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Table of Contents

1. PROFESSOR JOANNA MASINGILA’S PAST AND PRESENT PROJECTS

-By Kamina Penina , Ochanji Moses, Sore Inviolata, Ndethiu Sophie, and Waswa Ann

1-5

2. ROLE OF FIRST FAMILY IN COUNTY GOVERNANCE: REFLECTIONS AND UNANSWERED QUESTIONS

-By Otenyo, Eric

6-9

3. IN KENYA; EN ROUTE TO AMERICA -THE PROMISED LAND: SOUTH SUDANESE REFUGEES AND DISCRETION IN

POLICY IMPLEMENTATION

–By Otenyo, Eric E. and Wanga –Odhiambo Godriver

10-14

4. WHY CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND CRIME STUDIES ARE LONG OVERDUE IN TWENTY-FIRST-CENTURY EDUCATIONAL

REFORM IN AFRICAN INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER LEARNING

-By Jospeter M. Mbuba, PhD

15-18

5. WOMEN IN SPORT IN KENYA: LEADERSHIP STYLES AND PRACTICE

-By M’mbaha, Janet Musimbi

19-24

6. DEVOLVING THE LANGUAGE RESOURCE IN KENYA: A STUDY OF PUBLIC PERCEPTIONS

-By Mose, Peter Nyakundi

25-28

7. EFFECTS OF SOCIAL MEDIA USE BY PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION ON COMMUNITY MOBILIZATION AND SECURITY

ENHANCEMENT IN NAKURU COUNTY, KENYA

-By Tagi, A. Kipkoech, Kiruthu Felix & Dr. Mbataru Patrick

29-34

8. WHY AM I DOING THIS? AN EXPLORATORY STUDY OF WHETHER STUDENTS’ CONCEPTUAL KNOWLEDGE INFORMS

THEIR PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE IN MATHEMATICS

-By Wambua, Mitchelle M.

35-38

9. DEATHS FROM CONSUMPTION OF CONTAMINATED MAIZE IN EASTERN PROVINCE, KENYA.-

-By Wangia, Ruth Nabwire

39-42

Kamina et al|KESSA Conference Proceedings 2017 | 1-5 http://www.kessa.org

1

PROFESSOR JOANNA MASINGILA’S PAST AND PRESENT PROJECTS

Penina Kamina1, Moses Ochanji2, Inviolata Sore3, Sophie Ndethiu4, and Ann Waswa5

Abstract

In this article we discuss some of the various projects that Professor Joanna Masingila has conducted and their influence. These

projects for example span universities, schools, churches and hospitals. Through her leadership in several projects, numerous

African learning institutions, societies, scholars and students plus their families have been positively impact, especially Kenya.

Similarly, Americans and the world broadly have benefited.

Keywords: Prof. Joana Masingila, Collaboration, Kenyatta University, Syracuse University

Introduction

Prof Joanna Masingila is a mathematics educator, a

Meredith Professor for teaching excellence and is currently

the Dean of Education at Syracuse University (SU). Prof

Masingila as she says, wears many hats. The amazing

wonder is how well they all fit her head: a wife, a mother,

a friend, a Christian, an educator, a researcher, a leader and

truly a global citizen. Due to opportunities available to her

at an early age, she has grown to have great value for the

global community. Her love story with Kenya started

when she met Adamson Masingila during her early college

days as a student in the United States. They later got

married in the early 80s and she visited Kenya for the first

time in 1984 and in 1989 she spent 7 months at Kenyatta

University (KU) as a Fulbright Scholar. During this

Fulbright visit, she was in the company of husband and

children. This visit provided a great opportunity in that

many relationships were formed with both students and

faculty at KU and especially those at the Department of

Educational Communication and Technology (Comm-

Tech). Thus begun her annual trips back and forth between

KU and SU.

These alliances have not only weathered the times, they

are the foundation of many opportunities for both the

students and their teachers. In the year 2000, a formal

collaboration and linkage opportunity with Kenyatta and

Syracuse University was signed. This was renewed in

2006 and also in 2014. The memorandum of

understanding allows a wide range of collaboration and

synergistic activities to be conducted. Each writer herein

has been involved in at least one of these projects and will

share some experiences: a) research grants on technology,

b) Kamanzi Village, c) teaching and research resources, d)

Masingila’s airlift: assistantship opportunities galore

[email protected] SUNY Oneonta NY 2 [email protected] California State University, San Marcos CA 3 [email protected] Bristol Schools MA 4 Kenyatta University, Kenya 5 [email protected] Syracuse University NY

Research Grants on Technology

In 2011, Comm-Tech department -KU in collaboration

with SU - School of Education, successfully worn a grant

of $1,212,000 funded by United States Agency for

International Development, through the Higher Education

for Development (USAID/HED) for university partnership

where Prof Joanna Masingila and Prof. Agnes Gathumbi of

KU were the principal investigators. Several activities

have been conducted under this project whose key foci

were quality teacher preparation, workshops on active

learning, technology integration in teaching, multi-media

case studies, and technology support for visually impaired

students in KU as well as in secondary and primary

schools in Kenya.

Scholar exchanges were part of the partnership that saw 11

KU researchers spend 2 months at SU and 9 Syracuse

researchers also spend time at KU. Findings from the co-

authored research findings were published in 6-10 journal

articles. Education technology material was procured for

the Comm-Tech department—a laptop for each of the 26

staff members, an interactive white board which was the

first one at KU, smart TV, printers, photocopiers, ipads,

LCDs. In addition assistive technology for visually

impaired students of Kenyatta University and training in

their use was provided. Also visually impaired students in

secondary and primary schools in Kenya were

beneficiaries of the technology.

Assistive technology initiative for students with visual

impairment

Prof. Joanna Masingila and Dr. Alan Foley spearheaded

the assistive technology initiative for student teachers at

KU for the visually blind in collaboration with other

colleagues. The project focused on improving teacher

education for all learners through the use of technology.

mailto:[email protected]





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In summer 2012, the lives of four students with visual

impairments changed when they were given lightweight

mobile digital devices with built-in screen readers. They

received iPod® mobile digital devices and a wireless

keyboards. Not only did the students receive the devices,

they were also trained on how to navigate and handle them

as shown in Fig 1 below:

Fig 1: Prof. Alan Foley with one of the beneficiaries

during a training session

For students with visual impairments (VI) at KU before

assistive technology project, attending class meant a lot

more than walking into class, attending lectures and taking

notes and or working on assigned tasks.

Students with vision impairment were compelled

to carry around heavy manual braille machines to

all their classes since it was the only way they

would take notes, work on assignments and write

their exams.

Braille papers are very bulky and this added to the

weight off the already heavy braille machines.

A day in the life of a student with profound

blindness meant a white cane in one hand, a

braille machine in the other and a bag full of

braille paper hanging over or across the shoulder.

There was need for the institution to have a braille

center that was responsible for brailing the exams

and assignments from print to make them

accessible for the students.

After the students sat for the exams, personnel

were required to de-braille the students’ responses

to make the braille prints accessible to the

examiners.

Those who have experienced the use of braille

machines can relate to the loud noise all the class

participants had to put up with. This can be very

disrupting to the learning process.

There was also a shortage of trained personnel to

braille and de-braille the scripts which meant the

grading process was delayed.

Students with VI encountered another milestone

when preparing for exams since all revision

papers were in print.

The works of Prof. Masingila and Prof. Foley have

therefore brought about a paradigm shift in the way student

teachers with VI go about their lessons, study groups,

exams and communicating with the international

communities. These students have been freed from a

culture of challenges, inaccessibility and limitations to that

of hope and possibilities for all stakeholders—the

workload of these students’ professors and other

multidisciplinary team were greatly reduced.

The HP catalyst initiative project

Another collaborative and impactful project that Professor

Masingila has been involved with in Kenya was a project

on Using Technology to Support Teacher and Student

Conceptual Learning in Mathematics and Science. This

was a $130,000 project supported by the Hewlett-Packard

(HP) Catalyst Initiative, through the HP Innovations in

Education Initiative from the HP Office of Global Social

Innovation. US$100,000 was dedicated to technology

equipment.

The two-year project brought together colleagues from the

Departments of Chemistry, Mathematics, Physics, and

Biological Sciences at Kenyatta University, the National

ICT Innovation and Integration Centre (NI3C) in the

Ministry of Education, and mathematics and science

education colleagues from Syracuse University, California

State University–Fullerton, and California State

University-San Marcos. They worked with and engaged

in-service teachers at two national schools and over 300

preservice teachers in exploring mathematical and

scientific concepts through the use of HP science teaching

equipment such as MCL Science Probe Kits, HP Graphing

Calculators, computers and education programs.

The project objectives were to:

Support mathematics and science teachers in Kenya

in integrating technology as a teaching and learning

tool into their classrooms,

Support mathematics and science teachers in Kenya

in developing deep and connected content and

pedagogical content knowledge, and

Build connections in Kenya between preservice

teachers’ preparation and teachers’ work in schools

allowing for coordinated monitoring of unpacking

of STEM content for learners.

The teachers participated as learners modeling the

scientific inquiry process and problem-solving process.

The teachers used the technology as a vehicle for active

engagement in understanding science concepts and

actively engaging their students in scientific inquiry and

investigation of science concepts through instructional

tasks.

The project also engaged 300 pre-service mathematics and

science teachers and 8 in-service high school teachers in an

exploration of ways to more effectively develop

mathematical and scientific curriculum. All participants


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attended workshops to learn how to use Tablet PC

technology, prepared and shared classroom tasks with each

other, and collaborated on techniques to incorporate

technology in the scientific inquiry and problem-solving

process. The primary purpose of the training was to

employ the technology as a means of fostering more

comprehensive understanding among students.

The HP project provided

US $100,000 worth of equipment and technology to

Kenyatta University

Infrastructure development in form of an

Educational Technology and Pedagogy computer

lab for preservice teacher training

Curriculum revisions to incorporate ICT integration

Professional development for 21 STEM and

educational faculty, eight high school teachers and

300 pre-service teachers

Student learning opportunities for approximately

960 students in two high schools

Service at Kamanzi Village

Kamanzi is a remote village in rural Kenya and the home

of Patrick Kimani, a student that Prof Masingila met early

on in her days at Comm-Tech. This network led to the

building of new classrooms, library, and playground in the

primary school for a needy and impoverished community.

In this educational gesture that would see the lives of many

young lives changed for good, Prof Masingila also

supported the school through professional teacher

development for practicing teachers. She not only

fundraised for the school buildings but also for the training

workshops in which she worked with colleagues from

Kenyatta University in Comm-Tech department. Apart

from academia, the Kamanzi Church and dispensary

advanced as well. Different cohorts of Americans, both the

young and the old, also travelled during summer to

participate in Kamanzi Village renovations, trainings as

well as immerse themselves in a different culture.

Teaching and Research Resources

Through generous donations of journals and textbooks to

Comm-Tech, faculty, students and staff have received

appropriate and most updated research and teaching

resources. Prof Masingila brings these along with her

during her yearly summer visits to the department.

Additionally at times she arranges for a large shipment,

which often entails organizing fundraisers in the USA to

cover the shipping fees and charges.

The International Conference on Education (ICE)

Another example of Professor Masingila’s effort is with

the recurring collaborative and networking work via the

International Conference of Education held at Kenyatta

University every other year. As a result of partnership

between SU and KU, the ICE was established with a

strategic plan of building capacity in teacher education.

The first ICE conference was hosted in KU’s main campus

on July 8-10, 2009 and was co-sponsored by the School of

Education, SU. Since then, the conference has been held

every other year (2011, 2013, 2015, 2017) with

participants from different parts of the world and mainly

from SU, KU and other universities in East Africa. The

themes of the conferences focuses on issues in teacher

education, among them (i) Teacher Education in

Contemporary Society, (ii) Building Capacity Through

Quality Teacher Education, (iii) Technology, Teaching and

Learning: Theory and Practice, and (iv) Quality Education

for Societal Transformation.

Prof Masingila has continued to play a key role in making

the conference a success in collaboration with her

colleagues, and has been a keynote speaker in a number of

the ICE biannual meetings. Through her commendable

facilitation, the ICE has become a platform for

professional networking, collaboration, and student

mentoring. Through networking, opportunities to study

abroad have been made available. A number of masters

and doctoral students from East Africa have received

scholarships to study in the United States.

The conference stands out from other conferences in that it

does not only provide an opportunity for scholars to

present their academic and research work, but has also

been a limelight of scholarly guidance to graduate

students. This scholarly guidance is made possible through

the introduction of the preconference and doctoral

workshops, which are products of the ICE. The pre-

conference and doctoral workshops are held before the

main conference for postgraduate students and doctoral

graduate students respectively. Through the workshops,

doctoral students have had chances to interact, present and

exchange feedback on their research work with their

fellow students and professors. This feedback has

enhanced polishing up of ideas in readiness for dissertation

projects, conference presentations, and publication. The

latest pre-conference workshop, for the 5th International

Conference on Education, 2017, provided graduate

students with an opportunity to learn on how to write for

publication.

Furthermore, through the workshops doctoral students

work closely with professors and even co-present with

them. By working closely with these professors, doctoral

students get professional, first-hand experience of writing

and presenting research work in academic forums. They

also gain personal skills on how to improve their own

work and obtain mentoring services. The interactive

sessions and working groups in the workshops enhances

doctoral students’ deeper understanding on how to write

good research questions, literature reviews, theoretical

frameworks, research design, and get educated on features

that help simplify their research work, e.g., how to develop


4

tables of contents and how to reference using latest

software applications.

As it stands, the ICE is exemplary, has life, and is

continuing to give light and direction to many upcoming

scholars and existing graduate students. These are young

stars whose services are highly needed in Africa, the USA

and the world at large (ICE, 2009-2017)

The Masingila’s Airlift: Assistantship Opportunities

Galore

Since 1999 to spring 2017, thirty-one East African

graduate students have joined the School of Education at

SU under Prof Masingila’s stewardship. In addition, she is

available and supports additional East African students

admitted to SU through other pathways as well as other

foreign-born students.

Prof Masingila made the impossible doable since many of

these 31 students could not afford to pay the tuition at

Syracuse University, or pay for graduate school

application fee. Further, she has taken time when in Kenya

to visit remote villages where these students’ families live.

It does not matter that most of them come from poor

backgrounds where nice houses and nice food is only

heard about in modern folk tales.

She advised each one on the nitty-gritty things such as how

to complete some lines of the application form in order to

win graduate assistantship, personal issues, financial

issues, to being a dissertation advisor to some, at the same

time staying professional through it all. Also, she

assimilates these students in her vacation time such as

Easter, Thanksgiving, Summer, Christmas and New Year’s

celebrations or into her varied locations of interest i.e.

Hershey, Beaches, Niagara Falls to make them feel at

home away from home.

Out of the 31 graduate students, 25 have received one or

two degrees and the rest are in progress with the exception

of one graduate who earned three degrees. Table 1 lists

these students in a chronological order from the first

admission to SU in 1999-2000 to 2016-2017 academic

year.

Table 1: The 31 East African Students by Name

(1) Leonard Kamau, (2) Patrick Kimani, (3)

Gipson Masayi, (4) Moses Ochanji

(5) Penina Ogolla-Kamina, (6) Levi Molenje, (7)

Alfred Ng’ang’a, (8) Mary Owuor

(9) Carol Kuria (10) Benard Nzimbi, (11) Francis

Nzuki

(12) Nyaboke Nduati (13) Dennis Kwaka

(14) Fred Odindo, (15) Grace Orado, (16) Beatrice

Mathenge, (17) Bernard Mugo (18) Calvin Osinde

(19) Michael Waititu,

(20) Peter Rugano Nthiga

(21) John Mungai Njoroge, (22) Grace Njuguna,

(23) Stella Rwanda,

(24) Inviolata Sore, (25) Agnes Wanjau

(26) Fredrick Ssempala, (27) Victoria Wambua

(28) Joash Geteregechi

(29) Crispin Ojwang, (30) Mitchelle Wambua,

(31) Anne Waswa

Majority of the students enumerated in Table 1 have

graduated and are working either in the USA or in their

homeland leaving a positive mark on others. A few are still

undergoing graduate education at Syracuse University and

more are yet to join in the future.

Though Prof Masingila is different racially from the

students’ in the airlifts or from the Kamanzi villagers or

from colleagues at Comm-Tech department, she does treat

people of color with such high regard, love and

compassion. She lives what she says she is, a friend of the

world, and she has proven it. She has created communities,

where Black Lives Matter. People are just people with the

same needs, the same concerns—no matter their

community.

References

Davis, L. J. (2002) Bending over Backwards: Disability, Dismodernism & Other Difficult Positions. New York: New York

University Press.

Davis, L. J. (2005) Enforcing Normalcy: Disability, Deafness, and the Body. London & New York: Verso.

Ellis, K. & Kent, M. (2011) Disability and New Media. New York: Routledge.

Foley, A. R., & Masingila, J. O. (2015). The use of mobile devices as assistive technology in resource-limited environments:

Access for learners with visual impairments in Kenya. Disability and Rehabilitation: Assistive Technology, 10(4),

332-339.

