t h e a r t i o s h o m e c o m p a n i o n s e r i e s ......a south-east view of the city of...

Early Modern: High School Unit 11: Colonial Life -

T h e A r t i o s H o m e C o m p a n i o n S e r i e s

Unit 11: Colonial Life

T e a c h e r O v e r v i e w

Every country and even every community has particular ways of doing things. The colonies were no exception to this. Each colonial area developed its own customs, combining traditions from the old world with new ways of doing things in the New World. We can observe these particular and sometimes peculiar customs by studying education, dress, religion and relationships in the New World.

A South-East View of the City of Boston in

1733

Vocabulary

Lesson 1: perdition theology commodious Lesson 2: None

Reading and Assignments

In this unit, students will:

Complete two lessons in which they will learn about Customs and lifestyle in the Colonies, journaling and answering discussion questions as they read.

Define vocabulary words.

Create a chart to track various colonial subjects.

Read selected chapters from “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow,” journaling as they read.

Learn about writing a short story.

Visit www.ArtiosHCS.com for additional resources.

Key People and Places

John Harvard (Clergyman) Yale College Cotton Mather

Leading Ideas

History is HIS Story. God’s story of love, mercy, and redemption through Christ. He made known to us the mystery of his will according to his good pleasure, which he purposed in Christ, to be put into effect when the times reach their fulfillment—to bring unity to all things in heaven and on earth under Christ. — Ephesians 1:9-10 God’s providential hand governs and times all events and provides for his Creation according to His plan and purposes. The God who made the world and everything in it is the Lord of heaven and earth and does not live in temples built by human hands. And he is not served by human hands, as if he

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needed anything. Rather, he himself gives everyone life and breath and everything else. From one man he made all the nations, that they should inhabit the whole earth; and he marked out their appointed times in history and the boundaries of their lands. God did this so that they would seek him and perhaps reach out for him and find him, though he is not far from any one of us. — Acts 17:24-27

L i t e r a t u r e a n d C o m p o s i t i o n

Unit 11: Short Story Writing Topic for Units 11 - 14

Legend of Sleepy Hollow by Washington Irving

Unit 11 – Assignments

Read the background information, then read all of the story “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow” by Washington Irving.

Before reading the story:

Does the title suggest the importance of the setting? Titles are given for various reasons, but the astute reader of a well-written story ought to be able to discern why the author selected its title. As you read this story, ask yourself why Washington Irving chose the title he did. Find evidence within the story to support your claim.

It will be well for the student to familiarize himself thoroughly with the story. The following questions will help in this:

1. Where did Ichabod come from?

2. Why did the place become drowsy?

3. Was there any motive for driving Ichabod out of town?

After reading the story through carefully:

Note which of the plot elements is most important, judging from:

1. The relative amount of space in the story devoted to that element.

2. The general impression that the story seems to have made upon the public or what is best remembered about it.

3. The lasting impression which the story has made upon you as an individual reader.


Unit 11 – Assignment Background

Writing a Short Story From “Short Story Writing: A Practical Treatise on the Art of the Short

Story,” by Charles Raymond Barrett, NYC 1921

The short story was first recognized as a

distinct class of literature in 1842, when

Poe’s criticism of Hawthorne called

attention to the new form of fiction. But the

short story as we know it today is a product

of the nineteenth century; and it owes its

position in literature, if not its very

existence, to the work of Irving,

Hawthorne, and Poe. They first recognized

its possibilities and employed it seriously;

and the art and genius which they put into

their tales assured the short story a

permanent place in literature. They

differed in subject matter and style, but

they recognized the same requirements

and limitations; and the guidelines which

they established then still apply today.

The term short story is applied to every

piece of prose writing of 30,000 words or

less, without regard to its matter, aim, or

handling. A short story may be:

An episode

A fairy tale

The presentation of a single character

with the stage to himself

A tale of the uncanny

A dialogue comedy

A panorama of selected landscape: a

vision of the sordid street, a record of

heroism, a remote tradition, an analysis of

an obscure calling, a glimpse at a forgotten

quarter…but one thing it can never be—it

can never be ‘a novel in a nutshell’.” (“The

Short Story,” by Frederick Wedmore.

Nineteenth Century, Mar., ′98.)

The term short story is properly used

only when it means a short prose narrative,

which presents artistically a bit of real life;

the primary object of which is to amuse,

though it may also depict a character, plead

a cause, or point to a moral; this

amusement is neither of that aesthetic

order which we derive from poetry, nor of

that cheap sort which we gain from a broad

burlesque: it is the simple yet intellectual

pleasure derived from listening to a well-

told narrative.

The first requisite of a short story is that

the writer have a story to tell—that is, a

plot. He may present pretty scenes and

word pictures if he will, but he must vivify

and humanize them by the introduction of

certain characters, patterned after the

people of real life; and these characters

must move and act and live.

The question of length is but relative; in

general a short story should not exceed

10,000 words, and it could hardly contain

less than 1,000; while from 3,000 to 5,000

is the most usual length.

The short story is artificial, and to a

considerable degree unnatural. It could

hardly be otherwise, for it takes out of our

complex lives a single person or a single

incident and treats that as if it were

complete in itself. Such isolation is not

known to nature: There all things work

together, and every man influences all

those around him and is influenced by

them. Yet this separation and exclusion are

required by the conventions of the short

story; and after all, there is always the

feeling, if the characters are well handled,

that they have been living and will continue


to live, though we have chanced to come in

contact with them for only a short time.

This highlights the difference between a

short story and a novel: the short story

magnifies one singular incident in a

character’s life.

In the novel we have a reproduction of a

certain period of real life: all the characters

are there, with their complex lives and

their varying emotions; there are varied

scenes, each one the stage of some

particular incident or semi-climax which

carries the action on to the final chapter;

and there are persons and scenes and

conversations which have no reason for

being there, except that just such trivial

things are parts of life. With the short story

it is very different: it permits of but one

scene and incident, one or two real

characters, with one predominant emotion;

all else is a detriment to the interest and

success of the story. A book may be called a

novel even if it is composed of a series of

incidents, each complete in itself, which

are bound together by a slender thread of

common characters; but a story cannot

properly be called a short one unless it has

simplicity of plot, singleness of character

and climax, and freedom from extraneous

matter.


