table of contents – pages iv-v

Unit 1: What is Biology?Unit 2: EcologyUnit 3: The Life of a CellUnit 4: GeneticsUnit 5: Change Through TimeUnit 6: Viruses, Bacteria, Protists, and FungiUnit 7: PlantsUnit 8: InvertebratesUnit 9: VertebratesUnit 10: The Human Body

Unit 1: What is Biology?

Chapter 1: Biology: The Study of LifeUnit 2: Ecology Chapter 2: Principles of Ecology Chapter 3: Communities and Biomes Chapter 4: Population Biology Chapter 5: Biological Diversity and ConservationUnit 3: The Life of a Cell Chapter 6: The Chemistry of Life Chapter 7: A View of the Cell Chapter 8: Cellular Transport and the Cell Cycle Chapter 9: Energy in a Cell

Unit 4: Genetics

Chapter 10: Mendel and Meiosis

Chapter 11: DNA and Genes

Chapter 12: Patterns of Heredity and Human Genetics

Chapter 13: Genetic Technology

Unit 5: Change Through Time Chapter 14: The History of Life Chapter 15: The Theory of Evolution Chapter 16: Primate Evolution Chapter 17: Organizing Life’s Diversity

Unit 6: Viruses, Bacteria, Protists, and Fungi

Chapter 18: Viruses and Bacteria

Chapter 19: Protists

Chapter 20: Fungi

Unit 7: Plants

Chapter 21: What Is a Plant?

Chapter 22: The Diversity of Plants

Chapter 23: Plant Structure and Function

Chapter 24: Reproduction in Plants

Unit 8: Invertebrates

Chapter 25: What Is an Animal?

Chapter 26: Sponges, Cnidarians, Flatworms, and

Roundworms

Chapter 27: Mollusks and Segmented Worms

Chapter 28: Arthropods

Chapter 29: Echinoderms and Invertebrate

Chordates

• Analyze the structure of DNA

Section Objectives:

• Determine how the structure of DNA enables it to reproduce itself accurately.

• Although the environment influences how an organism develops, the genetic information that is held in the molecules of DNA ultimately determines an organism’s traits.

• DNA achieves its control by determining the structure of proteins.

What is DNA?What is DNA?

• All actions, such as eating, running, and even thinking, depend on proteins called enzymes.• Enzymes are critical for an organism’s function because they control the chemical reactions needed for life.

What is DNA?What is DNA?

• Within the structure of DNA is the information for life—the complete instructions for manufacturing all the proteins for an organism.

• In 1952 Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase performed an experiment using radioactively labeled viruses that infect bacteria.

• These viruses were made of only protein and DNA.

DNA as the genetic materialDNA as the genetic material

• Hershey and Chase labeled the virus DNA with a radioactive isotope and the virus protein with a different isotope.

DNA as the genetic materialDNA as the genetic material

• By following the infection of bacterial cells by the labeled viruses, they demonstrated that DNA, rather than protein, entered the cells and caused the bacteria to produce new viruses.

• DNA is a polymer made of repeating subunits called nucleotides.

• Nucleotides have three parts: a simple sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.

Phosphate group

Sugar (deoxyribose)

Nitrogenous base

The structure of nucleotidesThe structure of nucleotides

• The phosphate group is composed of one atom of phosphorus surrounded by four oxygen atoms.

• The simple sugar in DNA, called deoxyribose (dee ahk sih RI bos), gives DNA its name—deoxyribonucleic acid.


• A nitrogenous base is a carbon ring structure that contains one or more atoms of nitrogen.

• In DNA, there are four possible nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T).

Adenine (A) Guanine (G) Thymine (T)Cytosine (C)


• Thus, in DNA there are four possible nucleotides, each containing one of these four bases.


• Nucleotides join together to form long chains, with the phosphate group of one nucleotide bonding to the deoxyribose sugar of an adjacent nucleotide.

• The phosphate groups and deoxyribose molecules form the backbone of the chain, and the nitrogenous bases stick out like the teeth of a zipper.


• In DNA, the amount of adenine is always equal to the amount of thymine, and the amount of guanine is always equal to the amount of cytosine.


• In 1953, Watson and Crick proposed that DNA is made of two chains of nucleotides held together by nitrogenous bases.

The structure of DNAThe structure of DNA

• Watson and Crick also proposed that DNA is shaped like a long zipper that is twisted into a coil like a spring.

• Because DNA is composed of two strands twisted together, its shape is called double helix.

The importance of nucleotide sequencesThe importance of nucleotide sequences

Chromosome

The sequence of nucleotides forms the unique genetic information of an organism. The closer the relationship is between two organisms, the more similar their DNA nucleotide sequences will be.