Foley, A., & Ferri, B. A. (2012). Technology for people, not disabilities: ensuring access and inclusion. Journal of Research in

Special Educational Needs, 12(4), 192-200.


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Foley, A. (2007) ‘Informing instructional technologies: re-readings of policy, practice, and design.’ In S. Danforth & S. Gabel

(eds), Vital Questions Facing Disability Studies in Education, pp. 237–52. New York: Peter Lang.

Goggin, G. & Newell, C. (2003) Digital Disability: The Social Construction of Disability in New Media. Lanham, MD:

Rowman & Littlefield.

Kiarie, M. W. (2004). Education of Students with Visual Impairments in Kenya: Trends and Issues. International Journal of

Special Education, 19(2), 16-22.

The International Conference on Education (ICE) (2009-2017). http://cuseinkenya.syr.edu/

http://cuseinkenya.syr.edu/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/ICE-2015.pdf


http://cuseinkenya.syr.edu/



Otenyo E.| KESSA Conference Proceedings 2017 | 6-9 http://www.kessa.org

6

ROLE OF FIRST FAMILY IN COUNTY GOVERNANCE: REFLECTIONS AND UNANSWERED QUESTIONS

Eric Otenyo, MPA, PhD

Professor of Public Administration

Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff Arizona

Abstract

The role of the First Family in the devolved governance structure has received little attention in public management discourses.

This paper outlines the issues of enthusiasm, complexity, and roles of especially First ladies in county governance. After

appraising the role of the first family, the author suggests an optimistic view in public management practice. The role of first

ladies has been modest and evolving, and in many cases, politically risky or uncertain. The author calls for a less skeptical view

of the role of the first family and clear guidance to functions of the office of the first lady.

Keywords: First family; First lady; county governance; Governor; Advocacy.

Introduction

Public officials face enormous challenges and the role of

the First family is an important component of the County

Governor’s administrative structure. Although there has

been considerable public debate over the roles of the First

Families, not much scholarly scrutiny and assessment of

their roles has been attempted. Using qualitative data, this

paper is an attempt to create a profile of the emerging

duties and responsibilities of first families. Specifically,

the paper is an initial assessment of the performance of the

first cohort of County First Ladies.

Much anxiety concerning roles of First Ladies emerged

after Kenya implemented the 2010 Constitution. A letter

from The Attorney General Githu Muigai to the Transition

Authority recommended that County Governors desist

from using the term “First Ladies” (Obala, 2014).

According to the Attorney General, the establishment of a

position of County First Lady was problematic for at least

two reasons. First, it draws from practice sin federal

systems of government and Kenya is not one. Second, such

an office would not fit into the structure of the offices

under the County Public Service. The legal position was

that to be a part of the County Public Services, officials

had to be hired through competitive and merit based

selection processes. However, Muigai argued that although

county first ladies had no formal role in the new

jurisdictions, they could still engage in social and

charitable causes. Muigai also suggested no funds be

allocated public funds for their outreach activities.

Role Theory and Dynamics

In order to put together a profile of perceived and or

expected roles of the county first lady, we rely on existing

social science frameworks. Role theory, as applied in

various sub-disciplines focuses on the reasoning of ruling

elites and their perceived self-interests. Following work

done by various social scientists, roles have much to do

with power and those who project it (Holsti, 1970;

Moreno, 1961; Sarbin, 1966; Spiegel 1971; Turner 1962;

Zurcher, 1983). Thus, role(s) as forms of elite behaviors

can also apply to individuals, who seek to establish their

sense of purpose. Such sociological interpretations imply

that behavior of a top public official can be distinguished

from that of “others.” Roles mean the individual

recognizes their sense of selfhood and identity and engage

their environments in accordance with that societies norms

and expectations. According to Glen Chafetz (1997,

p.664), there a behavioral component to actualizing these

expectations. Extrapolating from these social –

psychological perspectives, one may explain some of the

emerging commitments, rules and actions of county First

ladies and families. The county government offers these

new officials opportunities to define their multiple roles

and also create an image of what society will construe to

be the image of their offices. These constructed roles can

be arranged in a hierarchical sense with core functions

being delineated and each with its own rules and

appropriate behaviors. As a collective unit, County First

Ladies can also develop and understanding of the limits

and opportunities embedded in their surroundings. As

such, they have greater ability to predict and improve on

their interactions with community members. The next

section proceeds to make sense of the emerging roles

county first ladies.

Evolving Nature of Roles of the First Lady

In the era of twenty-four-hour new cycles and the internet

platforms, reports on activities of first families are readily

available for an assessment of their constructed roles. A

popular view is that first ladies offer support for their

spouses. The support model extends beyond the home and

spouses are actively involved in campaign politics.

For instance, an emerging pressure group was reported in

May 2016 to have met in Nyamira, initially for purposes of

fundraising for the Nyamira Catholic Church but extended

its role to campaigns. This group including, chair to the

caucus Mrs Obado (of Migori), and spouses from the

counties of Nyamira, Kisii, Kakamega, Kisumu, Siaya,

Busia, Bungoma, Trans Nzoia, and Homa Bay not only

discussed matters of county development and their roles in

the process and enforcement of gender equality rules in

public office appointments, but engaged in advocacy to


7

have their husbands reelected in 2017 as governors of their

respective counties. The First ladies argued, their spouses

needed more time to finalize their development agendas.

They observed that electing new Governors after only five

years would amount to introduction of new development

plans. Technically, to change term limits for Governors

would mean amending the enabling laws and constitution,

which is for the time being not politically feasible.

Other direct action, using platforms as first ladies have

also been reported. A good example is Kakamega Count

First Lady Priscillah Oparanya who in early 2016 met

women leaders from her county and urged them to register

as voters for the 2017 elections. Her appeal was for voters

to participate in all elections including that for Governor

and the nation’s presidency. Being part of the campaign is

commonplace. In fact, many county governors reported to

have been successful due to the ability of their partners to

connect with women voters. In Nyeri county, for example,

First Lady Margaret Gachagua, herself an accomplished

educator played a key role in mobilizing women votes.

Mrs. Keziah Wanjiku, first lady Nyandarua County played

a similar role and is known to be a strategic campaigner.

In 2013, the Standard published a series titled “Know your

Governor and their First Ladies” in which the paper

reported the crucial role of spouses in successful elections.

Many first ladies were described as the “forces behind”

their husbands’ electoral success. It is well known that

candidates to public office tap into resources available

from family members such as spouses and children. First

Ladies are not an exception and have been surrogates,

whose role has been to promote positive messages on

behalf of the candidate.

Direct Initiation of Projects

Several First Ladies are leaders in their own right. Being a

leader within the framework of devolved government

includes actively initiating projects. Examples of that role

are evident in numerous actions. In 2014, Bungoma

County First Lady Dr. Margret Makelo Lusaka started the

Skip –A-Lunch Initiative that was to raise funds for

providing basic necessities for young girls from lower

income families. The project provides sanitary towels to

young schoolgirls and investing in girl education by

providing reference books across county schools. The First

Lady also distributed basic needs to young mothers who

deliver babies at local hospitals. In a similar vein, the First

Lady of Siaya County, Mrs. Rosella Rasanga also initiated

project to provide sanitary towels to young girls in Siaya.

Migori county First Lady Hellen Obado initiated the Kuku

ni Pesa project to boost poultry farming in the county. The

project targeted 3,000 women who sell poultry and eggs.

The First Lady fundraised KSh 8.2 million seed money

and received further support from the Department of

Agriculture.

In Nairobi, First Lady Dr. Susan Mboya- Kidero, launched

a program to empower young girls and equip them with

skills to participate in economic activities. Her No Child

Left Behind imitative supports elementary education in

Nairobi’s informal settlements. She continued

philanthropic works associated with a prior organization,

Zawadi Africa, which supports young girls through

positive role models and scholarships to some of the best

universities in the world.

Deputizing the Governor

Although the First Lady’s role can be to “support” the

Governor by standing with them at ribbon cutting events,

there is another version of this ceremonial duty that some

have performed. First Ladies have on occasions deputized

the Governor and performed official functions normally

associated with the county’s chief executive. In October

2016, First Lady of Kitui, Mrs. Edith Malombe officially

opened a maternity wing in the Inyuu area.

In similar vein, Mrs. Philomena Kabogo, Kiambu

County’s first lady represented the county at the occasion

commissioning an incinerator at Limuru Girls High

School. The county funded the project through its

Department of Water, Environment and Natural

Resources. The list of first ladies deputizing for the

Governor include Embu County’s First lady Teresia

Wambora distributing seeds to cotton farmers to revise

cotton growing.

Promoting the Philosophical Virtues of Devolution

First ladies, much like a plurality of their partners have

also been on record touting the positive outcomes of the

devolution process. Many have used social media to

publicly praise the new political dispensation. Case in

point, First Lady of Machakos County has a Twitter handle

and has used it to make pronouncements praising the

transformative nature of Devolution.

Direct Participation in Charity and Fundraising Activities

Within this model is the attempt by Vihiga County’s First

Lady, Elizabeth Akaranga’s half- marathon run held in

2015. The Weekly Citizen (July 20-26, 2015, p. 14)

reported that locals boycotted the fund-raising events

leading to low collection of funds to support efforts aimed

at reduction of maternal deaths in the county. Although

the target of KSh. 40 million was not met, critics, who

included a group of MCAs protested using County money

for buying event T-Shirts. Still, the spirit of the event is an

example of a first lady’s direct participation in

developmental activities.

Sensitizing the Public (and Public Education Advocacy

and Outreach) Efforts

Most, if not all, First Ladies have participated in outreach

activities aimed at sensitizing members of their audiences

on various issues of public interest. Witness the following

examples:


8

First Lady Taita Taveta Hope Mruttu launched

the Save Our Queens Campaign, which is a

campaign to spread awareness of Gender Based

Violence affecting girl children in Taita Taveta

and the country. Taita Taveta is one of the

counties with the highest prevalence of gender-

based violence in Kenya.

Machakos First Lady Lilian Nganga, is an avid

promoter of Youth Empowerment Programs. She

personally led outreach and advocacy projects

that included; HIV/AIDS Awareness campaigns,

Children Welfare Programs, and Cancer

Awareness activities.

Mrs. Hodhan Ibrahim, First Lady Mandera

County has also been an active supporter of youth

empowerment in northern region of the country.

This view is widely shared among other first

ladies.

Mrs. Florence Lagat, First Lady Nandi County

has also taken initiatives to support shun against

stigmatization of persons with HIV/AIDS. In

2014 the prevalence in Nandi County is 4.3

percent down from 12 percent in 2004.

Mrs. Margaret Gachagua, First Lady Nyeri

County, in 2015 was the face of environmental

conservation in the Aberdare region. She

officiated at functions aimed at raising awareness

of issues of environmental protection and the

importance of protecting water towers.

Mrs. Lucia Mbugua, Nakuru County’s First Lady

actively supported the he Beyond Zero Mobile

Clinic initiative that provides free access to

maternal health care services. She launched and

oversaw the program’s implementation in Nakuru

County. The County’s program is a part of the

National Program, originally initiated in January

2014 by Mrs. Margaret Kenyatta, Kenya’s First

Lady Beyond Zero was designed to reduce

maternity death rates in the country. Data from

various sources shows that Kenya has yet to meet

the Millennium Development Goal of lowering

the maternal death to below the current 488 per

100,000 live births.1 Kenya remains one of the

most dangerous places for women to be pregnant

and thanks to the efforts of Kenya’s First lady, the

issue is now widely given much publicity. The

program also seeks to reduce rates of mother to

child transmission of HIV/AIDS.

In times of Grief and Show of Empathy

First ladies have been known to be the faces of

government at county level and offered sympathy and

concern over numerous occasions including bereavements

and accidents. In some instances, they have donated food,

mattresses, and equipment like wheelchairs to purposes in

distress. Many of these occasions have been reported on

Facebook and other social media websites. For instance,

Wajir First Lady Mrs. Rukia Abdinasir, among others,

donated relief items to disabled children in their counties.

In addition, she provided wheel chairs to adults in need.

Her counterpart, First Lady of Garissa Mrs. Amina

Abdullahi also donated sewing machines and other items

to disabled persons, widows, and orphans in her county.

Concluding Remarks

In conclusion, the role of the County First Lady is not just

to be part of the support team for the Governor’s vision.

Neither is their role confined to welcoming people to the

Governor’s home. The role has morphed into one of being

co-leader in matters of county development and also as an

effective citizen with civic responsibility. The support role,

which is associated with family members, applies to all

public offices. For the County Governor, it can take a more

nuanced role, including serving as policy advisor in certain

portfolios, a time keeper to remind the Governor of the

urgency of completing campaign promise, be an ear to

learn of new concerns that require the Governor’s attention

and checking on status of on-going programs and projects.

All the above activities are political and also serve the

government’s purpose. Since the Governor’s spouse can

command and attract media attention, they can help obtain

responses from county officials and serve in public

interest.

End Note

1. World Health Organization (WHO). 2011. Maternal and Child Health, Kenya. Retrieved from

http://www.who.int/pmnch/media/membernews/2011/20121216_kenyaparliament.pdf

References

Chafetz G. (1997) The struggle for a national identity in post-soviet Russia. Political Science Quarterly, 111 (4): 661-6888

Holsti, K. J. (1970) National role conceptions in the study of foreign policy. International Studies. 14 (3): 233-309.

Moreno, J.L (1961). The role concept: A bridge between psychiatry and sociology. American Journal of Psychiatry, 118, 518-

523

Obala, R. (2014). Governors spouses should not be called First Ladies, says AG Githu Muigai. Standard. September 25.

http://www.standardmedia.co.ke


9

Sarbin, T.R. (1966). "Role Theory," in Role Theory: Concepts and Research, ed. by Bruce J. Biddle and Edwin J. Thomas.

New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Spiegel, J.P. (1971). Social roles (part 2), in Transactions: The interplay between individual, family, and society. New York:

Science House.

Turner, R.H. (1962). Role taking: process versus conformity. In Arnold Rose (Ed.), Human Behavior and Social

Processes. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Zurcher, L. A. (1983). Social roles: Conformity, conflict and creativity. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Otenyo & Wanga-Odhiambo|KESSA Conference Proceedings 2017 | 10-14 http://www.kessa.org

10

IN KENYA; EN ROUTE TO AMERICA -THE PROMISED LAND: SOUTH SUDANESE REFUGEES AND

DISCRETION IN POLICY IMPLEMENTATION

Eric E. Otenyo (Northern Arizona University)

and

Godriver Wanga –Odhiambo (Le Moyne College, Syracuse, New York).

Abstract

The purpose of this paper is to help bridge the gap between policy and implementation practice in the management of refugee

services in Kenya. We explore and describe points at which administrative discretion is important in-service delivery from the

vantage point of street-level workers who handle cases of refugees from South Sudan living in Kenya. We identify points at

which discretionary decisions are most impactful. At the end, we call for greater sensitivity to refugee needs and ethical reflection

in bureaucratic actions.

Keywords: Street –Level Workers, South Sudanese Refugees, Discretion, Policy Implementation

Introduction

Studies on public policy in Kenya have not paid much

attention to field –level officials who interact with recipients

of public services. The scarcity of works on administrative

discretion at the frontline limits our understanding of

governance because the street level officials shape policy in

profound ways. Many of the frontline policy implementers

such as case workers, out-reach stations and immigration

clerks make decisions that permanently affect the lives of

people in their care. The behavior of street –level officials

makes a difference in understanding the role of government

and non- profit organizations in implementing public

policy. This work seeks to understand the norms and

behaviors of street–level bureaucrats towards refugees.

More precisely, the policy towards refugees from South

Sudan is discussed with the intension of exploring the

dynamics of social justice in street –level work.

Overall Policy on Refugees

These bureaucrats are expected to faithfully execute

national refugee policies. The overriding policy on

refugees, is not well-understood and has been in a state of

flux. This, by itself, is a factor that creates much

bureaucratic discretionary actions. The official policy

toward management of refugees is based on principles

articulated in several documents, including the Kenya

National Migration Policy, the draft National Labor

Migration Policy, the National Diaspora Policy and the

Kenya Vision 2030 development blueprint. These

document and legislative statutes including the Refugees

Act, the Kenya Citizens and Foreign Nationals

Management Service Act, the Counter Trafficking in

Persons Act and the Kenya Citizenship and Immigration

Act the Prevention, Protection and Assistance to Internally

Displaced Persons and Affected Communities Act provide

glimpses of important values that should be expressed in

the treatment of refugees and other persons going through

migration procedures.

From the standpoint of practice, the refugee policy in Kenya

can be described as dependent on “mood swings” and a

laisse affair mentality within the ruling elite circles.