L e s s o n O n e

H i s t o r y O v e r v i e w a n d A s s i g n m e n t s

Colonial Life

“While the colonies grew, the colonists had much the same experiences as people nowadays…working, traveling, trading, fighting, marrying, and dying — although conditions and opportunities were very different…” – Albert Bushnell Hart

In response to these varying conditions and opportunities, colonial regions each developed their own customs and traditions.

Massachusetts Hall, Harvard University, built in 1718

Vocabulary

perdition commodious theology

Key People and Places

John Harvard (Clergyman) Yale College Cotton Mather


Review the discussion questions and vocabulary, then read the article: Colonial Life, pages 6-13.

Activity while Reading:

Create a chart with each of the following categories about colonial times. Make a list of important facts and people under each heading:

education literature religious life occupations money population growth homes colonial food law

In addition to the chart, be sure to answer the discussion questions and make note of key people, events, and dates.

Define the vocabulary words in the context of the reading and put the word and its definition in the vocabulary section of your history notebook.

Be sure to visit www.ArtiosHCS.com for additional resources.

Discussion Questions

1. Describe Rev. John Harvard.


2. Describe the establishment of Yale College.

3. Describe Cotton Mather.

4. What were “Acts of Trade?” How did they affect the colonists?

Adapted from the book:

Essentials in American History By Albert Bushnell Hart

Colonial Life (1700-1750)

While the colonies grew, the colonists

had much the same experiences as people

nowadays — going to church or going to

work, traveling, trading, fighting,

marrying, and dying — although conditions

and opportunities were very different. In

population the colonies increased slowly:

New England received little direct

immigration after 1640, and in 1700

numbered but 105,000 inhabitants; the

southern colonies (Maryland, Virginia, and

the Carolinas) together had about 110,000;

the middle colonies 55,000; making a total

of about 270,000 people. The largest towns

were Boston, with about 7000 people, and

Philadelphia, with 4000.

The ruling element in every colony was

of English descent; but there were

Dutchmen in New York and a few on the

Delaware; Swedes, a few Finns, and a large

German element (later called Pennsylvania

Dutch) in Pennsylvania; French Huguenots

in several colonies, especially South

Carolina; Highland and Lowland Scotch,

and Scotch-Irish from the Protestant

counties in the north of Ireland, principally

on the western frontier. The Africans in

1700 were about 46,000 in number. The

Native Americans were nowhere fused into

the colonial communities.

Most of the colonists lived in the easily

constructed log house, or in a frame

structure, clapboarded or shingled. In

Boston, New York, Philadelphia,

Charleston, and some other places there

were statelier houses constructed of brick

made near the spot. Among the poorer

families the rude furniture was hardly

more than floor, seats, and tables, all made

of “puncheons,” — that is, of split halves of

small tree trunks — with a few pewter

dishes, a fireplace, and its utensils. The

better houses had substantial oaken chests,

chairs, and tables, and handsome clocks.

In dress our well-to-do forefathers

followed as closely as they could the

English fashions of elaborate suits of cloth

or velvet or silk and full-bottomed wigs.

The most common materials were

homespun linen and wool, though deerskin

was used on the frontier.

Food abounded: game wandered in and

out of all the settlements, shellfish were

abundant, and the New England coast

fisheries furnished fish; Native American

corn was grown everywhere, and there was

plenty of wheat flour.

The colonies were swept by diseases,

chiefly due to ignorance and uncleanliness:

“ship-fever,” “small pocks,” “yellow fever “;

“break-bone fever,” “fever and ague,” and

other varieties of malaria; and medical

practice was lamentably unskillful.

Though England was a land abounding

in schools and possessed of world-famous

universities, her southern colonies in


America, broken up into separate and

widely distributed plantations, could not

maintain schools. Governor Berkeley

reported for Virginia: “I thank God there

are no free schools nor printing, and I hope

we shall not have these hundred years; for

learning has brought disobedience, and

heresy, and sects in the world, and printing

has divulged them, and libels against the

best government. God keep us from both.”

The New England towns established the

first schools in northeastern America,

though closely followed by the Collegiate

School of the Dutch Reformed Church in

New Amsterdam (1633). The colony of

Massachusetts Bay showed its interest in

education by requiring that every town of

fifty families maintain a school, and every

town of a hundred families a grammar

school (that is, a Latin school); but the

towns too frequently avoided the

responsibility if they could, and no public

education was provided for the girls. In

1689 the Penn Charter School was founded

in Philadelphia.

Three small colleges provided higher

education for the colonies. Harvard

College, named from the Rev. John

Harvard, its earliest private benefactor,

was founded (1636) “to advance learning

and perpetuate it to posterity.” From the

beginning it trained ministers, and also

had as students future men of affairs and

statesmen. William and Mary College was

established in Virginia (1693);

King William III, the colony, and private

subscribers united to give the college a

home in Williamsburg. Yale College was

“first concerted by the ministers” (1700),

and its earliest property was forty volumes

given by the founders for a library. The

college was soon removed from Saybrook

to New Haven, and (1718) received its

name from Elihu Yale, a public-spirited

Englishman who interested himself in the

new institution.

The most notable colonial writers in the

seventeenth century were the discoverers,

explorers, and colonists who wrote

entertaining accounts of their experiences.

John Smith and William Strachey wrote

Boston Newspaper

about Virginia; William Bradford and John

Winthrop each left an admirable historical

account of the colony in which he was

governor and leader.

In the South the chief writer of literary

merit was Colonel William Byrd, who left

in manuscript form a charming book of

travel called History of the Dividing Line.

In the middle colonies, till Benjamin

Franklin came, the only man who can be

called a literary light was William Penn;

but the German Moravians were great

printers and issued the second Bible that


was published within the colonies, the first

being The Holy Bible: Containing the Old

Testament and the New by John Eliot, in

which he translated the Bible into the

Natick dialect of New England’s Algonquin

tribes.

The first newspaper in the colonies, the

Boston News Letter, appeared in 1704; and

the trial of John Peter Zenger in New York

(1732) established the important principle

that a journalist cannot be convicted of

libel for publishing the truth.

Works of fiction were unknown except

when old writers dealt too much in

neighborhood gossip; but there were

several writers of “poor verse.” The Bay

Psalm Book, the first book printed in the

English colonies (1640), was made by a

syndicate of ministers, whose poetic gifts

may be shown by a quotation from the 63d

Psalm:

“Their poyson’s like serpents poison;

they like deaf Aspe, her eare

that stops. Though charmer

wisely channe,

his voice she will not heare.