The importance of nucleotide sequencesThe importance of nucleotide sequences

• Scientists use nucleotide sequences to determine evolutionary relationships among organisms, to determine whether two people are related, and to identify bodies of crime victims.

Replication of DNAReplication of DNA

• Before a cell can divide by mitosis or meiosis, it must first make a copy of its chromosomes.

• The DNA in the chromosomes is copied in a process called DNA replication.

• Without DNA replication, new cells would have only half the DNA of their parents.

Replication of DNA

Replication of DNA

DNA

Replication

Replication

Replication of DNA

Replication of DNA

Click this image to view movie

• DNA is copied during interphase prior to mitosis and meiosis.

• It is important that the new copies are exactly like the original molecules.

Copying DNACopying DNA

Copying DNACopying DNA

Original DNA

Original DNA

Strand

Original DNA

Strand

Free Nucleotides New DNA

moleculeNew DNA

Strand

New DNA molecule

Section Objectives

• Sequence the steps involved in protein synthesis.

• Relate the concept of the gene to the sequence of nucleotides in DNA.

• The sequence of nucleotides in DNA contain information.

Genes and ProteinsGenes and Proteins

• This information is put to work through the production of proteins.

• Proteins fold into complex, three- dimensional shapes to become key cell structures and regulators of cell functions.

• Some proteins become important structures, such as the filaments in muscle tissue.

• Other proteins, such as enzymes, control chemical reactions that perform key life functions—breaking down glucose molecules in cellular respiration, digesting food, or making spindle fibers during mitosis.


• Thus, by encoding the instructions for making proteins, DNA controls cells.

• In fact, enzymes control all the chemical reactions of an organism.


• You learned earlier that proteins are polymers of amino acids.

• The sequence of nucleotides in each gene contains information for assembling the string of amino acids that make up a single

protein.


• RNA like DNA, is a nucleic acid. RNA structure differs from DNA structure in three ways.

• First, RNA is single stranded—it looks like one-half of a zipper —whereas DNA is double stranded.

RNARNA

• The sugar in DNA is ribose; DNA’s sugar is deoxyribose.

Ribose

RNARNA

• Both DNA and RNA contain four nitrogenous bases, but rather than thymine, RNA contains a similar base called uracil (U).

• Uracil forms a base pair with adenine in RNA, just as thymine does in DNA.

Uracil

Hydrogen bonds Adenine

RNARNA

• DNA provides workers with the instructions for making the proteins, and workers build the proteins.

• The workers for protein synthesis are RNA molecules.

RNARNA

• DNA provides workers with the instructions for making the proteins, and workers build the proteins.

• The workers for protein synthesis are RNA molecules.

• They take from DNA the instructions on how the protein should be assembled, then—amino acid by amino acid—they assemble the protein.

RNARNA

• There are three types of RNA that help build proteins.

• Messenger RNA (mRNA), brings instructions from DNA in the nucleus to the cell’s factory floor, the cytoplasm.

• On the factory floor, mRNA moves to the assembly line, a ribosome.

RNARNA

• The ribosome, made of ribosomal RNA (rRNA), binds to the mRNA and uses the instructions to assemble the amino acids in the correct order.

RNARNA

• Transfer RNA (tRNA) is the supplier. Transfer RNA delivers amino acids to the ribosome to be assembled into a protein.

RNARNA

Click image to view movie

TranscriptionTranscription

• In the nucleus, enzymes make an RNA copy of a portion of a DNA strand in a process called transcription.

Click image to view movie

RNA strand

DNA strand

DNA strand

RNA strand


A

B

C


• The main difference between transcription and DNA replication is that transcription results in the formation of one single-stranded RNA molecule rather than a double-stranded DNA molecule.

• Not all the nucleotides in the DNA of eukaryotic cells carry instructions—or code—for making proteins.

• Genes usually contain many long noncoding nucleotide sequences, called introns, that are scattered among the coding sequences.

RNA ProcessingRNA Processing


• Regions that contain information are called exons because they are expressed.

• When mRNA is transcribed from DNA, both introns and exons are copied.

• The introns must be removed from the mRNA before it can function to make a protein.

• Enzymes in the nucleus cut out the intron segments and paste the mRNA back together.

• The mRNA then leaves the nucleus and travels to the ribosome.


• The nucleotide sequence transcribed from DNA to a strand of messenger RNA acts as a genetic message, the complete information for the building of a protein.

• As you know, proteins contain chains of amino acids. You could say that the language of proteins uses an alphabet of amino acids.

The Genetic CodeThe Genetic Code

• Biochemists began to crack the genetic code when they discovered that a group of three nitrogenous bases in mRNA code for one amino acid. Each group is known as a codon.

• A code is needed to convert the language of mRNA into the language of proteins.


• Sixty-four combinations are possible when a sequence of three bases is used; thus, 64 different mRNA codons are in the genetic code.