Migration into Kenya goes back to the early 1960s when

refugees from neighboring countries trickled into Kenya. In

the 1980s, refugees were allowed to settle anywhere in the

country (Odhiambo –Abuya 2004). The vast majority of

refuges come into Kenya through cross-border migration

patterns. Then, Thika Reception Center was the government

designated location for sorting out asylum seekers and

determining who was eligible for Refugee Status. When

Uganda experienced erratic and despotic rule under Idi

Amin, several Ugandans escaped into Kenya where many

served as workers and even teachers. Ugandans constituted

the vast majority of the 15,000 refugees in the 1980s (Crisp,

2005, p. 616). In the 1990s, the numbers of refugees from

Congo, Rwanda, Burundi, Somalia and Ethiopia more than

doubled. Because South Sudan has been in war situation for

decades, their refugees were also included in the mix. Many

asylum seekers were protected under the Geneva Accords

and by the UNHCR (UNHRC 2009). Majority of refugees

in Kenya have “prima facie” status, which means that

officially they are allowed to work.


11

Kenya chose to establish camps for those designated as

refugees. For the most part, these camps are designated or

segregated according to national origins and gender,

religion, and security calculations (Goodwin-Gill, &

McAdam, 2007; HelpAge International, 2011; Horwood,

2009; Kamau, 2017; Lindley, 2011; Makena, 2017; Ngugi,

2017; Sanghi, Onder, & Vemura, 2016). The vast majority

of refugees from South Sudan (Sudan) and Ethiopia were

accommodated in Kakuma camp in Turkana County, the

second largest camp. Refugees from Somalia were

subjected to greater security vetting and monitored (Kirui &

Mwaruvia, 2012). The encampment versus decampment

and integration debate continues today with the World Bank

favoring integration and making recommendations that

counties where camps are located be given priority in terms

of development (Sanghi, Onder, & Vemura, 2016). This

follows reported tensions between local hosts and refugees,

with the former arguing that refugees receive better services

than locals. The case of clashes between refuges and

residents of Kakuma, Turkana County, has been widely

reported in local media. Needless to say, in Kenya where

the issue of land is emotive, integration within the rural

settings as was the case in Ulyankulu settlement in Tanzania

was not viable (Wanga- Odhiambo, 2014, 75.)

Understanding administrative discretion in policy

implementation

The first idea that comes to mind is to recognize the

essentiality of intergovernmental actors in policy

implementation. From the outset, we have to note that

decisions made by the Government of Kenya (GOK)

regarding refugees are confined and structured by the

structure of international organization. In other words, state

sovereignty allows GOK privileges that are limited by

membership in international society. The context of

administrative discretion in intergovernmental contexts was

best articulated in George Gordon’s work (1986). He

posited that governmental interactions within formal

institutions were enforced through collaborations and

formal agreements involving different units. Although he

did not include international actors in the Intergovernmental

Relations (IGR), these are valid players in refugee

management and policy making decisions. Through

complex networks in management of global crises, IGR

involves the United Nations High Commissioner for

Refugees (UNHCR), International Organization for

Migration (IOM), International Non-Profit Organizations,

which include religious organizations (e.g. Catholic

Charities and NCCK), and agencies such as the United

States Agency for International Aid (USAID). These

organizations share information and conduct complex

transactions among each other, including managing

programs specific to refugee needs. In many instances,

resettlement remains a joint initiative involving multiple

agencies.

These organizations are not hidden from the public eye. For

the most part, the organizations have become more

pervasive in the delivery of public services. African

governments, including Kenya, have ceded much discretion

to these organizations in matters to do with refugees. The

scope and impact of IGRs has grown with the proliferation

of conflicts and natural disasters, which cause refugee

crises. There is tremendous increase in use of discretion in

IGR involving refugee policy implementation, partly

because the funding of refugee resettlement and relief

services is externally sourced. Categorical grants from the

international organizations such as UNHCR are designated

for use in agreements spelled out between the organizations

and the Government of Kenya. The importance of

administrative discretion is highlighted because many of the

decisions made reflect the values of the respective

bureaucrats. In terms of IGR, there is evidence that Kenya’s

weak bureaucratic capacity has resulted in international

policy actors circumventing GOK initiatives and, at times,

duplicating the roles due to lack of clear policy guidelines.

As Pressman and Wildavsky (1984, p.34) observed,

coordination of services affects delivery of services.

Weaknesses in coordination of refugee administration has

been reported. And instances of GOK pursuing

contradictory goals has emerged due to government’s

association of refugee camps to insecurity. Broad policy

directives send signals to frontline workers leading to

outcomes that may not be desirable. While discretion at the

managerial level matters, it is much confined by

international treaties and obligations. That cannot be said

for the street-level bureaucrats who have to meet refugee

needs.

The role of street-level workers in policy implementation

Most of the literature on street-level workers beginning with

Michael Lipsky’s (1980) looked at police, teachers, and

case workers who made a huge difference in policy

implementation. Lipsky (1980, p.3) described street –level

officials as those who directly interacted with citizens in the

course of their jobs, and who used substantial discretion to

execute public policies. The case workers are known to use

discretion when making difficult decisions about client

needs. At the street –level, the case workers, at times present


12

their own interpretations of policy and advice clients on

ways forward. In many instances, street-level discretion

promotes workers self-regard and encourages beneficiaries

to believe that frontline workers hold key to their well-being

(Lipsky, 1980, p. 15). In many instances, the choices that

street –level officials make affect policy outcomes in more

than one way. Among the outcomes is public safety and

health, often manifested as resilience and overcoming huge

challenges.

In the case of refugees transitioning through Kenya, the

decisions of street-level workers can break or make a

refugee seeking to transfer to another country (receiving

countries). The street-level workers, on behalf of the

government are the face of government policy toward

refugees.

Methods and Multiple Settings

The observations in this paper are based on fieldwork in

Kenya and also interviews with South Sudanese Refugees

who passed through camps in Kenya. There were also

those who lived in Kenyan towns and interacted with

government officials. Although the overall project focuses

on refugees from South Sudan, including those dubbed as

“lost boys and girls,” en route to the United States of

America. The following section describes the points at

which uses and abuses of discretion in the management of

refugee services is manifest. The presentation covers the

vast majority of front line workers who offer services to

refugees.

BOX 1: Key Refugee Services Offered at Street-Level:

Discretion and Points of Attention

Agency/Organization

Churches: Kenya Catholic Services (KCS) in

Nairobi, Coptic Churches, Catholic Church- outreach

stations

Services Offered and Comments

Provided rent for desperate cases but choosing who

deserves is left at the discretion of the street –level

officials. (Frontline Father or pastor). Churches gave

South Sudanese students transport and meals to

school and limited scholarships

Agency/Organization

National Council of Churches of Kenya (NCCK) –

also had a refugee desk and became partner with

UNHCR


NCCK started refugee desk in 1983

UNHCR referred refugees to the NCCK: Distribution

of foodstuffs, Maternity allowance, financial aid to

refugees who want to marry at discretion. NCCK

buried bodies of unclaimed South Sudanese refugees.

NCCK scholarships, HIV Aids Counseling also

offered.

Agency/Organization

Saint Joseph’s Dispensary


At Saint Joseph’ the Worker’s dispensary, the entry

into clinic was controlled by church workers who

determine who would receive medical attention.

Agency/Organization

Jesuit Refugee Services (JRS) The Jesuit Order of the

Catholic Church


They ran Tangaza College in Nairobi. They also

offered interpretation service and translated English

for the refugees. Many South Sudanese women

spoke Arabic, Dinka, Nuer and Didinka. JRS gave

priority to “the refugees who may have been

forgotten:” those not spoken about, e.g. urban

refugees (Wanga –Odhiambo, 2014, p.101). And the

undocumented (Wanga –Odhiambo, 2014, p. 102).

Vocational training selection e.g. at St. Kizito and

also at Catholic University of EA; Information and

Temporary referrals; Counseling services to women

who had been raped, tortured, traumatized, and

depressed. JRS screened refugees to identify the

needy cases (Wanga –Odhiambo, 2014, p.102)

Agency/Organization

GOK –Police and Intelligence, Children Services,

and Department of Immigration


Kenya Security personnel guarded compound of the

Kenya Catholic Services but would at times control

who would get in and receive services. The police

also guarded St. Joseph the worker hospital in

Kagemi. This hospital particularly served the injured

SPLA soldiers, hence its tight security. Government


13

oversees registration of refugees, which leads to

determination of eligibility interviews. Manage child

abuse and trafficking; Profiling of refugees and

issuance of alien cards and work permits.

Other Organizations:

SWAN formed partnerships with the United Nations

Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) and

International Refugee Trust of Ireland. Lutheran

World Relief, Operation Lifeline Sudan, the Royal

Netherlands Embassy in Nairobi.

Support to Sudanese women to be self-

reliant and for networking both locally and

internationally.

Help was given those who remained in

Sudan especially by Operation Lifeline

Sudan which distributed food and water-

filters.

NGOS established schools for refugees e.g. Kabiria

School for Refugees in Satellite. Windle Trust Fund

sponsored school children in post-secondary education

and education in colleges.

Education for refugees; Nairobi which helped

in printing out material like fundraiser cards,

photocopying books and materials; Trained

members on organizing small business and

financial responsibility, English classes,

workshops.

Sudanese Mothers Action Group (SMAG) under

SWAN;

Miscellaneous humanitarian services

Sudanese Literature Society in Westlands

Miscellaneous humanitarian services

Deutsche Gesellshaft fur Internationale

Zusammenabeit (GITZ) (i.e. German International

Development Agency), Lutheran World Federation

(LWF), Oxfam, Save the Children, International

Rescue Committee

IOM

Screening of Refugees for onward

resettlement and repatriation to other

countries

UNHCR

Overall policy responsibility for refugees

Final Remarks and Conclusions

Box 1 above is a synopsis of the key points at which street-

level officials from a network of organizations interact and

offer services to refugees. In some instances, these

officials have too much discretion and cases of abuse have

been reported. For example, police asking for bribes from

refugees and also misconduct by way of harassment

through unauthorized swoops (Sudanese Tribune, 2016;

Wanga –Odhiambo, 2014, p. 106). And instances of theft

of relief items and medicines donated for use by refugees

are fairly common. Still, cases of sexual harassment on

camps are not accorded the deserved attention. However,

not all police are engaged in corruption or abuse discretion

(Wanga –Odhiambo, 2014, p. 106). Furthermore,

arbitrary decisions involving who should receive money

should be streamlined through proper rule making. Most

important, national policy on refugees should offer clear

guidelines and include efforts to confine and structure

discretion.

Not all is negative. There are numerous reported cases of

charity and compassion for refugees. There are numerous

stories of street-level workers who have treated South

Sudanese refugees with outmost compassion and in

dignified ways. In conclusion, we suggest that those

involved in screening procedures need to receive

sensitivity training. And reforms to improve public service

to inculcate ethical reflection in service delivery must

include all frontline workers who work with refugees.

Hopefully, we have been able to trigger a discussion on

improving refugee policy implementation not only for

South Sudanese but all refugees in Kenya.


14

References

Goodwin-Gill, G.S. & McAdam, J. (2007). The Refugee in

International Law. London: Oxford University

Press.

Gordon, George J. (1986). Administrative Discretion in

Intergovernmental Context. In Douglas H.

Shumavon and H. Kenneth Hibbeln (eds.)

Administrative Discretion and Public Policy

Implementation (pp. 159-173). New York: Praeger.

HelpAge International (2011). Crisis-affected older people

in Kenya and Somalia.

Himbert, S. (2011). Kenya child protection assessment:

Report and analysis. Kambi oos camp and Hagadera

outskirts, Terre des Hommes Kenya

Horwood, C. (2009). In pursuit of Southern Dream: Victims

of Necessity. IOM

Kamau, John. (2017, February 16). Nation Agenda: Why

Dadaab Remains a headache for government. Daily

Nation. Retrieved from http://www.nation.co.ke

Kirui, P. and Mwaruvia, J. (2012). The dilemma of hosting

refugees: a focus on the insecurity in north eastern

Kenya. International Journal of Business and Social

Science, 3 (8), 161-171.

Kubania, Jacqueline (2016, June 22). Closure of world’s

biggest refugee camp will create a ghost town. Daily

Nation. Retrieved from http://www.nation.co.ke

Lindley A (2011). Unlocking protracted displacement:

Somali case study RSC Working Paper 79, Refugee

Studies Center. University of Oxford.

Lipsky, Michael. (1980). Street-Level Bureaucracy:

Dilemmas of the Individual in Public Services. New

York: Russell Sage Foundation.

Long, K. (2011). Permanent Crises? Unlocking the

protracted displacement of refugees and internally

displaced persons. Refugees Studies Center. Oxford

University.

Makena, Evelyn (2017, February 15). How Kakuma can be

a boom for Turkana. People Daily. Nairobi.

Ngugi, Brian. (2017, February 10). Refugees in Kakuma

contribute to country’s progress. Daily Nation.

Retrieved from http://www.nation.co.ke

Odhiambo-Abuya, E., 2004, ‘United Nations High

Commissioner for Refugees and status determination

in taxing Kenya: an empirical survey,’ in Journal of

African Law, 48 (2), pp. 186-206.

Pressman, Jeffrey L and Wildavsky, Aaron. (1984).

Implementation: How great expectations in

Washington are dashed in Oakland. Los Angeles,

CA: University of California Press.

Sanghi, Apurva, Onder Harun, & Vemura Varalakshmi

(2016, December). Yes in my backyard? The

economics of refugees and their social dynamics in

Kakuma, Kenya. World Bank Working Paper Report

Number 111303, Vol. 1. Retrieved from

http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/308011

482417763778/Yes-in-my-backyard-The-

economics-of-refugees-and-their-social-dynamics-

in-Kakuma-Kenya

Sudanese Tribune, (2016, December 5).40 South Sudanese

refugees arrested in Kenya. Retrieved from:

http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?article6103

4

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (2009).

UNHCR policy on refugee protection and solutions

in urban areas. Geneva: United Nations High

Commissioner for Refugees.

Wanga –Odhiambo, Godriver. (2014. Resilience in South

Sudanese Women: Hope for Daughters of the Nile.

Lanham, MD: Lexington Books:

Mbuba J.M. |KESSA Conference Proceedings 2017 | 15-18 http://www.kessa.org

15

WHY CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND CRIME STUDIES ARE LONG OVERDUE IN

TWENTY-FIRST-CENTURY EDUCATIONAL REFORM IN AFRICAN INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER LEARNING

Jospeter M. Mbuba, PhD

Associate Professor of Criminal Justice

Department of Public Policy, Purdue University Fort Wayne

[email protected]

Abstract

The efficacy of the educational system of a society may be gauged by how well the system meets the needs of that society. One

of the most readily discernible societal needs in most parts of Africa today is to contain sprawling crime and disorder. This paper

makes a compelling contribution to discussions about the type of educational reform that will be relevant for managing the crime

problem as a requisite preparation for the goals of twenty-first-century development in Africa. I present the argument that in

order for developing nations to position themselves for the demands of the twenty-first century and beyond, they will need to

introduce modern scholarship on crime and its corollaries, and revitalize existing criminal justice programs in higher education.

Keywords: Criminal justice, Curriculum, Higher Education, Kenya

Background

Crime is the single most ubiquitous social perversion across

history. People die in the hands of others on a daily basis,

and the amount of property that is lost to the underworld on

any given day cannot be estimated. In many parts of the

world, people cannot go about their daily routines without

constantly worrying about their safety, the safety of their

loved ones, and of their property. In many African cities, the

police have demonstrated a genuine inability to abate the

raging tides of daylight crime. Crime undermines the rule of

law and general democracy, and a weak democracy

undermines efforts to realize economic growth (Barkan,

2003). The educational needs of any society must reflect the

human needs of that society. As modernization brings about

changes in societal needs, the rationale for updating

educational needs occasionally for the purpose of

responding to changing societal needs becomes more

pronounced. Unfortunately, while the underworld reaches

out for the latest technology for achieving criminal

objectives and thus steadily holds down society’s efforts to

realize meaningful development, law enforcement

personnel have not kept abreast of such technologies. Their

inability to respond decisively to distress calls has left many

citizens with only one option—namely, to take the law into

their own hands and lynch crime suspects at the slightest

distress call.

It is clear that the need to address emergent societal

problems affecting the educational reform agenda is now

crucial. For a long time, the Kenyan economy has been

predicated on agriculture and tourism (Bates, 1989;

Haugerud, 1989; Heald, 1999; Manyara & Jones, 2007).

During that time, the educational agenda has oscillated

between, on one hand, elevating the quality and expanding

the quantity of agricultural produce, and on the other,

improving the attractiveness of the country as a tourist

destination. This, of course, is after holding constant most

of the other key human services that have already been

implemented. As a result, we have witnessed impressive

growth spurts in agriculture- and tourism-supporting

curriculums in institutions of higher learning, including the

establishment of departments of agriculture, agricultural

economics, horticulture, land economics, agricultural

engineering, agricultural education, and veterinary

medicine. The creation of state-of-the-art agricultural-based

research institutes and major advances in animal health in

addition to other key agrarian reforms have also evolved.

On the tourism frontier, unprecedented growth in such

academic disciplines as range management, hotel and

tourism management, forestry, and environmental sciences

has occurred.