Within their mouth doe thou their teeth

break out, o God most strong,

doe thou Jehovah, the great teeth

break of the lion’s young.”

The favorite literature for educated men

was theological and controversial. The

most famous writer of this kind was Cotton

Mather, a Boston minister, long the leading

man of New England, who wrote an

enormous and confused folio which he

called Maanalia Christi Americana. The

two most popular books in the colonies

were the New England Primer, which went

through many editions; and Michael

Wigglesworth’s Day of Doom, which was

learned by heart by hundreds of persons —

it is a fearful description of that gruesome

place…

“Where God’s fierce ire kindleth the fire,

and vengeance feeds the flame,

With piles of wood

and brimstone flood,

that none can quench the same.”

Parish Church at Smithfield, VA

Built About 1700

Oldest church still standing in the South - From a view

in the Virginia Historical Society

The Episcopal Church, already long

established in Virginia, was made the

official church – supported by public

taxation – in the Carolinas and in New

York, though aided also by voluntary

contributions; and in 1689 the first “King’s

Chapel” was built in Boston as a place of

Episcopal service. The Congregational

Church was supported by public taxation in

New Hampshire, Massachusetts (including

Maine and Plymouth), and Connecticut. In

Rhode Island, the Jerseys, Pennsylvania,

Maryland, and Delaware there was no state

church.

Side by side with the established

churches lived many other religious sects.

The Baptists were settled chiefly in Rhode

Island; Presbyterians, English or Scotch in


the middle and southern colonies; a few

Jews in Rhode Island, Georgia, and

Pennsylvania; the Dutch Reformed Church

in New York; Lutherans, Moravians,

Mennonites, and other German sects in

Pennsylvania; Catholic Scotch Highlanders

in the Carolinas; English Catholics in

Maryland; Quakers in most of the colonies.

Both in the North and the South many

of the church buildings were handsome

and commodious. In New England the

able-bodied population was required to go

to service, where pews were carefully

assigned according to the social position of

the attendants. In the sermons — two on

Sunday and a third, the “Thursday lecture

during the week” — our forefathers

received their doctrine, though two hours

and a half was thought too long for a

sermon. The Psalms only were sung, lined

out by the minister. Sunday, commonly

called Sabbath, lasted from sundown on

Saturday to sundown on Sunday, and in

strictness was as near a Jewish Sabbath as

the conditions admitted.

During this time, old fears sprang up

that human beings could become “witches”

and could make a personal compact with

the devil which would enable them to

change their shape, to travel on the wings

of the wind, and especially to bring bodily

harm to their enemies. While thousands of

witchcraft executions took place in Europe,

a significant number were also performed

within the colonies.

In 1692 the children of a minister in

Salem, Massachusetts accused a Native

American slave woman, Tituba, of

bewitching them. In a few weeks scores of

the “afflicted” were accusing neighbors of

the foulest crimes and most improbable

orgies. The principal testimony was the

“spectral evidence” — that is, the assertion

of the “afflicted” that the accused people

were sticking pins into them. Witches were

hanged, and one was pressed to death by

heavy weights for refusing to plead either

guilty or not guilty.

To save themselves, many of the so-

called witches accused other people, and so

the number rolled the up till more than

fifty people were so severely harassed that

they confessed to being witches and to

preposterous accounts of flying through

the air on broomsticks, taking part in

“devil’s Sabbaths,” and tormenting their

neighbors.

As accusations of witchcraft got out of

hand, even Lady Mary Phips, wife of

Governor William Phips, was charged. In

response, the governor ordered that

spectral evidence and testimony would no

longer suffice to convict suspects.

Prohibiting further arrests of witches,

Phips released 49 of the 52 of the accused

witches still imprisoned, and later

pardoned the remaining suspected witches.

Executions continued half a century longer

in Europe, though, where thousands of

men and women suffered torture and death

— often by fire — for crimes of witchcraft

which no one could definitively prove.

The basis and support of every colony

was the tillage of the soil, and the most

numerous class was that of the freemen

living on almost self-sustaining farms. The

forest trees furnished building lumber,

ship-timber, and fuel. Corn and other

grain, pork, and beef were common farm

products, as were tobacco in Maryland and

Virginia, and rice and (after 1747) indigo in

South Carolina. Wagons, tools, and even

furniture were made on the spot. Sheep

were raised for their wool, which was


carded, spun, woven, dyed, and made into

clothing on the farm. Clearing new land

required a great deal of human labor. The

usual method was to girdle the trees—

cutting a ring of bark from around the trees

to kill them—and then plant among the

dead timber. Later, people preferred to fell

the trees and roll the logs up together and

burn them. Hence the collection and export

of “potash” and “pearl ash” formed an

important industry.

From the beginning there was a serious

lack of labor. Well-to-do colonists brought

with them hired servants; but a system of

forced white labor began immediately.

Convicts, criminals, “indented” (or

indentured) servants, prisoners in the civil

wars, and children, were sent over as bond

servants. Other thousands of respectable

men and families came over as

“redemptioners,” under agreement with

the shipmaster that he might sell their

services for a term of years to somebody in

America for money to pay their passage.

Both classes were subject to the arbitrary

will of their masters and were often cruelly

treated. Nevertheless, many of them

worked out their terms of service, became

prosperous members of the community,

and founded families.

Skilled laborers might earn two

shillings (fifty cents) a day along with their

board. In the trades, such as harness

making or shoemaking or bricklaying, it

was common to have apprentices, who

were very harshly treated. The average

wage for unskilled laborers was about

thirty cents a day in our specie standard;

and while most provisions were cheap,

imported articles were always dear.

There were slaves in every colony.

Native American slaves were sullen and

revengeful, and rapidly died off in

confinement. African slaves were brought

chiefly from Guinea, on Africa’s West coast,

to the West Indies, and imported thence to

the American mainland. Hard was their

fate — sold for life, transmitting the servile

taint to their children, and if freed, they

remained social outcasts. In most of the

northern colonies slaves were few in

number, but in Rhode Island, on the

Hudson, and from Delaware to Carolina,

they were gathered in large gangs on

plantations.

For a long time masters would not allow

their slaves to be baptized, because they

had scruples against holding Christians in

bondage; and many people held that

slavery was both unchristian and stupid.

