ns,
ca
n b
e re
pre
se
nte
d m
ore
u
nd
ers
tan
da
bly
a
nd
tra
nsp
are
ntly
, w
he
n th
ey a
re
mo
de
lled
a
s syste
ms.
Th
is re
qu
ires a
n a
pp
lica
ble
, fle
xib
le m
od
el
stru
ctu
re.
Mo
de
ls sh
ou
ld b
e a
s a
ccu
rate
a
s p
ossib
le /
as co
ncre
te a
s n
ece
ssa
ry,
bu
t m
od
els
ine
vita
bly
ab
stra
ct fro
m re
ality
an
d re
flect th
e p
lan
ne
rs v
iew
an
d c
om
-p
reh
en
sio
n o
f rea
lity.”
(qu
ote
d fro
m W
. Da
en
ze
r’s p
refa
ce
, in /H
ab
erfe
llne
r et a
l. 19
76
/)
2.1
S
oc
io-te
ch
nic
al S
ys
tem
s
In a
co
rpo
rate
co
nte
xt, n
ot o
nly
tech
nic
al, b
ut a
lso
so
cio
-tech
nic
al s
yste
ms m
ust
be
de
sig
ne
d, a
na
lyse
d a
nd
eva
lua
ted
. Hu
ma
n b
ein
gs w
ith a
ll the
ir inte
ractio
ns
are
pa
rt of th
e s
yste
m. H
ere
we
will s
pe
ak a
bo
ut in
vo
lve
d a
nd
affe
cte
d p
artic
i-p
an
ts (s
ee
Fig
. 2).
SY
ST
EM
S E
NG
INE
ER
ING
– A
Sum
mary
7
So
cio
-tech
nic
al s
yste
ms a
re o
pe
n, in
terlin
ke
d a
nd
dyn
am
ic a
nd
the
refo
re c
om
-p
lex:
Op
en
ne
ss:
Th
e c
urre
nt s
yste
m c
on
tain
s a
ctiv
e re
latio
ns to
the
exte
r-n
al e
nviro
nm
en
t. Th
e s
yste
m is
no
t iso
late
d.
Dyn
am
ism
: T
he
ele
me
nts
an
d re
latio
nsh
ips in
the
syste
m c
ha
nge
ove
r tim
e.
Co
mp
lexity
: C
om
ple
xity
is
a
fu
nctio
n o
f th
e d
ive
rsity
a
nd
n
um
be
r o
f e
lem
en
ts a
nd
rela
tion
sh
ips in
a s
yste
m. T
he
be
ha
vio
ur o
f co
mp
lex s
yste
ms is
no
t de
term
inis
tic a
nd
the
refo
re p
rinci-
pa
lly u
np
red
icta
ble
. U
nd
er
sp
ecific
co
nd
ition
s th
ey m
ay
run
o
ut
of
co
ntro
l i.e
. b
eh
ave
ch
ao
tica
lly.
On
th
e o
the
r h
an
d w
e k
no
w s
elf-o
rga
nis
ing s
yste
ms th
at b
uild
up
sta
ble
stru
ctu
res a
nd
be
ha
vio
ur d
esp
ite th
eir c
om
ple
xity
.
C
om
ple
x
syste
ms
are
a
lso
ch
ara
cte
rise
d
by
the
(o
ften
te
mp
ora
lly d
ela
ye
d) a
pp
ea
ran
ce
of p
ositiv
e a
nd
ne
ga
tive
fe
ed
ba
ck lo
op
s, in
as fa
r as th
ey c
an
be
mo
de
lled
as in
ter-
twin
ed
ca
use
-effe
ct-c
ha
ins.
Th
e b
eh
avio
ur o
f so
cio
-tech
nic
al s
yste
ms is
ofte
n c
ou
nte
rintu
itive
(e.g
. Fig
. 2).
Fig
. 2:
Mo
de
l of a
dyn
am
ic s
yste
m, s
ho
win
g th
e im
pa
ct o
f ele
me
nts
on
o
the
rs (E
xa
mp
le „w
aste
fee
“ from
/Zü
st 1
99
7/
SY
ST
EM
S E
NG
INE
ER
ING
– A
Sum
mary
8
Pe
rso
na
l no
tes
:
SY
ST
EM
S E
NG
INE
ER
ING
– A
Sum
mary
9
3
Basic
Belie
fs a
nd
Prin
cip
les
Ba
sic
be
liefs
an
d p
rincip
les s
ugge
st
ho
w th
e p
lan
nin
g a
nd
de
ve
lop
me
nt
tea
m
sh
ou
ld
ge
ne
rally
a
ct
in
the
p
rob
lem
-so
lvin
g p
roce
ss.
3.1
C
on
sid
erin
g T
ime
-rela
ted
Ch
an
ge
s
Syste
ms c
ha
nge
ove
r the
co
urs
e w
he
n d
eve
lop
ing a
syste
m m
od
el. T
ha
t is w
hy
the
pla
nn
ing te
am
mu
st c
on
sta
ntly
de
al w
ith n
ew
situ
atio
ns. T
he
re a
re tw
o d
if-fe
ren
t asp
ects
to c
on
sid
er:
- a
ntic
ipa
tion
of fu
ture
ch
an
ge
s in
the
en
viro
nm
en
t an
d th
eir in
tegra
tion
into
th
e p
lan
nin
g p
roce
ss b
ase
d, fo
r exa
mp
le, o
n tre
nd
an
aly
sis
, an
d
- e
va
lua
tion
of p
revio
usly
pla
nn
ed
ste
ps a
nd
inte
rim d
ecis
ion
s a
ga
inst n
ew
re
leva
nt k
no
wle
dge
, an
d a
da
pta
tion
, if ne
ce
ssa
ry.
3.2
T
hin
kin
g in
Alte
rna
tive
s / T
hin
kin
g in
Op
tion
s
Th
e g
oa
l of S
yste
ms E
ngin
ee
ring is
to c
om
pre
he
nsiv
ely
co
nsid
er a
ll rele
va
nt
asp
ects
of th
e p
rob
lem
in th
e p
lan
nin
g p
roce
ss. T
hin
kin
g in
alte
rna
tive
s a
nd
o
ptio
ns a
s w
ell a
s u
sin
g s
ce
na
rios to
exa
min
e th
ese
alte
rna
tive
s p
lays a
ce
ntra
l ro
le in
the
syn
the
sis
, as w
ell a
s a
na
lysis
of s
olu
tion
s to
the
pro
ble
m.
3.3
F
rom
an
Ov
era
ll to a
De
taile
d V
iew
A fu
rthe
r ele
me
nt o
f su
cce
ssfu
l pla
nn
ing is
the
effe
ctiv
e s
tructu
ring o
f the
wo
rk-
ing le
ve
ls. T
he
re a
re tw
o w
ays in
wh
ich
this
sh
ou
ld b
e d
on
e:
- o
n th
e o
ne
ha
nd
, syste
ms s
ho
uld
be
stru
ctu
red
hie
rarc
hic
ally
an
d s
pe
cifie
d
with
an
incre
asin
g d
egre
e o
f de
tail.
- o
n th
e o
the
r ha
nd
, this
influ
en
ce
s th
e p
lan
nin
g m
eth
od
s. T
he
he
uris
tic p
rin-
cip
le ”F
rom
an
Ove
rall to
a D
eta
iled
Vie
w“ illu
stra
tes th
at it is
ad
vis
ab
le to
firs
t ma
ke
a c
om
pre
he
nsiv
e s
itua
tion
an
aly
sis
, se
t ge
ne
ral g
oa
ls fo
r the
tota
l syste
m a
nd
de
sig
n a
rou
gh
dra
ft so
lutio
n o
n a
rela
tive
ly g
en
era
l leve
l. In th
e
co
urs
e o
f the
pro
ble
m-s
olv
ing p
roce
ss th
e g
oa
ls a
nd
co
nce
pts
sh
ou
ld b
e
de
ve
lop
ed
– s
tep
by s
tep
– in
a m
ore
an
d m
ore
co
ncre
te a
nd
de
taile
d m
an
-n
er.
SY
ST
EM
S E
NG
INE
ER
ING
– A
Sum
mary
1
0
In p
ractic
al a
pp
lica
tion
, the
prin
cip
les „fro
m a
n o
ve
rall to
a d
eta
iled
vie
w“ o
r „fro
m th
e a
bstra
ct to
the
co
ncre
te“ a
nd
of „th
inkin
g in
alte
rna
tive
s “ s
ho
uld
be
u
se
d in
co
mb
ina
tion
. Th
is m
ea
ns th
at in
the
pro
ble
m-s
olv
ing p
roce
ss, a
s o
ne
m
ove
s fro
m o
ve
rall v
iew
of th
e s
yste
m to
a d
eta
iled
vie
w o
f the
so
lva
ble
pro
b-
lem
, on
e m
ust b
e a
wa
re o
f the
alte
rna
tive
s a
t ea
ch
pla
nn
ing le
ve
l an
d s
ele
ct
the
alte
rna
tive
tha
t is c
on
sid
ere
d th
e b
est g
ive
n th
e c
urre
nt k
no
wle
dge
of s
ys-
tem
an
d th
e p
rob
lem
-so
lvin
g g
oa
ls.
Pe
rso
na
l no
tes
:
SY
ST
EM
S E
NG
INE
ER
ING
– A
Sum
mary
1
1
4
Life
Cycle
Mo
del
Th
e life
cycle
of a
n a
rtificia
l Syste
m
co
mp
rise
s
a
nu
mb
er
of
dis
tinct
sta
ge
s.
4.1
A
n o
ve
rvie
w o
f the
Life
Cy
cle
Mo
de
l
Th
e “L
ife C
ycle
Mo
de
l” rou
gh
ly d
ivid
es th
e life
sp
an
of a
dis
tinct a
rtificia
l syste
m
into
de
ve
lop
me
nt, re
alis
atio
n o
r pro
du
ctio
n, u
tilisa
tion
an
d d
isp
osa
l. Th
e re
late
d
activ
ities c
an
be
su
bd
ivid
ed
into
pa
rtial p
ha
se
s. T
he
de
ve
lop
me
nt p
ha
se
ca
n b
e
bro
ke
n d
ow
n in
to in
ce
ntiv
es fo
r syste
ms d
esig
n, p
relim
ina
ry s
tud
y, m
ain
stu
dy
an
d d
eta
iled
stu
dy. T
hro
ugh
this
, the
syste
m w
ill su
cce
ssiv
ely
be
de
ve
lop
ed
a
cco
rdin
g to
the
ge
ne
ral p
rincip
le „fro
m th
e a
bstra
ct to
the
co
ncre
te“ (F
ig. 3
):
Fig
. 3:
Life
Cycle
Ph
ase
s
In th
e fo
llow
ing, th
e life
cycle
mo
de
l ph
ase
s w
ill be
de
scrib
ed
ind
ivid
ua
lly.
SY
ST
EM
S E
NG
INE
ER
ING
– A
Sum
mary
1
2
4.2
In
itiativ
e fo
r Sy
ste
ms
De
sig
n
Th
e firs
t ph
ase
in th
e d
eve
lop
me
nt s
tage
is „s
yste
ms d
esig
n in
itialis
atio
n“. T
his
ra
the
r u
nstru
ctu
red
p
ha
se
e
nco
mp
asse
s th
e tim
e p
erio
d b
etw
ee
n b
eco
min
g
aw
are
of a
pro
ble
m a
nd
de
cid
ing to
so
lve
it. In p
ractic
e, th
is is
als
o c
alle
d th
e
pro
ject p
rep
ara
tion
ph
ase
.
Pu
rpo
se
: In
form
an
d s
en
sitis
e d
ecis
ion
-ma
ke
rs a
bo
ut a
po
ssib
le p
rob
lem
, d
eve
lop
pro
ble
m a
wa
ren
ess a
nd
cla
rify w
illingn
ess to
act
Re
su
lt: T
he
de
cis
ion
of th
e d
ecis
ion
-ma
ke
rs to
eith
er d
ea
l with
the
pro
b-
lem
with
in th
e s
co
pe
of a
stu
dy, o
r to d
efe
r it.
Th
e in
itialis
atio
n h
as a
de
cis
ive
influ
en
ce
on
the
su
bse
qu
en
t pla
nn
ing p
roce
ss.
Th
e m
ore
or le
ss c
on
cre
te ta
sk fo
rmu
latio
n a
t the
be
gin
nin
g o
f a s
tud
y is
critic
al
for its
an
aly
sis
an
d m
ust b
e e
nh
an
ce
d in
acco
rda
nce
with
the
clie
nt’s
inte
rests
.