Times and circumstances have changed, but educational

needs have not kept abreast of such changes. In the years

around independence, crime was an almost entirely foreign

concept in most rural communities and a relatively

unknown phenomenon in urban centers. Those who were

involved in random criminal acts would easily be contained

with relatively minimal resources. Today, rural life hardly

attracts, if the current urbanization is any indication. In most

parts of Africa, however, the urban population influx has

been compounded by millions of refugees who are fleeing

civil war and famine (Handelman, 2000). City life is

becoming the end rather than the means of eking out a living

for most people. The result is the unprecedented growth of



16

urban population with all its documented consequences, the

main one of which is an upsurge of crime (Situ & Liu, 1996;

Koczberski, Curry, & Connell, 2001). Many recent studies

have yielded a strong positive correlation between crime

and urbanization (Ergun & Yirmibeşoğlu, 2007; Hoppe,

2008). With this background, it is clear that in order to attain

meaningful and sustainable development, the training

inadequacies in the field of crime management must be

addressed.

The Quintessence of the Problem

In many African cities, crime has become a vibrant industry

and a favorite, albeit macabre, topic of conversation

(Seekings, 2003). On a typical day in Nairobi, marauding

gangs face off with police officers in the streets. Mugging

has become so widespread that it has entered the daily

lexicon. Drug syndicates have made inroads into all

population groups, and regarding homes, burglary and

house-breaking define the greatest source of fear for the

average citizen. Homicide has become so common that it

sometimes does not make headline news. Even the

corporate world is not any safer. Bribery, fraud, extortion,

embezzlement and mega-corruption schemes have become

the main way of doing business. At the same time, public

opinion polls record low levels of public confidence in the

capacity of the justice system to curb crime (Seekings,

2003).

This daunting reality affects all members of society in many

ways. First, we are affected as victims, perpetrators,

witnesses, family members of victims or perpetrators,

friends of victims or perpetrators, accomplices, and so forth.

But more pertinently, crime instills fear that leads to

lifestyle modifications that inhibit the rapid attainment of

life-success goals. For example, instead of investing

available resources in income-generating activities, most

people would first fortify their houses to cushion them

against burglary. Instead of working a few extra hours, most

people would leave work early to get home before dusk,

when muggers begin their day. Instead of operating all day,

most traders would close their shops early to keep away

looters. Fear of crime also leads potential victims to wall

themselves off from the rest of society and thus from each

other, resulting in the decline of the public’s sense of

community and neighborliness, as the buildup of social

capital among citizens also declines (Barkan, 2003). Yet

economic development correlates strongly with social

development, which is more easily realized when citizens

are able and encouraged to interact freely (Handelman,

2000). If unchecked, this situation steadily stymies efforts

to realize meaningful development.

In order to prepare for twenty-first-century development

goals such as Kenya’s Vision 2030, developing countries

must consider crime and delinquency prevention and the

eradication of social disorder. They must take a bold step in

rethinking the current systematic absence of crime and

justice-related curriculums in the mainstream institutions of

higher learning. At the present time, the closest

approximation of studies of crime and justice in most

African institutions of higher learning, outside of the legal

domain, is criminology and juvenile delinquency, which,

though important in paving the theoretical underpinnings to

crime and delinquency causation, lack the necessary breadth

to equip modern arts-oriented students with the capacity to

understand and deal with the surging crime problem. The

society continues to relegate all crime-control

responsibilities to the formal, traditional law enforcement

machinery that was built upon the principle of reactive

response to crime. The law enforcement officer is still

equated to a crime fighter whose primary role is to pursue

criminals and arrest them or to use any amount of force

available to subdue them if they resist or challenge the

officer’s authority.

To facilitate the preparation of the requisite groundwork for

the foundation of sustainable development, it is time to

augment reactive responses to crime with a sound crime-

management agenda that answers to the needs of the people

proactively—that is, before the crime occurs in the first

place. This calls for training of less combative but more

service-oriented crime managers at all levels of the justice

system. By making such training available, society will be

confronting effectively the problem of crime and disorder.

More directly, such a move would contribute to long-term

development goals by ensuring community stability, which

would be realized when employment opportunities are

opened up.

The Way Forward

In one of his many research papers, my doctoral professor

and friend, Dr. Thomas J. Durant, avidly argues that crime

is a public-health problem, and that to eradicate disease and

bolster public health, efforts to eradicate crime must be

considered (Durant, 1996). According to Durant, the

parameters that define crime as a public-health problem are

mental, emotional, physical, and social consequences such

as injury, mental trauma, fear, death, social discontent or

unrest, and the economic costs that the victims of crime and


17

their families have to bear. From this perspective, the

incidence of crime brings both health and economic costs to

society, and this means, by implication, that crime, health

and development are not mutually exclusive.

The transition to true democracy, which is a prelude to

sustainable development, often produces an increase in

serious crime in many societies (Stone, 2003). In readiness

for the twenty-first-century developmental goals, it is

incumbent upon universities that authoritative academic

disciplines are provided that will prepare interested and

qualified students not only to understand passively various

types and causes of crime, juvenile delinquency, and social

disorder, but also to pursue actively careers in the fast-

growing criminal justice field that includes, inter alia, crime

prevention, community policing, law enforcement,

evidence analysis, adult probation administration, forensic

science, prisons supervision, juvenile justice management,

drug control initiatives, and crime-victim care. That

academic discipline is criminal justice, which, in Western

academic arrangements, is typically a lone department or a

major component of a set of related disciplines that are

administratively grouped together where there may be

resource limitations.

Integrating criminal justice into higher learning curriculums

would ensure the capacity-building necessary to meet the

challenges that come with various developmental goals. In

the developed West, the discipline of criminal justice has

come to define the core of many schools of arts and social

sciences. To complete a university degree in criminal

justice, students typically take several core courses in

addition to such common courses as computer literacy, data

analysis, and report writing, as well as basic mathematics.

The array of criminal justice courses is too wide for a

complete listing in this paper, but common courses include,

among others, introduction to the criminal justice system,

fundamentals of criminal law, prison issues, policing

systems and practices, criminal investigation, law

enforcement, community policing, courts and the criminal

procedure, white-collar crime, victimology, understanding

homicide, forensic science, sexual offenders, terrorism,

juvenile justice, law in society, legal aspects of corrections,

child abuse and neglect, drug abuse, ethics in criminal

justice, organized crime, correctional counseling,

community corrections, data collection and management,

domestic violence, and global security.

Upon the completion of a degree in criminal justice,

qualified citizens would be able to manage and operate

effectively the entire system of administration of justice

from law enforcement through the judiciary to corrections.

Students graduating with a degree in criminal justice

administration would be able to secure many different types

of jobs. At the level of law enforcement, the graduates could

work not only as police officers, which is certainly an area

of need, but also as detectives or undercover operatives,

emergency-call dispatchers, crime-scene investigators and

technicians, police dog handlers, police training instructors,

domestic-relations specialists, traffic analysts, narcotics

officers, industrial security officers, private loss-prevention

managers, suspect-booking personnel, and so forth. At the

courts level, job openings for the graduates would include

court clerks, court recorders, bailiffs, intelligence analysts,

witness managers, forensic scientists, court administrators,

and private investigators, among others. In the corrections

subsector, criminal justice graduates would be able to work

as wardens, corrections officers, prisoner advocates,

probation officers, correctional counselors, juvenile

probation officers, and mediators. Outside of the criminal

justice system, graduates could work as trainers in diverse

areas, including as college and university instructors, upon

gaining further education in their respective specialties.

Policy Implications

According to available research, crime is more effectively

controlled when democratic practices are built into crime

control strategies and the public is treated with dignity and

respect by criminal justice agencies (Bayley, 2003; Mbuba,

2008). Therefore, staffing the entire criminal justice system

with well-prepared and adequately trained personnel is

critical, as this will produce several important implications

for sustained development, both in the twenty-first century

and beyond.

First, higher efficiency levels in crime prevention and in the

processing of criminal suspects will be recorded, and the

corollary reduction of the fear of crime among citizens will

free up for profitable investments the resources that were

previously used for barricading homes against criminal

activity. Such is the case in many Western countries where

perimeter walls around houses have been eliminated, except

for privacy and low fences for restraining small pets.

Second, the resultant efficiency in the criminal justice

system will elevate public confidence in the legal

administration of justice and, consequently, diminish the

need for vigilante and other extortionist self-help crime-

prevention groups whose main method of punishing crime

suspects is lynching, irrespective of crime type.


18

Third, the increased public support for the rule of law will

heighten personal responsibility and thereby tame street

disorder, collective behavior, and mass waywardness that

provide cover to individuals with premeditated criminal

intent. Finally, increased job opportunities will form the

fundamental basis for development and, at the same time,

change the conditions that generate crime in the first place.

These are ultimately the pillars upon which stand the

prerequisites to sustainable development.

Conclusion

Educational reform is inevitable in the changing world in

which we live. Because a superior educational system is the

one that best meets the most pressing needs of society (see

Bacchus, 2008), the desired educational reforms in Africa

will be complete only upon encompassing the society’s

priority issues, including criminal behavior, juvenile

delinquency, and social disorder. Introducing

comprehensive studies of criminal justice administration

would help assuage the culture of public mistrust toward the

police, law enforcement, and other agencies that deal with

processing offenders. Such trust is necessary in order to

realize the gains of effective crime management, including

the stability of society and eventual sustainable

development. It is against this background that I suggest the

establishment and development of crime-related

curriculums that are packaged into criminal justice

programs in institutions of higher learning.

References

Bacchus, M. 2008. The education challenges facing small nation states in the increasingly

competitive global economy of the twenty-first century. Comparative Education, 44(2),

127-145.

Barkan, J. D. 2003. Crime and the Threat to Democratic Governance in Africa. In Garland,

A.M.; Golding, H.A.; Ruthenburg, M; and Tulchin, J. S. (eds.) Crime and the Threat to Democratic Governance.

Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. Washington, D.C.: pp. 42-49.

Bates, R. H. 1989. Beyond the Miracle of the Market: The Political Economy of Agrarian

Development in Kenya. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Bayley, D. H. 2003. Real Threat, False Choice. In Garland, A.M.; Golding, H.A.; Ruthenburg,

M; and Tulchin, J. S. (eds.) Crime and the Threat to Democratic Governance. Woodrow Wilson International Center

for Scholars. Washington, D.C.: pp. 1-6.

Durant, T. 1996. Criminal Violence: A Public Health Issue. Paper presented at the Mid-South

Sociological Association Annual Meeting, Little Rock, Arkansas, Oct 30 to Nov 2, 1996.

Ergun, N., & Yirmibeşoğlu, F. 2007. Distribution of Crime Rates in Different Districts in

Istanbul. Turkish Studies, 8(3), 435-455.

Handelman, H. 2000. The Challenge of Third World Development. Prentice Hall. Upper Saddle

River, NJ.

Haugerud, A. 1989. Land tenure and agrarian change in Kenya. Africa, 59(1), 61.

Heald, S. 1999. Agricultural Intensification and the Decline of Pastoralism: A Case Study From

Kenya. Africa, 69(2), 213.

Hoppe, K. 2008. African Underclass: Urbanisation, Class and Colonial Order in Dar es Salaam.

African Studies Review, 51(2), 161-162. Retrieved April 8, 2009, from Academic Search Premier database.

Koczberski, G., Curry, G., & Connell, J. 2001. Full Circle or Spiralling Out of Control? State

Violence and the Control of Urbanisation in Papua New Guinea. Urban Studies, 38(11), 2017-2036.

Manyara, G., & Jones, E. 2007. Community-based Tourism Enterprises Development in Kenya:

An Exploration of Their Potential as Avenues of Poverty Reduction. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 15(6), 628-644.

Mbuba, J. M., 2008. “The Criminal is to Go Free Because the Constable Has Blundered.

Challenges of Law Enforcement in the Face of the Exclusionary Rule”. Free Inquiry in Creative Sociology, vol. 36,

no. 1, pp. 55-62.

Seekings, J. 2003. “Crime and the Rule of Law in Post-Apartheid South Africa”. In Garland,



Situ, Y., & Liu, W. 1996. Transient population, crime, and solution: The Chinese experience.

International Journal of Offender Therapy & Comparative Criminology, 40(4), 293.

Stone, C. 2003. “Strengthening Accountability in the New Global Police Culture. In Garland,



M’mbaha J.M. |KESSA Conference Proceedings 2017 | 19-24 http://www.kessa.org

19

WOMEN IN SPORT IN KENYA: LEADERSHIP STYLES AND PRACTICE

Janet Musimbi M’mbaha, PhD

Assistant Professor, Department of Health Sciences and Human Performance

Alabama Agricultural and Mechanical University

[email protected]

Abstract

This qualitative study examined the roles of women in sport and how they practice leadership. Participants were purposively

selected from various sport organizations in Kenya. Interviews were used to collect data. Findings show women to adopt

transformational leadership styles and practice.

Keywords: Women, Sports, Leadership, Kenya

Introduction

Leadership is particularly complicated for women because

it requires them to align their actions with values, weigh

the options they hold, manage multiple work relationships,

and navigate complicated boundaries, while at the same

time trying to meet obligations related to their professional

duties and responsibilities (Hertneky, 2010). The

multiplicity of these roles may prove quite burdensome to

some women, leading to a lack of interest in leadership

positions. Historical, social, organizational, and political

factors including patriarchy a system that promotes

possession of power and economic privilege (Eisenstein,

1999; Omwami, 2011) have resulted in marginalization of,

and excluding women from participating in the social,

economic and political agenda, thus underrepresentation of

women in leadership ( Norman, 2010).

In the republic of Kenya, Affirmative Action Bill of 2007

requiring women to hold at least 30 percent of the political

posts and the public sector jobs is yet to be achieved

(Ogutu, 2010), as indicated in sports organizations

including the National Olympic committee (20%),

Athletics Kenya (12%), Kenya Secondary Schools Sports

Association (17%), Kenya Hockey Union (19%), Kenya

Volleyball Federations (7%), and Kenya Rugby Union

(20%). The gendered stereotypes emanating from

traditional beliefs about lack of leadership characteristics

in women promoting gender differences with those of men

superior to those of women (Branson, 2007; Webb &

Macdonald, 2007) and results in normalization of the

gendered stereotypes thus maintaining the status quo

(Sartore & Cunningham, 2007).

Leadership style refers to the behaviour, actions and

decisions of leaders, and to ways of implementing (Sadler,

1997). According to McAllister (2006), women’s ways of

leading are different from those of men as men favour the

agentic style of leadership that is aggressive, competitive

and direct. The feminine style of leadership is relationship

oriented, participatory, empowering, and concerns shared

leadership (Doherty & Manfredi, 2010). It is also

interpersonal, charismatic, collaborative (Mullen, 2009),

dynamic, (Oplatka, 2001), and consultative (Julien et al.,

2008). Moreover, women have been found to be more

democratic in their style and are more transformational

than men who are more transactional (Doherty &

Manfredi, 2010).Generally, organizations seek or try to

develop styles that are deemed as most effective in

fulfilling organizations’ mission. According to Bass and

Fiedler’s 1978 situational theory, leadership styles is

contextual. While leaders may profess a certain style, the

organizational subtexts or cultures determine the

leadership style. For women leaders, these subtexts may

present a challenge; but for others, adopting the preferred

style has become the only option.

Theoretical Framework

A theoretical perspective that informs this study on women

in sports leadership is fashioned alongside Segura's (2007)

feminist analysis of the hegemonic power of patriarchy.

The theory of feminism is used in this study to explore

gender relations and the status of women in sports.

Feminist’s research challenges power relationships that

exist in most of the social sectors including sports, and also

critiques sports as a sexist and male dominated institute


20

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(Sartore & Cunningham, 2007). Through social

constructivism, multiplicity of perspectives in research is

accepted (Creswell, 2007). ). Feminists identify

oppression and exploitation of women as the main features

in patriarchy, with the former centering on sex and class

differences, and the later occurring in labor relations

between men and women.

Methods

Purpose of the study & research questions

The purpose of this qualitative study was to explore

leadership styles and practice of women in sport leadership

in Kenya. This study is significant as it highlights the

important roles of women in leadership. It also provides

policy implications that can enhance the place and role of

women in sport leadership. Research questions that guided

this study were: 1.) What are the roles and responsibilities

of women in sport leadership? 2.) What are the leadership

styles of women sports leaders?

Sampling and data collection

Ten Participants were purposively selected (Rosenberge &

Daly, 1993) from various sports organizations in Kenya.

Purposive sampling ensure that you get information-rich

cases that will manifest the phenomena of interest (Patton,

2002). Participants included school teachers, ministry

officials, and businesswomen or private entrepreneurs.

Open ended interviews allowed participants to extensively

express their points of view (Giorgi, 1997) . Each

participant was asked to describe an incident and further

prompts were used to get detailed information. One-time

60 to 90-minutes interviews were conducted. Member

checking and the use of thick-rich descriptions, thus

ensuring trustworthiness of data (Bryman, 2001). All

interview transcripts were labelled to include the use of

pseudonym as a way of ensuring confidentiality (Patton,

2002).