Colonel Byrd, a slave owner, wrote of

slaves, “They blow up the pride and ruin

the Industry of our White People.” A

favorite devotional book, Baxter’s

Christian Directory, warned masters that

“to go as Pirates and catch up poor

[Africans] or people of another land, and to

make them slaves, and sell them, is one of

the worst kinds of Thievery in the World.”

That slavery was dangerous was shown by

severe laws against slave offenses and by

slave insurrections in Virginia and in South

Carolina, and a supposed slave plot in New

York in 1741.

The slaveholding planters of the South

were among the richest men in the

colonies. Among them was Colonel William

Fitzhugh, a lawyer, a keen planter and

slave buyer, and a capable business man,

owner of fifty-four thousand acres of land.

He grew flax and hemp, hay and tobacco,

and put his large profits into more land

and slaves. He had a home plantation of a

thousand acres, including a “very good


dwelling house with many rooms in it, four

of the best of them hung & nine of them

plentifully furnished with all things

necessary & convenient, & all houses for

use furnished with brick chimneys, four

good Cellars, a Dairy, Dovecot, Stable,

Barn, Henhouse, Kitchen & all other

conveniences,” together with an orchard,

garden, water gristmill for wheat and corn,

a stock of tobacco and good debts. His

income was estimated at sixty pounds of

tobacco at sixty thousand pounds of

tobacco (about $ 15,000 in money) per

annum, besides the increase of the slaves.

His tobacco he shipped direct to England

from the private wharf of his own

plantation, and he was accustomed to

ordering fine clothing, silver plate, books,

and other English goods.

The richest men in the middle and

northern colonies were the merchants.

Since there were no bankers and little

subdivision of business, the same man or

firm might build ships, own ships, buy

cargoes to export, receive the return

cargoes, and sell the imports over the

counter. One of the most famous of these

merchants was William Phips, who began

life as a poor boy, with one ambition — to

be “owner of a Fair Brick-House in the

Green-Lane of North Boston.” He traded,

gathered property, organized an expedition

to raise the treasure of a sunken Spanish

vessel, got about £300,000 in gold and

silver, was knighted, became governor of

Massachusetts, and got his “fair brick

house.”

The colonists were accustomed to the

sea and got wealth out of ships in three

ways. (1) The splendid forests of New

England, growing close to the water’s edge,

furnished the best shipbuilding materials,

and abounded in tall trees suitable for

masts; hence ships were regularly built to

sell abroad. (2) Hundreds of craft were

employed in the inshore and new found

land fisheries, and in trade from one colony

to another; the New England salt fish

found a profitable market in Europe and in

the West Indies. (3) Other vessels were

employed in trade over sea to England and

elsewhere, at good freights.

A lively and profitable commerce went

on all the time from colony to colony, from

the continent to the West Indies and from

all the colonies to England and other

European countries. The principal exports

were: to the West Indies, clapboards,

hoops, shingles, hay and cattle, flour and

provisions, especially dried fish, and, later,

rum; to England, tobacco, masts, wood

ashes, furs, and, later, pig iron and indigo;

to other European countries, dried fish and

naval stores — pitch, tar, and turpentine.

The imports from England were

manufactures of all kinds — guns and

ammunition, hardware, cutlery, clothing,

furniture, glass, china, silverware, and

tools. Tea, and later coffee and chocolate,

were regular imports, often from Holland.

The ladies would have their

“calamancoes,” or glossy woolens, their

“paduasoys,” or silks, their “oznabrigs,” or

German linen, and the much-prized pins.

For the children were “poppets,” or dolls,

and other toys; for the gentlemen, silks and

velvets, gold lace for their best suits, and

pipes of Madeira wine.

For many years the colonists freely sent

and received cargo in trade with foreign

countries; but the policy of the early

navigation acts was expanded by an act of

Parliament (1672) laying small customs

duties on the trade from one colony to


another. This was the first act of

Parliament for taxing the colonies. In 1596

a more thorough- trade going navigation

act was passed by Parliament and a new

colonial council was created by

King William III under the name of Board

of Trade and Plantations, commonly called

the Lords of Trade, with the duty of

supervising the colonies, instructing the

governors, and executing the navigation

acts.

Under these and later “Acts of Trade,”

the trade of the colonies was restricted: (1)

Trade to and from England had to be in

ships built and owned in England or in the

colonies. (2) Importations had to come

through English ports — that is, through

the hands of English firms. (3) Exports of

“enumerated goods” had to be sent only to

English ports, even if intended ultimately

for some other country; most of the

colonial products were enumerated, but

not masts, timber, or naval stores. (4) For

the protection of English manufactures

colonists were forbidden to make rolled

iron, or to ship certain goods from one

colony to another — for instance, hats.

Though all these restrictions seem harsh

they indirectly gave a distinct advantage to

colonial shipping.

Spain, France, and Holland had even

stricter colonial systems than the English;

but the English colonists, sometimes by

stealth and often with the connivance of

local officials, had a very profitable trade to

the Spanish, French, and Dutch West

Indies, especially in dried fish and lumber;

trade and they brought back sugar, tropical

products, and a good surplus of hard

Spanish dollars. In the same way foreign

vessels often brought European cargoes

into North America. Edward Randolph, the

revenue detective of the English

government, said in 1676: “There is no

notice taken of the acts of navigation ... all

nations having full liberty to come into

their ports and vend their commodities.”

A valuable trade in which the French

competed was with the Native American

tribes of the interior. In time of peace, the

traders circulated through the frontiers

both north and south with their pack

horses loaded with blankets, powder and

ball, guns, red cloth, hatchets, knives,

scissors, kettles, paints, looking-glasses,

tobacco, beads, and “brandy, which the

[Native Americans] value above all other

goods that can be brought them.”

Several dangers hovered over the

colonial seafarer. In time of maritime war,

especially after 1700, the cruisers and

privateers of the enemy picked up many

merchant vessels. On the other hand, the

colonies furnished several fleets “to attack

the French; and their little merchantmen

were easily converted into privateers to

prey on the commerce of the enemy. It was

an exciting kind of gambling, for the

privateer was about as likely to be taken as

to take; but a successful cruise brought

home plenty of captured cargoes for the

owner and prize money for the crew.

Pirates abounded in all the seas, and

especially in the West Indies, where they

had several stations. The methods were

very simple: peaceful merchantmen often

turned pirates with or without the consent

of the master of the ship; the boldest man

was captain until some of his sailors killed

him; ships were impartially plundered, the

crew sometimes allowed to escape, but

passengers were frequently compelled “to

walk the plank.” A pirate ship could live for

many months at sea on its captures.