4.3
P
relim
ina
ry S
tud
y
Fo
rmu
latio
n o
f an
d a
gre
em
en
t on
the
pro
ble
m a
nd
its b
ou
nd
arie
s is
the
ce
ntra
l is
su
e, a
s w
ell a
s th
e d
efin
ition
of re
qu
irem
en
ts fo
r the
syste
m to
be
ch
an
ge
d o
r n
ew
ly d
esig
ne
d. T
he
pro
ble
m m
ust b
e re
ga
rde
d c
om
pre
he
nsiv
ely
. Th
e re
leva
nt
rela
tion
with
the
syste
m’s
en
viro
nm
en
t an
d a
ll influ
en
ce
s o
n th
e s
yste
m its
elf
are
sig
nific
an
t.
Th
e p
rob
lem
-so
lvin
g p
roce
ss, w
ithin
the
fram
ew
ork
of a
pre
limin
ary
stu
dy, is
ch
ara
cte
rise
d b
y th
e fa
ct th
at im
po
rtan
t de
cis
ion
s m
ust b
e ta
ke
n th
ou
gh
the
re is
n
ot
ve
ry
mu
ch
in
form
atio
n
ava
ilab
le
(ye
t). C
orre
sp
on
din
gly
, th
e
pre
limin
ary
stu
dy h
as a
sig
nific
an
t effe
ct o
n th
e re
su
lts o
f the
follo
win
g p
lan
nin
g-s
tage
s.
Th
e d
ecis
ion
-ma
ke
rs h
ave
to
clo
se
th
e p
relim
ina
ry stu
dy b
y m
akin
g a
n im
-p
orta
nt d
ecis
ion
: Pla
ns w
hic
h a
re n
ot p
rom
isin
g s
ho
uld
be
dis
ca
rde
d a
s e
arly
as
po
ssib
le. F
or th
e p
urp
ose
of c
on
ce
ntra
ting e
fforts
, less p
rom
isin
g u
nd
erta
kin
gs
sh
ou
ld b
e re
pla
ce
d b
y b
ette
r on
es.
Pu
rpo
se
: T
he
pre
limin
ary
stu
dy is
a c
larific
atio
n p
roce
ss, e
sp
ecia
lly re
ga
rd-
ing p
rob
lem
form
ula
tion
an
d g
oa
l se
tting. P
ossib
le s
olu
tion
co
n-
ce
pts
mu
st b
e w
ork
ed
ou
t su
fficie
ntly
, an
d c
he
cke
d fo
r fea
sib
ility,
so
tha
t the
de
cis
ion
-ma
ke
rs c
an
eva
lua
te a
nd
ma
ke
a d
ecis
ion
.
Re
su
lt: T
he
resu
lt of a
pre
limin
ary
stu
dy is
a s
olu
tion
co
nce
pt, i.e
. a c
on
-ce
ptu
al
fram
ew
ork
th
at m
ust b
e w
ork
ed
ou
t in m
ore
de
tail in
a
ma
in s
tud
y o
r a s
ugge
stio
n to
term
ina
te th
e p
rob
lem
-so
lvin
g p
ro-
ce
ss.
SY
ST
EM
S E
NG
INE
ER
ING
– A
Sum
mary
1
3
A fu
rthe
r go
al o
f a p
relim
ina
ry s
tud
y is
to d
ete
rmin
e if th
ere
rea
lly is
a n
ee
d fo
r a
ne
w o
r mo
difie
d s
olu
tion
to a
dd
ress / o
r to s
olv
e th
e p
rob
lem
ide
ntifie
d in
the
p
revio
us p
ha
se
s.
Me
tho
ds, w
hic
h s
up
po
rt qu
alita
tive
an
d/o
r se
mi-q
ua
ntita
tive
an
aly
se
s a
nd
eva
l-u
atio
ns, a
re o
f sp
ecia
l inte
rest in
so
far a
s th
e n
ece
ssa
ry p
lan
nin
g in
form
atio
n is
u
su
ally
inco
mp
lete
an
d in
exa
ct.
Th
e q
ua
lity o
f a p
relim
ina
ry s
tud
y c
an
be
teste
d w
ith th
e fo
llow
ing q
ue
stio
ns
/Zü
st 1
99
7/:
- H
as th
e p
rob
lem
be
en
de
fine
d c
lea
rly e
no
ugh
?
- W
ho
is a
ffecte
d b
y th
e p
roje
ct a
nd
wh
o is
invo
lve
d?
- A
re th
e re
latio
ns to
the
en
viro
nm
en
t cle
ar?
- A
re th
e o
ptio
ns fo
r syste
ms d
esig
n k
no
wn
an
d d
efin
ed
cle
arly
en
ou
gh
?
- Is
the
clie
nt in
agre
em
en
t with
the
info
rma
tion
liste
d a
bo
ve
?
- A
re th
e re
qu
irem
en
ts fo
r p
rob
lem
-so
lvin
g (g
oa
ls a
nd
ge
ne
ral
fram
ew
ork
) cle
ar?
- Is
the
re a
de
qu
ate
ove
rvie
w o
f ba
sic
, co
nce
iva
ble
so
lutio
n c
on
ce
pts
?
- C
an
the
su
itab
ility / e
ffectiv
en
ess o
f the
se
alte
rna
tive
s b
e e
va
lua
ted
?
- Is
it po
ssib
le to
ma
ke
a d
ecis
ion
for a
ce
rtain
alte
rna
tive
ba
se
d o
n th
is e
va
l-u
atio
n?
- C
an
the
de
cis
ion
be
justifie
d lo
gic
ally
an
d u
nd
ers
tan
da
bly
?
- A
re a
ll critic
al fa
cto
rs k
no
wn
?
4.4
M
ain
Stu
dy
Ba
se
d o
n th
e (a
bstra
ct) s
olu
tion
co
nce
pt c
ho
se
n, th
e m
ain
stu
dy w
ork
s o
ut th
e
de
sig
n o
f the
en
tire s
yste
m. O
ve
rall c
on
ce
pts
sh
ou
ld b
e g
en
era
ted
, wh
ich
allo
w
a w
ell-fo
un
de
d e
va
lua
tion
o
f th
e e
ffectiv
en
ess,
fea
sib
ility a
nd
e
co
no
mic
e
ffi-cie
ncy o
f the
de
sig
ne
d s
yste
m.
In th
e m
ain
stu
dy, th
e a
rea
of s
tud
y is
co
nscio
usly
na
rrow
ed
do
wn
an
d c
on
ce
n-
trate
d o
n a
se
t of p
ossib
le s
olu
tion
s. T
he
en
viro
nm
en
t is o
nly
rele
va
nt a
s fa
r as
its e
ffects
on
the
furth
er d
esig
n o
f co
nce
pt d
rafts
.
Pu
rpo
se
: W
ithin
the
fram
ew
ork
of th
e m
ain
stu
dy, in
ten
sifie
d g
ath
erin
g o
f in
form
atio
n is
esse
ntia
l. Alte
rna
tive
co
nce
pts
mu
st b
e d
eve
lop
ed
a
nd
e
va
lua
ted
w
ith re
ga
rd to
th
eir fe
asib
ility, e
ffectiv
en
ess, a
nd
p
rofita
bility
.
SY
ST
EM
S E
NG
INE
ER
ING
– A
Sum
mary
1
4
Re
su
lt: T
he
resu
lt of th
e m
ain
stu
dy is
the
ove
rall c
on
ce
pt. T
he
ove
rall
co
nce
pt p
rovid
es th
e fra
me
wo
rk fo
r furth
er d
eve
lop
me
nt a
nd
rea
l-is
atio
n
Th
e q
ua
lity o
f a m
ain
stu
dy c
an
be
teste
d w
ith th
e fo
llow
ing q
ue
stio
ns /Z
üst
19
97
/:
- Is
the
reco
mm
en
de
d o
ve
rall c
on
ce
pt c
on
vin
cin
g a
nd
rea
lisa
ble
, rega
rdin
g
fun
ctio
na
l, eco
no
mic
al, p
ers
on
ne
l an
d o
rga
nis
atio
na
l asp
ects
? A
re th
e n
ec-
essa
ry m
ea
ns a
nd
org
an
isa
tion
al p
rere
qu
isite
s k
no
wn
?
- Is
the
re a
n o
ve
rvie
w o
f co
nce
iva
ble
alte
rna
tive
s?
- A
re th
e c
ritica
l co
mp
on
en
ts k
no
wn
?
- A
re th
e p
eo
ple
wo
rkin
g o
n th
e s
ea
rch
for a
so
lutio
n s
uffic
ien
tly in
vo
lve
d o
r in
form
ed
?
- Is
the
situ
atio
n re
ad
y fo
r a d
ecis
ion
? C
an
the
de
cis
ion
be
acce
pte
d a
nd
jus-
tified
inte
rna
lly a
nd
exte
rna
lly?
- A
re th
e p
rioritie
s fo
r furth
er s
pe
cific
atio
n, re
sp
ectiv
ely
rea
lisa
tion
, cle
ar?
Th
e c
on
ce
pt a
ltern
ativ
es, c
om
pa
red
to th
e p
relim
ina
ry s
tud
y, a
re m
ore
co
mp
re-
he
nsiv
e a
nd
esp
ecia
lly m
ore
de
taile
d. In
this
sta
ge
, e.g
. effic
ien
cy a
nd
inve
st-
me
nt c
alc
ula
tion
s p
lay a
ce
ntra
l role
.
4.5
D
eta
iled
Stu
die
s
With
in th
e fra
me
wo
rk o
f de
taile
d s
tud
ies, d
eta
iled
so
lutio
n c
on
ce
pts
for p
artia
l p
rob
lem
s, i.e
. fun
ctio
ns a
nd
co
mp
on
en
ts o
f a s
yste
m, a
re w
ork
ed
ou
t. Th
e b
a-
se
s fo
r d
eta
iled
stu
die
s a
re in
form
atio
n a
nd
re
su
lts cre
ate
d w
ithin
th
e m
ain
stu
dy. T
he
are
a o
f stu
dy is
na
rrow
ed
do
wn
as m
uch
as p
ossib
le. D
istin
ct s
ub
-syste
ms a
re ta
ckle
d u
nd
er s
pe
cific
asp
ects
.
Pu
rpo
se
: W
ork
ing o
ut o
f de
taile
d c
on
ce
pts
on
the
ba
sis
of s
pe
cific
, so
un
d,
eva
lua
ted
in
form
atio
n a
nd
p
artia
l co
nce
pt
alte
rna
tive
s.
Als
o,
all
rele
va
nt in
form
atio
n to
rea
lise
the
so
lutio
n is
pro
vid
ed
.
Re
su
lt: D
eta
iled
co
nce
pts
an
d, if n
ee
d b
e, re
alis
atio
n c
on
ce
pts
, as w
ell a
s
ide
as c
on
ce
rnin
g th
e d
isp
ositio
n o
f exis
ting s
yste
ms a
nd
its e
le-
me
nts
.
No
te th
at in
div
idu
al d
eta
iled
stu
die
s c
an
exte
nd
ove
r se
ve
ral s
yste
m le
ve
ls. T
he
d
eco
mp
ositio
n o
f a
n o
ve
rall
co
nce
pt
ca
n b
e a
cco
mp
lish
ed
in
se
ve
ral
pa
rtial
ste
ps. A
lso
, the
pa
rtial c
on
ce
pts
de
ve
lop
ed
with
in th
e s
co
pe
of d
eta
iled
stu
die
s
mu
st c
on
sta
ntly
be
co
-ord
ina
ted
with
ea
ch
oth
er.
SY
ST
EM
S E
NG
INE
ER
ING
– A
Sum
mary
1
5
Th
e q
ua
lity o
f de
taile
d s
tud
ies c
an
be
teste
d w
ith th
e fo
llow
ing q
ue
stio
ns /Z
üst
19
97
/:
- D
o th
e d
eta
iled
co
nce
pts
me
et th
e re
qu
irem
en
ts re
su
lting fro
m th
e o
ve
rall
co
nce
pt?
- C
an
d
eta
iled
co
nce
pts
b
e in
tegra
ted
into
the
ove
rall c
on
ce
pt a
nd
am
on
g
the
mse
lve
s ?