Data analysis

Thematic analysis (Roulston, 2001) of the data was used.

The purpose of thematic analysis is to generate categories

and identify common thematic elements across the

research participants, the events they report and the actions

they take (Reissman, 2008). Following Saldana (2009), the

researcher applied Strauss and Corbin’s initial coding,

which involved breaking data into discrete parts and

comparing them for similarities and difference from

repeated words. These codes were put in categories to help

create some order and then developed into themes

(Saldana, 2009). Constant reflection on the research

questions and interview questions guided the researcher to

see the emerging patterns and themes.

Results and Discussions

Participant’s age ranged from 40-60 years old. They had a

career job and volunteered as sports leaders. They were all

mothers and had been leaders in sport for more than two

years. They had participated in competitive athletics at

various levels. Similar to previous studies (Branson, 2007;

Henry et al., 2004; Inglis et al., 2000), participants in this

study were highly educated. Effective leadership requires

one to constantly upgrade their knowledge and ways of

doing things so that they can remain relevant within the

organization, hence training and preparation for leadership

roles are considered critical for one to become an effective

leader (Lafreniere & Longman, 2008). In line with this

perspective, several participants stated that they were

pursuing further education and that they also attended

numerous training courses.

Roles and responsibilities

The organizational settings and structures determine

assignment of roles and responsibilities, and could have a

profound effect on a person’s ability to make or influence

decisions in the organization. For example J a high school

teacher described herself as an administrator, a

communicator, and a teacher, with each of these positions

having defined roles and responsibilities such as

mentoring, counseling, and communication. Sanyo, a

university sports administrator described herself as a

teacher, as a coach, and as a sports administrator.

Each of these participants clearly defined her leadership

roles and the accompanying responsibilities. The

narratives of these women leaders showed multiple roles

that they performed beyond expectations. These findings

resonate with previous research showing women to engage

in multiple roles (Evetts, 1988; Park, 2010).

Developing new programs for the sport organizations.

Some of the assigned responsibilities for the women

leaders included developing programs.

21

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Table 1

Highlights of Programs developed

by women

Quotations

LA Girls only tournament

Cooperate sponsorship

Women’s league

..So I started the league and I also started a schools tournament, I got

Ksh. 25,000 in sponsorship …the last amount I was given was half a

million

BL Women sport

Cooperate sponsorship

Competed internationally

... We registered as a women’s organization. Because of that the

constitution had to change… they were scared of women because we

were getting sponsors.

SA Sports& Drugs program

Successful in the African

region

When I had to set up single handed, you know, and run the

organization under the commonwealth, I was handling ten member

countries of Africa

PR Junior tournaments

Cooperate sponsorships

Targeted poor communities

… and asked me if I would be interested in developing a junior sport

program, and for me, working with young people was my passion….I

got there… from those two tournaments, we were sponsored fully

LA Workplace sport …. So I managed to get a team and I managed to sensitize the

management to set up sports activities for the employees

MR Work place sport

When I introduced sports in the company each department top

competition, it was nice and successful.

For example, LA, BL and PR were mandated to develop

sport programs for women and youth. These leaders

developed a successful programs through securing

corporate sponsorship. (Table 1). Results attest to women’s

commitment, success, and ability to manage programs.

Politicization of the programs resulted in men taking over

and locking women out thus enhancing male domination

and maintenance of status-quo (Sartore & Cunningham,

2007). Women often drop out of leadership when they are

unable to influence decisions (Pfister, & Radtke, 2006) as

was the case in this study. Surprisingly, all of the women

leaders continued to engage in sports at different levels.

Some participants’ initiated successful workplace

employee sports programs to an important way of workers

to socialize with each other, and as a way of increasing

employee productivity.

Fulfilling athletes’ physical and psychological needs.

In their leadership roles, women were not just interested in

the athletes producing results; rather they took into

consideration the athletes’ physical and psychological

wellbeing. LA provided meals and sometimes

accommodation for her teams because a number of them

were from poor families “I bought mattresses … and I

would cook meals from my house, I supplied the meals, my

house help would cook” EV empathized with the athlete’s

poor socio-economic situation and would host some at her

own cost. Eva stated “I am living with six boys from this

school, who are poor and they are footballers….

Sometimes the school has no money…” These narratives

by EV, and LA, depicts the women’s nurturing side and

testify to the important roles and responsibilities that

women leaders used to fulfill.

Decision-making process. Those with long established

careers, and high-level positions in sports organizations

had more influence in decisions. Some participants pointed

to the low participation in decision making as meetings

were never called and decisions were made elsewhere and

only passed on to the committee to implement ( Table 2).

SP’s participation in decision making process was limited,

and that she only implemented decisions by the sports

committee. Similar to previous studies, (Sperandio &

Kagoda, 2010) four participants indicated that their

involvement in the decision-making process was

determined by one’s position in the organization, years of

experience, and organizational contexts. Moreover, a

woman’s ability to be involved in the decision-making

22

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process was only sustained when she was in good terms

with other members of the board as indicated by LN.

Table 2

Involvement in decision making process

LN YES. locked out

for opposing a

decision

Yes, I was the decision maker throughout but what so when they wanted to amalgamate

and I refused, I was locked out and could no longer contribute to the decision making

process.

MB YES. Knowledge

important

Where I am and where I have made decisions that have been passed, most of them have

been accepted so far. Because first of all you have to prove yourself as an authority in

the area and more

MR YES. Position is

important

Okay, being in the Board as a Board member, you are involved in all decision making

regardless, and you are entitled to your opinion

RR Limited. Locked

out of executive

committee

The sub-committee has got to be invited because this is your field as the sub-committee

but then we are never given the opportunity. The Executive sits locks out completely as a

sub-committee.

SP Limited role when it came to the decision, the board makes a decision making. the Chairman, there is

the Secretary…they are the ones who make decisions …mine is to help implement

whatever they have decided

OL YES. respect for

winning

They try to… always consult me when making the program. I would play a big role in

the decision making process

Leadership styles. Results pointed towards various

preferred leadership styles, which included collaborative,

situational and democratic leadership styles as indicated by

the table below (Table3): While most organizations

previously preferred the agentic / male leadership styles, in

this study, women leaders used diversified but similar

leadership styles that made them successful. These results

are consistent with previous research showing women

leaders to use interpersonal, empowering, collaborative,

democratic and participative styles of leadership (Doherty

& Manfredi, 2010). Participants in the study stated that

their styles were determined by the situation, thus

sustaining Bass and Fielder’s 1978 (Bass, 1997) situational

theory, where the style is determined by the context. It was

quite surprising that despite sport being a male dominated

area, none of the participants indicated adopting the

masculine style of leadership. Each participant seemed to

adopt a specific style that was suitable to the type of work

and specific organization. Also, regardless of the

leadership style, it was difficult to dissociate women from

their nurturing side which emerged from the way they

handled their charges, taking into consideration the

athlete’s physical, psychological and social welfare.

Table 3

Leadership style Narrative quotations

WA Participatory,

collaboration

I love people participating…. I give chance to other people. I lead by

example because first of all I have to show them. I am a hands-on

person when it comes to leadership

MB Networking,

Collaboration

My leadership style is… I believe in networking, collaborating,

listening to somebody, not being judgmental and not taking you from

what people take you.

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EV Democratic ,

consultation

..Innovative, democratic, you don’t just make a decision before you

consult… before I consult with the Principal

SP Situational

Authoritarian &

Democratic

We have mixed qualities being ... In a disciplined force like this one

makes you go autocratic. Yes, but since now you see sports is

voluntary, you have to be democratic. You have to accommodate

views

OL Democratic Of course I am very democratic. I give them [student athletes]

freedom. And then democracy can…

SA Participatory,

Consultation

When we sit and I give them our vision, our mission, then I want to

hear what…then I get their opinion, get their opinion…

LA Participatory,

collaborative

I like to involve others

Generally, women in this study aligned themselves with

transformational style of leadership which focused on

empowering, relationship building, inspiring and

motivating workers, communicating and power sharing

(Cunningham & Cordeiro, 2003). In conclusion, this study

showed women to have successfully combined education

and sports a fact that made them role models to aspiring

athletes. Findings of this study cannot be applied to any

other context. A more comprehensive research on the

leadership styles of men in sport is recommended.

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Branson, D. M. (2007). No Seat at the Table: How Corporate Governance and Law Keep Women out of the Board Room. New

York: New York University Press.

Bryman, A. (2001). Social Research Methods. New York: Oxford University Press.

Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among the Five Approaches. (2nd ed.). Thousand-

Oaks, CA: Sage publications.

Cunningham, W. G., & Cordeiro, P. A. (2003). Education Leadership: A Problem Based Approach. (2nd ed.). Boston: Pearson

Education Inc

Doherty, L., & Manfredi, S. (2010). Improving women's representation in senior positions in universities. Employee Relations,

32(2), 138-155.

Eisenstein, Z. (1999). Constructing a theory of capitalist patriarchy and socialist feminism. Critical Sociology (Brill Academic

Publishers), 25(2), 196-217.

Evetts, J. (1988). Managing childcare and work responsibilities: The strategies of married women primary and infant head

teachers. Sociological Review, 36(3), 50.

Giorgi, A. (1997). The theory, practice, and evaluation of the phenomenological method as a qualitative research. Journal of

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Loughborough: Institute of Sport and Leisure Policy, Loughborough University and the International Olympic Committee.

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Inglis, S., Danylchuk, K. E., & Pastore, D. L. (2000). Multiple realities of women's work experiences in coaching and athletic

management. Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal, 9(2), 1-26.

Julien, M., Zinni, D., & Wright, B. (2008). Keeper of the drums: Female aboriginal leadership and the salience of gender.

Advancing Women in Leadership, 28, 3-3.

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Mose P.N. |KESSA Conference Proceedings 2017 | 25-28 http://www.kessa.org

25

DEVOLVING THE LANGUAGE RESOURCE IN KENYA: A STUDY OF PUBLIC PERCEPTIONS

Peter Nyakundi Mose

Post-doctoral Fellow

Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa

[email protected]

Abstract

Kenya started operationalizing a devolved system of government after the promulgation of a new constitution in the year 2010.

The system provides for a two-tier government system; national and county. The principle is to devolve national resources to

the grassroots in order to spur socio-economic development in all parts of the country. The purpose of this study was to

establish public perceptions on possible inclusion of local languages as official languages, in addition to Kiswahili and English

in the devolved government units. The study was undertaken bearing in mind that in almost all counties in the country, there is

predominance (in settlement patterns) of specific language communities. Data were gathered through interviews and

administration of questionnaires. Findings indicate that people perceive use of local languages as official languages as;

exclusionary; as a source of tribalism; as against official policy of using Kiswahili and English; and it will be a way of closing

ourselves from the rest of the world. But in spite of people’s perceptions, there is an unavoidable need to use indigenous

languages in public fora; this is due to challenges of inadequate fluency in second languages on one hand and the

predominance of local languages in most rural settlements on the other. It is recommended that the government encourages the

use of local languages in public fora, where possible, to make its service delivery more effective. Insistence on official

languages has its benefits but for practically, local languages still hold significance in socio-economic development at the

county levels.

Keywords: Ekegusii, County government, Development

Introduction

The main reason for the establishment of county

governments in Kenya was, possibly, the devolution of

national resources to all parts of the country. Language has

been referred as a natural resource, just like oil, as a tool

for socio-economic development (Attyang, 2002;

Chumbow, 1987; Djité, 2008; Ruiz, 1984; Simala, 2002).

Development discourse studies count language as a core

factor especially when it involves rural populations, like in

Africa, with little or no knowledge of international

languages like English, French and so forth or lingua

franca like Kiswahili in Eastern Africa. The language

factor is necessary because information on development

has to be communicated (Oliveira, 1993). Research

indicates that less than 30% of Kenyans have a competent

mastery of the English Language (Bunyi, 2005). Still,

more than 60% of Kenyans live, earn a living in out of

cosmopolitan areas in the country either as small-scale

farmers, as herders, as small-scale business people, as

itinerant traders, as nomads and so forth. Kiswahili and

English are official languages; Kiswahili is, in addition, a

national language (RoK, 2010). But the objectives of

having a national and official language are not for

development per se. That is why the question of what

language people know, speak well, understand, becomes

prominent in development.

If we insist on the use Kiswahili and English for

government transaction because they are official, how will

a primary school drop-out adult crop farmer understand

and appreciate information on disease-resistant varieties of

crops when they do not have mastery of the languages?

What is the significance of an official language to a

Samburu nomad who needs expert advice on how to keep

his livestock free from disease and on how to increase

milk/meat/blood production? Of what significance is an

official language to herders in West Pokot who need to

participate in budget making at the county level? This

article sought to explain why, irrespective of what the

public perceives local languages to be, it is urgent to

consider having local languages as part of the official

means of communication in county governments.

The study

The purpose of this study was to establish public

perceptions on the inclusion of local languages as part of

the official languages in the devolved governments. It was



26

conducted in the Ekegusii-speaking counties of Kisii and

Nyamira of western Kenya. The sample was randomly

obtained from students and lecturers from the Kisii

University; public workers at the Kisii and Nyamira

Counties, and education officers in both counties. Data

were obtained through interviews and administration of a

structured questionnaire. Data analysis was mainly

qualitative which followed the following steps;

transcribing interview data, reading through both interview

and questionnaire responses; writing down emerging

themes; rereading to confirm initial impressions, and

reading the themes against literature.

Findings

The question the study sought to answer was, “Can we

have Ekegusii as a third official language in Kisii and

Nyamira counties alongside Kiswahili and English”. The

main themes which merged from the study were as

follows: a) exlusion, b) tribalism and nationalism, c) non-

fluency in mother toungue, d) it is unofficial, e) investors,

f) self-deameaning, g) globalization.

Exclusion: There was a feeling among the respondents

that use of Ekegusii in public offices alongside Kiswahili

and English would prevent access of services by people

from other communities as captured in the following

response from a university student; “How will other people

from, for example, Ukambani access services if Ekegusii is

used? Will it not prevent access to essential

services?”This respondent assumed that we must speak in

official languages even when it is practically impossible.

Currently, the Kisii Law Court, just like many others in the

country, provides translation services to parties in court

cases; it would not be difficult to provide the same

translation services, for instance, in county assembly

business. Some counties across the country have elected

members with only primary school education. Could these

be assumed to have adequate competence in English as to

use it to share their ideas or counter arguments in assembly

discussions? Should they not be allowed to express

themselves in a language they know well that they may

adequately represent the electorate?

Tribalism and nationalism: The use of Ekegusii would

encourage tribalism as some respondents argued. There are

more than 44 tribes in the country and each speaks their

own language. Kiswahili is taught to be a neutral language

and therefore non-tribalistic. A county officer responded

thus; “We cannot take our country back to tribalism. If we

speak the 44 languages in our counties, tribalism will go

up. Kiswahili solves our tribalism problems…” Scholars

dismiss the association of use of local languages to

tribalism (Luoch & Ogutu, 2002). Manifestations of

tribalism are not on language use but, according to

Ochieng’ (1975), a person is tribalistic if he is devoted to

his particular tribe against the wider, and more approved

aims of unity, modernization, and justice. Further, Ochieng

observes that tribalism is manifested in job appointments,

awarding of scholarships, and other opportunities where

decision makers favour only members of their own ethnic

groups. Further to that, Somalia is, predominantly, a

Somali-speaking country yet they had a national conflict

leading to a decades-long war.

Non-fluency in mother tongues: Respondents felt that the

use of mother tongues could be impractical because most

people are not fluent in their mother tongues. There is a

perception that many Kenyans have acquired Kiswahili

and English so that it is not possible to speak and use their

languages in public affairs. Both Kiswahili and English are

mainly learnt in the school system but the former enjoys

diverse contexts of acquisition including markets,

churches, and mass media. The perception that the Kenyan

population is non-fluent in their mother tongues is based

on misinformation because whether a language has

borrowed heavily from others, it does not disappear. For

instance, English has borrowed from French, German,

Italian, Greek, Afrikaans, and Kiswahili, and so forth yet it

is still English. In the Kenyan case, it would be inexact to

say there is any community whose language has been

forgotten and therefore not fluent in their language except

may be the Suba speakers majority of whom use Dholuo

because of long association.

It is unofficial:The constitution allocates Kiswahili and

English the role of official languages in the country and

Kiswahili doubles as a national language as shared by one

respondent “Our official languages are English and

Kiswahili. Any other languages can be used elsewhere.

People are able to use them. Why again add another

one?...” National languages and official ones are underlain

by a philosophy and it is not for socio-economic and

cultural development per se. They are official languages

but the ecosystem in which they are learnt/taught has not

provided sufficient exposure for learning and use by

majority of the population across the country. There should

be no insistence on official languages when actually,

people are adequately served by the languages they know

well; and these are the local languages.