The Genetic CodeThe Genetic CodeThe Messenger RNA Genetic Code

First Letter Second Letter

UU C A G

Third Letter

UCAGUCAGUCAG

UCAG

C

A

G

Phenylalanine (UUU)

Phenylalanine (UUC)

Leucine (UUA)

Leucine (UUG)

Leucine (CUU)

Leucine (CUC)

Leucine (CUA)

Leucine (CUG)

Isoleucine (AUU)

Isoleucine (AUC)

Isoleucine (AUA)

Methionine;Start (AUG)

Valine (GUU)

Valine (GUC)

Valine (GUA)

Valine (GUG)

Serine (UCU)

Serine (UCC)

Serine (UCA)

Serine (UCG)

Proline (CCU)

Proline (CCC)

Proline (CCA)

Proline (CCG)

Threonine (ACU)

Threonine (ACC)

Threonine (ACA)

Threonine (ACG)

Alanine (GCU)

Alanine (GCC)

Alanine (GCA)

Alanine (GCG)

Tyrosine (UAU)

Tyrosine (UAC)

Stop (UAA)

Stop (UAG)

Histadine (CAU)

Histadine (CAC)

Glutamine (CAA)

Glutamine (CAG)

Asparagine (AAU)

Asparagine (AAC)

Lysine (AAA)

Lysine (AAG)

Aspartate (GAU)

Aspartate (GAC)

Glutamate (GAA)Glutamate (GAG)

Cysteine (UGU)

Cysteine (UGC)

Stop (UGA)

Tryptophan (UGG)

Arginine (CGU)

Arginine (CGC)

Arginine (CGA)

Arginine (CGG)

Serine (AGU)

Serine (AGC)

Arginine (AGA)Arginine (AGG)

Glycine (GGU)

Glycine (GGC)Glycine (GGC)

Glycine (GGA)

Glycine (GGG)

• Some codons do not code for amino acids; they provide instructions for making the protein.

• More than one codon can code for the same amino acid.

• However, for any one codon, there can be only one amino acid.


• All organisms use the same genetic code.

• This provides evidence that all life on Earth evolved from a common origin.


Translation: From mRNA to ProteinTranslation: From mRNA to Protein

• The process of converting the information in a sequence of nitrogenous bases in mRNA into a sequence of amino acids in protein is known as translation.

• Translation takes place at the ribosomes in the cytoplasm.

• In prokaryotic cells, which have no nucleus, the mRNA is made in the cytoplasm.

Translation: From mRNA to ProteinTranslation: From mRNA to Protein

• In eukaryotic cells, mRNA is made in the nucleus and travels to the cytoplasm.

• In cytoplasm, a ribosome attaches to the strand of mRNA like a clothespin clamped onto a clothesline.

• For proteins to be built, the 20 different amino acids dissolved in the cytoplasm must be brought to the ribosomes.

• This is the role of transfer RNA.

The role of transfer RNAThe role of transfer RNA

• Each tRNA molecule attaches to only one type of amino acid.

Amino acid

Chain of RNA nucleotides

Transfer RNA molecule

Anticondon


• As translation begins, a ribosome attaches to the starting end of the mRNA strand. Then, tRNA molecules, each carrying a specific amino acid, approach the ribosome.

• When a tRNA anticodon pairs with the first mRNA codon, the two molecules temporarily join together.



Ribosome

mRNA codon

• Usually, the first codon on mRNA is AUG, which codes for the amino acid methionine.

• AUG signals the start of protein synthesis.

• When this signal is given, the ribosome slides along the mRNA to the next codon.


tRNA anticodon

Methionine


• A new tRNA molecule carrying an amino acid pairs with the second mRNA codon.

Alanine


• The amino acids are joined when a peptide bond is formed between them.

AlanineMethionine

Peptide bond


• A chain of amino acids is formed until the stop codon is reached on the mRNA strand.

Stop codon


• Categorize the different kinds of mutations that can occur in DNA.

Section Objectives:

• Compare the effects of different kinds of mutations on cells and organisms.

• Organisms have evolved many ways to protect their DNA from changes.

Mutations

• In spite of these mechanisms, however, changes in the DNA occasionally do occur.

• Any change in DNA sequence is called a mutation.

• Mutations can be caused by errors in replication, transcription, cell division, or by external agents.

• Mutations can affect the reproductive cells of an organism by changing the sequence of nucleotides within a gene in a sperm or an egg cell.

Mutations in reproductive cells

• If this cell takes part in fertilization, the altered gene would become part of the genetic makeup of the offspring.

Mutations in reproductive cells

• The mutation may produce a new trait or it may result in a protein that does not work correctly.

• Sometimes, the mutation results in a protein that is nonfunctional, and the embryo may not survive.