After all, piracy was a poor barbarous

trade of murder and rapine, leading to a

bad end. In 1718 Colonel Rhett of South

Carolina sailed out and overwhelmed

Captain Bonnet and his force of cutthroats.

In the same year Teach, or Blackbeard, a

ruffian who blackened his face and colored

his beard, was visited without invitation by

two cruisers sent out by Governor

Spotswood of Virginia, which brought

home Teach’s head stuck on a bowsprit.

Governor Fletcher of New York gave

commissions to pirates visiting the city and

sold protection to individual pirates at a

hundred dollars apiece; but his pirate

friend Captain Kidd was at last hanged in

chains in London.

The thing most important to remember

about the English colonists is that down to

about 1700 they looked upon themselves

simply as a body of English people living

across the sea; but that the new conditions

made their life very different from that of

their brethren across the water. Land was

cheap, and therefore there were no hard

and fast distinctions like those in England

between the aristocratic land owner, the

middle-class farmer, and the lower-class

laborer. Food and material for plain

clothing abounded, and therefore there was

no grinding poverty like that of England.

Rude labor was much needed, and

therefore slaves were introduced into the

colonies at the time when slavery died out

in England. Population was scattered, and

the colonists were distant from the

intellectual and literary life of the home

country, and hence their literature was

limited and commonplace.

Commercial life was active and eager;

the colonists were good shipbuilders, bold

sailors, and successful merchants. Down to

1700 the English restrictions on trade were

slight, and after that time they were

evaded. In general, the colonies were

happy, progressive, and prosperous little

communities.


L e s s o n T w o

H i s t o r y O v e r v i e w a n d A s s i g n m e n t s

The Growth of the Colonies

“At the close of the French and Indian War, the thirteen English colonies had assumed such importance as to now rank as the richest of England’s possessions. They had increased rapidly in population, and had already exhibited some distinctive features of their later national life; as is shown in a study of their social life, their occupations, their education, their literature, their attitude on the question of slavery, their political life, and their disposition at all times to assert their rights as free men…” – William M. Davidson

Benjamin Franklin’s Printing Press


Read the article: The Growth of the Colonies, pages 15-25.

Instead of narrating on the articles in this lesson, continue to add to the chart you began in lesson one by gleaning additional facts for each category from today’s reading.

Be sure to visit www.ArtiosHCS.com for additional resources.


Adapted from the book:

A History of the United States by William M. Davidson

The Growth of the Colonies

Development of the Colonies

At the close of the French and Indian

War, the thirteen English colonies had

assumed such importance as to now rank

as the richest of England’s possessions.

They had increased rapidly in population,

and had already exhibited some distinctive

features of their later national life; as is

shown in a study of their social life, their

occupations, their education, their

literature, their attitude on the question of

slavery, their political life, and their

disposition at all times to assert their rights

as free men.

POPULATION

Population in the Colonies

In the early history of the colonies there

was a superstition against numbering the

people, many thinking that diseases in the

form of epidemics would follow the taking

of a census. However, the colonial

governors from time to time made

estimates to the home government which

are believed to be nearly correct. These

estimates follow: First, that of 1701, at the

beginning of Queen Anne’s reign; another

in 1755 at the beginning of the French and

Indian War; and the third in 1775, at the

beginning of the Revolutionary War,

covering in all a period of three-quarters of

a century.

CENSUS ESTIMATES

THE THIRTEEN COLONIES

DATE OF

SETTLEMENT 1701 1775 1775

NEW ENGLAND COLONIES

New Hampshire

Massachusetts

Connecticut

Rhode Island

1623

1665

1635

1636

10,000

70,000

30,000

10,000

34,000

200,000

130,000

40,000

81,000

335,000

201,000

61,000

Total, including 14,000 African Slaves 678,000 678,000

MIDDLE COLONIES:

New York

New Jersey

Pennsylvania

*Delaware

1613

1665

1682

1638

30,000

15,000

20,000

95,000

83,000

83,000

188,000

124,000

302,000

Total, including 32,000 African Slaves 614,000


SOUTHERN COLONIES:

Maryland

Virginia

North Carolina

South Carolina

Georgia

1634

1607

1653

1670

1733

25,000

40,000

5,000

7,000

156,000

280,000

104,000

82,000

6,000

241,000

525,000

275,000

187,000

40,000

Total, including 455,000 African slaves 1,268,000

Total

Total includes this number of African Slaves

262,000

50,000

1,392,000

260,000

2,560,000

501,000

*In this table, the population of Pennsylvania and Delaware are counted together as

Delaware did not have a separate organization until after the Revolution.

Distribution of the Population

The above table shows that one-half of

the whole population of the thirteen

English colonies was in the southern

colonies, while the New England and

middle colonies combined contained the

other half. During the period from 1700 to

1775 the population had increased for each

colony as shown in the table below, while

Georgia, the last of the colonies to be

settled, had increased her population from

1755 to 1775, sevenfold

New Hampshire .................................... eightfold Massachusetts......................................... fivefold Connecticut .......................................... sevenfold Rhode Island ............................................ sixfold New York ................................................. sixfold New Jersey ............................................ eightfold Pennsylvania and Delaware .............. fifteenfold Maryland.................................................. tenfold Virginia ............................................ thirteenfold North Carolina ................................ fifty-fivefold South Carolina .............................. seventeenfold

Thus it will be seen that all the colonies

were growing at a rapid rate. Their total

population at the time of the Revolution

equaled one-fifth that of the mother

country. Virginia stood at the head of the

census, with Massachusetts second.

The settlements in the colonies were

usually located on some bay or arm of the

sea, along the courses of navigable streams,

or in the rich valleys of the hill country.

Often they were scattered far apart, with

but poor means of communication.

The Cities

According to the census of 1900, fully

one-third of the entire population of the

United States were living in cities, as

opposed to one-thirteenth of 1790. A much

smaller proportion lived in cities at the

time of the making of the above census


estimates. The population of the five

principal cities in 1790 was:

New York .................................. 33,131

Philadelphia ............................ 28,522

Boston ..................................... 18,038

Charleston ............................... 16,359

Baltimore ................................. 13,503

At that time there were but thirteen

cities in the colonies with more than five

thousand inhabitants. This tells the story

that the English colonists were largely

engaged in agricultural pursuits. The name

“colonial farmers,” given to the soldiers of

the patriot army of the Revolution, was not

misapplied. In the north the town

constituted the unit of political

organization; in the south, the county.

