t***********************rocument resume ed 334 883 he 024 676 author cuseo, joseph b. title the...

rOCUMENT RESUME

ED 334 883 HE 024 676

AUTHOR Cuseo, Joseph B.

TITLE The Freshman Orientatiun Seminar: A Research-BasedRationale for Its Value, Delivery, and Content. TheFrestman Year Experience. Monograph Series No. 4.

INSTITUTION South Carolina Univ., Columbia. Center for the Study

of the Freshman Year Experience.

PUB DATE 91

NOTE 33p.; For other titles in this series, see HE 024

673-677.

AVAILABLE FROM National Resource Center for The Freshman YearExperience, 1728 College Street, Columbia, SC 29208

($20.00).

PUB TYPE Information Analyses (070) -- Viewpoints(Opinion/Position Papers, Essays, etc.) (120) --

Guides - Non-Classroom Use (055)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage.

DESCRIPTORS Academic Achievement; Adjustment (to Environment);College Freshmen; Coping; *Course Content; DecisionMaking; Guidelines; Higher Education; Research andDevelopment; *School Guidance; *School Orientation;*Seminars; Student College Relationship; Student

Welfare

ABSTRACTThis report provides a conceptual framework for

guiding decisions regarding the administrative delivery and coursecontent of the freshman orientation seminar. The proposed frameworkrelies heavily on empirical evidence generated by college-levelresearch in the areas of student retention, student learning andacademic achievement, and student development. The report proposesand discusses 10 guidelines for course administration and 7 topicsfor course content. It is noted that such guidelines may beespecially relevant today because the alarmingly high rate ofattrition among first-year students makes an effective freshman yearorientation seminar more critically important than ever. Among theguidelines present are: (1) that Institutions should offer afull-semester freshman course, i.e, "student adjustment" or "student

success" course; (2) the orientation course should be conducted as a

cradit-earning course; (3) college faculty should be involved; (4)

small class sizes should be adopted by usirg multiple sessions; and(5) upper-class students should be used as counselors or peermentors. Among the sug4estions for course content are: areasinvolving self-concept and self-esteem; problem solving and decision

making skills development; learning skills and strategies; andinterpersonal relations. Contains 117 references. (GLR)

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Monograph SeriesNumber 4

The Freshman Year

THE FRESHMAN ORIENTATIONSEMINAR: A RESEARCH-BASEDRATIONALE FOR ITS VALUE,DELIVERY, AND CONTENT

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

National Resource Center forThe Freshman Year ExperienceUniversity of South Carolina1991

U.S DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONOffice of Educabonal Research and Imorovemerir

EDUCATIONAL RESCURCES INFORMATIONCENTER (ERIC)

Iti,,This document hes been reproduc i. asreceived from the person or orgnizationonginarmg ,1

P Minor changes have beran made to imprOvereproduction quality

Points of view or opinions Staled .nthis d(ck)men) do not necessarily represent officialOERI position or policy

'PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THISMATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY

h

Carolina

TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES

INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)"

The Freshman OrientationSeminar: A Research-BasedRationale For its Value,Delivery, and Content

A Monograph by Joseph B. Cuseo

DirectorJohn N. Gardner

EditorDorothy S. Fidler

Associate EditorBetsy 0. Barefoot

Editorial AssistantMary J. Hendrix

Graduate AssistantRak tel Few Stokes

The National Resource Center for 'The Freshman Year Experience publishes a quarterly newslet-ter, a bi-annual journal, and a monograph series at the University of South Carolina, 1728College Street, Columbia, SC 29208. Telephone (803) 777-6029. See order form on last page.The Center, a non-profit organization, will use proceeds from the newsletter, journal, andmonograph series to defray publication cost, support research, and disseminate information.

The Freshman Year Experience is a service mark of the University of South Carolina. A license may be granted uponwritten request to use the term The Freshman Year Experience. This license is not transferable without the writtenapproval of the University of South Carolina.

Copyright 1991 by the University of South Carolina. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced orcopied in any form, by any means, without written permission of the University of South Carolina.

The Freshman Seminar: A Research-Based Rationale

Abstract. Student attrition is a significantproblem in American higher education, butmost attrition is voluntary and is heavilyinfluenced by institutional characteristics.Early and intrusive support for students is oneinstitutional characteristic known to enhanceretention; the freshman orientation seminarcan provide this early and intrusive support.An extensive research review indicates thatthe freshman orientation seminar is effectivefor promoting student persistence and )(.a-demic achievement. However, substantialinterinstitutional variation exists in coursecontent and administrative delivery of thefreshman seminar, some of which may reflectabsence of a conceptual framework for guid-ing such decisions. This report attempts toprovide a decision-making frameworkonethat is grounded in empirical research at thecollege leveland proposes ten guidelines forcourse administration and seven topics forcourse content.

Introduction

In American higher eduation, beginningcollege students are more likely to leave theirinitial institution than to stay and completetheir dcgree. For instance, in 1986, approxi-mately 2.8 million students began college forthe first time. An estimated 1.6 million ofthese students will leave their first institutionwithout receiving a degree, and approxi-mately 75% of tiese students who depart fromtheir initial insti'ution will leave higher educa-tion altogetherwithout ever completing adegree program (two-year or four-year). Inshort, about 40 of every 100 college entrantswill leave the higher education system with-out earning any type of college degree. "Overthe four-year sector generally, the total rate offour-year degree completion can be estimnedto be roughly o1%i.e., 39% of all entrantsdepart the higher education system withouttheir four-year degree" (Tinto, 1987, p. 17).

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The attrition rate for certain minority groups iseven more alarming. For example, a 1986Census Bureau report revealed that the collegedropout rate for black and Hispanic studentsis approximately twice that of white students(US. Bureau of Census, 1986), and the dropoutrate for American Indians is estimated to beover 80% (Guzette & Heth, 1983). Otherresearch indicates that only one in sevenblacks and one in ten Hispanics who enroll incollege after high school will achieve seniorstatus in four years (Mingle, 1987). Aftercompleting a recent, comprehensive review ofthe research literature on student diversity inhigher education, Smith (1989) flatly con-cludes, "Retention is a cause for nationalconcern" (p.19).

Given these alarmingly high rates of attrition,it seems short-sighted that recent concernsabout "accountability" and "quality" in highereducation have focused aimost exclusively onstudent-outcomes and value-added assess-ment. Percentage of students retained (i.e.,who persist from entry to graduation) wouldappear 4.1 be an equally valid and more basicindex of institutional quality. Student-out-comes and value-added measures of collegeimpact may become secondary issues if sub-stantial numbers of beginning students are notpresent at graduation to have their "out-comes" measured or to assess how muchvalue their college experience has "added" totheir development.

Research clearly indicates that the freshmanyear is a critical period during which studentsare most likely to withdraw from highereducaticn. At least one half otall studentswho drop out of college will do so duringtheir freshman year (Noel, 1985; Terenzini,1986), and many of these students will leaveduring the first six to eight weeks of theirinitial semester (Blanc, Debuhr, & Martin,1983). After summarizing three years ofcampus-visitation findings and extensivesurvey data sponsored by the Carnegie foun-dation, Boyer (1987) succinctly concludes,


"Students find the transition from (high)school to college haphazard and confusing"(p. 21).

Furtherznore, there is evidence indicating thatinstitutional characteristics have as much ormore impact on college withdrawal than dostudent characteristics. The majority of stu-dents who leave college are not "forced" outbecause of academic deficiencies, personalproblems, or financial difficulties (Noel, 1985);rather, they are mere likely to leave because ofdissatilfying experiences with the institutionthey are attending (Noel, 1985).

Though the intentions and commit-ments with which individuals entercollege matter, what goes on after entrymatters more. It is the daily interactionof the person with other members of thecollege in both the formal and informalacademic and social domains of thecollege and the person's perceptions orevaluation of the character of thoseinteractions that in large measure deter-mine decisions as to staying or leaving.It is in this sense that most departuresare voluntary. Student retention is atleast as much a function of institutionalbehavior as it is of student behavior(Tinto, 1987, pp. 127, 177).

Research on minority students, in particular,indicates that one key institutional characteris-tic -ssociated with minority achievement is theprovision of "advising and support servicesthat do not assume that students easily negoti-ate the collegiate environment" (Richardson,1987, p. 4).

The convergence of these research findingssuggests that (a) institutions should providestudent support intrusively by assertivelydelivering support services to students, ratherthan simply waiting and hoping they will takeadvantage of available institutional support ontheir own; and (b) irtrusive institutionalsupport should be delivered early in order tocombat this disturbingly high rate of freshman

2

attrition in a proactive manner. As Levitz andNoel (1989) contend, "It has been our experi-ence that fostering student success in thefreshman year is the most signficant interven-tion an institution can make in the name ofstudent persistence" (p. 65).