27

Investors: Kenyans own property and do business in

various places in the country. Some of the investors in the

Gusii region, possibly referred to here are non-Ekegusii

speakers including Indians who have lived in the region

from the beginning of the 20th Century. These operate

supermarkets, private hospitals, and lately we have the

Somali who deal mainly with the clothing and mobile

technology business. What, for instance, the Somalis in

Kisii Town have done is to employ Ekegusii-speaking

salespeople able to reach potential customers. The

Agikuyu who own businesses in Kisii Town never insist

that customers speak official languages; they, instead, have

learnt Ekegusii and so they are able to negotiate with their

customers. This demonstrates that use of local languages

cannot impede investment.

Self-demeaning: There is a feeling that the use of

Kiswahili and English portrays someone as sophisticated

or educated. Local languages seem to be associated with

non-sophistication as shared by a respnedent who said:

“How can we use Ekegusii in offices yet we have English?

How can you use Ekegusii in the county assembly

and we have internationally known languages?”This

response is attitudinal-that an official language must not be

a local language; it is a sign of low self-esteem. Ngugi

(1986) argues that unless we (as Africans) decolonize our

minds, especially culturally, we may not reach our fullest

potential. His argument is based on the linguistic principle

that any language is able to express any nature of thought

from any discipline. This attitude has also been observed

in public schools in Kenya where teachers opt to teach in

English instead of in mother tongues as provided for in the

language in education policy in lower primary education

(Mose, 2015).

Globalization: The use of Ekegusii in the Ekegusii-

speaking counties is looked at as a way of closing out the

speakers from the rest of the world. The possible

abandonment of Kiswahili is perceived to possibly close

out Gusii from the East African Community, while that of

English will close out Gusii from the rest of the world. The

view is also erroneous because it seems that countries that

have developed better than Kenya have not done so using

foreign languages. These include Malaysia, Singapore, and

Koreas. Actually, Germany, France, China, and Russia, the

major world powers have not developed because of

English. They teach English as a foreign language to

enable their people sell their technology out there and to

also get jobs internationally; but their school systems use

German, French, Chinese, and Russian respectively. In the

Eastern Cape Province in South Africa, primary school

students are being taught in isiXhosa, a mother tongue, for

the past seven years. In spite of South Africa’s high

population of English-speaking whites in the continent, it

has not been easy to teach in English. With isiXhosa, black

students have reached more than 70% in mathematics

which was between 30% and 40% when English was in

use (Shale, 2015). The country is aware that globalization

is not about language; it is about empowering a people

with knowledge irrespective of the medium.

Discussion and conclusion

The constitution of Kenya provides for the full

participation of the public in both the county and the

national level. For instance, the county budgets have to be

discussed in public fora before they are implemented. In

addition, national issues such as elections, democracy and

so forth require public participation and civic education.

All need a medium that the population understands well in

order to participate. The population must include the

herders of the Maasai community, the nomads among the

Samburu, and the unfortunate millions of Kenyans who did

not get an opportunity to acquire school education. A

language of development must be a language people speak

and understand.

In Kenya, research indicate that less than 30 % of the

population have a command of the English language

(Bunyi, 2005). Kiswahili is not a mother tongue to a

majority of Kenyans, indicating that for public affairs

involving the masses in the rural settlements, an alternative

is inevitable. Development is not the Nairobi Stock

Exchange reports on television, the president’s speech on

government achievements, nor the reports on the number

of students joining high school the next year. Development

is, among other things, an old man who has never stepped

into a classroom being able to explain his ailment to a

doctor in his own language and getting the right

medication; a rural small scale farmer explains her

observations on her crop and she is given expert services

to enable her crop survive. Development is having a

nomad without school education understand how the

county government is going to make his animals survive in

drought; it is having him explain the risks he suffers as a

nomad and what the county government can do to make

his life, his family’s and his animals’ secure. In other

words it is not about what language the nation has

allocated what functions, but if the people are able to

express their deepest feelings in all their spheres of life. If

we insist on explaining our ailments in English which we


28

barely understand in a public hospital, the consequences of

the subsequent treatment are apparent.

It is high time the country considers having the relevant

local languages as the third official languages in majority

of the counties. Only about five counties in the whole

country may survive with Kiswahili and English. This will

call for translation services in various institutions like the

county assemblies and even hospitals. This is another way

of creating employment by employing translators. The

public can be encouraged to use Kiswahili as a national

symbol. Kiswahili and English, can continue to be used in

official contexts; but the relevant institutions must know

that the reality is that there are Kenyans in their hundreds

of thousands who cannot understand or speak the two

languages. An alternative local language such as the

Ekegusii could be an ideal tool of development at the

county level.

References

Attyang, J. M. (2002). Language, communication, and poverty alleviation. In F. R. Owino (Ed.), Speaking African: African

languages for education and development (pp. 293-300). Cape Town: CASAS Book Series No. 21.

Bunyi, G. (2005). Language classroom practices in Kenya. In A. Lin & P. W. Martin (Eds.), Decolonisation, globalization:

Language-in-education policy and practice (pp. 131-152). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

Chumbow, S. (1987). Towards a language planning model in Africa. JWAL, 17(1), 15-22.

Djité, P. G. (2008). The sociolinguistics of development in Africa. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

Luoch T. O. & Ogutu, E. A. (2002). The use of mother tongue and tribalism: A misconceived association. In F. R. Owino

(Ed.), Speaking African: African languages for education and development (pp. 89-98). Cape Town: CASAS Book

Series No. 21.

Ochieng’, W. R. (1975). Tribalism and national unity: The Kenya case. In A. Ojuka and W. Ochieng’ (Eds.), Politics and

leadership in Africa (pp. 254). Nairobi: East Africa Literature Bureau

Oliveira, M. C. B. (1993). Communication strategies for agricultural development in the Third World. Media Asia 20(2), 102-

108.

Ruíz, R. (1984). Orientations in language planning. NABE Journal, 8(2), 15-34.

Republic of Kenya (2010). The constitution of Kenya. Nairobi: Government Printer.

Shale, N. M. (2015). Incremental introduction of African languages in all schools: A must. A Key Note Speech Delivered at

the 18th International Conference of the African Language Association of Southern Africa, 24-26th June at Granger

Bay Hotel School, Cape Peninsula University of Technology.

Simala, I. K. (2002). Empowering indigenous African languages for sustainable development. In F. R. Owino (Ed.), Speaking

African: African languages for education and development (pp.45-54). Cape Town: CASAS Book Series No. 21.

Thiong’o, N. (1986). Decolonizing the mind. Nairobi. East African Educational Publishers.

Tagi, Kiruthu & Mbataru |KESSA Conference Proceedings 2017 | 29-34 http://www.kessa.org

29

EFFECTS OF SOCIAL MEDIA USE BY PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION ON COMMUNITY MOBILIZATION AND

SECURITY ENHANCEMENT IN NAKURU COUNTY, KENYA

Allan Kipkoech Tagi (Kenyatta University)

Dr. Felix Kiruthu & Dr. Patrick Mbataru,

(Department of Public Policy and Administration)

Abstract

The purpose of this study will be to examine the effects of social media use by public administration on community

mobilization and security enhancement in Nakuru County, Kenya. The study employed desktop methodology, which

involved review of existing literature relating to the study topic. The design involves a review of existing studies relating to

the research topic. Based on past literature this study found out that communication between the government and the public

is important in any effective political engagement. This is because citizens need to communicate to government on how they

want to be governed while the government needs to communicate to the public on its many activities. Many government

agencies are motivated to apply social media due to the various advantages it has chiefly, the ability to interact directly with

the people. Further, this study revealed that social media platforms such as Facebook and Twitter can be used to promote

citizen dialogue and government transparency on substantive issues. Governments are making information available to

citizens and providing them with a forum to get information and ask questions. Through the utilization of social media, they

are to some extent making government initiatives and activities more open and accessible. In addition, the study established

social media presence is a trademark of a vibrant and transparent communications strategy, and, to that end, social media

offer particular utility to public administration systems of government to have public relations. Social media tools can

improve interactivity between a government and the public, and they reach populations that do not consume traditional media

as frequently as others. Finally, the study found that the use of social media allows officials in government to build

relationships with key stakeholders, namely the citizens it represents.

Keywords: Social media, community mobilization, security enhancement, Nakuru Kenya

1.0 Introduction

Social media is one of the technological innovations that

have greatly revolutionized different aspects of the human

life. To a great extent, it has changed different processes

and engagement of human interaction. Today, the

adoption of social media in different dimensions

including the business environment has taken great strides

(Bertot, Jaeger, and Hansen, 2012). One of the main areas

that social media has greatly impacted in the society is in

terms of use by government agencies. The founders of the

social media did not have an idea of the many ways that

this new component could greatly impact on the lives of

others (Kaplan and Haenlein, 2010). Initially, they

developed the social media as a way of bridging the

communication gap between people in different

geographical locations. However, upon its extended use,

social media has gained great significance in different

field including enhancing communication between the

government and the governed (Livingston, 2013).

Social media offer great opportunities for governments.

The open, dialogic nature of social media eliminates many

of the barriers in communication that the government has

experienced in the past (Bertot & Jaeger, 2010). Bertot

and Jaeger established that social media can be applied in

increasing and improving access to government

information. This can be achieved through offering

information via the internet through multiple dynamic

interactive channels, interacting with members of the

public and addressing specific citizen interests and

concerns. Moreover social media can be used to reach

populations who might not otherwise encounter the

government information, serve as information and

communication outlets for whistleblowers to release

sensitive information and supplement or replace corrupt

or deficient information with citizen journalism.

Graham and Avery (2013) assessed how social media are

used as public relations functions to serve democratic,

participatory, and transparency models across a range of

government contexts. They observed that social media are

somewhat underutilized by local governments, with about

a 70% overall use rate compared with target of attaining

over 90% usage. Perceived importance of social media

predicted actual use. However, the officials’ perceptions

of whether or not their citizens expected them to use social

media did not predict use. Facebook and Twitter were the

most commonly used tools; the vast majority of posts and

tweets they wrote are about special events. Well over one-

third used at least one research or conferencing social

media tool (Graham and Avery, 2013).

Roumani (2013) studied the implications of internet based

technology on policy framework and learning culture at

Kenyatta University’s City Campus. Mwaniki (2012)

conducted a study on the influence of social media on the

effectiveness of business operations of the youth operated

small and medium enterprises in the municipal council of

Nakuru. Yator (2014) conducted a study on the use of

30

social media network sites on service delivery in hotels in

Nakuru town. The studies that have been conducted in

regard to use of SNSs in public administration have been

carried out outside Kenya and those carried out in Kenya

have not focused on use of SNSs on public administration.

This study will be different from the previous studies

since it will focus on use of social media tools such as

twitter, SMSs and Facebook in public community

mobilization and security enhancement in Lanet Umoja

Location. This location was selected as its public

administrators who have been in the forefront of adopting

and using social media in their public administration and

community mobilization (Karimi, 2013; Macharia, 2013).

Njiri (2013) in his study on community policing found the

programme lacked adequate resources and thus

recommended the need for innovative sensitization

approaches for community policing to be successful.

Since then various administrators in the country have

adopted use of social media in as innovative

communication and interactions with the public.

In Kajiado County, traditional leaders in public

administration were urged to embrace technology in a bid

to curb surging fears of insecurity in the country. This is

according to the deputy commissioner of Kenya’s Kajiado

County Mwangi Kahiro. He urged chiefs and their

assistants to open up accounts on social media services

such as Facebook and Twitter to interact with as many

locals as possible (Omanga, 2015). This call has been

made by various government leaders which have

prompted public administrators and state officers to adopt

the social media. In another incidence, the digital wave hit

Nyeri county administrative quarters, as chiefs showed up

in numbers to learn how to use the social media platform

as a tool of fighting crime in the county (Murule, 2013).

Famous tweeting Chief from Lanet Umoja location,

Francis Kariuki, pioneered the exercise, in a move to

implement community policing in the county (Mutune,

2014).

1.1 Problem Statement

Government communication is a major part of the

political public relations domain (Stromback & Kiousis,

2011). Although the significance of social media in

enhancing government communication, community

involvement and public administration has been

established, there is scarce research in the field. First, as

social media has been diffused among citizens and firms,

government agencies have recently adopted social media

to provide complementary communication and

participation channels for citizens Some scholars

(Bonson, Torres, Royo & Flores, 2012; Purser, 2012;

Snead, 2013) in public administration have paid

considerable attention to its opportunities to restore

citizen trust in government. However, little research has

been conducted to empirically test the effect of citizens’

use of social media and whether the government has been

made more efficient and transparent due to social media

adoption. Second, some empirical studies relied on earlier

survey data to examine citizens’ assessment of e-

government at an early stage of its development (Tolbert

and Mossberger 2006; Welch et al., 2005; West, 2004).

Considering the rapid development of e-government and

the recent introduction of online services and social

media, it is worthwhile to investigate how government has

applied social media tools and to assess the impact of this

adoption both to the government and the public. This

study will therefore seek to examine the utilization of

social media in community policing and security in Lanet

Umoja location of Nakuru County. The study examined

the factors that have motivated the adoption of social

media, assess how social media has been applied in

community mobilization and security and analyze the

effects of social media utilization in community

mobilization and security maintenance in Lanet.

2.0 Theoretical Review

The current study will be based on the diffusion of

innovations theory by Rogers (1962) and the New Public

Management (NPM) theoretical approach (Gudelis and

Guodis, 2011). The diffusion of innovations theory

explains the role played by the political, economic and the

social factors that may enable or hinder diffusion of

technology in a given society. The theory seeks to explain

the rate at which new technology diffuse within cultures

(Pinho & Soares, 2011). The theory also explains why and

how technologies and new ideas are adopted in different

cultures and societies. In the theory, diffusion is defined

as the process through which a technology or new idea is

communicated and accepted in a social system.

In the diffusion of innovations theory, three types of

decisions are made in a social system about adoption of

an idea or technology. The first is the optional innovation-

decision which is made by an individual, whether to adopt

or not adopt the technology. The second is the collective

innovation-decision which is made collectively by all

individuals in the social system. Lastly, the authority

innovation-decision is the decision made for the entire

social system by individuals who have power or influence

in the social system (Tai & Ting, 2011). This explains the

reasons that lead to administrators and residents in an area

adopting technology to ensure security and community

policing is effective. The social, political and economic

aspects of the adoption decision are explained by this

theory.

Diffusion of technologies theory explains that

organizations or institutions adopt new technology

through authority innovation decisions and collective

innovation decisions (Shittu et al., 2011). The collective

innovation decision in the context of this study is where

the adoption of technology as a tool for improving

community policing and security is made by the public

administration led by Chief Kariuki. In this case, the

decision is not formal and both the administrators and

citizens in the location agree to use social media

technology for security purposes.

The authority-innovation comes to play where the

decision to adopt any new technology in the location is

made by the public administration of the location. This

31

means that the few people who have a position of power

in an institution can make the decision to adopt the

technology or not (Rodgers, 2005). This theory also

explains that in reaching the decisions, the benefits and

costs of the innovation is considered. The citizens will

agree to use social media for security purposes when there

are advantaged derived from using social media.

The other theoretical perspective which this study is

grounded upon is the New Public Management approach.

Gudelis and Guodis (2011) describe New Public

Management as the business sector’s gift to public

administration. It calls for a qualitative dynamic, in clear

contrast to the traditional public administration model,

typically characterized by a lack of flexibility and focused

on process and procedure rather than goals and results.

Among the primary aims of NPM reforms are the

reduction of expenses to public administration and

increased effectiveness and quality in the work of civil

servants (Denhart, 2004).

Since the advent of new public management (NPM)

public administration around the world has witnessed

considerable transformations in its various spheres.

Variously referred to as managerialism, market-based

public administration, and results-based management

(Pollitt, 2003; Vigoda, 2003), the NPM has thus emerged

as a powerful force bringing about rapid and at times

unprecedented changes to public sector governance in

developed as well as developing countries. While it lacks

any precise definition generally, the NPM is understood

to mean the application of private sector values and

principles in the public sector in order to increase its

efficiency, effectiveness, and general performance (De

Vries & Nemec, 2013).

NPM entails wide ranging changes involving

organizational structures as well as operational processes

and principles of public administration. At the heart of

these changes is the emphasis on outcomes and results,

cost‐cutting, efficiency, and flexible management, among

others. Technology use epitomizes these components as it

leads to results, cost cutting, efficiency and flexibility in

public administration (Luke, Kearins & Verreynne, 2011;

Spacek & Maly, 2010).

These two theoretical perspectives will be suitable for this

study and will assist in getting an insight into the adoption

and usage of technology in public administration and

security enhancement in Kenya.

3.0 Empirical Review

3.1 Motivations towards Adoption of Social Media in

Public Administration

According to West (2004), communication between the

government and the public is important in any effective

political engagement. This is because citizens need to

communicate to government on how they want to be

governed while the government needs to communicate to

the public on its many activities. As noted by Thomas and

Streib (2003), some years back, the government used to

communicate with its citizens through only the traditional

media such as newspapers, radio and television, which is

basically a one way communicate model. However,

Yildiz (2007) observes that, with the advent of social

media, the government saw a new platform where it can

interact with its citizens.