Towns were the more numerous in the

north. And yet, scattered throughout the

colonies were many thriving villages and

towns, which constituted the business and

social centers in numerous settlements

from New Hampshire to Georgia. In

estimating the population of colonial cities

it was the custom to count the number of

houses and arrive at the total population by

multiplying that number by seven.

New York had become the trade

center—her merchants supplying about

one-sixth of the entire population of the

colonies with goods imported from foreign

countries. Williamsburg, Va., was one of

the most stylish places on the continent;

Charleston, SC., the most festive, and

Annapolis, MD., excelled all others in

elegance. Philadelphia, the largest city in

the colonies, was noted for its regular

streets and splendid sidewalks, and for its

brick and stone residences. This city was

the first to light its streets. New York soon

followed. Boston did not light her streets

until 1773. Each of these cities found it

necessary to establish a night police force

in order to preserve order within its limits.

People not All English

While these colonies are known as the

English colonies, still it must not be

concluded that the entire population was

an English population.

The Welsh had come with the English,

and had formed many thriving settlements

in New England, and also in the middle

colonies. Roger Williams, the founder of

Rhode Island, was a Welshman, and

William Penn made a grant of forty

thousand acres, known as the Welsh

Barony, to a colony from Wales.

The Dutch had early occupied New

York, and had soon established a line of

settlements northward along the course of

the Hudson, thence up the Mohawk Valley,

and southward across New Jersey to the

mouth of the Delaware, where as early as

1655 they had conquered the Swedish

settlements in that region. The Dutch had

also extended their trading posts to the

Connecticut Valley, and up Long Island

Sound as far as Narragansett Bay. When

the English appeared in New York harbor

in 1664, the Dutch yielded to English rule

without a struggle. Absorbed in trade and

indifferent to politics, they soon

transferred their allegiance to the English

king and became loyal citizens of the

colonies in which they continued to reside.

At the time of the Revolution it was

estimated that at least one-half the

population of the state of New York was of

Dutch descent. New Jersey, likewise, had a

large Dutch population. Today many

families of New York are proud to trace


their ancestry to these early Dutch settlers.

Since the day of the publication of

Washington Irving’s “Knickerbocker’s

History of New York,” these Dutch

descendants in New York have been known

as Knickerbockers.

These Hollanders were an industrious

people, active in the development of trade

and commerce, and devoted to agriculture.

Many historians have been bold to trace

the ideas of our free school system,

freedom of worship in matters of religion,

the recording of land deeds by the state,

and the use of the ballot in popular

elections, to the influence and example of

these early Dutch settlers.

Dutch Pamphlet of William Penn

The Swedes – always a liberty-loving

and enterprising people – on the advice of

their king, the great Gustavus Adolphus,

had settled New Sweden (Delaware) in

1638. They rapidly increased in population

until conquered by the Dutch (1655), who

in turn yielded to the English (1664). These

early Swedish settlers belonged to the

farming and merchant class, and, like the

Dutch, had come to America for purposes

of trade. They thrived under Swedish rule,

and so continued under Dutch rule, and

later under the fostering care of William

Penn. The Swedish language was spoken in

the settlements of the Delaware Valley,

even after the Revolution.

Germans, too, flocked to America.

While the Dutch and Swedes came for

purposes of trade, the Germans came on

account of the religious and commercial

wars which were devastating the small

states of Germany and ruining the German

people. William Penn, anxious to secure

this desirable class of colonists for

Pennsylvania, made three visits to the

German states for the purpose of

encouraging the dissatisfied Germans to

settle in his colony. As an immigration

agent, Penn was very successful. It was

estimated by Franklin in 1766 that the

Germans constituted one-third of the

entire population of Pennsylvania.

Germantown, a suburb of Philadelphia,

was planted by the Germans. It is said that

as many as twelve thousand Germans

arrived in a single year. These people

settled west and northwest of Philadelphia.

Their descendants are still known as the

“Pennsylvania Dutch.” The Germans also

settled in large numbers in the vicinity of

Newburg, NY, Maryland, Virginia, the

Carolinas, and Georgia. Like the Dutch,

they were sober and industrious and

indifferent to politics. They were true home

builders and firm lovers of liberty. They

were German Protestants, and in America

they desired nothing so much as to be left

alone. They had an important influence on

the development of manufacturing in the

colonies.

As for the French, persecutions of the

Huguenots (French Protestants) by the

Catholics in France drove many of the

Huguenots to seek homes in the English

colonies. Many of them settled in Virginia,


the Carolinas, Massachusetts, and New

York. The Huguenots were farmers,

merchants, and artisans. The artisan class

of Huguenots greatly encouraged the

development of manufacturing in Boston,

New York, Philadelphia, Charleston, and

other cities. Paul Revere, of Revolutionary

fame, and John Jay, first chief justice of the

United States, were descendants of these

early Huguenot refugees, as was also Peter

Faneuil, who gave to Boston Faneuil Hall –

the “cradle of liberty.”

Faneuil Hall

The Scotch-Irish, the name given in

America to the immigrants from North

Ireland, came in large numbers to America

in the early part of the eighteenth century,

settling in New Hampshire and other

localities in New England, and in New

Jersey. However, the chief Scotch-Irish

settlements were made in western and

southwestern Pennsylvania, from which

locality they pushed southward into the

valley of the Shenandoah in Virginia, and

into the hill country of the Carolinas. The

Scotch-Irish were mainly Presbyterians,

and were an intensely independent and

liberty-loving people. The American Nation

–The English, of course, made up the vast

majority of the population in the thirteen

original colonies, and gradually changed

these foreign communities into English-

speaking peoples. When George III came

into power (1760), a new nation was

already forming out of these various ethnic

elements which within the next quarter of

the century was to take its place among the

nations of the world—to be known

henceforth as the American nation.

Class Distinction

There was an aristocratic feeling of a

certain kind among nearly all the colonies,

but this feeling was strongest in the

southern colonies. In New York, the old

Dutch families and rich English traders

made up the aristocratic class; in

Pennsylvania the Quakers held aloof from

the Germans and the Scotch-Irish; the

Puritan customs of New England made all

classes nearly on a level, although even the

so-called “upper class” were found there.

The most distinct difference, however, was

recognized in the south between the rich

planters and the poorer class of small

landholders.