This contention is supported by researchindicating that freshman orientation programseffectively promote student retention byintegrating new students into the collegecommunity (Pascarella, Terenzini, & Wolfe,1986). A large body of evidence provides evenmore impressive research support, indicatingthat the benefits of freshman orientation areenhanced when the program is extended intoa full-semester course for beginning freshmen.Based on a longitudinal study of 3318 studentsat 44 colleges/universities of various types,Forrest (1982) concluded,

Probably the single most importantmove an institution can make to increasestudent persistence to graduation is toensure that students receive the guid-ance they need at the beginning of thejourney thru college to graduation . . . .

This guidance system should begin wellbefore students arrive on campus andshould continue as a formal courseduring the first term on campus (p. 44).

More recently, the University of South Caro-lina has collected data indicating that studentswho have participated in the freshman semi-nar course have exhibited higher sophomoreretention rates than non-participants forfourteen consecutive years (Fidler, 1991).Furthermore, Sf minar participants also aremore likely to persist to graduation (Shanley& Witten, 1990). Similar retention-enhancingeffects of the freshman seminar have beenfound for "high-risk" students who did notmeet regular admission requirements, asfound by Rice (cited in Fidler & Hunter, 1989).

The effects of freshman orientation seminarshave also been studied through researchwhich compares the performance of course

fl


participants with a "matched" control groupof students with similar college-entry charac-teristics (e.g., similar SAT scores, basic-skillsplacement scores). Results of studies byCartledge and Walls; Farr, Jones, andSamrrone; Stupka; Von Frank, Jones, andSamprone (cited in Fidler & Hunter, 1989)using quasi-experimental research designsindicate that course participants have signifi-cantly higher retention rates.

Freshman orientation seminars also have beenfound to produce statistically significanteffects on academic achievement. GPAs ofcourse participants are significantly higherthan those achieved by matched controlgroups of non-participants (Fidler & Hunter,1989; Stupka, 1986; Wilkie & Kuckuck, 1989).Furthermore, research by Potter and McNairy(cited in Fidler & Hunter, 1989) and Fidler(1991) indicates that participation in theseseminars raises the academic performance oflow-achieving students (as identified bybelow-average SAT scores and high schoolrank) relative to that of students with morequalified admission characteristics. Afterreviewing the research on the relationshipbetween academic performance and freshman-seminar participation, Fidler and Hunter(1989) conclude that the findings reported thusfar "suggest that the freshman seminar canhelp the talented student perform betteracademically while at the same thne helpingweaker students survive" (p. 228).

In addition to the educational advantages ofpromoting student retention and academicachievement, there is evidence that freshmanorieatation seminars are cost effective. Rev-enue generated by increases in student reten-tion more than offsetb course expenditures(Ketkar & Bennett, 1989).

In sum, there is now a substantial body ofempirical evidence which supports the valueof the freshman orientation seminar for pro-moting students' persistence to graduationand level of academic achievement, as well asinstitutions' fiscal stability by enhancing

reter tion of enrolled students. Argiiably,thew may be more empirical research sup-porting tha value of the freshman orientationseminar than for any other single courseoffered in higher education, simply becausetraditional courses have never had to docu-ment their value empirically; the mere force oftraclition and departmental territorialityassure their perpetual place in the collegecurriculum.

Though the educational and economic advan-tages of the freshman orientation seminar arewell documented, the content of such a courseand its manner of administrative delivery arequestions that have yet to receive definitiveanswers. A compilation (University 101, 1983-1989) of current freshman seminar coursesreveals wide variation in their content andadministrative delivery across different insti-tutions of higher education. Some of thisvariation may reflect cross-college differencesin educational mission and philosophy and, assuch, reflects the healthy diversity amongAmerican colleges and universities. However,some of this variation may suggest lack ofstandardization and confusion stemming froman inadequate framework for guiding deci-sions regarding course administration andcontent. Critics and stonewallers of the fresh-man seminar are likely to capitalize on suchvariation in order to denigrate the course'svalue and viability. Therefore, freshmanorientation seminar programmers shouldaddress variation that may be related to lackof appropriate standardization or inadequatecourse administration.

3

The primary objective of this report is toprovide a conceptual framework for guidingdecisions regarding (a) the administrativedelivery and (b) cuurse content of the fresh-man orientation seminar. The proposedframework relies heavily on empirical evi-dence generated by college-level research inthe areas of student retention, student learn-ing and academic achievement, and studentdevelopment.

The Freshman Seminar: A Research-Based Radom le

Administrative Delivery of the FreshmanSeminar

Following are ten recommendations f 3radministrative delivery of the freshmanseminar

1. Institutions should offer a full-semester fresh-man seminar course (i.e., a "college adjustment" or"student success" course) for all entering freshmenduring their initial semester on campus. If finan-cial or administrative constraints prohibit itsdelivery to all incoming students, then at leastoffer such a course to students who wouldprofit most from ite.g., high-risk, "specialadmits." California State University - Fresno,one school cited for its exceptionally highminority retention rate, offers a two-unit"College Planning Skills" course for academi-call7 high-risk students. On-site investigationof this program by researchers from theEducational Testing Service (ETS) reveals thatmany students regret that the course is onlyavailable to students experiencing academicdifficulties; they suggest that all studentswould benefit from such a course (Clewell &FicIden, 1986).

Extending freshman orientation into a full-semester course assures sufficient time for in-depth, comprehensive coverage of the range oftopics pertinent to successful college adjust-ment. A second advantage of extendingorientation into a full-semester course is that itallows fol timely discussion of college adjust-ment issues as the need arises during thecritical first semester. For example, studentsencounter information on note-taking andlearning strategies at the time these skills arebeing required of them in their other courses.DL ssion of test-taking strategies could bespecifically scheduled just prior to midtermexams. These strategies could then be appliedby students during midterms, and follow-upfeedback on their applicability could begenerated after students receive their midtermtest results. Thus, a learning cycle consistingof (a) teaching/modeling, (b) practice, and (c)feedback can be achieved when student-

4

success skills are taught in the context of afull-semester course. Such a three-step,learning cycle or "loop" is consistent with theeducational principle of "praxis" (reflection-action-feedback), advocated by adult learningtheorists (Kolb, 1984) and supported by anextensive body of research at the precollegelevel (Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986).

Timely discussion of adOstment problems andsolution strategies as they are being experi-enced should increase the likelihood thatstudents will perceive the immediate rel-evance/usefulness of orientation information,thereby increasing their motivation to attendto and master it. Uperaft and Farnsworth(1984) point out that, "Too often, orientationplanners overwhelm students with anythingand everything they might need to know.Orientation planners must not only decide onwhat entering students need to 'mow butwhen they need to knew it" (p. 30).

Pennington, Zvonkovic, and Wilson (1989)provide empirical evidence suggesting theneed to provide students with support duringthe semester. They also found that students'satisfaction with college changes at differenttimes in the semesterwith an appreciable"dip" in satisfaction occurring at midterm.Because there is a significant relationshipbetween student satisfaction and studentretention (Noel, 1985; Terenzini, 1986), provid-ing students with ongoing seminar supportduring the first semester may serve to reducemid-semester attrition. In effect, offering afull-length course to first-year students con-verts the freshman "orientation" program(serving only a preparatory function) into anongoing freshman "adjustment" program thatis responsive to current student needs.

A third advantage of delivering orientation asa fuil-semester course is that it providescontinuity of interaction between the orienta-tion instructor and his/her students. Thiscontinuous contact enables the instructor tomonitor the progress of freshman studentsclosely during their critical first semester, and


allows sufficient time for "bonding" (develop-ment of social-emotional ties) between stu-dents and teacher. Significant peer bondingmay also develop among class membersbecause they experience regular contact withfellow freshmen and have a structured, ongo-ing forum for discussion of adjustment prob-lems that arise during the often stressful firstsemester. Boyer (1987) succinctly captures thegist of this recommendation, "After the flushof newness fades, all new students soondiscover that there are term papers to bewritten, course requirements to be met, andconflicts between the academic and social lifeon campus. Students need to talk about thesetensions" (p. 51). The vital need for provisionof such continuous social support to freshmenduring their first semester is underscored byresearch indicating that more than half of alldropouts leave college during their freshmanyear (Terenzini, 1986), many of whom departduring their first six to eight weeks on campus(Blanc, et al., 1983).

2. Institutions should conduct the freshmanorientation seminar as a credit-earning course inwhich students receive grades affecting their GPA.This should generate a more serious attitudetoward the freshman orientation experienceby elevating it to the same level of academiclegitimacy and creditability as any othercollege-level course; plus, the incentive of acourse grade should serve to increase studentmotivation to become actively engaged withthe seminar material. As Gordon and Grites(1984) categorically state, "Credit for thecourse? The answer is a simple 'yes.' Withoutsuch official recognition by the institution,neither the students nor the instructor capmaintain the levels of motivation and interestnecessary for the course to achieve its in-tended outcomes" (p. 317). Additionally,Gardner (1989) argues that, "Academic creditis a necessity fw the ultimate institutionaliza-tion of these courses, because credit is thegrand legitimizer in American higher educa-tion" (p. 245).