Bryer and Zavattaro (2011) studied use of social media by

local authorities in Barcelona, Spain. They noted that

government public administrators in local authorities

engaged public through social media in a similar way that

they apply e-government and e-democracy platforms.

Social networking applications and social media, were

applied in large part because of their ease of use, have

become instruments of communication and change and

should be expected to have a significant impact on

government communication for the foreseeable future. A

recent review of the literature concerning social media’s

impact on e-government initiatives in the public sector by

Magro (2012) found that defining an ultimate goal for e-

government, changes in government culture, and resource

management are needed before governments can achieve

success in the use of social media. However, the review

by Magro (2012) indicated that many government

agencies are motivated to apply social media due to the

various advantages it has chiefly, the ability to interact

directly with the people.

Hand and Ching (2011) examined how local

governments’ in the Phoenix metropolitan areas use social

media and found that using social media at the local

government level seems to offer promise of increased

citizen engagement, reaching citizens on a common

platform, and allowing for citizen comments. A similar

study by Bonson, Torres, Royo and Flores (2012) that

looked at local governments in Europe found that many

governments have realized the opportunities that social

media present and that by making their news available

through social media they can vastly increase their

audience reach at very little cost. In addition, local

governments are using social media tools to enhance

transparency, but the use of social media to promote e-

participation with citizens is still underused.

3.2 Application of Social Media in Enhancing Public

Administration

A study by Graham and Avery (2013) in US established

that Facebook (91%) was the predominant social media

tool used by local governments to communicate with

citizens. In this study, several trends emerged regarding

Facebook use among local governments. First, the local

government officials indicated that the primary reason of

using Facebook was due to internal organizational

pressure. These interesting finding raises additional

questions to be answered in future research regarding the

staffing and support of social media initiatives by local

governments to respond to these internal demands.

Second, for local governments using Facebook, daily

posts were the most common (35%) followed by weekly

posts (28%). This finding is in line with general social

media usage statistics that show 35% of adults using

social media make posts daily, and 25% do so every few

days.

32

Findings from a study by Azyan (2012) on the use of

social media by governments in Africa indicate that local

governments are, by and large, utilizing social media to

some extent to communicate with citizens and key

publics. Of the 70% of users of social media, social

networking tools are most used, but at least a third of these

officials use networking or research tools. As evidenced

by the primary focus on event information in these results

in Facebook posts and Tweets, less obvious is the

engagement of social media to promote citizen dialogue

and government transparency on substantive issues.

Governments are making information available to citizens

and providing them with a forum to get information and

ask questions. Through the utilization of social media,

they are to some extent making government initiatives

and activities more open and accessible.

Consistent with the government transparency

requirements suggested in Fairbanks, Plowman, and

Rawlins’ (2007) model, local governments are informing,

educating, and reporting about government activities,

policies, and community issues through social media;

however, there is room for improvement in this area based

on the types of information posted. Providing this type of

transparency builds trust and encourages accountability

(Bertot & Jaeger, 2010). Moreover, local governments

seem to support democratic and participatory citizen

engagement by allowing for open communication on their

social networking pages and allowing dialogic exchange

of information and ideas. The current study will seek to

establish what kind of communication is carried out by

public administration in Lanet Umoja location through the

social media.

3.3 Effect of Social Media Use in Public

Administration

A social media presence is a trademark of a vibrant and

transparent communications strategy, and, to that end,

social media offer particular utility to public

administration systems of government to have public

relations. Social media tools can improve interactivity

between a government and the public, and they reach

populations that do not consume traditional media as

frequently as others (Bertot, Jaeger, Munson, & Glaisyer,

2010). This new technology allows officials in

government to build relationships with key stakeholders,

namely the citizens it represents. The relationship-

building potential of social media is especially valuable

for public relations professionals since building

relationships is at the core of public relations (Ledingham,

2003). Additionally, social media can enhance

governments’ abilities to interact with and engage citizens

as well as to meet their expectations for transparency.

Practitioners in government public relations have more

tools to engage and communicate with the public than

ever before. A survey in US showed that two-thirds of

online adults use social media platforms (Smith, 2011). In

addition, 40% of Internet users in developing countries of

Kenya, Uganda, Ghana and South Africa go online for

data about government operations, and social media users

are more tied to civic groups (Raine, 2011). As such,

social media offer great opportunities for governmental

agencies to interact and get a feel of what the opinions and

views of the citizens are. The open, dialogic nature of

social media eliminates many of the barriers in

communication that these governments have experienced

in the past (Bertot & Jaeger, 2010). Communication with

constituents can be more frequent, open, and targeted.

In the past, governments have had to rely almost

exclusively on traditional media (Dixon, 2010),

specifically newspapers, television, and radio, to get

information to citizens. Because of this, governments had

limited control over what was disseminated to publics and

when it would be distributed. The boom of the Internet

and particularly social media has changed the landscape

for communications. Traditional media are now not the

only source of public government information influencing

public thought and discourse. Additionally, traditional

media accommodate a one-way communication model,

but a one-way power over news generation and

dissemination is largely obsolete (Shirky, 2008). The

fundamental difference between social and traditional

mainstream media is the user-to-user format as opposed

to top-down news dissemination (Clark & Aufderheide,

2009). With social media, users are able to post, share,

and republish information easily and quickly. Social

media are a rapidly moving and vigorous domain (Kaplan

& Haenlein, 2010). The use of social media in the public

sector has become a hot topic recently, and public

administrators are beginning to embrace them to

encourage civic engagement and build community

involvement in policy and government activities.

4.0 Research Gaps

Review of previous studies on the use of social media by

the government revealed several research gaps. Graham

and Avery (2013) conducted a study on the use of social

media by the US government to communicate with

citizens. This study presents a geographical gap since it

was conducted in the US. The proposed study will be

conducted in Kenya. Further, Bryer and Zavattaro (2011)

studied use of social media by local authorities in

Barcelona, Spain. They noted that government public

administrators in local authorities engaged public through

social media in a similar way that they apply e-

government and e-democracy platforms. Similarly, the

study presents a geographical gap since it was carried out

in Bercelona, Spain.

Azyan (2012) carried out a study on the use of social

media by governments in Africa. The study found that

local governments are, by and large, utilizing social media

to some extent to communicate with citizens and key

publics. The study focused on a larger scope compared to

the proposed study.

Dixon (2010) in his study observed that in the past,

governments have had to rely almost exclusively on

traditional media, specifically newspapers, television, and

radio, to get information to citizens. The study focused on

the use traditional media by the government to

communicate with the citizens, thus presenting a

33

conceptual gap. On the other hand, the proposed study

focuses on the use of social media to communicate with

the citizens.

From the above studies, it is evident that none of the

studies has focused on the effects of social media use by

public administration on community mobilization and

security enhancement in Nakuru County, Kenya.

5.0 Conclusions-Policy, Practice, Theory Building

Based on past literature this study concluded that

communication between the government and the public is

important in any effective political engagement. This is

because citizens need to communicate to government on

how they want to be governed while the government

needs to communicate to the public on its many activities.

Many government agencies are motivated to apply social

media due to the various advantages it has chiefly, the

ability to interact directly with the people.

Further, this study concluded that social media platforms

such as Facebook and Twitter can be used to promote

citizen dialogue and government transparency on

substantive issues. Government is making information

available to citizens and providing them with a forum to

get information and ask questions. Through the utilization

of social media, they are to some extent making

government initiatives and activities more open and

accessible.

This study also concluded that a social media presence is

a trademark of a vibrant and transparent communications

strategy, and, to that end, social media offer particular

utility to public administration systems of government to

have public relations. Social media tools can improve

interactivity between a government and the public, and

they reach populations that do not consume traditional

media as frequently as others.

Finally, this study concluded that the use of social media

allows officials in government to build relationships with

key stakeholders, namely the citizens it represents. The

relationship-building potential of social media is

especially valuable for public relations professionals

since building relationships is at the core of public

relations.

6.0 Contribution to Policy, Practice and Theory

The findings in this study will contribute to policy,

practice and theory building. Firstly, through the findings

of this study, the government agencies should be able to

formulate relevant policies on the use of social media to

communicate with the people. For instance, the

government should pass a law that requires all public

administration officers to adopt the use of social media in

engaging the people they serve. Secondly, the findings of

this study should motivate both the government officers

and the citizens to use social media. This will enhance

effective communication and information sharing

between the two parties. For instance, through effective

information sharing, the public administration in Nakuru

and other Counties will be able to address the security

problem. Lastly, the findings of this study will contribute

to development of theory. Scholars will be able use the

findings of this study to build on their research.

REFERENCES

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Bertot, J. C., Jaeger, P. T., & Grimes, J. M. (2010). Using ICTs to create a culture of transparency: E-government and social

media as openness and anti-corruption tools for societies. Government information quarterly, 27(3), 264-271.

Bertot, J. C., Jaeger, P., & Hansen, T. (2012). Social media technology and government transparency. IEEE Computer

Society, November issue, 12 – 18.

Bertot, J.C. & Jarger, P. (2010). Designing, implementing, and evaluating user-centered and citizen-centered e-government.

International Journal of Electronic Government Research, 6 (2), 1-17.

Bonson, E., Torres, L., Royo, S. & Flores, F. (2012). Local e-government 2.0: Social media and corporate transparency in

municipalities. Government Information Quarterly, 29, 123-132.

Bryer, T., & Zavattaro, S. (2011). Social media and public administration: Theoretical dimensions and introductions to the

symposium. Administrative Theory and Praxis, 33(3), 325-340.

Clark, J. & Aufderheide, P. (2009). Public media 2.0: Dynamic, engaged publics. American University School of

Communication Center for Social Media, 2-26.

De Vries, M., & Nemec, J. (2013). Public sector reform: an overview of recent literature and research on NPM and alternative

paths. International Journal of Public Sector Management, 26(1), 4-16.

Denhart, R.B. (2004), Theories of Public Organization. Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth.

Dixon, B. (2010). Towards e-government 2.0: An assessment of where e-government 2.0 is and where it is headed. Public

Administration and Management, 15, 418-454.

Fairbanks, J., Plowman K.D., & Rawlins, B.L. (2007). Transparency in Government Communication. Journal of Public

Affairs, 7(10), 23-37.

Graham, M. & Avery, E. J. (2013). Government Public Relations and Social Media: An Analysis of the Perceptions and

Trends of Social Media Use at the Local Government Level. Public Relations Journal, 7 (4), 1 – 21.

34

Hand, L.C. & Ching, B.D. (2011). You have one friend request: An exploration of power and citizen engagement in local

governments’ use of social media. Administrative Theory and Praxis, 33, 362-382.

Kaplan, A. & Haenlein, M. (2010). Users of the world, unite! The challenges and opportunities of social media. Business

Horizons, 53, 59-68

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Wambua M.M |KESSA Conference Proceedings 2017 | 35-38 http://www.kessa.org

35

WHY AM I DOING THIS? AN EXPLORATORY STUDY OF WHETHER STUDENTS’ CONCEPTUAL KNOWLEDGE

INFORMS THEIR PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE IN MATHEMATICS

Mitchelle M. Wambua

[email protected]

Syracuse University

Abstract

The main goal for teaching and learning mathematics is to ensure understanding of concepts and procedures aimed at solving

tasks. The relationship between conceptual and procedural knowledge in the study of mathematics is of interest to students and

teachers, particularly on whether the sequencing of the two knowledge types affects learning. This study aims to highlight the

experiences of international under-graduate students of Kenyan origin in the United States with both conceptual and procedural

knowledge. It also examines the impact of writing on acquisition and retention of mathematics ideas. Results showed that

students prefer conceptual-to-procedural sequencing, although procedural-to-conceptual learning is beneficial in some cases.

The findings are analyzed and discussed based on previous research on the two knowledge types.

Keywords: Conceptual knowledge, Procedural knowledge, Mathematics

Introduction and Statement of Problem

The study of mathematics involves the use of many

formulas and steps to complete tasks (Hiebert, 2013). To

correctly solve questions and tasks, a student should learn

and possess mathematical knowledge. For student

mathematical learning to occur, they should experience

both conceptual and procedural knowledge (Rittle-

Johnson, Alibali, Haverty, Heffernan, Koedinger & Nhouy

vanis-vong, 1999). According to Rittle-Johnson, Schneider

and Star, (2015), these two knowledge types build on each

other. However, some students may follow procedures

correctly, get the correct solution, yet be unable to explain

why those steps are correct (Hiebert, 2013), an aspect

portraying lack of conceptual knowledge, making them

question, “Why am I doing this?” This raises the question

of whether there is a relationship between procedural and

conceptual knowledge (Rittle-Johnson, Schneider & Star,

2015) and consequently, if learning of the two knowledge

types is bidirectional or unidirectional. Rittle-Johnson

et.al., (1999) contend that there are only a few studies that

have directly examined relations between the two

knowledge types.

The procedures followed in solving mathematics tasks

involve writing and calculations (Porter and Masingila,

2000). Through writing, students’ conceptual and

procedural competence and retention is enhanced (Adu-

Gyamfi, Bosse and Faulconer, 2010). Through writing,

also, students and teachers assess the mathematical

understanding of learners. This study seeks to highlight the

experiences of undergraduate mathematics students from

Kenya with the two knowledge types, their preferred

instructional processes, and the impact of writing on their

learning, with an aim of exploring whether their learning is

unidirectional or bidirectional.

Research Questions

In my study, I sought to answer the following research

questions:

a) What are some of the procedures that

mathematics students carry out or have carried

out when solving mathematics tasks?

b) Are these procedures informed by the students’

conceptual knowledge?

c) What perceptions do these students have on the

teaching of procedural and conceptual

knowledge?

Literature Review

Student learning inculcates attainment of fundamental

concepts and correct procedures for solving problems

(Rittle-Johnson et.al., 1999). Indeed, mathematical

competence rests on development of learners’ conceptual

and procedural knowledge. Conceptual knowledge is the

cognition of abstract and general concepts, operations and

relations (Star, 2005) while procedural knowledge is the

mastery of procedures. Although the two knowledge types

are related (Star, 2005), the developmental relations

between them are not well understood (Rittle-Johnson

et.al., 1999). There has been a long-standing debate on

whether the acquisition of these knowledge types is

unidirectional or bidirectional (Rittle-Johnson, Schneider&

Star, 2015). Unidirectional relationship asserts that only



36

acquisition of conceptual understanding leads to

development of procedural knowledge and not vice-versa

(Broody, 2007) while in bidirectional learning, conceptual

and procedural knowledge develop iteratively, with gains

in one leading to gains in the other (Rittle-Johnson et.al.,

1999).

To gauge student learning, assessment is inevitable (Adu-

Gyamfi, Bosse, & Faulconer, 2010). Classroom

assessment should reflect the mathematics that students

should know and be able to do (National Council of

Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM), 1995). One way of

assessing students’ learning is having them solve tasks

through writing and/or computations (Adu-Gyamfi, Bosse,

& Faulconer, 2010). Moreover, Star (2007) contends that

conceptual and procedural knowledge types should be

assessed independently, to study the relations between

them. He recommends the use of multiple measures for

each knowledge type. Schneider and Stern (2010) assert

that conceptual knowledge could be measured using

various tasks that evaluate the correctness of examples

and/or procedures and may demand provision of

definitions and explanation of concepts. These tasks

should be relatively unfamiliar to participants to ensure

that participants derive answers from their conceptual

knowledge, rather than implementing known procedures

for solving the task. Procedural knowledge on the other

hand could be assessed through problem solving, to

measure the accuracy of answers or procedures. Procedural

tasks are familiar and mostly involve problems that people

have solved before, and thus should know the steps.

Methods

The study comprised an in-depth, semi-structured

interview protocol with several open-ended questions as

recommended by Fontana and Frey (2005). I conducted

three interviews to elicit viewpoints of the respondents’

experiences with the two knowledge types.

I used the multiple data sources for purposes of

triangulation to ensure reliability and validity of the study

as recommended by Denzin and Lincoln (2005) and to

ensure a deep understanding of the phenomenon under

investigation as well as to help in overcoming the biases

emanating from one data source (Creswell, 2009).

The participants were all undergraduate students. There

was one junior male student, Carl, and two sophomore

females, Pamela and Sara. (all names are pseudonyms).

They were chosen based on criterion sampling (Xie &

Sharma, 2005), the criteria being international students

who have studied both in Kenya and in the United states

(US) and having taken at least one undergraduate math

course.

Researcher Role

Before starting my graduate studies, I was a high school

mathematics teacher in Kenya for one year. Here, I

involved students in explaining their solution paths to

small groups and before the whole class. Although some

could explain boldly and correctly, others did not have a

strong grasp of their concepts. This disposition has greatly

influenced my choice of research topic and development of

research questions.

As part of my graduate studies, I have taken a course on

Internship in Mathematics Education where a large part of

my assignment involved following a mathematics

instructor then writing reflections on how students’ best

learn and the role of a teacher in student learning. I am also

a teaching assistant and have taught a mathematics course

called teaching mathematics via problem solving where

acquisition of conceptual and procedural knowledge is

emphasized. The students are provided opportunities to

productively struggle with mathematics questions then

fully explain their solution paths instead of just giving the

final solution. I am aware that this disposition places me in

an insider position and could influence my interview

questions and reporting since I may create a bias towards

my experiences.