Washington’s Coat of Arms

This distinction of the class was

recognized in the churches, where

congregation members were seated

according to social rank, and also in the

colleges, where students were enrolled

according to the rank of the parents.


Washington belonged to this aristocratic

class. He had his coat of arms engraved on

his coach and harness—a custom which

prevailed among the “gentlemen” of

Virginia and in other of the southern

colonies, and was not unknown in Boston,

New York, and Philadelphia.

This class distinction decreased with

the years. It was stronger in colonial times

than it is at the present day. In those days,

the terms Mr., Mrs., and Miss were applied

only to ministers, their wives and

daughters, and to persons of rank. The

“common people” were addressed as

“goodman” and “goodwife.” Whatever

social prejudice existed had been brought

over from the old world. Each community

from the beginning boasted of its “leading

families”; this was particularly true in the

south.

Dress

Class distinction was recognized even in

the dress of the colonists. This custom, too,

had been brought over from Europe, and

prevailed throughout the colonies. As the

period of the Revolution approached,

Puritan customs had given way somewhat

to the manners and customs of the

Cavalier. The colonial gentleman of the

period had his morning and his evening

costume, and when he walked on the

streets with his gold-headed cane, he

enveloped himself in a handsome cloak,

which glittered with gold lace. The silver

snuffbox was always a sure sign of his

social position—snuff being generally used

by the aristocratic class in those days.

Homespun goods made up the ordinary

clothing of the middle and poorer classes.

Maidservants wore short gowns of coarse

material, and received but a miserable

pittance for their yearly wages. The

working class, day laborers, farmers, and

mechanics were also attired in clothing of

the coarsest material, with leather breeches

and heavy cowhide boots or shoes—all

home-made. Calfskin shoes were used by

the higher classes. This was the period

when brass buckles and buttons were used

to excess. On Sunday even the coarsest

shoes were adorned with brass buckles,

and the clothing of the aristocracy, as well

as the homespun attire of the other classes,

was profusely decorated with brass or

silver buttons.

Costume of a Puritan Costume of a Cavalier

This was also the day of wigs and

outlandish headgear, as is shown in so

many of the pictures of the time. The

Puritan was no more a “roundhead”—a

term by which he had been known in the

days of Cromwell. The New England

Puritan, like the Cavalier of Virginia, now

wore the most elaborate head dress.

Indeed, it is said that in 1750 nearly

everybody wore wigs—men, women and

children of all classes—except slaves and


convicts; even paupers wore them.

Home Comforts: Food

The wealthier class, both in the cities

and in the country, lived in fine old colonial

mansions, while the log cabins of the early

colonial days still dotted the hills and

valleys of the farming districts at the time

of the Revolution. In the south the slaves

lived apart from their masters, often in the

meanest of huts or shanties.

The kitchen with its wide fireplace was

an important room in the dwellings of all

classes. The term “New England kitchen”

even today calls up pictures of plenty of

room, abundance of provisions, and

delightful home comforts.

The furniture in the homes was

ordinarily of the simplest sort. However,

the homes of the wealthier class in the

south, and indeed in all sections, were

filled with the best of furniture—some of it

imported from Europe, though much of it

home-made and of the style now known as

“colonial.”

New England Kitchen

Stoves were first introduced about

1700, and by the time of the Revolution

had been greatly improved. Franklin

invented a stove known as the Franklin

stove, which was extensively used, though

no dwelling was felt to be complete without

its full number of fireplaces.

Though pewter was in common use and

the rich had silverware, much of the

tableware was still made of wood. About

the year 1700 forks came into general use.

Glass windows and paper-hangings were

first used in aristocratic dwellings about

1750. Potatoes came into general use as

food about 1720. By the time of the

Revolution, tea and coffee had become

popular, tea being used by nearly all

classes. Bread made from corn, wheat or

rye constituted the “staff of life.” As the

land abounded in wild game, much flesh

was eaten.

Washington’s Bed

Habits: Laws and Penalties

Tobacco and liquor were used freely.

Even some of the women used snuff, and

not a few smoked. Drunkenness was

common.

The people as a whole frowned upon all

vicious and evil habits. Church attendance

and private conduct were regulated by law.

The “Blue Laws” of Connecticut were, in

this particular, severe in the extreme.

The whipping post, the pillory, and the

stocks awaited their victims at all times.

Drunkenness, swearing, Sabbath breaking,

pilfering, lying, stubborn disobedience of

children, scolding, law-breaking, running


in debt, and even dressing beyond one’s

station in life were severely punished.

Penalties were frequently out of

proportion to offenses committed.

Punishments were, at times, extremely

cruel, even barbarous—a slave being

burned for the murder of his master, and a

wife for the murder of her husband.

Cutting off an ear and branding on the

forehead were penalties frequently

inflicted.

Out of this stern and rugged life came a

sturdy and a happy people, who were firm

believers in right living and right doing.

And yet, while the conduct of the people

was regulated with reference to the

teachings of the Bible, and while the

standard of morals was high, many

customs were practiced in the colonial

period which would not now be tolerated.

Lotteries, which were later placed under

the ban of law in every state in the Union,

were in that day recognized in all sections

as a legitimate means of raising money for

public purposes—“to build churches, to aid

the deserving poor, to erect lighthouses,

colleges, buildings, and bridges.” Faneuil

Hall, Boston, when destroyed by fire, was

rebuilt by lottery. During the trying days of

the Revolution, when money was scarce, it

was proposed to raise money for the “next

campaign” by lottery.

Pillory and Stocks

Religion

The colonists were a profoundly

religious people. The clergy in nearly all

sections were of a superior class. Those of

New England and of the Carolinas excelled

all others in breadth of learning and

scholarship. The Puritans of New England

as well as the Germans, the Dutch, the

Quakers, and the Scotch-Irish of the other

colonies hated the Established Church of

England. In New York, in Virginia, in

Maryland and in the colonies farther south,

this church had been established. It was

not popular with the masses in New York

because the clergy were bitter in their

opposition to all other forms of church

service. Their attitude provoked

dissensions in Virginia and Maryland as

well. The attempt of the established clergy

to fasten the established church upon the

colonies and to uphold the authority of the

bishops was indignantly resented. “No

Bishops” and “No Established Church”

became cries which were heard down to the

time of the Revolution and had not a little

to do with uniting the colonies against

England at that time.