Evaluating students' seminar performance inan academically rigorous fashion and holdingthem responsible for their learning shouldincrease their degree of involvement in theprogram and decrease the risk of their perceiv-ing orientation as an auxiliary "light-weight"frill. This is supported by student-surveyresearch which indicates that students preferto take freshman orientation seminars forcredit (Carney Sr Weber, 1987).

Another advantage of conducting freshmanorientation as a credit-earning course is thatstudents may be less prone to perceive theinformation as remedial. For instance, expos-ing students to information on learning strate-gies as part of a bonafide, credit-earningcourse may be perceived as less stigmatizingthan having individual students report to thelearning center for the purpose of "repairing"their academic deficiencies. Taylor (1987)reviewed research on the effectiveness ofacademic support services and concluded,"Remedial education is working primarilybecause it assumes that underprepared stu-dents are not dumb, they simply lack certainskills. If they can be taught these skills in anon-stigmatized environment, the researchindicates they can compete with their fellowclassmates and go on to complete their de-grees" (p. 83). Clewell and Ficklen (1986)examined programs and policies at fourpredominantly white institutions which hadunusually high minority retention rates, andfound that one characteristk of these foursuccessful institutions was "non-stigmatiza-tion of participants" receiving academicsupport. The freshman seminar may be onemechanism for delivering academic support insuch a non-stigmatizing fashion.

3. Institutions should consider offering thefreshman orientation seminar as a general educa-tion requirement. This recommendation isoffered with the realization that it may raisestrong political opposition on campus. How-ever, if such opposition can be overcome oravoided, making course participation a re-quirement for graduation (rather than an

5

optional "elective") would guarantee that allstudents would reap the course's benefits.The political feasibility of implementing thisrecommendation is supported by recentsurvey data, which reveal that over 20% ofinstitutions with student enrollments under5,000 now offer a mandatory credit-earningorientation course (Strumpf & Brown, 1990).

Research has confirmed the commonly heldsuspicion that students who most need assis-tance are often the least likely to seek it out ontheir own (Friedlander, 1990). This is anespecially unfortunate phenomenon, sincestudies indicate that participation in student-support programs results in higher levels ofstudent retention and achievement (Kunk,Kulik, & Schwalb, 1983). Thus, to be effectivein promoting retention, freshman orientation,like any other student-support program,should be delivered intrusively, rather thanoffered passively.

The pasqive offering of student Forvices,programs, and opportunities is notenough, in most cases, to meet the needsof students. An active, dynamic ap-proach is necessary to reach the studentswho might otherwise leave without everbothering to consult a college facultymember or official, without finding theanswers that could have made a differ-ence (Beal & Noel, 1980, p. 94).

Such an intrusive approach may be moreimportant today than at any other time in thehistory of American higher education becauseof the rising number of commuter studentsattending college (Astin, Cr & Koen, 1987).Commuter students now account for anestimated 69% of ali entering freshmen (Rice,1989). These students are known spend lesstime on campus (Terenzini, 1986), thus render-ing them even less likely to seek out campussupport services and to become activelyinvolved in campus life. The amount of timestudents spend on campus may be a key factorcontributing to the higher attrition rates ofcommuter students as compared to residential


students (Astin, 1975, 1977; Chickering, 1974).Intrusive delivery of student-support servicesin the form of a required orientation coursemight be one way to deliver supportiveinformation and services to this growingnumber of commuter students and, in sodoing, proniote their retention.

4. Institutions should integrate the freshmanorientation seminar with their pre-college orienta-tion program. There are distinct advantagesassociated with an orientation program thatstudents experience prior to the start ofclasses. The pre-college orientation programcan (a) serve as a vehicle for providing aspecial welcome for new studentsa timeduring which all the institution's attention andresources are directed exclusively at thefreshman; (b) capitalize on students' initialexcitement and enthusiasm about startingcollege, thereby creating a favorable firstimpression of the institution and a positive"anticipatory set" for the upcoming experi-ence; and (c) allow new student . an opportu-nity to bond informally with each other andwith other members of the college community(e.g., faculty, student-development profession-als, student !paders, or peer mentors). There isevidence that Lwolvement in precollege,freshman-orienta:ion programs increases thelevel of students' sodal integration which, inturn, correlabn posiVvely with sophomore-year reenrollmen (Pascarella et al., 1986).

6

Unfortunately, these benefits of freshmanorientation may never be experienced bymany students because attendance and in-volvement in such pre-college programs oftenhave been optional. However, if the freshmanseminar were extended to include the pre-college program as its initial component (thusmaking it an integral part of a required credit-earning course), then student attendance andlevel of involvement In the orientation pro-gram could be enhanced.

5. Institutions should offer multiple sections ofthe freshman orientation seminar to insure smallclass size. In order for students to discuss

The Freshman Seminar " Research-Based Rationale

comfortably the sensitive issues likely to arisein an orientation course (e.g., student adjust-ment problems or student dissatisfaction withcertain college procedures) and to foster thedevelopment of dose student-teacher andstudent-student bonding, class size should besmall enough to allow for such intimacy todevelop. The University of South Carolinalimits its seminar class size to 20-25 studentsby offering over sixty sections of the course(Jewler, 1989).

Hopkins and Hahn (cited in Fidler & Hunter,.1989) provide empirical support for the aca-dei rex advantages c! offering the freshmanseminar in small classes. They found thatstudents who enroll in small seminar sectionsachieve higher first-semester GPAs thanstudents who enroll in targer sections.

It may be worthwhile to explore the possibilityof offering individual course sections that aredesigned especially to meet the unique needsof student subpopulations (e.g., special sec-tions for returning adult students, commuters,transfers, student athletes, hmors students, orstudents with the same majo.). Gordon (1989)articulates the advantages of offering specialsections for students with the same major.

There are significant advantagesorganizing freshman seminars byacademic program area: specializedacademic information, familiarity withfaculty in that e. ea, career exploration,an-i an opportunity to confirm an initialcareer choice. For example, a thoroughintroduction to business or the profes-sion of engineering can be conveyed(Gordon, 1989, p. 196).

5. Institutions should involve college faculty inthe freshman orientation seminar. Boyer (1987)contends that the following "key question"must be asked when assessing the effective-ness of an institution's freshman-orientationprogram, "Is tl.e orientatior program activelysupported by the faculty?" (p. 288). If pos-sible, have the colleges best teaching and

student-oriented faculty serve as instructorsfor different sections of the course. (If thiscannot be achieved, at least have such facultyserve as occasional guest lecturers and/ordiscussion leaders.) After comprehensivelyreviewing twenty-five years of retentionresearch, Pantages and Creedon (1978) con-cluded that one potentially potent approachfor reducing student attrition is increasedfaculty-student interaction during the fresh-man year, including greater faculty involve-ment in the orientation program.

The importance of student-faculty contact andfront-loading of outstanding teachers andadvisors are two often cited recommendationsin the retention literature (National Institute ofEducation, 1984; Noel, Levitz, & Associates,1985). Moore, Peterson, and Wirag (1984)provide empirical evidence supporting thisrecommendation and also found that facultyinvolvement in orientation programs haspositive effects on students' academic devel-opment. Tammi (cited in Fidler & Hunter,1989) also found that participants in a fresh-man seminar report significantly more infor-mal contacts with faculty than do nonpartici-pants.

Faculty involvement in the freshman seminarwould seem to be an effective way to imple-ment the dual advantages of student-facultycontact and front-loading simultaneously.Inv olvement of faculty in freshman orientationshould also serve to increase their sensitivityto the significant p Tromal adjustments whichadolescents (and returning adult students)must make upon entering college and mayenhance the student advising skills of faculty.Furthermore, faculty involvement in orienta-tion would improve the program's credibilityand elevate the significance of student supportand student retention to the level of a college-wide concern, rather than limiting it to an"extracurricular" job performed exclusively bystudent affairs professionals.

7. Institutions should use the freshman orienta-t;on seminar as a mechanism for exposing

7

beginning students to key support-service profes-sionals. These would include the director ofcounseling services, director of learningassistance center, director of the health center,peer counselors, and off-campus communityprofessionals (perhaps as part of a generalorientation to the surrounding local commu-nity). Tinto (1987) contends that

One of the keys to effective orientationprograms, indeed to effective retentionprograms, generally. . . Jis] that they gobeyond the provision of information per seto the establishinent of early contacts fornew students, nut ol. with other mem-bers of their entering class but also withother students, faculty, and staff of theinstitution. Effective orientation programsserve as a linchpin about which advertisingof institutional services are provided in anintegrated and systematic manner (pp.146-147).

Bringing key student support professionals tofreshman orientation classes would be aneffective strategy for intrusively and person-ally introducing them to students; individualstudents may then be more likely to seek theirservices on subsequent occasions. Tinto (1987)argues that

Orientation programs frequently fail toprovide information in a form whichleads new students to establish personalcontacts with the individuals and officeswhich are responsible for providingadvising and counseling services and/orwho can provide the types of informationnew students require (p. 146).