Findings

Two themes emerged from the data findings as follows: a)

unidirectional versus bidirectional learning, b) writing and

assessment

Unidirectional versus bidirectional Learning: The

participants reported that their knowledge acquisition is

both unidirectional and bidirectional. On conceptual-to-

procedural learning, the participants felt that in most of

their learning, conceptual knowledge led to procedural

fluency. They added that mathematics makes sense to them

when concepts are first explained followed by homework

questions requiring application of the taught concepts. As

Sara (not her real name) said, “I learn best when the

teacher introduces theorems and then gives us home works

to do in the same class.” She added that most of her

elementary school mathematics made sense because she

did guided learning; the teacher taught concepts then

guided them in applying the concepts to solve assigned

homework questions. Pamela appreciated guided learning

as well. She mentioned that, “I liked what my high school

teachers did. They would do one-on-one teaching where

they would explain to individual students why some


37

concepts were the way they were.”On the same note, Carl

articulated that:

I tend to believe that the best way to teach is the

teacher trying to put the concept forth and then

trying to see if you understood. And how do you

see that we have understood it? Maybe give us

one or two questions and ask us, can you work on

these within the lecture? That will be amazing.

Clearly, the students felt that procedures become more

meaningful when they have already grasped the embedded

concepts.

Concerning procedural-to-conceptual instruction,

participants reported to have had experiences in their

learning where teachers taught procedures before

explaining the underlying concepts. They however felt that

this would sometime lead to confusion and memorization

of procedures without understanding. Pamela, for instance,

said that she was taught on cross cancellation of fractions

at class five. She added that, “It made me get confused and

I went as far as form 1 without fully grasping it…” She

added that, “For some time, I did not understand what was

a numerator, denominator or reciprocal. I think it was

harder because the terms were tough and did not make

sense to me although I could use them in computations.”

To solve a question on division of fractions, Pamela used

the procedure of multiplying the numerator of one fraction

by the denominator of the second fraction, i.e., 3

8÷

1

2=

3×2

8×1=

3×1

4×1=

3

4.

When given the same question, Carl and Sara multiplied

the first fraction by the reciprocal of the second fraction,

i.e., 3

8÷

1

2=

3

8×

2

1=

6

8=

3

4 . When asked why they

approached the question this way, Carl said, “My teacher

in class six said that whenever you are dividing two

fractions, you must flip the second fraction then multiply

but I do not know why.” Sara, on the other hand said, “I

know it is correct but I cannot explain… But at least I can

write it so I am good.” Both Carl and Sara encountered and

memorized procedures before learning the concepts and

although they could do the computations, they could not

explain why they were correct. This resonates with

Hiebert’s (2013) sentiments that getting the final answer

correct does not necessarily depict a deep understanding of

the embedded concepts.

In some cases, however, the respondents reported that

grasping of procedures made learning of underlying

concepts easier since they could relate more easily. For

instance, Carl said that he was taught about dividing

fractions by multiplying the first fraction by the reciprocal

of the second fraction at class six. At class eight, he was

then taught on the concept of conjugation. For instance, the

conjugate of division is multiplication and the conjugate of

a number is its reciprocal. According to him, conjugation

made more sense since he had been using it for some time

although he did not know the name for the concept. He

added that, “I like that I was taught multiplication before

its conjugate which is division because you cannot learn

division without knowing multiplication.”

In general, the respondents reported that acquisition of

conceptual knowledge automatically led to acquisition of

procedural knowledge. However, when procedural fluency

is first emphasized, it may or may not lead to learning of

conceptual knowledge. It hence came out that the learning

of these two knowledge types is unidirectional for most

parts and bidirectional in some cases.

Writing and assessment: The second theme is on students’

experiences with writing as part of assessment.

Participants felt that writing is important in their

mathematics learning since it enhanced retention. The

commonly used modes of assessment included use of

worksheets, tests and verbal questions. All participants

noted that most of their learning has been marked with the

use of tests and worksheets. Carl reported that, “Most of

the times in my undergraduate classes, my teachers

introduce a concept, explain it, then administer a

worksheet containing questions for us to attempt…I like

this since I can tell if I understood.” This idea was

reinforced by Sara who also liked the idea of using

worksheets as she said, “For me, I have to do computations

to understand ideas. When the teacher explains, I only get

the rough idea but when I do it later using the worksheets

and past test papers, I understand better.” Pamela also

added that, “Math can be complicated, so I want to relate

to what is being taught. To do this, I take notes when the

teacher is teaching then I attempt related questions later.”

About use of verbal questioning to check their

understanding, Pamela said that some of her teachers

would let students do questions under their supervision and

“If you write a wrong answer, the teacher would ask you

on the spot why the answer was that way and let you

explain it before telling you how it should be done.” Sara

added that her high school teachers would put them in

groups, assign them questions, then at times have them


38

explain their reasoning on the board to the whole class. If

the explanation was vague or wrong, someone else in the

classroom would correct it and explain how it should have

been done. She also mentioned that, “I learn more when I

work out the questions myself instead of copying what the

teacher writes.”

All participants appreciated the use of tests as a way of

assessment. They felt that by working on questions related

to the taught concept, it helps them to test how well they

have understood the concepts and help them to know what

they need to read more or seek assistance on. Moreover,

they felt that their learning of math has been the same both

in Kenya and in the USA.

In summary, teaching of these two knowledge types must

be intertwined with assessment for it to be efficient. From

the findings, the two knowledge types should be tested

simultaneously as both need to be developed as

recommended by Rittle-Johnson et.al., (1999).

Conclusion and Implications

Generally, the findings reveal that both

conceptual and procedural knowledge are inseparable in

student learning of mathematics. Mathematics teachers

should thus promote student understanding by enhancing

both knowledge types. Since in my study I investigated

student’s experiences, I would recommend further research

to investigate teachers’ view on the efficient sequencing. I

also recommend that there is need for more research to

explore if there are strategies teachers can use to determine

which knowledge types to emphasize for certain topics.

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Wangia R.N. |KESSA Conference Proceedings 2017 | 39-42 http://www.kessa.org

39

DEATHS FROM CONSUMPTION OF CONTAMINATED MAIZE IN EASTERN PROVINCE, KENYA.

Wangia, Ruth Nabwire

Ph.D. Candidate/ Graduate Research Assistant

University of Georgia College of Public Health

[email protected]

Abstract.

In Kenya’s Eastern province, the consumption of the dietary staple maize meal – ugali- presents a significant risk for premature

deaths. The aridity of the region provides ideal conditions for the fungi, aspergillus flavus to thrive. This fungus produces the

aflatoxin poison, which contaminates 25% of food crops worldwide. However, the most extreme exposures globally have been

documented in Kenya’s Eastern province resulting in over 600 deaths. A comparative analysis was done on peer-reviewed

literature to identify risk factors linked to increased human exposure to aflatoxins, disease outcomes and possible intervention

strategies to mitigate exposure. In Kenya, locally produced maize has aflatoxin levels that exceed government recommended

level of 20 parts per billion [ppb] by thousands. The main target organ of aflatoxin is the liver, and thus jaundice, sudden liver

failure and other liver related diseases are reportedly the main cause of deaths following aflatoxin exposure. Cost effective

intervention strategies include cultivating drought resistant maize strains, proper drying and storage practices and promotion of

diversified dietary options have been proposed.

Keywords: Maize, Aflatoxins, Aflatoxicosis.

Introduction

In the tropical and subtropical regions of the world, hot and

humid conditions provide ideal environments for a group of

fungus known as aspergillus to thrive. While there are many

different species of the aspergillus fungi, the strains

aspergillus flavus and aspergillus parasiticus are known to

produce aflatoxins. Aflatoxins are naturally occurring and

are recognized food poisons prevalent in maize, peanuts,

cassava, spices and other nuts. These food products form the

basis of diet staples in many low and middle-income

countries. Over 4.5 billion people are exposed to aflatoxin

contamination through their diets. In addition, due to

increased global trading, aflatoxins have also been found in

imported food products in both the United States and the

European Union.

Aflatoxins are intensely fluorescent to ultraviolet light and

thus categorization depends on color emitted and level of

toxicity. For instance, Aflatoxin B1 [AFB1] and Aflatoxin

B2 [AFB2] emit blue light while Aflatoxin G1 [AFG1] and

Aflatoxin G2 [AFG2] emit yellow-green fluorescence under

ultraviolet light. There are other groupings of aflatoxins but

most of them are degradation products of the above four

major categories. AFB1 is the most toxic form of all the

aflatoxins. AFB1 is an established carcinogen, potent

immune-toxicant and anti-nutritional agent (IARC, 1993,

2004; Williams et al., 2004). Human exposure to aflatoxins

is prevalent and can occur to unborn fetus in utero, via breast

milk, during weaning and consistently throughout an

individual’s lifetime (Y. Y. Gong et al., 2003; P. C. Turner

et al., 2007).

Short term exposures to extremely high doses of aflatoxins

in the diet results in aflatoxicosis – a disease characterized

by jaundice, hemorrhage, acute liver damage, edema and

sometimes death. On the other hand, consistent long-term

exposure to low quantities of aflatoxins in the diet

contributes to development of primary liver cancer (de

Oliveira & Germano, 1997; Ledda et al., 2017; Wang et al.,

2001). Since aflatoxins are naturally occurring, it is not

possible to eliminate exposure completely. Subsequently,

regulatory limits set in different countries range from 4 –

30ppb for humans and up to 300 ppb in animal feeds.

Globally, aflatoxicosis incidences are prevalent in Kenya’s

Makueni County and other counties in close proximity.

Over 600 deaths have been documented from recurrent

aflatoxins outbreaks over the years in Kenya.

The Study

In this study, an assessment of peer-reviewed literature on

Aflatoxins and associated health effects was evaluated with

special focus on Kenya where aflatoxin contamination is a

recognized public health problem.

Findings

Aflatoxin contamination to both farm animals and people is

widely documented in Kenya. The very first documented

poisoning was reported in ducklings in a white settler farm

in former rift valley province. Over 16,000 ducklings died

after consuming groundnut feed that was contaminated with

aflatoxins (Peers & Linsell, 1973). In 1977, dogs and

poultry died in large numbers in Nairobi, Mombasa and

Eldoret after they were fed with aflatoxin-contaminated

grains (FAO/WHO/UNEP, 1977). Reported deaths of farm

animals have long been recognized as a signal for high

aflatoxin levels in animal feed.



40

In 1981, the first occurrence of human deaths from

consumption of aflatoxin-contaminated maize was reported

in Machakos. Preceding human deaths, numerous deaths

had been reported for dogs, poultry and other farm animals.

Shortly afterwards, 20 people fell ill and visited health

facilities for symptoms related to acute hepatitis. The

patients were admitted at the hospital and treated

conservatively. While 8 patients recovered, 12 of the

patients developed hepatic failure and died between 1 to 12

days after admission at the hospitals (Ngindu et al., 1982).

In 1987, up to 3 people in Meru North suffered from acute

effects related to consumption of aflatoxin-contaminated

maize and eventually died (Autrup, Seremet, Wakhisi, &

Wasunna, 1987). Between 1988 and 2000, there is limited

documentation of aflatoxin related outbreaks in Kenya,

however, intermittent exposure to aflatoxins in low

quantities over a long period of time increases the risk of

developing hepatitis and other liver related diseases. In

addition, many cases go unreported, as many villagers may

choose not go to the hospital. During the 1981 aflatoxicosis

outbreak, the reported meantime from onset of aflatoxin

related symptoms to hospital admissions was about

10.2days (Ngindu et al., 1982). Since published literature

captures affected individuals who visit health care facility,

there is a possibility that the burden of aflatoxicosis is

underestimated.

Moreover, 2001, 16 deaths were reported in Maua, Meru

County after consumption of moldy maize. In 2002, large

numbers of dogs and poultry also succumbed to death in

Coast after consumption of contaminated feed (Probst,

Njapau, & Cotty, 2007). The worst and most reported

outbreak of aflatoxicosis happened in 2004 in Makueni,

Kitui, Machakos and Thika Counties of Kenya. About 317

patients were admitted in hospitals after display of

symptoms such as abdominal discomfort, jaundice, and

low-grade fever. Kenya’s Ministry of Health invited the

United States Center for Disease Control and the World

Health Organization to probe into the aflatoxicosis outbreak

[CDC 2004]. Meanwhile, 125 people died shortly after

hospital admissions (Lewis et al., 2005). The results

revealed that the deaths were attributed to high aflatoxin

levels found in maize grains collected from the affected

households. Maize samples from affected households had

aflatoxin levels of up to 8,000 ppb when the recommended

levels are 20ppb (Azziz-Baumgartner et al., 2005; Daniel et

al., 2011).

Numerous studies have been completed after the

2004/2005-aflatoxicosis outbreak in Kenya. Makueni is the

most affected region due to significant plant stress from

drought conditions, which leaves crops vulnerable to

aflatoxin contamination. In addition, food insecurity

promotes storage of maize in hot humid households, thus

providing ideal conditions for the aflatoxin producing

aspergillus fungi to thrive. The government of Kenya has in

the past provided replacement maize to affected household

[CDC 2004]. Currently, the county government is tasked

with similar efforts. For instance, in July 2017, the county

government of Makueni delivered 10,600 bags of maize

consignments to educational institutions in response to

drought conditions. The county government ensured that

maize was tested for safe levels of aflatoxins. Nevertheless,

long term solutions that will ensure food safety and total

eradication of aflatoxin contamination of maize in Makueni

and other counties must be initiated.

Discussion and Conclusion

In Kenya, aflatoxin contamination is a recognized public

health problem that can occur when the crops are still in the

fields or after harvesting. The much-needed interventions to

mitigate widespread exposure can therefore be initiated pre-

harvest or post-harvest (Khlangwiset & Wu, 2010). Pre-

harvest strategies that have been implemented include field

inoculation with non-toxic aflatoxigenic fungi, use of

pesticide and irrigation to minimize plant stress and

vulnerability to infestation by the aflatoxin producing fungi.

During post-harvest, satisfactory drying of maize to less

than 10% moisture content is ideal followed by storage in

conditions that allow adequate airflow.

Other strategies include dilution where highly contaminated

grain is mixed with grain of low contamination to avoid

economic losses that may ensue from destroying the maize.

In Mexico, decontamination is achieved through

nixtamalization, where maize is soaked and cooked in

limewater before food products are made. The process is

very efficient and results in over 90% reduction of aflatoxin

in maize. There are other efforts targeted towards affected

humans such as chemoprevention and use of drug therapy

(Kensler et al., 1998). Chemoprevention or drug

components used either increase detoxification processes

within the body or prevent the formation of toxic biological

metabolites that promote disease outcomes. These processes

are expensive and could result in long-term side effects.

Moreover, use of entero-sorbents such as novasil clay has

been proposed as a short-term intervention during

aflatoxicosis outbreaks (Afriyie-Gyawu et al., 2008;

Williams et al., 2004).Novasil clay binds aflatoxin in the

human body and thus facilitates elimination through fecal

matter.

While there is robust evidence on the contributory role of

aflatoxins to primary liver cancer (Wang et al., 2001;

Wogan, Kensler, & Groopman, 2012), recent epidemiology

studies have shown that dietary exposure to aflatoxins also

contributes to micronutrient deficiency(Y. Gong et al.,

2004; Watson, Gong, & Routledge, 2017), immune

suppression (Paul C. Turner, Moore, Hall, Prentice, & Wild,

2003) and growth impairment in children (Y. Gong et al.,

2004). Due to these recognized adverse health effects

associated with aflatoxin contamination, further studies

should be done to provide an in depth understanding of the

mechanism of action of aflatoxins in the human body.


41

Successful eradication of aflatoxin contamination is

possible when multiple key players in Agriculture, Public

Health and Community members work together. Successful

intervention has been reported in Qidong, China.

Historically, Qidong region was characterized by high

prevalence of primary liver cancer. Before 1980, locally

produced maize, which was the dietary staple in Qidong,

was characterized by high levels of aflatoxins. In 1980s

however, agricultural and food policy reforms were

extensively implemented in Qidong’s region resulting in a

shift from maize to rice production. Normally, rice is more

resistant to aflatoxin contamination and gradually, Qidong’s

population adapted rice as the dietary staple. Progressively,

aflatoxin contamination decreased from 100% to 23% and

up to 65% reduction of mortality from liver cancers was

reported in Qidong’s Cancer Registry (Chen et al., 2013).

In conclusion, similar cost effective interventions can be

promoted in Kenya and other countries’ that are over reliant

on maize as a dietary staple. Increased campaigns to shift

from maize-based dietary staple to consumption of food

products that are less vulnerable to aflatoxin contamination

such as bananas, potatoes, rice, sorghum or millet based

ugali are local solutions that can be easily implemented to

mitigate long term health effects associated with

consumption of aflatoxin contaminated maize.

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