Do
the
y fu
lfil the
fun
ctio
ns th
ey w
ere
co
nce
ive
d fo
r? D
o th
e
de
taile
d c
on
ce
pts
ha
ve
qu
alitie
s w
hic
h a
re n
ot d
esira
ble
for th
e o
ve
rall c
on
-ce
pt?
- A
re th
e d
eta
iled
co
nce
pts
co
ncre
te e
no
ugh
to b
e re
alis
ed
?
4.6
S
ys
tem
s R
ea
lisa
tion
Syste
ms re
alis
atio
n m
ea
ns th
e im
ple
me
nta
tion
of a
syste
m c
on
ce
pt, i.e
. the
p
rod
uctio
n o
f a d
esig
ne
d a
nd
pla
nn
ed
syste
m. T
his
en
co
mp
asse
s th
e in
div
idu
al
syste
ms c
om
po
ne
nts
, wh
ich
are
pro
du
ce
d w
ithin
the
org
an
isa
tion
or a
cqu
ired
e
xte
rna
lly. It a
lso
inclu
de
s th
e re
sp
ectiv
e o
rga
nis
atio
na
l fram
ew
ork
.
Pu
rpo
se
: A
cqu
isitio
n o
r pro
du
ctio
n o
f the
ind
ivid
ua
l syste
ms c
om
po
ne
nts
, o
rde
rly / s
yste
ma
tic a
sse
mb
ly a
nd
pre
pa
ratio
n fo
r syste
ms in
tro-
du
ctio
n.
Re
su
lt: A
fun
ctio
nin
g / w
ork
ing b
ut n
ot y
et d
ep
loye
d / in
trod
uce
d s
yste
m.
Pa
ralle
l to th
e p
rod
uctio
n o
f the
syste
m its
elf g
oe
s th
e c
rea
tion
or a
cqu
isitio
n o
f fu
rthe
r im
po
rtan
t h
ard
a
nd
so
ftwa
re co
mp
on
en
ts,
i.e.
train
ing m
ate
rials
, sys-
tem
s d
ocu
me
nta
tion
an
d u
se
r ma
nu
als
.
4.7
S
ys
tem
s In
sta
llatio
n
Syste
ms in
sta
llatio
n m
ea
ns tu
rnin
g th
e s
yste
m o
ve
r to th
e u
se
r, as w
ell a
s e
x-
pla
inin
g h
ow
it
wo
rks a
nd
h
ow
to
u
se
it.
Sim
ple
syste
ms,
afte
r a
pp
rop
riate
p
rep
ara
tion
, ca
n b
e in
trod
uce
d a
s a
wh
ole
with
ou
t mu
ch
risk. In
a c
on
clu
din
g
revie
w th
e e
ffectiv
en
ess a
nd
effic
ien
cy o
f the
syste
m s
ho
uld
be
eva
lua
ted
.
Pu
rpo
se
: P
ut n
ew
syste
m in
to o
pe
ratio
n, a
nd
, if ne
ed
be
, dis
po
se
of o
ld
syste
m.
Re
su
lt: T
he
rea
dy–
to-u
se
syste
m is
turn
ed
ove
r to th
e s
yste
m u
se
r.
Afte
r a s
ucce
ssfu
l insta
llatio
n o
f the
syste
m, th
e S
E-p
roje
ct is
ge
ne
rally
term
i-n
ate
d.
SY
ST
EM
S E
NG
INE
ER
ING
– A
Sum
mary
1
6
4.8
S
ys
tem
s U
tilisa
tion
Syste
ms u
tilisa
tion
me
an
s th
e s
yste
m is
be
ing o
pe
rate
d a
nd
ha
nd
led
by th
e
use
r.
Pu
rpo
se
: A
pp
lica
tion
an
d u
se
of th
e s
yste
m a
nd
test o
f the
pe
rform
an
ce
, if n
ece
ssa
ry, w
hile
ad
ap
ting th
e c
om
po
ne
nts
.
Exp
erie
nce
s g
ain
ed
an
d s
ugge
stio
ns fo
r ch
an
ge
sh
ou
ld b
e g
ath
ere
d s
yste
ma
ti-ca
lly a
nd
, if po
ssib
le, lin
ke
d w
ith th
e in
div
idu
al fu
nctio
ns o
f the
syste
m. T
his
p
rovid
es th
e b
asis
for im
pro
vin
g th
e c
urre
nt s
yste
m o
r for th
e d
esig
n o
f an
alo
-go
us s
yste
ms.
4.9
In
itiativ
es
for n
ew
De
sig
n, R
ed
es
ign
or D
em
an
ufa
ctu
ring
Wh
en
it be
co
me
s o
bvio
us th
at th
e s
yste
m in
use
requ
ires s
ign
ifica
nt re
de
sig
n-
ing o
r eve
n a
ne
w d
esig
n, th
is is
the
ince
ntiv
e fo
r a n
ew
pre
limin
ary
stu
dy.
Pu
rpo
se
: M
ake
d
ecis
ion
-ma
ke
rs
aw
are
, d
eve
lop
p
rob
lem
co
nscio
usn
ess,
an
d c
larify
willin
gn
ess to
act.
Re
su
lt: D
ecis
ion
by th
e re
sp
on
sib
le p
ers
on
s, e
ithe
r to d
ea
l with
the
pro
b-
lem
in a
ne
w s
tud
y, o
r to d
efe
r it.
Fo
r min
or im
pro
ve
me
nts
an
d c
ha
nge
s, th
is c
ou
rse
of a
ctio
n is
no
t ne
ce
ssa
ry.
Su
ch
ad
ap
tatio
ns c
an
be
imp
lem
en
ted
, wh
ile th
e s
yste
m is
wo
rkin
g.
4.1
0
Dis
po
sa
l Ph
as
e
Th
e d
isp
osa
l ph
ase
co
ve
rs th
e fin
al d
isp
osa
l of a
syste
m. A
fter th
e d
isp
osa
l p
ha
se
, the
orig
ina
l syste
m d
oe
s n
ot e
xis
t an
ym
ore
. Ind
ivid
ua
l co
mp
on
en
ts o
f it ca
n b
e re
use
d in
the
sa
me
or s
imila
r wa
y in
oth
er s
yste
ms.
Pu
rpo
se
: O
rga
nis
ed
dis
po
sa
l of s
yste
ms.
Re
su
lt: D
isp
ose
d s
yste
m.
Th
e d
isp
osa
l ph
ase
sh
ou
ld, if p
ossib
le, b
e p
art o
f the
pla
nn
ing a
ctiv
ities. T
he
syste
m d
isp
osa
l sh
ou
ld a
lrea
dy b
e c
on
sid
ere
d d
urin
g th
e d
eve
lop
me
nt p
ha
se
.
SY
ST
EM
S E
NG
INE
ER
ING
– A
Sum
mary
1
7
Pe
rso
na
l no
tes
:
SY
ST
EM
S E
NG
INE
ER
ING
– A
Sum
mary
1
8
5
Pro
ble
m-s
olv
ing
co
ncep
t
Th
e
ge
ne
ric
pro
ble
m-s
olv
ing
co
n-
ce
pt
(Pro
ble
m-S
olv
ing-C
ycle
) is
a
b
asic
stru
ctu
re fo
r tacklin
g a
ny d
e-
fine
d b
ig o
r sm
all p
rob
lem
in a
ny life
cycle
ph
ase
of a
syste
m. It p
rop
os-
es a
se
ries o
f top
ics, w
hic
h s
ho
uld
b
e ta
ckle
d - p
rincip
ally
in a
n ite
rativ
e
ma
nn
er
- w
ithin
a
d
istin
ct
pla
nn
ing
ste
p.
Th
e
resu
lts
of
the
in
div
idu
al
pla
nn
ing s
tep
s s
ho
uld
be
co
he
ren
t.
5.1
A
n O
ve
rvie
w o
f the
Pro
ble
m-s
olv
ing
co
nc
ep
t
Th
e p
rob
lem
-so
lvin
g c
on
ce
pt d
escrib
es th
e in
dis
pe
nsa
ble
wo
rk s
tep
s in
ord
er to
so
lve
a ta
sk w
ithin
the
sco
pe
of a
ny p
lan
nin
g s
tage
.
Fig
. 4
Pro
ble
m-S
olv
ing C
on
ce
pt (a
cco
rdin
g to
/Ha
be
rfelln
er e
t al. 1
97
6)
Th
e in
div
idu
al p
lan
nin
g s
tep
s, a
s p
rese
nte
d g
en
era
lly in
Fig
. 4, s
ho
w s
ub
tasks,
wh
ich
m
ust
be
a
cco
mp
lish
ed
. T
he
re
sp
ectiv
e e
ffort
de
pe
nd
s o
n th
e sp
ecific
p
rob
lem
.
Pro
ble
m-s
olv
ing s
ho
uld
sta
rt with
a d
efin
ition
of th
e s
yste
m a
nd
a c
om
pre
he
n-
siv
e s
itua
tion
an
aly
sis
(Fig
. 4, F
ig. 5
). Un
de
rsta
nd
ing h
ow
the
syste
m fu
nctio
ns
an
d its
inte
ractio
ns w
ith its
en
viro
nm
en
t is th
e fo
rem
ost p
urp
ose
. Esp
ecia
lly in
SY
ST
EM
S E
NG
INE
ER
ING
– A
Sum
mary
1
9
pre
limin
ary
stu
die
s, a
nd
for th
e m
ost p
art in
ma
in s
tud
ies, u
su
ally
in a
n e
arly
p
lan
nin
g p
ha
se
, the
rela
tion
s to
the
syste
m e
nviro
nm
en
t, an
d/o
r exte
rna
l influ
-e
nce
s o
n th
e s
yste
m, a
re im
po
rtan
t an
d n
ee
d to
be
ca
refu
lly c
on
sid
ere
d.
Fig
. 5:
Pro
ble
m-s
olv
ing c
on
ce
pt a
nd
co
rresp
on
din
g in
form
atio
n flo
w (a
c-
co
rdin
g to
/Ha
be
rfelln
er e
t al. 1
97
6/)
Afte
r the
situ
atio
n a
na
lysis
the
go
als
are
form
ula
ted
an
d th
e in
itial p
rob
lem
de
fi-n
ition
mu
st b
e re
co
nsid
ere
d / re
vis
ed
. He
re th
e p
refe
ren
ce
s o
f the
de
cis
ion
-
SY
ST
EM
S E
NG
INE
ER
ING
– A
Sum
mary
2
0
ma
ke
rs / s
take
ho
lde
rs a
re ta
ke
n in
to c
on
sid
era
tion
, an
d th
e fa
cts
are
so
rted
th
rou
gh
in th
e s
itua
tion
an
aly
sis
.
Co
nce
pt s
yn
the
sis
an
d c
on
ce
pt a
na
lysis
are
the
ne
xt s
tep
s. H
ere
the
wid
est
an
d m
ost c
om
pre
he
nsiv
e s
olu
tion
sp
ectru
m s
ho
uld
be
de
ve
lop
ed
an
d te
ste
d fo
r its
fea
sib
ility. R
ea
lisa
ble
so
lutio
n a
ltern
ativ
es a
re th
e re
su
lt.
Th
e fin
alis
ing s
tep
s e
nco
mp
ass th
e e
va
lua
tion
of th
e a
ltern
ativ
e s
olu
tion
s a
nd
th
e d
ecis
ion
ab
ou
t the
op
tima
l on
e.
In th
e fo
llow
ing, th
e in
div
idu
al s
tep
s o
f the
pro
ble
m-s
olv
ing c
on
ce
pt a
re p
re-
se
nte
d in
de
tail.
Pe
rso
na
l no
tes
:
SY
ST
EM
S E
NG
INE
ER
ING
– A
Sum
mary
2
1
5.2
S
itua
tion
An
aly
sis
Th
e
situ
atio
n
an
aly
sis
is
th
e
first
wo
rk s
tep
It inclu
de
s th
e in
ve
stig
a-
tion
of th
e c
urre
nt s
itua
tion
. Th
e re
-su
lts o
f the
situ
atio
n a
na
lysis
are
the
b
asis
fo
r go
al
de
finitio
n
an
d
the
se
arc
h fo
r a s
olu
tion
.