Empirical support for this argument i? pro-vided by research of Cartledge and Walls,Kramer and White, Potter and McNairy (citedin Fidler & Hunter, 1989) indicating thatfreshman seminar participants know moreabout student services and use them moreoften (Wilkie & Kuckuck, 1989), especially ifstudent-service professionals make cies.;presentations (Fidler, 1991). Moreover, the


importance of these findings for studentretention is underscored by research indicat-ing that students who do utilize campusresources are more likely to persist to gradua-tion (Churchill & Iwai, 1981).

One strategy to increase the rlltelihood thatstudents will contact support professionalsand use their services is to structure requiredclass activities or course assignments such asthe following:

+ class "field trips" to key student-support offices on campus;

+ personal interviews conducted bystudents with support professionals;

stuient reports or a class presentationon the variety of services/resources oncampus;

.4 student rrk Itings with their advisors todiscus: !cng-term plans for an aca-demic major and career.

Requiring compleuon of such assignments isan effective intrusive strategy for guaranteeingthat students come in contact with supportservices. It represents yet another advantageof conducting freshman orientation as a credit-eaming corrse, one in which such aszign-melts ran be justified as w:....irse requirementsand student effort can be recognized withcollege credit and a course grade.

An even more intrusive approach to ensureregular contact between students and theiracademic advisor is to have the courseinstructor's advisees enroll in his/her section.Concordia College has successfully imple-mented this procedure by conducting a fresh-man seminar, required of all ineuming fresh-men, in which faculty teach the coune andadvise only stv dents in the:r own coursesection (Concordia College, Wisconsin, 1989).

8 12

8. Institutions should use the freshman urienta-Hon seminar as a mechanism for gatheringimportant entry data on the freshman class.Comprehensive student assessment at entrywould be useful for (a) academic advisementby providing information collected on studentinterests, attitudes, and aptitudes being usedto facilitate academic-program and cat eerplanning; and (b) institutional research byproviding information gathered on enteringstudent characteristics to be used for subse-quent retention research and student-out-comes or value-added assessment.

Such systematic, comprehensive assessment ofstudents at entry is a strategy that is recom-mended often for promoting student develop-ment and institutional effectiveness (Adelman,1986, Jacobi, Astin, & Ayala, 1987). But acommon roadblock to its implementation isfinding enough time and getting enoughstudents to do it. The freshman seminar couldfunction as an effective vehicle for overcomingeach of these obstacles because it allows thetime needed for such comprehensive assess-ment (since it is a full-semester course withnumerous "contact" hours), and it houses asubstantial number of entering studentsparticularly if the course is required for allfreshmen. Furthermore, including entrytesting as an early component of the freshmanseminar may aLso serve to heighten studentinterest and effort in the assessment processbecause it becomes an in-class activity associ-ated with a credit-earning course.

9. Institutions should involve upper-classstudents in the freshman orientation seminar aspeer counselors or peer mentors. Moore et al.(1984) point out that, with tiaditional-agedstudents,

The combination of being on their ownfor the first time, and being especiallysubject to the influence of their peerscannot be forgotten in planning orienta-tion programs . . . Programs shouldcontain special topics to meet theseneeds and should capitalize on peer

9


group support and influence to rein-force whatever learning is planned(p. 41).

The use of peers as caraprofessional teachersin the classroom has the following advantages:

+ peers may elicit involvement of fresh-man students more effectively becaurethey are not perceived as intimidatingauthority figures;

+ the peer teachers' involvement (andretention) at the college will be en-hanced because of increased contactwith a faculty member;

+ peer teachers can be expected to de-velop higher-level cognitive skills as aresult of the teaching experience(Whitman, 1988);

+ peer teachers are a very cost-effectiveform of student support.

Incentives for recruiting peer teachers for thefreshman seminar could be provided in theform of academic credit (e.g., under the rubricof peer leadership) or official recognition on astudent-activity or co-curricular transcript.

10. If possthle, institutions should involve parentsin the freshman orientation seminar. Parents canplay a key role in either supporting or sabo-taging their adolescent's college adjustment byhow they handle their child's move away fromhome and independent living and by howthey support or interfere with theiradolescent's decisions regarding choice of amajor and career.

Orientation programs and servicesshould help the families of enteringstudents understand what their sons,daughters, or spouses are about toexperience [and] the academic andpersonal adjustments entering studentsmust make; more importantly, they needto know how support, advice, and

1 3

encouragement can make a difference inthe success of their loved ones (Upt-raft& Farnsworth, 1984, pp. 28-29).

Family support for entering -minority studentsmay be especially critical bemuse they areoften first-generation college stildents.Wright, Butler, Switzer, and Masters (1988)point out that, "The pressure of being the firstmay be increased if other family memberswere not able to attend college because ofracial bias or limited economic restwrces.Entering minority students do not come tocollege alone; the entire family enrolls vicari-ously" (p. 56).

Uperaft, Peterson, and Moore (cited in Fidler& Hunter, 1989) report research which indi-cates that students who maintain compatiblerelationships with their families after enteringcollege are more likely to succeed. Empiricalevidence also has been gathered which sug-gests that parent orientation programs areeffective in increasing parental awareness ofkey adjustments facing freshmen (Holland &Gillingham, 1980), as well as increasing paren-tal knowledge of student resources and rap-port with student-support professionals(Cooper & Robinson, 1987). Such benefits ofparent orientation have also been found tohave a long-term effect which persists up to atleast six months after program attendance(Cello, 1973).

Ideally, parents might be brought to campusfor a seminar/workshop to discuss thesecollege-related issues with their adolescentsand the orientation instructor (e.g., on a'Parents' Day" or 'Parents' Weekend").During this visit, parents could also be ex-posed to key student-support professionals oncampus so that they become more aware ofthe full range of support services available totheir son or daughter. The active involvementof parents in the program could be solicitedvia question-and-answer sessions or role playssimulating common freshman-year adjust-ments.

10


Such a parents' day or weekend would notonly serve as good public relations for thecollege, but would also serve the more altruis-tic and retention-fnhancing purpose of famil-iarizing the parent with institutional supportservices. Therefore, if their own adolescent isexperiencing a particular college-adjustmentproblem, the parents would have the knowl-edge needed to refer and encourage their sonor daughter to use the relevant campus sup-port service.

Ii it is not feasible to bring parents to campusfor such a workshop, another option would heto have the freshman seminar instructordevelop an assignment which would requirestudents to discuss college adjustment issueswith their parents. For example, studentscould interview their parents regarding theirexpectations of the college experience, wheretheir expectations originated (e.g., personalexperiences, media, word-of-mouth exchangeswith other parents), as well as their hopes andconcerns about what will happen to their sonor daughter in college. Information concern-ing campus support services could be commu-nicated to parents via a simple assignment,such as requiring the student to give theirparents a "matching" test. Such a test wouldrequire the parent to match a list of commonfreshman adjustment problems with thecollege's student support service designed toaddress that particular problem. Studentscould score the test and provide their parentswith an answer key that they could keep forfuture reference. Harmon and Rhatigan (1990)developed an orientation course for parents.

If none of these intrusive strategies for activelyinvolving parents in the freshman seminar areviable for the institution, then, at the veryleast, special orientation materials could bedeveloped specifically for parents and mailedto them during the first semester, or prior totheir adolescent's initial registration. Forexample, the University of Maine publishes anewsletter, "Family Focus," which is sentthree times a year to the families of freshmanstudents (Stnunpf & Brown, 1990).

14

Course Content For the Freshman Seminar

Th .. range of possible topics that could bediscussed under the rubric, "freshman semi-nar," is almost limitless, while the amount ofclass time available for topic coverage is quitelimited, particularly if the course is offered forless than three units of academic credit. Onecriterion for guiding decisions on whether aparticular concept should be addressed is thedegree to which that concept has been associ-ated empirically with such positive studentoutcomes as student retention and studentachievement. As Uperaft, Finney, and Gar-land (1984) argue, "Without such a frame-work, orientation becomes a potpourri ofunrelated and ineffective activities that willhave little inquence on the lives of enteringstudents" (p. 22).

Using empirical evidence as the key decision-making criterion, the following seven conceptsare recommended as top-priority topics forinclusion in the freshman orientation seminar.

1. The Meaning, Value, and Expectations of aLiberal Arts Education. Under this topic, thefollowing issues are recommended:

+ clarifying student expectations andresponsibilities with respect to thecollege experience,

+ highlighting the key differences be-tween high school and college,

+ generating enthusiasm for highereducation and suggesting strategiesfor getting the most out of the collegeexperience,

+ promoting understanding of collegepolicies/procedures and increasingstudent knowledge of campus re-sources,

+ clarifying the goals and purposes ofliberal learning and general educa-tion,


articulating how the liberal arts andgeneral education courses are valu-able for both personal and profes-sional success in today's world.