• In some rare cases a gene mutation may have positive effects.

• What happens if powerful radiation, such as gamma radiation, hits the DNA of a nonreproductive cell, a cell of the body such as in skin, muscle, or bone?

• If the cell’s DNA is changed, this mutation would not be passed on to offspring.

• However, the mutation may cause problems for the individual.

Mutations in body cells

Mutations in body cells

• Damage to a gene may impair the function of the cell.

• When that cell divides, the new cells also will have the same mutation.

• Some mutations of DNA in body cells affect genes that control cell division.

• This can result in the cells growing and dividing rapidly, producing cancer.

• A point mutation is a change in a single base pair in DNA.

• A change in a single nitrogenous base can change the entire structure of a protein because a change in a single amino acid can affect the shape of the protein.

The effects of point mutations

The effects of point mutations

Normal

Point mutation

mRNA

ProteinStop

Stop

mRNA

Protein

Replace G with A

Frameshift mutations

• What would happen if a single base were lost from a DNA strand?

• This new sequence with the deleted base would be transcribed into mRNA. But then, the mRNA would be out of position by one base.

• As a result, every codon after the deleted base would be different.


mRNA

Protein

Frameshift mutation

Deletion of U


• This mutation would cause nearly every amino acid in the protein after the deletion to be changed.

• A mutation in which a single base is added or deleted from DNA is called a frameshift mutation because it shifts the reading of codons by one base.

• Changes may occur in chromosomes as well as in genes.

• Alterations to chromosomes may occur in a variety of ways.

• Structural changes in chromosomes are called chromosomal mutations.

Chromosomal Alterations

• Chromosomal mutations occur in all living organisms, but they are especially common in plants.

• Few chromosomal mutations are passed on to the next generation because the zygote usually dies.


• In cases where the zygote lives and develops, the mature organism is often sterile and thus incapable of producing offspring.

• When a part of a chromosome is left out, a deletion occurs.

Deletion

A B C D E F G H A B C E F G H


• When part of a chromatid breaks off and attaches to its sister chromatid, an insertion occurs.

• The result is a duplication of genes on the same chromosome.

Insertion

A B C D E F G H A B C B C D E F G H


• When part of a chromosome breaks off and reattaches backwards, an inversion occurs.

Inversion

A B C D E F G H A D C B E F G H


• When part of one chromosome breaks off and is added to a different chromosome, a translocation occurs.

A B E FDCBX AWC HGGE HD F

W X Y Z Y ZTranslocation


• Some mutations seem to just happen, perhaps as a mistake in base pairing during DNA replication.

• These mutations are said to be spontaneous.

• However, many mutations are caused by factors in the environment.

Causes of Mutations

• Any agent that can cause a change in DNA is called a mutagen.

• Mutagens include radiation, chemicals, and even high temperatures.

• Forms of radiation, such as X rays, cosmic rays, ultraviolet light, and nuclear radiation, are dangerous mutagens because the energy they contain can damage or break apart DNA.

Causes of Mutations

Causes of Mutations• The breaking and reforming of a double-

stranded DNA molecule can result in deletions.

• Chemical mutagens include dioxins, asbestos, benzene, and formaldehyde, substances that are commonly found in buildings and in the environment.

• Chemical mutagens usually cause substitution mutations.

Repairing DNA• Repair mechanisms that fix mutations in cells

have evolved.

• Enzymes proofread the DNA and replace incorrect nucleotides with correct nucleotides.

• These repair mechanisms work extremely well, but they are not perfect.

• The greater the exposure to a mutagen such as UV light, the more likely is the chance that a mistake will not be corrected.

DNA: The Molecule of Heredity

• DNA, the genetic material of organisms, is composed of four kinds of nucleotides. A DNA molecule consists of two strands of nucleotides with sugars and phosphates on the outside and bases paired by hydrogen bonding on the inside. The paired strands form a twisted-zipper shape called a double helix.

• Genes are small sections of DNA. Most sequences of three bases in the DNA of a gene code for a single amino acid in a protein.

From DNA to Protein

• Messenger RNA is made in a process called transcription. The order of nucleotides in DNA determines the order of nucleotides in messenger RNA.

From DNA to Protein

• Translation is a process through which the order of bases in messenger RNA codes for the order of amino acids in a protein.

Genetic Changes

• A mutation is a change in the base sequence of DNA. Mutations may affect only one gene, or they may affect whole chromosomes.

• Mutations in eggs or sperm affect future generations by producing offspring with new characteristics. Mutations in body cells affect only the individual and may result in cancer.

table of contents – pages iv-v

Documents

bacteria chapter

protists chapter

cell chapter

function chapter

fungi chapter

biomes chapter

arthropods chapter

genes chapter