Pu
rpo
se
: S
itua
tion
an
aly
sis
acco
mp
lish
es th
e fo
llow
ing:
• H
olis
tic a
ntic
ipa
tion
/ gra
sp
ing o
f the
pro
ble
m u
nd
er a
ll re
leva
nt v
iew
po
ints
• O
utlin
es th
e p
ossib
le a
pp
roa
ch
es a
nd
ma
rgin
s fo
r ne
w
co
nce
pts
a
nd
th
e a
va
ilab
le sco
pe
fo
r n
ew
co
nce
pts
a
nd
me
asu
res
• A
cqu
ires a
n in
form
atio
n b
asis
for th
e fo
llow
ing o
pe
ra-
tion
al s
tep
s, e
sp
ecia
lly fo
r go
al d
efin
ition
an
d c
on
ce
pt
syn
the
sis
.
Co
nte
nts
: T
he
situ
atio
n a
na
lysis
is th
e s
yste
ma
tic in
ve
stig
atio
n a
nd
d
escrip
tion
of a
pe
rce
ive
d p
rob
lem
atic
sta
te o
r be
ha
vio
ur
of a
n o
bje
ct (re
al w
orld
are
a).
Th
e s
itua
tion
an
aly
sis
• is
influ
en
ce
d in
co
nd
ition
an
d tre
nd
de
term
ina
tion
by
the
pa
st, p
rese
nt a
nd
futu
re,
• is
o
pe
n,
rega
rdin
g
go
als
, so
lutio
ns
an
d
utilis
ab
le
me
an
s a
nd
• is
the
ba
sis
for a
ll the
follo
win
g s
tep
s.
Pro
ce
ss
: T
he
co
nte
nts
of th
e s
itua
tion
an
aly
sis
pa
sse
d th
rou
gh
cy-
clic
ally
are
:
• ta
sk a
na
lysis
SY
ST
EM
S E
NG
INE
ER
ING
– A
Sum
mary
2
2
• a
na
lysis
of th
e a
ctu
al s
tate
an
d b
eh
avio
ur o
f the
sys-
tem
in m
ind
:
-
de
finin
g th
e s
yste
m a
nd
en
viro
nm
en
t bo
un
da
ries
-
an
aly
sin
g s
tructu
re a
nd
fun
ctio
n o
f the
syste
m
-
an
aly
sin
g th
e e
nviro
nm
en
t
-
an
aly
sin
g s
tren
gth
s a
nd
we
akn
esse
s (F
ig. 8
)
-
roo
t-ca
use
-an
aly
sis
• a
na
lysis
of th
e fu
ture
/ futu
re s
ce
na
rios / tre
nd
s:
-
pre
dic
tion
of b
eh
avio
ur o
f the
en
viro
nm
en
t
-
pre
dic
tion
of b
eh
avio
ur o
f the
un
influ
en
ce
d s
ys-
tem
-
op
po
rtun
ities-th
rea
ts a
na
lysis
(Fig
. 9)
• b
rief c
on
clu
sio
ns, fin
al p
rob
lem
de
finitio
n
Sy
ste
ms
De
finitio
n a
s a
sp
ec
ific M
od
ellin
g T
as
k:
In c
on
jun
ctio
n w
ith d
efin
ing b
ou
nd
arie
s fo
r a s
yste
m, th
e te
rms s
yste
m to
inte
r-ve
ne
, exte
rna
l syste
ms a
nd
en
viro
nm
en
t are
imp
orta
nt:
• T
he
syste
m to
inte
rve
ne
inclu
de
s th
e a
rea
s o
f rea
lity, in
wh
ich
inte
rve
ntio
n
an
d c
ha
nge
s a
re p
ossib
le w
ithin
the
sco
pe
of w
ork
ing o
n th
e p
rob
lem
.
• “E
nviro
nm
en
t” inclu
de
s s
yste
ms o
uts
ide
of th
e s
yste
m to
inte
rve
ne
.
Th
e te
rm e
nviro
nm
en
t ca
n le
ad
to m
isu
nd
ers
tan
din
g, if o
nly
giv
en
an
eco
-lo
gic
al m
ea
nin
g. T
he
refo
re, th
e te
rm e
nviro
nm
en
t is u
se
d in
its w
ide
r se
nse
in
the
follo
win
g.
• E
xte
rna
l syste
ms d
escrib
e th
e re
leva
nt p
art o
f the
en
viro
nm
en
t for s
yste
ms
inve
stig
atio
n a
nd
de
sig
n. T
he
y h
ave
rele
va
nt re
latio
ns to
the
syste
ms to
in-
terv
en
e.
Th
e c
rucia
l pre
requ
isite
for s
ucce
ssfu
l syste
ms d
esig
n is
the
co
mp
reh
en
siv
e
un
de
rsta
nd
ing
an
d
se
nsib
le
se
pa
ratio
n
/ d
elim
itatio
n
of
the
p
rob
lem
to
b
e
so
lve
d. O
n th
e o
ne
ha
nd
, syste
ms in
terv
en
tion
s s
ho
uld
no
t me
rely
cu
re s
ym
p-
tom
s b
ut le
ad
to re
al im
pro
ve
me
nts
. On
the
oth
er h
an
d, o
ne
sh
ou
ld a
vo
id c
on
-ce
pts
wh
ich
exce
ed
ava
ilab
le p
ers
on
ne
l an
d m
ate
rial p
ote
ntia
ls, o
r are
no
t co
n-
sis
ten
t with
the
time
requ
irem
en
ts fo
r so
lvin
g th
e p
rob
lem
. Syste
ms d
efin
ition
, th
ere
fore
, ha
s a
de
cis
ive
influ
en
ce
on
the
pro
ble
m-s
olv
ing p
roce
ss. F
irst, th
e
are
a m
ust b
e d
efin
ed
in w
hic
h in
terv
en
tion
an
d a
ltera
tion
s a
re p
ossib
le. S
e-
co
nd
, the
are
a, w
hic
h s
ho
uld
be
inve
stig
ate
d w
ithin
the
fram
ew
ork
of th
e s
tud
y,
mu
st b
e d
efin
ed
.
Th
e p
roce
ss o
f de
finin
g th
e s
yste
m c
an
esse
ntia
lly b
e s
imp
lified
thro
ugh
the
a
na
lysis
of p
ossib
le im
pa
cts
, by w
hic
h th
e in
div
idu
al in
flue
nce
s o
n th
e p
roje
ct
SY
ST
EM
S E
NG
INE
ER
ING
– A
Sum
mary
2
3
ca
n b
e d
ete
rmin
ed
(Fig
. 6). T
he
exte
nt o
f the
influ
en
ce
s o
ve
r the
co
urs
e o
f time
a
nd
the
ir eve
ntu
al fe
ed
ba
ck c
an
be
furth
er in
ve
stig
ate
d in
the
follo
win
g.
Fig
. 6:
Exa
mp
le o
f imp
act a
na
lysis
for a
ne
w lin
e o
f pro
du
cts
, dis
tingu
ish
-in
g in
tern
al a
nd
exte
rna
l imp
act fa
cto
rs
Ad
ditio
na
lly, th
e h
eu
ristic
prin
cip
les o
f mo
de
lling s
yste
ms a
s b
lack-b
oxe
s, re
-ga
rdin
g th
em
un
de
r diffe
ren
t asp
ects
an
d s
tructu
ring th
em
hie
rarc
hic
ally
ca
n b
e
he
lpfu
l in th
e p
roce
ss o
f de
finin
g s
yste
m b
ou
nd
arie
s (F
ig. 7
).
Fig
. 7:
Bla
ck-b
ox m
od
ellin
g-a
pp
roa
ch
, co
mb
ine
d w
ith a
syste
m h
iera
rch
y
un
de
r diffe
ren
t asp
ects
(acco
rdin
g to
/Zü
st 1
99
7/)
Th
e sim
ple
-min
de
d o
ve
rtakin
g o
f se
em
ingly
o
bvio
us syste
ms b
ou
nd
arie
s is
ris
ky. T
he
se
ofte
n d
o n
ot in
clu
de
rele
va
nt fu
nctio
na
l pe
rform
an
ce
are
as. S
ince
it is
no
t po
ssib
le to
reco
gn
ise
the
effe
cts
of p
ote
ntia
l inte
rfere
nce
on
the
syste
m
at
the
b
egin
nin
g
of
syste
ms
de
sig
n,
syste
ms
bo
un
da
ries
sh
ou
ld
be
w
ide
e
no
ugh
. Du
ring th
e p
lan
nin
g p
ha
se
, the
bo
un
da
ry m
ust b
e c
ritica
lly e
xa
min
ed
. A
t th
e la
test,
the
p
recis
e b
ou
nd
ary
mu
st b
e d
ete
rmin
ed
be
fore
the
pla
nn
ing
ph
ase
is c
on
clu
de
d.
SY
ST
EM
S E
NG
INE
ER
ING
– A
Sum
mary
2
4
Re
su
lt: T
he
ind
ivid
ua
l resu
lts o
f situ
atio
n a
na
lysis
are
:
• syste
m b
ou
nd
arie
s (o
f the
syste
m to
inte
rve
ne
an
d th
e
exte
rna
l syste
ms)
• a
stru
ctu
re o
f the
syste
m u
nd
er in
ve
stig
atio
n
• th
e d
ete
rmin
atio
n o
f the
ch
ara
cte
ristic
s o
f the
influ
en
c-
ing s
yste
ms a
nd
the
rem
ain
ing e
nviro
nm
en
t
• a
n in
terp
reta
tion
/
eva
lua
tion
o
f th
e situ
atio
n, fo
r ex-
am
ple
a
stre
ngth
s-w
ea
kn
esse
s
an
d
op
po
rtun
ities-
thre
ats
ca
talo
gu
e (F
ig. 8
, Fig
. 9)
• a
lis
t o
f th
e ge
ne
ral
co
nd
ition
s a
nd
furth
er im
po
rtan
t fa
cts
, as w
ell a
s
• a
co
mp
ilatio
n o
f the
exis
ting s
olu
tion
ap
pro
ach
es
• a
su
mm
ary
of th
e p
rob
lem
de
finitio
n a
nd
agre
em
en
t
Fig
. 8:
Exa
mp
le o
f an
an
aly
sis
of s
tren
gth
s a
nd
we
akn
esse
s, b
ase
d o
n
the
pre
se
nt s
tate
an
d b
eh
avio
ur o
f the
syste
m in
the
co
nte
xt o
f an
e
nviro
nm
en
tal m
an
age
me
nt s
yste
m d
esig
n /Z
üst 1
99
7/
SY
ST
EM
S E
NG
INE
ER
ING
– A
Sum
mary
2
5
Fig
. 9:
Exa
mp
le o
f a
o
pp
ortu
nitie
s-th
rea
t a
na
lysis
, b
ase
d o
n th
e fu
ture
a
na
lysis
in th
e c
on
text o
f su
pp
ly c
ha
in m
an
age
me
nt /Z
üst 1
99
7/
Sp
ec
ifics
: S
itua
tion
a
na
lysis
a
lso
re
qu
ires e
lucid
atin
g a
nd
co
nte
m-
pla
ting th
e fu
ture
. T
he
p
rogn
ose
s a
bo
ut
inte
rna
l syste
m
be
ha
vio
ur, a
s w
ell a
s th
e e
nviro
nm
en
t, are
no
t trivia
l, es-
pe
cia
lly w
ith so
cio
-tech
nic
al
syste
ms.
Ge
ne
rally
, n
eith
er
extra
po
latio
ns
no
r gro
wth
m
od
els
su
ffice
o
n
the
ir o
wn
. T
he
be
ha
vio
ur o
f the
actu
al s
yste
m, a
s w
ell a
s its
inte
rac-
tion
an
d lin
ks w
ith its
en
viro
nm
en
t, mu
st b
e fu
nd
am
en
tally
a
na
lyse
d a
nd
asse
sse
d. L
on
g-te
rm p
rogn
ose
s a
re c
ha
rac-
teris
ed
by u
nce
rtain
ty.
Situ
atio
n a
na
lysis
sh
ou
ld c
lose
with
the
revis
ion
an
d re
form
ula
tion
of th
e in
itial
pro
ble
m d
efin
ition
. It sh
ou
ld in
clu
de
a s
ho
rt an
d u
nd
ers
tan
da
ble
ou
tline
of th
e
mo
st im
po
rtan
t situ
atio
n a
na
lysis
resu
lts, a
s fo
r exa
mp
le
• a
de
qu
ate
rep
rese
nta
tion
of th
e d
efin
ed
bo
un
da
ries o
f the
inte
rve
nin
g s
ys-
tem
, ba
se
d o
n k
no
wle
dge
ga
ine
d fro
m s
itua
tion
an
aly
se
s,
• p
recis
e
de
scrip
tion
o
f th
e
pro
ble
m
to
be
so
lve
d,
ba
se
d
on
stre
ngth
s-
we
akn
esse
s a
nd
op
po
rtun
ities-th
rea
ts a
na
lysis
,
• d
escrip
tion
of th
e c
on
ce
ive
d p
erfo
rma
nce
exp
ecte
d fro
m n
ew
so
lutio
ns,
• d
ete
rmin
atio
n o
f the
ge
ne
ral fra
me
wo
rk a
nd
the
sp
ecia
l co
nd
ition
s, a
s w
ell
as
• a
mo
un
t of to
lera
nce
in th
e fo
llow
ing s
ea
rch
for a
so
lutio
ns.