Research conducted by Pace (1980) lendsempirical support for including the aboverecommendations in the content of freshmanorientation seminars. He conducted a compre-hensive review of the research literature oncollege stu 'lents' persistence and reported thatstudents ;vim come to college with unrealisticexpectations of what the experience entails aremore likely to have adjustment problems andto withdraw. Apprising new students of therealities and demands of college life may be aneffective proactive strategy for minimizing thediscrepancy between what students expectand what they get. However, this realitycheck has to be done in a way that does notintimidate tx 'tighten students.

11

Staff working with new, incomingstudents should be cognizant of theanxiety-laden time period inherent in thefirst few weeks of the semester. If a'scare tactic' approach were undertakenduring orientation, the result could bedirectly opposite the designed goalsome students might feel so threatenedthat they may decide to go home.Rather, a 'gentle but firm' approach tothe issue of the student's relationship tothe institution should be taken duringthe orientation process (Strumpf &Brown, 1990, p. 3).

Other research indicates that students fre-quently are confused about what liberaleducation is, and why general educationcourses are necessary (e.g., "Why must I takephilosophy if I'm a business major?"). Astin(1975) found that two of the most frequentreasons reported for dropping out of collegewere "boredom with courses" and "dissatis-faction with requirements or regulations." Heconcluded, "These findings suggest that theacademic programs of many undergraduateinstitutions fail to capture the interest of


substantial numbers of students, includingsome of the highest achievers" (p. 17).

Early discussion of the meaning and value ofliberal education in the freshman seminarcould serve to undergird students' under-standing and appreciation of the generaleducation requirements they will soon en-counter. Pertinent to this contention is DavidAusubel's research on advance organizers:preparatory material presented prior to learn-ing v 'lich is at a higher level of familiarity andgenerality (inclusiveness) than more specific,detailed information that follows (Ausubel,1968). For example, if students are about tostudy Buddhism, they are presented with ageneral overview of the Buddhist roligionbefore they are exposed to any specific, de-tailed information on this topic. Ausubel hasfound that presentation of such advanceorganizers results in greater comprehension,retention, and transfer of specific informationthat follows (Ausubel & Youseff, 1963). Ineffect, the advance organizer provides acognitive foundation or schema into whichmore detailed information can be meaning-fully subsumed.

In higher education, the curricular sequencedoes not provide beginning college studentswith any advance organizer for the viotpourriof individual general education com6es theywill encounter. Research indicates that thevast majority of general education programsconsist of iseries of discipline-specific coursesthat fulfill distribution requirements (Zemsky,1989). Typically, there is no preparatoryexperience that provides a meaningful frame-work for appreciating the critical differences,similarities, and connections among thevariety of disciplines comprising the liberalarts and general education curriculum. Thefreshman seminar could fill this gap in thecollege curriculum, providing an advanceorganizer to help students comprehend andappreciate the formidable number of indi-vidual, general education courses they willencounter during their early years in college.In addition, such meaningful discussion in the

fresiunan seminar about interrelationshipsamong the disciplines in the liberal arts mayprovide some integration and coherence to thegeneral education curriculum, which recentnational reports indicate is sorely lacking(Boyer, 1987; National Endowment for theHumanities, 1984; National Institute of Educa-tion, 1984).

Beginning students also need to havct unfamil-iar higher education jargon decoded for themso they can begin to understand the languageof higher learning. They need to have thevalues/advantages of general education fortheir personal and professional developmentexplicitly articulated for them (rather thanassuming or hoping they will discover themby their own devices via forced exposure todistribution reqvirements). 0 n the basis of hisextensive research and consulting experiencein the area of student retention, Noel (1985)concluded,

12

As the bottom line, we find that stu-dents re-enroll when they have an excit-ing, substantive learning and personalgrowth experience that they can relate totheir future development and success.We need to be more specific in interpret-ing for our students and potential stu-dents how the outcomes of education,the competencies they will develop withus, will be useful in adult roles beyondthe classroom (p. 20).

This need for specific articulation of the valueof higher learning is especially urgent for first-generation college students, a disproportionalpercentage of whom may be minorities. AERichardson (1989) points out,

Many minority students grow up inbarrios and ghettos or on reservations,where higher education is not an ac-cepted way of becoming an adult. Theymust overcome not only inadequatepreparation, but also their own doubtsabout the value of a college degree(p. A 48).

The Freshman Seminar: A Research-Bed Rationale

Furthermore, confusion about higher educa-tion jargon and the need for general educationrequirements may also extend to the parentsof college students, especially parents of first-generation college students. This again sug-gests that some form of "parent orientation"would be a valuable component of the fresh-man seminar, during which parents couldreceive information and discuss issues sucl- as:the meaning and value of liberal learning; therationale for general education requirements;and the relationship between general educa-tion, majors, and careers.

The beginning college student often receivesthe heaviest dose of required general educa-tion courses, and failure to perceive the rel-evance of such courses may be one factorcontributing to the present high rate of fresh-man attrition. Astin (1975) found that "dissat-isfaction with requirements" is a frequentlyreported reason for dropping out. Otherresearch indicates that "perceived irrelevance"of the college experience is a key reasonstudents decide to leave college. Noel (1985)strongly suggests that d systematic, well-articulated discussion of the meaning andvalue of general education could enhancefreshman retention. As Levitz and Noel (1989)state, "Improved retention rates are the by-product of efforts to provide freshmen with asubstantive and motivating college experi-ence" (p. 81). Introductory general educationcourses taken during the freshman year notonly introduce students to different academirsubjects, but they also introduce students tohigher education. As such, these courses havethe potential for creating powerful, long-lasting first impressions of the college experi-ence. "In these formative experiences, [stu-dents] learn what it is to be a student, what isrequired to get by, what it means to acquire aneducation, and whether college is nothingmore than acquiring job certification" (Spear,1984, pp. 6-7).

Another relevant topic for discussion underthe rubric of the "meaning, value, and expec-tations of general education" would be

William Perry's research on the cognitivedevelopment of college students (Perry, 1970).His finding that beginning freshmen tend toperceive multiplicity of viewpoints as confu-sion and truth as absolute (and known byauthorities) is diametrically opposed to thegoals of liberal educationnamely, to "liber-ate" students from single-minded dependenceon authorities and uncritical acceptance oftheir ideas. Early discussion of this epistemo-logical discrepancy between how freshmentend to think and how college faculty wantthem to think, might serve to short circuitsome of the confusion, frustration, and cyni-cism that Perry found among first-semesterstudents (e.g., feelings that college instructors"hide the correct answer," "talk11 over theplace,"and that academic success involves"figuring out" what professon want and"giving them" what they want). The freshmanseminar may be an effective mechanism tordiscussion of these common cognitive frustra-tions before they have any negative impact onstudents' academic performance or retention.Brown (1989) artfully expressed the need forsuch a proactive approach to rectify earlymisconceptions in student cognition:

Left to theii own devices freshmen usetrial and error to learn how to play theacademic critical thinking game. This isanalogous to learning how to drive a carwithout an instructor. The task may belearned eventually, but the process willbe time consuming and,sloppy withmany accidents and perhaps somefatalities along the way (p.85).

2. Self-Concept and Self-Esteem. Empiricalevidence gathered on college students cor-roborates what teachers and counselors havelong contendedthat a positive self-concept isassociated with higher levels of academicachievement (Gadzella $r Williamson, 1984).High self-esteem has also been found tocorrelate with more effective study habits(Gadzella, Ginther, & Williamson, 1986), morediligent self-management (Thomas & Rohwer,1987), lower levels of procrastination

17

(Solomon & Roth! 'inn, 1984), and increasinggrades from freshman to senior year(Willingham, 1985). After reviewing theresearch literature on the relationship betweenstudying and academic achievement at ele-mentary, secondary, and postsecondary levelsof education, Thomas and Rohwer (1987)conclude, "Overall, students' ratings of theirself-concept of academic ability were found tobe the best predictor of achievement at allgrade levels" (p. 383). All these findinEs lendsupport to Maslow's (1954) classic "needhierarchy" concept (i e., self-esteem is a morebasic need than achievement and self-actual-ization, and as such, self-esteem must be metbefore these higher-level needs can be real-ized).

Maintaining a positive self-concept and aca-demic self-confidence is especially critical forcollege freshmen. The reason for this is thatstudents' grades tend to be lowest during theirfirst year in higher education, then tend toimprove during subsequent years (Willing-ham, 1985; Wilson & 1985). If thefreshman student reacts to early mistakes andless-than-satisfactory beginning grades withnegative self-talk and "catastrophizing"thoughts (e.g., "I knew college was not forme." "I don't belong here." "I don't havewhat it takes."), these reactions could result ina loss of self-esteem and early attrition.