In some areas, the clergy of the

established church were not even godly

men, “concerning themselves more for

tithes than for souls.” Their reckless and

careless habits caused “as bad as a

Maryland parson” to become a proverb in

the colonies.

The majority of the colonists were

Protestants. At the time of the Revolution it

is said that every Protestant sect then

known was represented in America. There

were Congregationalists, Presbyterians,

Dutch Reformed, Baptists, Episcopalians,

Quakers, Lutherans, and Methodists. The

Catholics were strongest in Maryland. The


religious disputes of that day were very

heated; at times bitter.

Amusements

There were few forms of amusement in

the colonies. Husking bees and quilting

bees were common in all sections and

dancing in some, though the latter was

generally prohibited in New England and

among the Quakers. The theater was not

tolerated, yet traveling museums interested

all the people. The church, or “meeting

house,” was the common meeting place of

all classes and afforded an opportunity for

exchanging gossip and bits of conversation.

Thus the church service in many localities

was apt to be an all-day service, with a

good portion of the time taken up in

visiting. The “town meetings” in the New

England colonies also furnished an

opportunity for relaxation and

entertainment. Even funerals, it is said,

provided a kind of “melancholy

entertainment.” Perhaps at no period in

the history of America were funerals so

unnecessarily expensive as in that early

colonial day—all because they afforded the

people a chance for pomp and show, and at

the same time furnished an occasion for

assembling together. Public executions and

hangings were also thus taken advantage of

by the people. In New York and in the

south, bands of concert singers or strolling

actors made frequent appearances.

The rich planters in the south delighted

in the pursuit of the chase—each keeping a

pack of well-trained hounds. Horse racing

was common in the south. In the rural

districts of all sections, games and

amusements calling for “trial of strength”

were popular. Thus wrestling, running,

jumping, and “throwing the stone”

furnished amusement for large gatherings

of people. The games of “fox and geese,”

and “nine men’s morris” were also very

popular. The male residents in many a

neighborhood amused themselves by

“shooting at the mark,” a practice which

developed superior marksmanship among

the early pioneers. From this rural class

came the sharpshooters of the Revolution.

Stage Coach

Mode of Travel

The usual mode of travel was on foot or

horseback, and by water; though in the

southern colonies the rich planters rode in

a coach and six, accompanied by mounted

servants. Chaises came in with the

Revolution. Travel by land was always a

hardship, since the roads were poor and

ferries and fords not well located. A stage

route was early established between

Providence and Boston, which took two

days for the trip. Later a similar route was

established between New York and

Philadelphia, requiring three days for the

trip. In 1776 this time was reduced to two

days, whereupon the coach making the trip

was called a “flying machine.”

Travel by water was even more tedious

than travel by land. It took six days to go

from New York to Albany on the Hudson

River. Boats sailed only at intervals

between Boston and New York, between

New York and Philadelphia, and between


Philadelphia and Charleston.

Such a thing as comfort in travel was

not known in those days. This kept the vast

majority of people shut up in their own

settlements. When a traveler arrived, he

was the center of interest—he had brought

news from the outside world. The inns or

taverns by the roadside proved, in those

days, poor stopping places for the tired

traveler.

Inn

OCCUPATIONS AND MONEY

Occupations

Agriculture formed the chief industry of

the people, but in all sections farmers and

planters were slow to introduce improved

methods. Through long use the farm land

had become “worn out” in many sections.

Franklin recommended fertilizers, but the

whole question of enriching the soil was

little understood. Rotation of crops was not

even thought of. Farm implements were

crude and far from perfect. The hoe for the

cultivation of his grain, and the flail for the

thrashing of his wheat and rye, constituted

the farmer’s implements.

Sheep and cattle and swine were raised

in abundance, though there was a tendency

on the part of England to discourage the

raising of sheep in the colonies, lest the

colonists engage in the manufacture of

woolen goods. Corn and wheat were the

staple products of the northern colonies.

Tobacco, rice, indigo, and corn were the

chief products in the south, though much

wheat was raised in Maryland and Virginia.

The Germans in Pennsylvania were the

best farmers. Maryland made the best

flour.

Manufacturing was discouraged by

Great Britain. Ship building not being

discouraged, New England became one of

the greatest ship-building countries in the

world, supplying nearly one-third of all the

ships used by England. Not able to pay the

price asked for imported English goods and

wares, the mass of the colonists were

forced to manufacture their own clothing,

hats, paper, farm implements, cutlery, and

household furniture. In almost every home

was a spinning wheel, each household

spinning its yarn and weaving its fabrics by

hand.

Spinning Wheel

Lumbering and the manufacture of

barrel staves and other articles of

commerce were carried on in New

England. The iron mines of Pennsylvania

and Maryland were opened and furnaces

set up as early as 1740. However,

manufactures from iron were early

prohibited by Parliament, though these two

colonies were permitted to ship pigeon ore

to England. The whole policy of the mother

country was to keep the colonies


dependent upon Great Britain by

prohibiting manufacturing. The people on

the coasts of New England were extensively

engaged in fishing.

The colonies traded among themselves,

but England discouraged even this and in

case of some commodities, prohibited

trade altogether. A flourishing commerce

had sprung up between New England and

the West Indies, New England exchanging

her timber, ships, and rum for the sugar

and molasses of the West Indies.

Money

Pine Tree Shilling

In the early history of the colonies,

dried codfish, wampum, firs, bullets, corn,

lumber and even cattle constituted money.

A few of the colonies passed laws making

some of these articles legal tender in

payment of debts and taxes. As early as

1650 the exports of Massachusetts had

brought much gold and silver Spanish coin

into the New England colonies. As a check

on the circulation of this Spanish coin, a

mint was set up at Boston in 1652 to

produce a set of coins for home circulation.

Laws were passed which forced holders of

the Spanish coin to have their money

recoined into New England coin at this

mint. The Boston mint was discontinued in

1688. The money issued by it became

known as the “pine tree currency”—due to

the representation of a pine tree on one

side of the coin. Of course English and

Dutch money early came into use in the

colonies.

Massachusetts issued paper money in

1690, and all the other colonies by 1750

had followed her example. Money values

were measured in English pound, shillings,

and pence up to the time of the Revolution,

when dollars and cents came into general

use. Banks were established in some of the

larger cities; however, the banks of colonial

days were merely banks of issue, or loan

banks. They did not receive deposits.

t h e a r t i o s h o m e c o m p a n i o n s e r i e s ......a south-east view of the city of...

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