SY
ST
EM
S E
NG
INE
ER
ING
– A
Sum
mary
2
6
Pe
rso
na
l no
tes
:
SY
ST
EM
S E
NG
INE
ER
ING
– A
Sum
mary
2
7
5.3
G
oa
l De
finitio
n
Go
al
de
finitio
n u
se
s th
e re
su
lts o
f th
e s
itua
tion
an
aly
sis
to id
en
tify re
-qu
irem
en
ts. T
he
se
arc
h fo
r pro
ble
m
so
lutio
ns
ob
tain
s
a
cle
ar
dire
ctio
n
on
ly w
he
n g
oa
ls a
re s
et a
nd
reco
g-
nis
ed
b
y th
e p
lan
nin
g te
am
. G
oa
ls
an
d e
xte
rna
l co
nd
ition
s gu
ide
co
n-
ce
pt s
yn
the
sis
an
d a
re u
se
d a
s c
ri-te
ria fo
r the
late
r eva
lua
tion
of a
lter-
na
tive
so
lutio
ns.
Pu
rpo
se
: T
he
pu
rpo
se
of g
oa
l de
finitio
n is
:
• p
relim
ina
ry, o
bscu
re g
oa
l pro
jectio
ns, w
hic
h re
su
lt from
situ
atio
n a
na
lysis
, are
co
mp
lete
d, e
xa
cte
d, c
orre
cte
d,
syste
ma
tica
lly s
tructu
red
, an
d d
ocu
me
nte
d a
s a
ca
ta-
logu
e o
f go
als
from
the
clie
nt’s
po
int o
f vie
w,
• th
at
all
co
nstra
ints
(e
xte
rna
l co
nd
ition
s)
wh
ich
e
ffect
the
sp
ecific
sp
ace
-time
co
nte
xt, a
re d
ete
rmin
ed
,
• th
e re
qu
irem
en
ts (g
oa
ls a
nd
co
nstra
ints
) are
gu
ide
line
s
for th
e s
ucce
ssiv
e s
ea
rch
for s
olu
tion
s a
nd
are
ava
ila-
ble
to th
e p
lan
nin
g te
am
, an
d
• th
at
an
in
form
atio
n b
asis
e
xis
ts,
ba
se
d o
n a
w
ritten
a
gre
em
en
t with
the
clie
nt, fo
r the
syste
ma
tic e
va
lua
tion
o
f po
ssib
le a
ltern
ativ
es, in
bin
din
g fo
rm.
Co
nte
nts
: T
he
ca
talo
gu
e o
f go
als
an
d c
on
stra
ints
de
scrib
es th
e re
-qu
irem
en
ts n
ee
de
d fo
r the
so
lutio
n to
be
wo
rke
d o
ut. T
he
-se
requ
irem
en
ts s
et th
e d
irectio
n fo
r the
so
lutio
n s
ea
rch
. O
n th
e o
ne
ha
nd
, po
sitiv
e e
xp
ecta
tion
s, w
hic
h s
ho
uld
be
in
co
rpo
rate
d in
to th
e s
yste
m d
esig
n, a
s w
ell a
s a
vo
ida
ble
n
ega
tive
co
nd
ition
s o
r be
ha
vio
ur, a
re re
co
rde
d in
the
ca
ta-
logu
e o
f go
als
.
O
n th
e o
the
r h
an
d,
co
nstra
ints
(e
xte
rna
l co
nd
ition
s),
for
exa
mp
le,
from
te
ch
nic
al
or
eth
ica
l a
nd
so
cie
tal
sta
nd
-p
oin
ts, a
re d
ocu
me
nte
d.
SY
ST
EM
S E
NG
INE
ER
ING
– A
Sum
mary
2
8
With
in th
e fra
me
wo
rk o
f pro
ble
m-s
olv
ing, v
ario
us ty
pe
s o
f go
als
ca
n b
e d
istin
-gu
ish
ed
:
Pro
ject g
oa
ls:
Pro
ject g
oa
ls a
re fo
rmu
late
d a
t the
be
gin
nin
g o
f a p
roje
ct
an
d a
re c
om
po
ne
nts
of th
e p
roje
ct in
itialis
atio
n. T
he
y c
an
in
clu
de
refe
ren
ce
s to
the
syste
m to
be
de
sig
ne
d, a
s w
ell
as to
the
pro
ble
m-s
olv
ing p
roce
ss.
Syste
m g
oa
ls:
Syste
m g
oa
ls d
escrib
e d
em
an
ds o
n th
e s
yste
m to
be
de
-sig
ne
d o
r to b
e c
ha
nge
d, a
nd
are
de
ve
lop
ed
on
the
ba
sis
o
f situ
atio
n a
na
lyse
s a
nd
the
clie
nts
pre
fere
nce
s. S
yste
m
go
als
an
d c
on
stra
ints
(exte
rna
l co
nd
ition
s) d
efin
e th
e d
e-
ma
nd
s o
n th
e s
yste
m.
Pro
ce
ss g
oa
ls:
Pro
ce
ss g
oa
ls re
fer to
the
co
urs
e o
f a p
roje
ct. T
he
y flo
w
prim
arily
into
the
pro
ject m
an
age
me
nt.
Du
ring g
oa
l de
finitio
n, s
yste
m a
nd
pro
ce
ss g
oa
ls, a
s w
ell a
s th
e c
on
stra
ints
are
d
efin
ed
.
Pro
ce
ss
: T
he
pro
ce
ss o
f de
finin
g a
go
al c
ata
logu
e c
an
be
div
ide
d
into
va
riou
s p
lan
nin
g s
tep
s, w
hic
h o
ccu
r cyclic
ally
:
• firs
t dra
ft of a
stru
ctu
red
go
al c
ata
logu
e
-
intu
itive
ga
the
ring o
f ide
as fo
r the
go
al
-
syste
ma
tic s
tructu
ring o
f the
go
als
• syste
ma
tic a
na
lysis
a
nd
se
tting-u
p o
f a
re
vis
ed
go
al
ca
talo
gu
e
-
co
ntro
l o
f so
lutio
n n
eu
trality
a
nd
fu
nctio
na
lity /
me
asu
rab
ility
-
ch
eckin
g th
e b
ala
nce
an
d c
om
ple
ten
ess
-
ch
eckin
g fo
r co
ntra
dic
tion
s a
nd
red
un
da
ncie
s
• a
pp
rova
l of th
e g
oa
l ca
talo
gu
e b
y th
e c
lien
t
Co
nstra
ints
ha
ve
to b
e o
utlin
ed
as th
e ru
ling c
on
text fo
r syste
ms d
esig
n.
• R
es
ult: T
he
resu
lt of g
oa
l de
finitio
n, in
ad
ditio
n to
the
o
utlin
ing o
f the
co
nstra
ints
, is a
co
ncis
ely
form
ula
ted
, stru
ctu
red
go
al c
ata
logu
e (s
ee
Fig
. 10
).
SY
ST
EM
S E
NG
INE
ER
ING
– A
Sum
mary
2
9
Fig
. 10
: S
ch
em
atic
rep
rese
nta
tion
of a
stru
ctu
red
go
al c
ata
logu
e, d
ivid
ed
in
to c
lasse
s o
f go
als
, go
al c
ha
racte
ristic
s a
nd
exte
nt /Z
üst 1
99
7/
Sp
ec
ifics
: T
he
de
sira
ble
sta
tes a
nd
be
ha
vio
ur o
f a s
yste
m, a
s d
e-
scrib
ed
in
th
e go
als
, a
re n
eve
r p
red
ete
rmin
ed
, b
ut
are
b
ase
d o
n th
e c
lien
ts a
nd
the
de
cis
ion
ma
ke
rs’ e
xp
ecta
-tio
ns. G
oa
ls a
re a
lwa
ys s
ub
jectiv
e. T
hro
ugh
ratio
na
l an
d
syste
ma
tic
go
al
ran
kin
g,
co
nflic
ts b
etw
ee
n th
e in
vo
lve
d
pe
op
le c
an
be
ap
pe
ase
d a
nd
ove
rly o
ne
-sid
ed
pro
ce
du
res
ca
n b
e a
vo
ide
d.
Re
qu
irem
en
ts in
clu
de
- th
e ta
rge
t ob
ject (e
.g. a
pro
du
ctio
n s
yste
m),
- th
e c
riterio
n (e
.g. th
e p
roce
ssin
g tim
e),
- th
e a
ctu
al re
su
lt (e. g
. a m
axim
um
of 4
we
eks) a
nd
-
the
time
limit (e
. g. p
rod
uctio
n s
yste
m c
om
ple
ted
by
the
ne
xt 9
mo
nth
s).
Th
ere
are
furth
er fo
rma
l de
ma
nd
s o
n in
div
idu
al g
oa
ls, th
e
go
al c
ata
logu
e a
nd
on
the
rela
tion
sh
ips b
etw
ee
n g
oa
ls:
ind
ivid
ua
l go
als
: so
lutio
n in
de
pe
nd
en
t
an
d m
ea
su
rab
le
go
al c
ata
logu
e:
co
mp
reh
en
siv
e
an
d
ba
l-a
nce
d
rela
tion
sh
ips b
etw
ee
n g
oa
ls:
no
n-c
on
trad
icto
ry a
nd
n
on
-re
du
nd
an
t
SY
ST
EM
S E
NG
INE
ER
ING
– A
Sum
mary
3
0
Pe
rso
na
l no
tes
SY
ST
EM
S E
NG
INE
ER
ING
– A
Sum
mary
3
1
5.4
C
on
ce
pt S
yn
the
sis
an
d C
on
ce
pt A
na
lys
is
Co
nce
pt
syn
the
sis
a
nd
co
nce
pt
an
aly
sis
bu
ild o
n th
e re
su
lts o
f situ
a-
tion
a
na
lysis
a
nd
go
al
de
finitio
n.
Th
eir p
urp
ose
is to
de
ve
lop
alte
rna
-tiv
e so
lutio
ns a
nd
to
te
st
the
m fo
r su
itab
ility a
nd
fea
sib
ility.
Pu
rpo
se
: T
he
pu
rpo
se
of c
on
ce
pt s
yn
the
sis
is:
• to
find
ide
as fo
r alte
rna
tive
so
lutio
ns
• to
foste
r the
intu
itive
as w
ell a
s th
e s
yste
ma
tic s
yn
the
-sis
of s
olu
tion
ide
as
Th
e p
urp
ose
of c
on
ce
pt a
na
lysis
is:
• to
de
tect u
nu
sa
ble
or d
efic
ien
t so
lutio
ns
• to
allo
w s
cre
en
ing a
nd
imp
rove
me
nt o
f so
lutio
n id
ea
s
• to
red
uce
the
sp
ectru
m o
f alte
rna
tive
s d
urin
g a
na
lysis
in
ord
er to
rise
the
effic
ien
cy o
f the
ir su
bse
qu
en
t as-
se
ssm
en
t
Co
nte
nts
: C
on
ce
pt s
yn
the
sis
de
no
tes th
e w
ork
ing o
ut o
f alte
rna
tive
so
lutio
ns in
va
ryin
g d
egre
es o
f sp
ecific
atio
n a
nd
d
eta
il. „T
hin
kin
g in
a
ltern
ativ
es “
an
d „fro
m a
ge
ne
ral
to a
d
e-
taile
d v
iew
“ (co
mp
are
with
“ba
sic
be
liefs
an
d p
rincip
les”)
pla
y a
ma
jor ro
le in
this
co
nte
xt (s
ee
Fig
. 11
).
C
on
ce
pt a
na
lysis
de
scrib
es a
pla
nn
ing a
ctiv
ity, b
y w
hic
h
insu
pp
orta
ble
/ un
usa
ble
alte
rna
tive
s a
re d
ete
cte
d a
nd
ei-
the
r e
limin
ate
d
or
tran
sfe
rred
to
fu
rthe
r im
pro
ve
me
nt.