Research suggests that we can influencestudents' self-perceptions and expectations ofsuccess. For example, Wilson and Linville(1985) provided intervention assistance forfirst-year college students who performed at alevel below average during their ini dal semes-ter and who were anxious about their poorperformance. These students received infor-mation that their poor performance could bechanged and that freshman grades are oftenlower than those obtained in future years ofcollege. They were also exposed to upper-classmen who reported that their gradesimproved after their first semester. Thosefreshmen who participated in this experienceevinced higher GPAs and lower attrition rates


relative to a control group of freshmen whohad similar first semester difficulties but didnot pardcipate in this intervention program.

Such findings suggest that the topic of self-concept/self-esteem should be vigorouslyaddressed during the freshman seminar andthat the following subtopics be discussed:

+ the importance of self-esteem foracademic and personal success;

+ strategies for maintaining andenhancing self-esteem;

+ strategies for reducing negative self-talk, "catastrophizing" thoughts, andfear of failure.

3. Problem Solving and Decision Making:Selection of a College Major and a Future Career.Under this topic, the following issues shouldbe addressed:

+ factors to consider when selectingmajor, minor, and elective courses;

+ the relationship between collegemajcrs and professional careers;

+ impo.tance of one's career for per-sonal identity and self-esteem;

+ elements comprising a "good" careerchoice;

+ strategies for improving the qunlity ofcareer choice and employment pros-pects after graduation.

The importance of this topic is underscored byresearch indicating that three of every fourfreshmen are uncertain or tentative about theircareer choice (Tilley & Titley, 1980). Wellover half of all students who enter collegewith a declared major actually change theirmind at least once before they graduate(Foote, 1980; Gordon, 1984b), and only onesenior out of three will major in the same field

14 1

they preferred as a freshman (Willingham,1985). Yet, paradoxically, only about 14% ofcollege freshmen estimate they will changetheir initial major or career choice ("Fact File,"1989). Uperaft et al. (1984) note that much ofthis confusion may be due to the fact that,"Students may have been pushed into careersby their families, while others have picked onejust to relieve their anxiety about not having acareer choice. Still others may have pickedpopular or lucrative careers, knowing nothingof what they're really like or what it takes toprepare for them" (p. 18). Astin's (1975)research indicates that indecision about majorand career goals is a significant factor associ-ated with student attrition.

Astin's fhtding is supported by more recentresearch on the retention of minority studentsby Richardson (1989), who conducted on-siteinvestigations of predominantly white institu-tions with impressive minority graduationrates. He found that one common elementpresent in all these institutions was earlyprovision of "career guidance to translatenonspecific educational goals into programs ofstudy where course work and desired out-comes are dearly linked" (p. A48).

The need to introduce career information andguidance as part of a freshman orientationseminar is reinforced by survey findingswhich indicate that 75% of college students areworried about their job prospects after college,yet only 29% seek advice from the college'scareer-counseling office (Carnegie Foundationfor the Advancement of Teaching, 1986).Forrest. (1982) reports evidence that extensivecoverage of wreer exploration is one compo-nent of freshman-orientation programs foundto be effective in promoting higher levels ofstudent retention and achievement. Otherresearch indicates that even a one-time, careerexploration/clarification intervention, con-ducted early in the college experience, has apositive impact on the vocational identity of"undecided" students relative to a matchedcontrol group of students who do not receivethis intervention (Buescher, Johnson, Lucas,


& Hughey, 1989). The advantages of includ-ing such a career decision-making interventionwithin the context of a freshman orientationcourse is summarized seffecr7ely by Gordon(1984a) as follows:

15

A partiralarly effective vehicle forhelping undecided students with the'nformation-gathering step that isc:itical to educational planning is thefmshman orientation or seminar course.Self-assessment activities may be accom-pIshed in class and processed immedi-

dy. By giving academic credit for thecla ss, the institution shows support andemphasizes the importance of educa-tional planning and decision making(pp. 138-139).

4. Goal Setting and Motivation. Under thistopic, the following issues should be ad-dressed:

+ setting realistic long-term and short-term goals;

+ distinguishing between intrinsic andextrinsic motivationfor example,pursuing a major and career for reasonsof personal interest or fulfillmentrather than expected monetary gain orprestige;

+ distinguishing between internal andexternal locus of controlfor ex-ample, choosing a major and careerthat reflects a personal decisionrather than a parental decision;

+ strategies for maintaining and im-proving motivationfor example,developing peer support networks.

The importance of motivation and effort forcollege success has always been a conceptuallycompellmg argument; and, more recently,research evidence has made this argumentempirically compelling as well. For instance,Astin (1975) found that students' level of


aspiration is one of the best predictors ofpersistence to graduation; this finding a \soholds true for minority students (Astin, 1982).Lenning; Beal, and Sauer (1980) also fotmdthat students' motivation and commitment togoals are correlated. positively with persistenceto graduation, and this correlation is strong forboth men and women (Anderson, 1988). Inaddition, Willingham (1985) reports that "poorsense of direction" is one of the most fre-quently cited reasons identified by students asa factor detracting them from experiencing amore successful and satisfying college career.Pace (1980) concluded from his review of theresearch that, "Quality of [student) effort is themost influential single variable in accountingfor students' attainment. . . . The conclusion isthis: What counts most is not who vou are orwhere you are but what you do" (p. 16). Thisis a key message to convey to students early intheir college experience, and the freshmanseminar course is an ideal context in which todeliver it.

5. Izarning Skills and Strategies: 12arning Howto Learn. Pantages and Creedon (1978) re-viewed 25 years of retention research andconclude that there is a strong correlationbetween low freshman grades and attrition.Other research has revealed that academicconcerns are the number-one ranked source ofstress reported by college students (Beard,Elmore, St Lange, 1982; Mullinix, Fadden,Broch, & Gould, 1980). "Ask entering studentswhat they fear most about going to college,and they will probably say 'flunking our"(Uraft et al., 1984, p. 14). Mere recently,Astin et al. (1987) found that today's freshmenare less likely to rate themselves "aboveaverage" in academic ability than freshmen ofany other year since 1966. Guskey (1988)reports that, 'Reviews of studies on studentattrition again emphasize that the academicvariable having the strongest influence onstudents' decisions to withdraw or persist istheir academic performance in the very firstsemester they arc enrolled in a college oruniversity, particularly as reflected in first-semester grades" (p. 69).

16

These findings point to the value ot a thor-ough discussion of learning skills and strate-gies in the freshman orientation seminar.Under this topic the following issues shouldbe addressed:

+ strategies for lecture comprehensionand note-takingfor example, sitting"front and center," troubleshootingnote-taking "gaps" with a friendimmediately after class. Beard E t al.,(1982), found note-taking to becollege students' number-one rankedsource of academic difficulty.

+ strategies for improving readingccmprehension;

+ study strategiesfor emmple, valueof "distributed" study sessions,strategies for effectively organizingto-be-studied information, self-monitoring strategies for assessingcomprehension of st rdied material;

+ memory improvement strategiessuch as mnemonic devices;

+ learning stylesfor example, differ-ence between deep and shallowinformation processing styles;

+ test-taking strategiesfor example,becoming "test wise," reducin testanxiety;

+ library research strategiesfor ex-ample, distinguishing betweenprimary and secondary sources ofinformation, conducting computer-assisted literature searches, utilizingeffective skimming strategies;

+ strategies for writing term papersand reports--for example, defininghnd avoiding plagiarism, demon-strating critical thinking in writtenwork, and appreciating the impor-tance of writing a first draft with subse-quent revisions.

4.4

Freshmen often report that college requiressubstantially more demanding academic skillsthan those utilized in high schoolmoreemphasis on the lecture method of instructionand copious note-taking; more emphasis ontesting, especially multiple-choice tests; andheavier amounts of reading, writing, andlibrary research (Cuseo, 1987). Researchconducted by Thomas and Rohwer (1987) isconsistent with these anecdotal reports. Theyfound a significant difference between theacademic demands of secondary educationand postsecondary education, with collegedemanding mnre integration (A informationand requiring a qualitative shift in informationprocessing. The emphasis in college movesaway from factual recall and rote memory,toward more emphasis on selective and self-generated study activities. Mellon (1986)conducted a study of beginning college stu-dents in freshman composition courses andfound that roughly 80% of these students wereexperiencing some form of "library anxiety."They reported feeling "scared," "helpless,""confused," or "lost" when attempting to dolibrary research. Furthermore, many of thesesame freshmen aLso reported feeling ashamedto ask for assistance because they thoughttheir peers were much more knowledgeablethan they; and by asking questions of peers orprofessionals, their "peculiar" ignorancewould be revealed.

Research provides empirical support for theeffectiveness ot academic support programs(Kulik, et al., 1983). They conducted a meta-analysis of a large number of studies andfound that students who participate in study-skill improvement programs display higherlevels of academic achievement and higherretention rates when compared to students 9fsimilar ability who do not participate in suchprograms. Further support for the effective-ness of academic-skill development programsis provided by the New Jersey Department ofHigher Education. State higher educationofficials initiated a program in which allincoming freshmen in the state's public col-leges and universities were administered


basic-skills tests; students who performedpoorly on such tests were enrolled in skill-development classes.