Co
nce
pt a
na
lysis
eva
lua
tes th
e e
xte
nt to
wh
ich
the
sys-
tem
s re
qu
irem
en
ts a
re fu
lfilled
.
SY
ST
EM
S E
NG
INE
ER
ING
– A
Sum
mary
3
2
Re
su
lt: T
he
resu
lt of c
on
ce
pt s
yn
the
sis
an
d s
ub
se
qu
en
t an
aly
sis
is
a n
um
be
r of fe
asib
le a
ltern
ativ
e s
olu
tion
s fo
r the
pro
b-
lem
at h
an
d, w
hic
h h
ave
to b
e e
va
lua
ted
su
bse
qu
en
tly.
Pro
ce
ss
: S
ee
Fig
. 11
Fig
. 11
: D
eta
iled
wo
rkin
g s
tep
s o
f co
nce
pt s
yn
the
sis
an
d a
na
lysis
(/Zü
st
19
97
/ acco
rdin
g to
/Na
ge
l et a
l. 19
82
/)
Sp
ec
ifics
: In
co
nce
pt
syn
the
sis
, th
e cre
ativ
e p
roce
ss m
ust
be
e
n-
co
ura
ge
d. T
his
ca
n b
e a
cco
mp
lish
ed
by re
mo
vin
g b
arrie
rs
to c
rea
tivity
an
d b
y u
sin
g m
eth
od
s w
hic
h fo
ste
r intu
ition
a
nd
syste
ma
tica
lly p
rom
ote
cre
ativ
ity (e
.g. F
ig. 1
2).
A ro
ugh
an
aly
sis
ma
y b
e u
nd
erta
ke
n o
n th
e b
asis
of th
e
co
nstra
ints
de
no
ted
in th
e re
qu
irem
en
ts c
ata
logu
e. A
lter-
na
tive
s w
hic
h h
ave
pa
sse
d th
rou
gh
this
„co
ars
e filte
r“ are
su
bje
cte
d a
fterw
ard
s to
a d
eta
iled
form
al a
na
lysis
. Via
bil-
ity p
lays a
ma
jor ro
le in
the
asse
ssm
en
t of th
e d
eve
lop
ed
so
lutio
n-c
on
ce
pts
.
SY
ST
EM
S E
NG
INE
ER
ING
– A
Sum
mary
3
3
Fig
. 12
: E
xa
mp
le o
f a m
orp
ho
logic
al m
atrix
/Zü
st 1
99
7/
Exa
mp
les o
f the
asp
ects
of a
form
al a
na
lysis
are
:
• fu
nctio
na
lity: in
no
rma
l an
d u
nu
su
al c
ase
s, a
nd
in c
ase
o
f po
ten
tial a
ccid
en
ts
• p
erfo
rma
nce
an
d e
ffects
:
- d
irect s
yste
m p
erfo
rma
nce
- fu
lfil co
nstra
ints
(exte
rna
l requ
irem
en
ts)
-
fina
ncia
l, pe
rso
nn
el, o
rga
nis
atio
na
l an
d e
co
logi-
ca
l co
nse
qu
en
ce
s
• in
tegra
tion
into
the
en
viro
nm
en
t
• u
se
r-frien
dlin
ess a
nd
ma
inta
ina
bility
• e
ase
of im
ple
me
nta
tion
• p
rere
qu
isite
s
• co
mp
ara
bility
of th
e a
ltern
ativ
es
-
so
lutio
n fo
r the
sa
me
pro
ble
m
-
co
mp
lete
ne
ss o
f the
so
lutio
ns
-
de
gre
e o
f co
nce
pt d
eta
il
SY
ST
EM
S E
NG
INE
ER
ING
– A
Sum
mary
3
4
Pe
rso
na
l no
tes
:
SY
ST
EM
S E
NG
INE
ER
ING
– A
Sum
mary
3
5
5.5
E
va
lua
tion
an
d D
ec
isio
n
Th
e la
st s
tep
in p
rob
lem
-so
lvin
g in
-clu
de
s
the
p
artia
l ste
ps e
va
lua
tion
a
nd
d
ecis
ion
. T
he
fe
asib
le s
olu
tion
a
ltern
ativ
es
at
ha
nd
h
ave
to
b
e
eva
lua
ted
co
mp
reh
en
siv
ely
, b
ase
d
on
n
on
-ma
nd
ato
ry
requ
irem
en
ts
from
go
al d
efin
ition
an
d p
ossib
ly o
n
en
ha
nce
d c
riteria
from
co
nce
pt s
yn
-th
esis
an
d a
na
lysis
.
Pu
rpo
se
: T
he
pu
rpo
se
of th
e s
ele
ctio
n is
:
• th
e c
lea
r pre
se
nta
tion
of th
e e
va
lua
tion
an
d d
ecis
ion
situ
atio
n
• th
e syste
ma
tic a
nd
co
mp
reh
en
siv
e e
va
lua
tion
o
f th
e
alte
rna
tive
so
lutio
ns
• to
su
pp
ort th
e d
ecis
ion
-ma
ke
rs d
ecis
ion
-ma
kin
g a
nd
• a
ve
rifiab
le a
nd
tran
sp
are
nt s
ele
ctio
n.
Co
nte
nts
: T
he
eva
lua
tion
is th
e b
asis
for th
e d
ecis
ion
. An
eva
lua
tion
is
ne
ve
r “ob
jectiv
e” in
a s
tron
g s
en
se
, be
ca
use
all e
va
lua
-tio
ns c
on
tain
su
bje
ctiv
e a
sse
ssm
en
ts o
f facts
an
d v
alu
es.
Th
e
resu
lting
de
cis
ion
b
y
the
a
uth
oritie
s
an
d
de
cis
ion
-m
ake
rs s
ho
uld
be
a fre
e a
ct o
f will. T
he
refo
re, th
eir v
alu
e
syste
m m
ust b
e c
on
sid
ere
d in
the
pre
pa
ratio
ns fo
r the
de
-cis
ion
.
Du
ring th
e p
rep
ara
tion
for th
e d
ecis
ion
, on
e s
trive
s to
:
• tra
nsp
are
ntly
mo
de
l / de
scrib
e th
e d
ecis
ion
situ
atio
n
• p
rese
nt a
ll rele
va
nt d
ocu
me
nts
in a
n u
nd
ers
tan
da
ble
fo
rm to
the
de
cis
ion
-ma
ke
rs
As a
n e
xa
mp
le, th
e d
ecis
ion
-ma
kin
g p
roce
ss c
an
be
di-
vid
ed
into
the
follo
win
g s
ub
-ste
ps:
• lis
ting th
e a
ltern
ativ
e s
olu
tion
s
SY
ST
EM
S E
NG
INE
ER
ING
– A
Sum
mary
3
6
• e
va
lua
ting
an
d
inte
rpre
tatio
n
of
the
a
ltern
ativ
e so
lu-
tion
s
• m
akin
g a
de
cis
ion
• su
bsta
ntia
tion
/ justific
atio
n o
f the
de
cis
ion
• d
ocu
me
nta
tion
Ge
ne
ral P
roc
es
s F
ram
ew
ork
for D
ec
isio
n-M
ak
ing
:
Fig
. 13
: T
he
fo
ur
pa
rtial
ste
ps
of
de
cis
ion
-ma
kin
g
(acco
rdin
g
to
/ISO
1
40
40
/)
Th
e firs
t two
pa
rtial s
tep
s: „d
ete
rmin
atio
n o
f the
de
cis
ion
-ma
kin
g fra
me
wo
rk a
nd
crite
ria,“ a
nd
„accu
rate
an
d g
oa
l-orie
nte
d in
form
atio
n-g
ath
erin
g,“ g
ua
ran
tee
tha
t th
e n
ece
ssa
ry in
form
atio
n a
nd
do
cu
me
nta
tion
is a
va
ilab
le fo
r de
cis
ion
-ma
kin
g.
Th
e p
artia
l ste
p: „e
va
lua
ting a
ltern
ativ
es“ d
en
ote
s e
va
lua
tion
in a
na
rrow
se
nse
. P
ara
llel
to th
is,
a syste
ma
tic in
terp
reta
tion
a
nd
a
sse
ssm
en
t o
f th
e in
div
idu
al
resu
lts h
ave
to b
e u
nd
erta
ke
n.
Th
e p
roce
ss d
ep
icte
d in
Fig
. 13
is a
ge
ne
ral s
ch
em
a, w
hic
h m
ust b
e a
da
pte
d to
th
e d
ecis
ion
-ma
kin
g s
itua
tion
, or if n
ee
d b
e, e
xp
an
de
d. In
pra
ctic
e, th
e in
div
id-
ua
l wo
rk s
tep
s o
ccu
r cyclic
ally
.
Re
su
lt: T
he
resu
lt of th
e e
va
lua
tion
is a
reco
mm
en
da
tion
for a
de
cis
ion
, w
hic
h if
ne
ce
ssa
ry in
clu
de
s su
gge
stio
ns fo
r fu
rthe
r a
ctio
ns a
nd
p
roce
du
res.
SY
ST
EM
S E
NG
INE
ER
ING
– A
Sum
mary
3
7
Sp
ec
ifics
: A
sig
nific
an
t ele
me
nt o
f a m
eth
od
ica
lly s
up
po
rted
eva
lua
tion
is th
e
crite
ria p
lan
. Th
e „c
riteria
“ are
the
op
era
tion
al m
ea
su
res fo
r sys-
tem
atic
ally
de
term
inin
g th
e e
xte
nt to
wh
ich
op
en
go
als
are
fulfille
d.
It is n
ot a
lwa
ys p
ossib
le to
find
ad
equ
ate
qu
an
titativ
e c
riteria
. In
this
ca
se
oth
er re
pre
se
nta
tive
ind
ica
tors
mu
st b
e d
efin
ed
.
Fo
r this
rea
so
n, th
e s
am
e fo
rma
l requ
irem
en
ts a
re p
lace
d o
n th
e
ind
ivid
ua
l crite
ria,
as
on
th
e
go
al
ca
talo
gu
e
as
a
wh
ole
. T
he
m
ea
su
rab
le
va
riab
les
sh
ou
ld
be
o
pe
ratio
na
l. T
he
crite
ria
pla
n
mu
st b
e c
om
pre
he
nsiv
e a
nd
ba
lan
ce
d. T
he
re s
ho
uld
be
no
co
n-
trad
ictio
ns b
etw
ee
n h
ard
crite
ria a
nd
so
fter in
dic
ato
rs, a
nd
if po
s-
sib
le, th
ere
sh
ou
ld b
e n
o re
du
nd
an
cie
s.
Als
o to
be
co
nsid
ere
d w
he
n d
eve
lop
ing th
e c
riteria
pla
n is
tha
t the
crite
ria s
ho
uld
be
as in
de
pe
nd
en
t as p
ossib
le, a
nd
tha
t the
y d
o
no
t influ
en
ce
ea
ch
oth
er, a
t lea
st n
ot s
ign
ifica
ntly
.
Th
e e
ffort
for
eva
lua
ting su
itab
le a
sse
ssm
en
t m
eth
od
s a
nd
th
e
ch
oic
e o
f the
asse
ssm
en
t pro
ce
ss s
ho
uld
no
t be
un
de
restim
ate
d.
Esp
ecia
lly w
ith m
utu
ally
d
ep
en
de
nt
asse
ssm
en
t crite
ria, o
r ind
i-vid
ua
l asse
ssm
en
t crite
ria w
ith in
co
nsis
ten
t me
an
ings, lin
ea
r eva
l-u
atio
n m
eth
od
s, e
.g. g
rad
ing, w
eig
htin
g a
nd
su
mm
ing u
p, c
an
no
t b
e a
pp
lied
, or o
nly
to a
limite
d e
xte
nt.
Fig
. 14
: E
xa
mp
le o
f an
asse
ssm
en
t in th
e c
on
text o
f a tra
ffic e
va
lua
tion
b
ase
d o
n n
om
ina
l va
lua
tion
(acco
rdin
g to
/Zü
st 1
99
7/)
In in
terd
iscip
lina
ry p
roje
cts
with
mu
lti-face
ted
go
als
, or w
he
n la
ck-
ing in
form
atio
n a
bo
ut th
e s
yste
m-e
ffectiv
en
ess o
r wh
en
facin
g d
e-
SY
ST
EM
S E
NG
INE
ER
ING
– A
Sum
mary
3
8
pe
nd
en
t crite
ria w
hic
h d
o n
ot a
llow
for a
“va
lue
syn
the
sis
” in a
na
r-ro
w s
en
se
, it is u
na
vo
ida
ble
to u
se
no
min
al v
alu
atio
ns. A
dd
ition
al-
ly, th
e in
div
idu
al a
dva
nta
ge
s a
nd
dis
ad
va
nta
ge
s o
f the
alte
rna
tive
so
lutio
ns m
ay b
e d
iscu
sse
d w
ith th
e d
ecis
ion
-ma
ke
r. No
min
al v
al-
ua
tion
s a
re th
us v
ery
imp
orta
nt in
the
asse
ssm
en
t (se
e F
ig. 1
4).
Pe
rso
na
l no
tes
:
SY
ST
EM
S E
NG
INE
ER
ING
– A
Sum
mary
3
9
6
Ars
en
al o
f Meth
od
s in
the fie
ld o
f En
gin
eerin
g &
Man
ag
e-
men
t
A
me
tho
d
de
scrib
es,
resp
ectiv
ely
re
co
mm
en
ds,
a
ce
rtain
p
roce
du
re,
e.g
. a
w
ay
of
rea
ch
ing
a
ce
rtain
go
al.
Syste
ms
En
gin
ee
ring
is
a
me
tho
do
logy
wh
ich
re
gu
late
s
the
u
se
of v
ario
us m
eth
od
s in
a re
lativ
e-
ly
larg
e
pro
ble
m
are
a.
Ev
alu
atio
n:
Th
ere
are
ba
sic
ally
two
po
ssib
ilities fo
r exp
lorin
g, fin
din
g,
an
d e
va
lua
ting a
de
qu
ate
me
tho
ds:
• M
ost s
pe
cific
me
tho
ds a
re b
roa
dly
de
scrib
ed
in lite
r-a
ture
. Th
ey c
an
be
fou
nd
thro
ugh
litera
ture
rese
arc
h
• E
ach
sp
ecia
lise
d
field
a
nd
d
iscip
line
h
as
its
ow
n
sp
ecific
me
tho
ds. F
or a
sp
ecific
qu
ery
in th
e p
rob
-le
m-s
olv
ing p
roce
ss, c
on
ferrin
g w
ith e
xp
erts
ma
y b
e
he
lpfu
l.
Th
e co
nscio
us se
lectio
n a
nd
h
an
dlin
g o
f m
eth
od
s in
a
p
rob
lem
-so
lvin
g p
roce
ss is
ve
ry im
po
rtan
t. Th
e q
ue
stio
n o
f w
hic
h m
eth
od
s s
ho
uld
be
pre
ferre
d fo
r a s
pe
cific
pla
nn
ing
ste
p re
pe
ate
dly
aris
es. T
his
qu
estio
n is
esp
ecia
lly d
ifficu
lt to
an
sw
er w
he
n little
is k
no
wn
ab
ou
t the
syste
m, a
s is
the
ca
se
with
a p
relim
ina
ry s
tud
y.
In p
ractic
e, it c
an
ofte
n b
e o
bse
rve
d, th
at m
eth
od
imp
le-
me
nta
tion
is n
ot c
arrie
d o
ut c
orre
ctly
. Th
ere
fore
, the
fol-
low
ing s
ho
uld
be
ob
se
rve
d w
he
n a
pp
lyin
g m
eth
od
s,
• th
at c
erta
in m
eth
od
s c
an
on
ly b
e a
pp
lied
un
de
r sp
e-
cific
co
nd
ition
s c
on
text
• th
at m
eth
od
s m
ust b
e h
an
dle
d c
orre
ctly
, an
d
• th
at re
su
lts a
ch
ieve
d th
rou
gh
ap
ply
ing c
erta
in m
eth
-o
ds a
re n
ot n
ece
ssa
rily re
pre
se
nta
tive
for o
the
r pro
b-
lem
s.
SY
ST
EM
S E
NG
INE
ER
ING
– A
Sum
mary
4
0
Ch
ec
klis
t for th
e E
va
lua
tion
of s
pe
cific
Me
tho
ds
• Is
the
me
tho
d a
de
qu
ate
, po
we
rful e
no
ugh
an
d c
ap
ab
le o
f so
lvin
g th
e p
re-
se
nt p
rob
lem
?
• W
hic
h p
rere
qu
isite
s m
ust b
e m
et fo
r a m
eth
od
ap
plic
atio
n?
• H
ow
relia
ble
is th
e m
eth
od
? W
hic
h fa
cto
rs lim
it the
ap
plic
atio
n?
Are
the
y
pe
rtine
nt?
Ho
w d
o th
ey in
flue
nce
the
resu
lts?
• H
ow
mu
ch
effo
rt do
es th
e a
pp
lica
tion
ne
ed
? Is
the
me
tho
d e
fficie
nt?
• A
re th
e d
ata
an
d in
form
atio
n n
ece
ssa
ry fo
r the
ap
plic
atio
n a
va
ilab
le?
(Acco
rdin
g to
/Sch
rege
nb
erg
er/ a
nd
/Zü
st 1
99
7/)
Pe
rso
na
l no
tes
:
SY
ST
EM
S E
NG
INE
ER
ING
– A
Sum
mary
4
1
7
Syste
ms E
ng
ineerin
g a
nd
Pro
ject M
an
ag
em
en
t
Pro
ject m
an
age
me
nt h
as to
en
su
re a
su
cce
ssfu
l pro
ject c
ou
rse
, wh
ile S
yste
ms
En
gin
ee
ring h
as to
e
nsu
re th
e d
eve
lop
me
nt
of
an
o
ptim
al
pro
du
ct.
Pro
ject
ma
na
ge
me
nt c
o-o
rdin
ate
s a
nd
co
ntro
ls th
e w
ho
le p
roje
ct
De
finitio
n:
A p
roje
ct is
a u
niq
ue
an
d tim
e-lim
ited
op
era
tion
or u
nd
er-
takin
g
A
pro
ject is
usu
ally
exte
nsiv
e a
nd
co
mp
lex. T
he
refo
re it
mu
st b
e b
roke
n d
ow
n in
to s
ub
tasks. S
ince
se
ve
ral d
isci-
plin
es a
re u
su
ally
invo
lve
d in
a p
roje
ct, c
on
cu
rring o
pin
-io
ns te
nd
to e
xis
t ab
ou
t the
ava
ilab
le a
nd
dis
po
sa
ble
pe
r-so
nn
el, fin
an
ce
s, m
ate
rials
an
d tim
e.
Pu
rpo
se
: P
roje
ct
ma
na
ge
me
nt
ha
s
to
en
su
re
an
o
ptim
al
pro
ject
co
urs
e. P
roje
ct m
an
age
me
nt in
clu
de
s a
ll activ
ities to
co
n-
trol th
e p
roje
ct. T
his
do
es n
ot in
clu
de
activ
ities w
hic
h in
-vo
lve
the
co
nte
nts
of th
e p
rob
lem
to b
e s
olv
ed
, bu
t the
gu
ida
nce
of th
e p
rob
lem
-so
lvin
g p
roce
ss.
Co
nte
nts
: P
roje
ct m
an
age
me
nt h
as th
e fo
llow
ing d
ime
nsio
ns:
• F
un
ctio
na
l dim
en
sio
n
-
initia
ting p
roje
cts
- h
an
dlin
g p
roje
cts
- clo
sin
g p
roje
cts
• In
stitu
tion
al d
ime
nsio
n
-
de
ve
lop
ing p
roje
ct o
rga
nis
atio
n
-
inte
gra
ting
an
d
inte
rco
nn
ectin
g
the
p
roje
ct
or-
ga
nis
atio
n in
to th
e e
xis
ting o
rga
nis
atio
n o
f th
e
clie
nt
• P
ers
on
ne
l dim
en
sio
n
SY
ST
EM
S E
NG
INE
ER
ING
– A
Sum
mary
4
2
-
de
finin
g ta
sks a
nd
role
s o
f the
pro
ject m
em
be
rs
-
invo
lvin
g th
e p
eo
ple
affe
cte
d b
y th
e p
roje
ct
• In
stru
me
nta
l dim
en
sio
n
-
eva
lua
ting a
nd
inco
rpo
ratin
g a
de
qu
ate
me
tho
ds
for a
n o
ptim
al p
roje
ct c
ou
rse
- p
rovid
ing a
de
qu
ate
to
ols
fo
r a
n o
ptim
al
pro
ject
co
urs
e
Th
e ro
les a
nd
resp
on
sib
ilities o
f pro
ject m
an
age
me
nt m
ust b
e c
lea
rly d
efin
ed
.
Ch
ec
klis
t for P
roje
ct M
an
ag
em
en
t
Se
tting u
p p
roje
ct m
an
age
me
nt w
ith a
cle
ar v
isio
n o
f the
un
de
rtakin
g is
esp
e-
cia
lly b
en
efic
ial. F
or th
is p
urp
ose
, a fe
w q
ue
stio
ns a
re lis
ted
in th
e fo
llow
ing,
wh
ich
mu
st b
e a
nsw
ere
d b
efo
re s
tartin
g th
e p
roje
ct:
• W
ha
t is th
e p
roje
ct c
alle
d?
Wh
y is
this
pro
ject b
ein
g im
ple
me
nte
d?
Wh
at
are
the
rea
so
ns a
nd
ince
ntiv
es?
Wh
at a
re th
e o
bvio
us im
po
rtan
t asp
ects
of
the
pro
ble
m?
• W
ha
t is th
e g
oa
l of th
e p
roje
ct, i.e
. wh
at s
ho
uld
be
ach
ieve
d?
Wh
at b
en
efits
a
re to
be
exp
ecte
d?
Ha
ve
sim
ilar p
roje
cts
alre
ad
y b
ee
n u
nd
erta
ke
n?
• W
ho
is g
oin
g to
be
invo
lve
d in
the
pro
ject?
Wh
o a
re th
e p
eo
ple
invo
lve
d?
W
ho
are
the
pe
op
le b
ein
g a
ffecte
d?
Wh
ere
do
es th
e p
roje
ct o
ve
rlap
with
o
the
r un
de
rtakin
gs?
Ho
w a
re th
e p
roje
ct’s
bo
un
da
ries d
efin
ed
? W
ho
is th
e
pro
ject
lea
de
r? W
ho
is
in
th
e p
roje
ct
tea
m?
W
hic
h co
nta
ct
pe
rso
ns a
re
ava
ilab
le o
uts
ide
of th
e p
roje
ct te
am
? H
ow
is th
e p
roje
ct c
om
mitte
e o
r the
d
ecis
ion
-ma
kin
g b
oa
rd p
ut to
ge
the
r?
• W
ha
t mu
st b
e ta
ke
n in
to c
on
sid
era
tion
? W
ha
t are
the
co
nstra
ints
(exte
rna
l co
nd
ition
s?
) W
ha
t a
re th
e d
egre
es o
f fre
ed
om
? W
ha
t in
flue
nce
s a
re th
e
mo
st im
po
rtan
t?
• H
ow
sh
ou
ld th
e s
et g
oa
ls b
e a
ch
ieve
d?
Wh
at is
the
so
lutio
n s
trate
gy?
Wh
at
ap
pro
ach
will b
e u
se
d?
Are
ce
rtain
mile
sto
ne
s a
lrea
dy k
no
wn
?
• W
he
n s
ho
uld
info
rma
tion
ab
ou
t the
cu
rren
t pla
nn
ing re
su
lts b
e p
asse
d o
n?
If n
ece
ssa
ry, h
ow
will p
ub
lic re
latio
ns w
ork
be
ha
nd
led
? C
an
so
me
thin
g b
e
sa
id a
lrea
dy a
bo
ut th
e in
term
ed
iate
an
d fin
al d
ecis
ion
s to
be
ma
de
? W
ha
t a
re th
ey lik
e?
• W
hic
h p
lan
nin
g re
su
lts s
ho
uld
be
do
cu
me
nte
d?
Ho
w m
ust th
e d
ocu
me
nta
-tio
n b
e p
lan
ne
d, in
ord
er to
co
mp
ly w
ith c
lien
ts n
ee
ds?
• W
hic
h p
lan
nin
g p
roce
ss sh
ou
ld b
e e
va
lua
ted
? W
hic
h m
eth
od
s co
uld
b
e
va
lua
ble
at w
hic
h p
oin
t in tim
e?