Follow-up research indicates that studentsparticipating in such classes had levels ofpersistence and academic achievement equiva-lent to a control group of students who did notparticipate in the special academic supportprogram because of higher entering basic-skills scores (New Jersey Basic Skills Council,1986). This local finding was corroborated bya large-scale, meta-analysis of 562 studiesdesigned to investigate the effects of study-and test-taking skill programs. This compre-hensive analysis reveals that student partici-pants in such programs manifest less testanxiety, improved study performance, andhigher GPAs compared to matched controlgroups of non-participants (Hembree, 1988).

Such support is critical, especially for minoritystudents, because a disproportionate numberof those who enter higher education areidentified as academically "high risk" or"withdrawal prone." For instance, over two-thirds of all black freshmen and one-half ofHispanic freshmen enter the California statesystem with a waiver on regular admissionscriteria. The five-year graduation rate forblack freshmen who enter by waiver is 7%,and for Hispanic freshmen, the rate is 4%(Richardson, Simmons, & de los Santos, 1987).These retention statistics suggest that compre-hensive and intrusive academic support forminority students (as could be accomplishedin a special section of the freshman seminar) iscritical for reducing their exceedingly highrate of attrition.

17

Research conducted by McKeachie, Pintrich,and Lin (1985) highlights the value of offeringacademic-skills support in the form of a credit-earning course. They found that a three-unit"Learning to Learn" course dealing with suchconcepts as attention, memory, motivationalstrategies, and test-taking strategies resultedin higher subsequent GPAs for course partici-pants as compared to a control group of

21


students who did not take the course. Thecoune was especially beneficial to the aca-demic performance of anxious students.

These researchers note that one element of thecourse that contributed to its positive impactwas discussion of the underlying rationale asto why the presented learning strategies wereeffective, as opposed to just offering them in"cookbook" form.

The University of Oregon's Special Admis-sions Retention Program provides empiricalsupport for the value of offering credit-earn-ing, learning skills courses specifically for at-risk minority students% This program hasreceived national attention for the beneficialimpact it has on minority retention. TheUnivesity of Oregon admits a percentage ofminority freshmen who do not meet admis-sions requirements each year; these studentsare then provided support through a "firstyear curriculum" designed to increase theiracademic skills Results indicate that studentswho participate in the academic supportcourse of study have exceptionally highretention rates (Colorado State Higher Educa-tion Executive Officers, 1987).

Grambling University, an historically blackinstitution, reports findings that reinforce thevalue of including coverage of standardizedtest-taking strategies as part of the academicskills course. A test-taking skills programoffered to teacher education students resultedin a substantial improvement in their stan-dardized test scores; for example, the pass ratefor their first-time test takers of the NationalTeacher Examination (NTE) was 80%. Thisfigure was markedly higher than the nationalaverage for minorities (O'Brien, 1987).

Based on an extensive review of successfulprograms for first-year adult students,Copland (1989) reports that "some programcomponents contribute significantly to thesmooth reentry of adults and subsequentretention . . . . The two most important ingre-dients are orientation programs geared to

18

adults and study-skills courses and seminars"(p. 314). Inclusion of a substantive "learningand academic-skill strategies" unit within awell-developed freshman seminar might be aneffective strategy for simultaneously imple-menting these two key elements of successfuladult reentry programs.

The convergence of all these research findingsstrongly suggests that provision of support inthe area of le.ning skills is an essential com-ponent of an effective freshman orientationseminar. In addition to this coverage oflearning skills, the topic of learning stylescould also be introduced. After recentlyreviewing the learning styles literature and itsimplications for college instruction, Claxtonand Murrell (1987) suggest that, "Inventoriesof learning styles .. . can be used to help makecollege students aware of their own prefer-ences and strengths. Attention should also begiven to helping them develop strategies forsucceeding in courses taught in ways that areincongruent with their primary learningabilities" (p. vi). Other research indicates thatutilizatkm of certain learning styles stronglycorrelates with academic success in college.For example, "deep processors," students whosystematically organize main ideas and theirinterrelationships, earn signficantly highergiz..ies than "shallow processors," studentswho process information at "face value"without attempting to elaborate on it or relateit to already-known concepts (Miller, Alway,0: McKinley, 1987).

Moreover, there is evidence that such effectivelearning sty! s can be taught in collegecourses. For instance, Biggs and Rihn (1984)taught a college course in which students wereinstructed on how to use deep processingstudy strategies. Results indicate that studentswho are taught these strategies display signifi-cant achievement gains and higher academicmotivation. Weinstein and Underwood (1985)also taught elaboration strategies to studentsin a university-level course and found thatsuch students exhibit significant increases inthe use of effective learning strategies,

0 )

improved reading comprehension, highergrades in subsequent courses, and lower levelsof academic anxiety.

Such findings suggest that the retention andacademic success of freshmen should beenhanced by early exposure to effectivelearning styles. These strategies could beadopted early in the college student's career,before less effective approaches becomehabitual. Faculty should not asnme that newstudents will eventually discover affectiveapproaches simply through hard work andrandom, trial-and-error experience. Thomasand Rohwer (1987), folkiwing their review ofthe research literature on the relationshipbetween studying and academic achievement,conclude:

The present results cast doubt on thecurrently popular position that academicachievement can be elevated simply anddirectly by increasing the time studentsare required to spend on homeworkInstead, :t appears that achievementdepends on the kinds of study activitiesstudents deploy during this time and thecongruence between ;hese activities andthe in trLctional demands and supportsof their ,ourses (p. 385).

6. Self-Management: Managing Time andStress. Under this topic, the following issuesshould be addressed:

+ increasing awareAess by students ofhow they spend personal time andhow this reflects individual prioritiesand values;

+ self-disciplinefor example, strate-gies for developing good work habits,breaking bad habits, and increasingconcentration;

+ strategies for improving time man-agement and organizationforexample, list making, setting taskpriorities;

The Freshman Seminar: A Research-Bnixl Rationale

+ strategies for overcoming procrastin-ationfor example. dividing largetasks into smaller, more manageablesubtasks;

+ identifying sources of college stressand effective coping strategies,gaining control of irrational anxiety-provoking thoughts.

Research indicates that a higher percentage ofstudents report experiencing stress-relatedproblems during their freshman year thanduring the remaining three years of college,and a higher proportion of freshmen reportseeking psychological help for stress-relatedproblems than upperclassmen (Houston,1971). Research conducted by Mullinix et al.(1980) indicates that time-management prob-lems represent one significant source of stressfor college students, and these difficulties arenot just peculiar to low-achieving students.Even honors students report significant stresswith respect to time-management issues(Stephens & Eison, 1986-1987).

Anecdotal reports from freshmen often indi-cate that one of the major adjustments theyexperience while making the transition fromhigh school to higher education is dealingwith free time (Cuseo, 1987). Compoundingthis temporal freedom is the personal freedomthey suddenly embrace, as there is less intensesupervision by authority figures. Teachersoften do not take course attendance or checkup on students to see if they did their home-work, and there are no parents to imposehouse rules or curfews. This "free-at-last"feeling of independence from res'ictive highschool and parental policies, which Gardner(1987) suggests may be perceived by somestudents as akin to "release from a minimal-security prison," may be abused to the point ofacademic irresponsibility. Such newly en-countered freedoms and accompanyingresponsibilities represent a significant lifeadjustment for college freshmen. Thus, sup-port in the areas of time-management and self-discipline is a valuable component of aneffective freshman orientation seminar.

19 23

Research conducted by Astin (1975) involvingover 300 institutions and over 1,000 studentsprovides empirical documentation for thisargument. Astin discovered that specificstudent self-report items which are signifi-cantly correlated with college persistenceinclude "turned in assigned work ol) time"and "did my homework at the same timeevery day." Items strongly associated withdropping out include "had trouble concentrat-ing on assignments" and "studied with theradio or record player on." Also, Roueche andRoueche (1982) conducted an intensive, three-year study of community colleges in Texasand conclude, "StudInts have unrealisticexpectations about their ability to accommo-date work and school commitments" (p. 35).In a more recent study of first-term freshmenwho earned lower-than-average grades duringtheir initial semester on campus, more than40% report that they feel their poor academicperformance was due to "inability to concen-trate, lack of personal discipline, over-empha-sis on extracurricular activities, and unrealisticidea(s) of the amount of study required" (Hart& Keller, 1980, p. 530).

Taken torther, the results of these studiessuggest that early and. intrusive support forstudents in the areas of time management andself discipline are valuable for promoting theircollege adjustment and persistence 'o gradua-tion. Empirical support for this suggestion isprovided by Potter and McNairy, (cited inFidler & Hunter, 1989) who found that stu-dents who participate in a freshman seminarcourse score significantly higher on a measureof self-discipline relative to a matched controlgroup of nonparticipants. Rie (cited in Fidler& Hunter, 1989) also found that freshmanseminar participants report more significantgains in a survey of study habits compared toa matched control group.