Wh
ich
so
urc
es o
f info
rma
tion
are
ava
ilab
le?
W
hic
h s
ou
rce
s o
f info
rma
tion
mu
st b
e a
cqu
ired
?
• H
ow
mu
ch
do
es th
e p
roje
ct c
ost?
Ho
w d
oe
s th
e p
roje
ct b
ud
ge
t loo
k?
Ho
w
ca
n th
e p
roje
ct b
e fin
an
ce
d?
/Zü
st 1
99
7/
SY
ST
EM
S E
NG
INE
ER
ING
– A
Sum
mary
4
3
Ex
ec
utio
n:
Du
ring p
roje
ct p
lan
nin
g, th
e fo
llow
ing s
equ
en
ce
of s
tep
s
ca
n b
e e
ffectiv
e (/N
age
l et a
l. 19
82
/):
• D
efin
e in
term
ed
iate
go
als
fo
r in
div
idu
al
de
ve
lop
me
nt
an
d re
alis
atio
n p
ha
se
s
• D
efin
e p
roje
ct s
tructu
re b
y d
iffere
ntia
ting p
artia
l tasks
• D
efin
e
the
co
-ord
ina
tion
a
nd
e
xe
cu
tion
o
f in
div
idu
al
pa
rtial ta
sks
• Q
ua
litativ
e a
nd
qu
an
titativ
e e
stim
ate
s o
f pe
rso
nn
el, fi-
na
ncia
l, ma
teria
l an
d tim
e re
qu
irem
en
ts
• O
rga
nis
atio
na
l pla
nn
ing: b
uild
wo
rk g
rou
ps fo
r pa
rtial
tasks, p
lan
utilis
atio
n o
f reso
urc
es, a
pp
oin
t co
mm
ittee
s
for p
roje
ct g
uid
an
ce
, de
term
ine
wo
rk re
gu
latio
ns,...
• E
stim
ate
exp
en
ditu
res (th
rou
gh
the
pro
ject g
rou
p) a
nd
h
ave
clie
nt a
pp
rove
bu
dge
t (with
rese
rve
s)
• P
lan
inte
rme
dia
te a
nd
fina
l de
ad
line
s (m
ilesto
ne
s)
• D
ete
rmin
e p
roje
ct in
form
atio
n a
nd
do
cu
me
nta
tion
sys-
tem
With
in
the
sco
pe
o
f p
roje
ct
co
ntro
l, th
e
follo
win
g
me
asu
res a
re n
ece
ssa
ry:
• A
ssig
n ta
sks, in
clu
din
g re
sp
on
sib
ility a
nd
role
s
• D
irect, m
otiv
ate
an
d p
rote
ct e
mp
loye
es
• S
up
erv
ise
the
pro
ble
m-s
olv
ing p
roce
ss, a
nd
if ne
ce
s-
sa
ry, a
dju
st s
co
pe
, go
als
an
d s
ch
ed
ule
• C
o-o
rdin
ate
be
twe
en
the
clie
nt a
nd
the
pro
ject g
rou
p,
as w
ell a
s b
etw
ee
n w
ork
gro
up
s o
ve
r all life
cycle
s
• C
he
ck th
e d
ea
dlin
es, th
e e
fforts
, as w
ell a
s th
e e
ffec-
tive
ne
ss o
f pro
ject o
rga
nis
atio
n a
nd
pla
nn
ing o
f op
era
-tio
ns
As fa
r as p
roje
ct in
form
atio
n a
nd
do
cu
me
nta
tion
syste
ms
are
co
nce
rne
d, th
e fo
llow
ing ta
sks a
re im
po
rtan
t:
• d
ete
rmin
e in
form
atio
n s
trate
gy in
clu
din
g its
op
era
tion
s
• p
roje
ct
rep
rotin
g
(e.g
. a
bo
ut
the
situ
atio
n
an
aly
sis
, a
bo
ut th
e e
va
lua
tion
,...)
• d
ocu
me
nt th
e k
no
wle
dge
acqu
ired
• re
po
rt de
cis
ion
s
SY
ST
EM
S E
NG
INE
ER
ING
– A
Sum
mary
4
4
14
Critic
al S
uc
ce
ss
Fa
cto
rs o
f Pro
jec
t Ma
na
ge
me
nt
Results
of a
n e
mpiric
al in
vestig
atio
n (K
eplin
ger 1
991)
1.
(Top) M
anag
em
ent s
upport o
f the p
roje
ct a
nd th
e re
spectiv
e g
oals
facilita
tes s
uc-
cess, e
.g. e
ases re
sourc
e a
llocatio
n.
2.
Good e
xte
rnal re
latio
nship
s w
ith im
ple
mente
rs, c
usto
mers
and u
sers
.
3.
Cle
arly
defin
ed p
roje
ct g
oals
, and in
the c
ase o
f chang
es, a
gain
cle
arly
defin
ed
ag
reem
ents
.
4.
Concentra
tion o
n th
e s
tartin
g p
hase, i.e
. the d
evelo
pm
ent o
f a c
om
mon p
roble
m
unders
tandin
g, c
reatio
n o
f a fu
nctio
nal te
am
and jo
int p
lannin
g o
f the e
xecutio
n a
c-
tivitie
s.
5.
Suffic
ient p
roje
ct p
lannin
g (o
rganis
atio
n, p
rocess s
chedule
), join
t, brie
f and in
ten-
siv
e, n
ot to
o d
eta
iled in
the b
eg
innin
g a
nd re
cog
nis
e p
hase g
oals
/ mile
sto
nes.
6.
Appro
pria
te p
roje
ct c
ontro
l, i.e. re
gula
r com
pila
tion o
f sta
tus a
nd p
rog
ress w
hile
fo
cusin
g o
n k
ey fa
cto
rs.
7.
Open, d
irect c
om
munic
atio
n a
nd in
form
atio
n, i.e
. info
rm y
ours
elf a
nd d
o n
ot w
ait to
be a
sked, in
tern
al a
nd e
xte
rnal w
ritten b
rief re
ports
, as w
ell a
s v
erb
al c
om
munic
a-
tion.
8.
Situ
atio
n-a
ppro
pria
te m
eth
ods a
nd to
ols
: sim
ple
aid
s a
re h
elp
ful, n
etw
ork
sched-
ule
s a
nd IT
-supporte
d p
roje
ct m
anag
em
ent s
yste
ms a
re n
ot th
e (o
nly
) facto
rs o
f success.
9.
Purp
osefu
l, not b
ure
aucra
tic, o
rganiz
atio
nal s
tructu
re, i.e
. keep te
am
s s
mall, in
-clu
de a
wid
er c
ircle
of p
eople
by c
onveyin
g in
form
atio
n, tra
nspare
nt ta
sks a
nd re
-sponsib
ility s
harin
g w
ithin
the p
roje
ct te
am
, as w
ell a
s b
etw
een th
e te
am
and th
e
decis
ion-m
akin
g c
om
mitte
e. T
he c
ore
team
should
work
as in
tensiv
ely
as p
ossib
le
on th
e p
roje
ct.
10. S
uffic
ient m
anag
em
ent c
om
pete
nce o
f the p
roje
ct le
ader. S
uccessfu
l pro
ject le
ad-
ers
only
make u
se o
f their a
uth
ority
in e
xceptio
nal c
ases. T
hey le
ad th
roug
h p
ow
-ers
of p
ers
uasio
n.
11. A
bility
, auth
ority
, experie
nce o
f the p
roje
ct le
ader, i.e
. leaders
hip
qualitie
s a
re m
ore
im
porta
nt th
an d
iscip
line-s
pecific
and a
dm
inis
trativ
e a
bilitie
s. T
he p
roje
ct le
ader is
th
e s
uccess fa
cto
r.
12. S
ituatio
n-a
ppro
pria
te le
aders
hip
sty
le o
f the p
roje
ct le
ader, i.e
. coopera
tive in
nor-
mal c
ases, a
uth
orita
tive in
exceptio
nal s
ituatio
ns, p
rimarily
task o
riente
d, a
ble
to
solv
e c
onflic
ts q
uic
kly
, chro
nic
conflic
t partn
ers
may b
e re
moved fro
m th
e te
am
(in
a fa
ir way).
13. C
onste
llatio
n o
f a c
om
pete
nt p
roje
ct g
roup, i.e
. pre
fera
bly
qualifie
d a
nd te
am
ori-
ente
d e
mplo
yees, a
sta
bile
team
, suffic
ient tim
e fo
r pro
ject w
ork
, avoid
substitu
tes
as m
uch a
s p
ossib
le.
14. M
otiv
ate
d p
roje
ct te
am
s.
/Keplin
ger 1
991/
SY
ST
EM
S E
NG
INE
ER
ING
– A
Sum
mary
4
5
Pe
rso
na
l no
tes
:
SY
ST
EM
S E
NG
INE
ER
ING
– A
Sum
mary
4
6
8
Refe
ren
ces
/Bü
ch
el 1
96
9/
Bü
ch
el, A
. (19
69
): Syste
ms E
ngin
ee
ring, In
: io-
Ma
na
ge
me
nt Z
eits
ch
rift, Vo
l. 38
, No
.9, p
. 37
3-
38
5.
/ISO
14
04
0/
ISO
14
04
0 - E
nviro
nm
en
tal M
an
age
me
nt S
ys-
tem
s -
Prin
cip
les a
nd
F
ram
ew
ork
. C
EN
(P
ub
-lis
he
r). B
russe
ls:
Eu
rop
ea
n
Co
mm
ittee
fo
r S
tan
da
rdis
atio
n.
/Ha
be
rfelln
er e
t al. 1
97
6/
Ha
be
rfelln
er,
R.,
Na
ge
l, P
., B
üch
el,
A.,
vo
n
Ma
sso
w, H
. (19
76
): Syste
ms E
ngin
ee
ring. D
a-
en
ze
r, W. (P
ub
lish
er). 1
st e
ditio
n. Z
uric
h: V
er-
lag In
du
strie
lle O
rga
nis
atio
n.
/Ha
be
rfelln
er e
t al. 2
00
0/
Ha
be
rfelln
er,
R.
et
al.
(20
00
): S
yste
ms
En
gin
ee
ring.
Da
en
ze
r, W
. e
t a
l. (P
ub
lish
er).
10
th E
ditio
n. Z
uric
h: V
erla
g In
du
strie
lle O
rga
ni-
sa
tion
.
/Ha
ll 19
62
/ H
all, A
.D. (1
96
2): A
Me
tho
do
logy fo
r Syste
ms
En
gin
ee
ring. P
rince
ton
: Vo
n N
ostra
nd
.
/Ke
plin
ge
r 19
91
/ K
ep
linge
r, W
. (1
99
1):
Me
rkm
ale
e
rfolg
reic
he
n
Pro
jektm
an
age
me
nts
. P
h.D
.-Th
esis
. G
raz:
Te
ch
nis
ch
e U
niv
ers
ität G
raz.
/Na
ge
l et a
l. 19
82
/ N
age
l e
t a
l. (1
98
2):
SE
-Me
mo
, Z
uric
h:
Be
-trie
bsw
isse
nsch
aftlic
he
s In
stitu
t.
/Ro
po
hl 1
99
6/
Ro
po
hl,
G.
(19
96
): E
thik
u
nd
T
ech
nik
be
we
r-tu
ng. F
ran
kfu
rt am
Ma
in, S
uh
rka
mp
, 19
96
.
/Zü
st 1
99
7/
Zü
st, R
. (19
97
): Ein
stie
g in
s S
yste
ms E
ngin
ee
-rin
g - S
yste
ma
tisch
de
nke
n, h
an
de
ln u
nd
um
-se
tze
n, Z
uric
h: V
erla
g In
du
strie
lle O
rga
nis
atio
n
/Zü
st 2
00
4/
Zü
st, R
. (20
04
): Ein
stie
g in
s S
yste
ms E
ngin
ee
-rin
g - S
yste
ma
tisch
de
nke
n, h
an
de
ln u
nd
um
-se
tze
n,
3rd
E
ditio
n
(ad
op
ted
), Z
uric
h:
Ve
rlag
Ind
ustrie
lle O
rga
nis
atio
n.
/Zü
st 2
00
6/
Zü
st, R
., Tro
xle
r, P. (2
00
6): N
o M
ore
Mu
dd
ling
Th
rou
gh
– M
aste
ring C
om
ple
x P
roje
cts
in E
n-
gin
ee
ring a
nd
Ma
na
ge
me
nt, D
ord
rech
t: Sp
ring-
er