The importance of time management skills forstudent persistence and achievement may beespecially critical for the burgeoning numbersof commuter and adult students. Researchsuggests that for such nontraditional students


demands placed on their time by work andfamily responsibilities play a significant role intheir retention and achievement (Dean &Metzner, 1985). Greenfeig and Goldberg(1984) argue that orientation is an essentialmechanism for providing institutional supportin this area because, "A returning adult who isalready a wife, mother, ;.--4-nd communityvolunteer adds unfamiliar pressures, dead-lines, and tensions to an already full schedule.Orientation must help returning adults de-velop skills for coping with these tensions andhelp them realize the opportunities gainedfrom combining college with employment andfamily roles" (p. 82).

Early institutional support in the area of time-management, intrusively delivered via aspecial section of the freshman seminar, mayfacilitate the ability of nontraditional studentsto deal with the stress of this "role overload"and increase the likelihood they will persist tograduation.

7. Interpersonal Reictions. Under this topic,the following issues should be addressed:

20

+ verbal and nonverbal communicationskills;

+ active and empathic listening skills;

+ dealing with interpersonal conflictand angerfor example, handlingroommate disagreements, "fair-fighting" techniques;

+ assertivenessfor example, strategiesfor approaching faculty, takingadvantage of institutional resources,becoming actively involved in cam-pus and community life;

+ overcoming shyness;

+ friendship formation and intimacy;

+ interracial and cross-cultural relationsfor example, techniques for

1 4


impA oving interracial/cross-culturalcommunication and understanding,strategies for reducing ethnocentrism,prejudice, and discrimination.

In addition to academic adjustments, studentsmust make significant social adjustmentsduring the first year of college, such as livingaway from home for the first time, beingseparated from family and hometown friends,fitting in within a new social network, asser-tively resisting new forms of peer pressure,and adjusting to life with a new roommate.Gardner, 1987, has noted that Wiper educa-tion is the only American institution otherthan prison and the military that "forces"individuals (freshmen) to live with totalstrangers!

Research indicates that college students report"interpersonal relations" to be a major sourceof stress (Beard, et al., 1982). The ability torstablish close college friendships also playsan important role in students' educationalsuccess (Billson & Terry,1982), especially ifsuch friendships are established during thefirst month on campus (Simpson, Baker, &Mellinger, 1980). The importance of socialfactors in college retention is documented byfindings showing that students who are moresocially integrated or involved in college lifeand feel they are part of the campus commu-nity are more likely to persist to graduation(Tinto, 1987). For instance, retention rates aresignificantly higher for students who live oncampus, who are members of campus fraterni-ties/sororities, and who are involved activelyin extracurricular campus activities (Terenzini,1986).

Findings reported by Astin (1977) indicate thateven after students' pre-enrollment character-istics, college environmental factors, andstudent-involvement variables are controlled,persisting stud znts have larger increases in thearea of interpersonal self-esteeilt relative todropouts. This finding holds true for males,females, and students of all ability levels.Astin also found that, regardless of the institu-

21

tion, students' confidence in their interper-sonal skills leads to more out-of-class contactwith faculty, which other research indicates isan especially potent correlate of students'college satisfaction, retention, and achieve-ment (Tascarella, 1980; Tintc, 1985).

The relevance of social adjustment and inter-personal-skills support may be especiallycritical for the college success of minoritystudents.

Tomorrow's minority students mustsee themselves empowered to demandquality services and to take full advan-tage of colleges' vast academic andsupport services. Retention programswill have to provide innovative ways totrain or teach students such empower-ment skills as perseverance, self-confi-dence, assertiveness, stress management,bilingual and cross-cultural communica-tion skills, to name a few. Empoweringminorities with these necessary life skillsis a new responsibility of tomorrow'sretention se:vices to which we mustrespond with enthusiasm and renewedenergy (Wright, et al., 1988, p. 126).

Research on minority students supports thiscontention; findings indicate that adjustmentto a predominantly white college environmentis a difficult task (Centra, 1980) and that suchadjustment difficulties contribute significantlyto the minority attrition rate (Suen, 1983). Inhis synthesis of research on retention, Tinto(1987) concludes,

The limited evidence we have regardingprograms for disadvantaged studentssuggests their persistence dependsgreatly on academic support and,among disadvantaged minority stu-dents, also on the character of theirsocial participation in the communitiesof the institution (p. 160).

Taken as a whole, research on student reten-tion indicates that institutional support in the

J

areas of interpersonal skills building andsocial adjustment can have great potential forenhancing the retention of college students, ingeneral, and minority students, in particular.Incorporating such support as an integralcomponent of a freshman orientation seminarwould ensure that it is delivered early and.intrusively.

Conclusion

The purpose of this report is to provide well-grounded, research-based guidelines fordeciding on the administrative delivery andcourse content of ihe freshman orientationseminar. Such guiAelines may be especiallyrelevant today because there is now a growingawareness of the importance of the freshmanyear experience and the value of a freshmanseminar course. Increasing numbers of insti-tutions are directing resources tu the freshmanyear (El-Khawas, 198?), and the number ofinstitutions offering full-semester orientationcourses is rapidly expanding (Uperaft &Gardner, 1989). Over 40% of the institutionsresponding to the National Orientation Direc-tors' Association (NODA) data bank reportoffering orientation courses for freshmen(Strumpf & Brown, 1990).

This surge of institutional support for thefreshman has not been accompanied by acommensurate increase of institutional sup-port for the beginning transfer student. Infact, a recent review of the literature revealedthat orientation for transfer students is stillwoefully inadequate (Tinto, 1987). This is aparticularly sobering finding in light of otherresearch indicating that (a) roughly 47% of allour nation's freshmen are enrolled in publictwo-year colleges (American Council onEducation, 1989), (b) the attrition rate oftransfer students approximates that of fredi-men who begin their college experience at afour-year institution (Garcia, 1987), and (e)institutional transfers are loss likely to com-plete their '.our-year degree than persisterswith simqar characteristics who entered th ainstitution as freshmen (Astin, 1975).

Tne Freshman Seminar: A Resear-h-Based Rationale

The substantial atbstion rate of transfer stu-dents strongly suggests that they needextensive, comprehensive orientation programas much as freshmen do. Transfer studentsare new to the institution just as freshmen are,and they may also experience a unique set oftransitional adjustments. Astin (1975) articu-lates the major type of adjustment dilemmalikely to be encountered by transfer students:

One obvious problem is that studentswho enroll after the freshman year incollegiate institutions with a tradition ofyearly classes beginning as freshmenand continuing through graduation are,in effect, interlopers on existing studentculture. The difficulties of socializationand adjustment for the transfer studentare apparent and institutiors that accepttransfer students should develop specialprograms to fadlitate their smoothtransition (p. 154).

Now may be the time to extend the benefits ofthe orientation seminar to the beginningtransfer student by offering a transfer-studentseminar for students entering four-year insti-tutions at midstream. An excellent illustrationof this strategy is a program which has beendeveloped by South Mountain CommunityCollege in Phoenix. This two-year collegecollaborates with its major receiver institution,Arizora State University, to offer a universityorientation program which includes a three-credit course jointly designed by faculty atboth institutions (Donovan & Schaier-Peleg,1988). In this fashion, the transfer-stadentseminar no'. only serves to facilitate the adjust-ment and retention of students in transition, itserves as a mechanism for promoting muchneeded partnership between two-year andfour-year institutions as well.

Such intersegmental partnerships and trans-fer-transition programs may be especiallyeffective for promoting the persistence ofblack and Hispanic students because theseminority students are disproportionatelyrepresented among the community-college

22 Q u


student population (U.S. Department ofEducation, 1986-87); thus, minority studentsmay represent a significant percentage c: ournation's potential transfer students. If four-year colleges and universities begin to providecomprehensive, intrusively delivered transfer-student seminars (as they have freshmanseminars), we may witness general improve-ment in the college persistence and achieve-ment of minority students who have beenhistorically rnderrepresented as collegegraduates.

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28


Abovt the Author

Joseph B. Cuseo is an Associate Professor ofPsychology at Marymount College in RanchoPalos Verdes, California. He also serves asDirector of the Freshman Seminar Programand Coordinator of Faculty Development. Heholds masters and doctoral degrees in experi-mental and educational psychology from theUniversity of Iowa.

On the Marymount campus, Dr. Cuseo isdirectly involved in assisting faculty whoteach the freshman seminar with coursecontent and instructional delivery. His facultydevelopment activities focus on the develop-ment of programs for both new and veteranfaculty members. Dr. Cuseo's present schol-arly interests and professional activitiesinclude writing and consulting in the areas ofstudent retention and the development ofpartnerships between faculty and studentaffairs professionals.

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