table of contentsoutcomes - ednet.ns.ca · 2006-11-24 · opportunity to develop scientific...

iOutcomesTable of Contents

Table of ContentsAcknowledgements␣ ............................................................................................................... iii

A Vision for Scientific Literacy ...................................................................................... v

IntroductionPurpose of Document ..........................................................................................................................1Curriculum Focus: Scientific Literacy ....................................................................................................1The Three Processes of Scientific Literacy .............................................................................................3

• Scientific Inquiry ........................................................................................................................3• Problem Solving ........................................................................................................................3• Decision Making ........................................................................................................................3

A Common Approach .........................................................................................................................5

OutcomesEssential Graduation Learnings ............................................................................................................7Curriculum Outcomes ....................................................................................................................... 11

• A Vision for Scientific Literacy .................................................................................................. 11• Conceptual Map for the Outcomes Framework ....................................................................... 11• General Curriculum Outcomes ................................................................................................12• Description of the General Curriculum Outcomes ....................................................................13• Key-Stage Curriculum Outcomes .............................................................................................18

Contexts for Learning and TeachingPrinciples of Learning and Teaching Science ......................................................................................29

• Science - Technology - Society - Environment (STSE) in the Classroom .................................... 29• Constructivism ........................................................................................................................31• Creating Linkages Among Science Disciplines .......................................................................... 32• Resource-Based Learning ......................................................................................................... 36

The Learning Environment ................................................................................................................ 37• Instructional Skills ....................................................................................................................37• Investigative Activities ..............................................................................................................37• Homework ..............................................................................................................................37

Equity and Diversity ........................................................................................................................... 38• Science Programs for Exceptional Students ..............................................................................38• Gender Equity .........................................................................................................................38• Science Programs for a Multicultural Society ............................................................................ 39

Assessing and Evaluating Student Learning ........................................................................................ 41• Assessment ..............................................................................................................................41• Evaluation ...............................................................................................................................41

ii Foundation for the Atlantic Canada Science Curriculum

• Reporting ................................................................................................................................42• Guiding Principles ...................................................................................................................42• Assessing Student Learning in Science ..................................................................................... 42• External Assessment ................................................................................................................43• Program and System Evaluation .............................................................................................. 43

Resources• Science Equipment and Supplies .............................................................................................44• Print Resources ........................................................................................................................44• Non-Print Resources ................................................................................................................44• The Use of Technology ............................................................................................................ 44

References ....................................................................................................................................47

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PROVINCE OF NEW BRUNSWICK

Mark Holland, Science Consultant,Department of Education

Paul Parker, Science Consultant,Department of Education

Allan Nesbitt, Science Teacher,Hartland High School

Mike Fogarty, Science Teacher,Riverview High School

PROVINCE OF NEWFOUNDLANDAND LABRADOR

Barry LeDrew, Science Consultant,Department of Education and Training

Dana Griffiths, Program Development Specialist,Department of Education

Judy King, Principal, Grand Falls Academy Primary

Denise Gibbons, Science Teacher,Presentation Junior High School

PROVINCE OF NOVA SCOTIA

Adriane Dorrington, Science Consultant,Department of Education and Culture

Brian Cochrane, Science Consultant,Department of Education and Culture

Beverley Williams, Principal,Coldbrook and District School

PROVINCE OFPRINCE EDWARD ISLAND

Clayton Coe, Elementary and Intermediate Mathand Science Consultant, Department of Education

Elaine Somerville, Grades 10–12 Math and ScienceConsultant, Department of Education

Barb Trainor, Intermediate Math and ScienceConsultant, Department of Education

Bernie Pépin, French Immersion 7-9 Consultant,Department of Education

Karen Gamble, Science Teacher,Athena Consolidated

AcknowledgementsThe departments of education of New Brunswick, Newfoundland and Labrador, Nova Scotia, and PrinceEdward Island gratefully acknowledge the contributions of the following groups and individuals toward thedevelopment of this document:

• The regional science common curriculum committee, which has overseen the common curriculum develop-ment and provided direction with respect to the completion of this foundation document

Current and past members include the following:

• The science foundation document working group, comprising teachers and other educators in the Provinceof Newfoundland and Labrador, which served as lead province in drafting and revising the document

• The provincial working groups, comprising teachers and other educators in New Brunswick, Newfoundlandand Labrador, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island, who provided feedback and input to the documentduring the development and revision process

• The APEF Evaluation Directors Committee for the development of the section entitled Assessing and Evaluat-ing Student Learning

• The educators, parents, and other stakeholders who contributed many hours to the validation process thatled to the finalization of the Foundation for Atlantic Canada Science Curriculum

• The educators who contributed to the development of the Common Framework of Science Learning OutcomesK-12 under the auspices of the Pan-Canadian Protocol for Collaboration on School Curriculum

Acknowledgments

vOutcomesA Vision for Scientific Literacy

A Vision forScientific Literacy

The Atlantic provinces’ science curriculum is guided by the vision that

all students, regardless of gender or cultural background, will have an

opportunity to develop scientific literacy. Scientific literacy is an

evolving combination of the science-related attitudes, skills, and

knowledge that students need to develop inquiry, problem-solving, and

decision-making abilities, to become lifelong learners, and to maintain a

sense of wonder about the world around them.

1Outcomes

T

Introduction

his science curriculumfoundation document isintended to be a

framework for science programsin the Atlantic provinces. It ismeant to reflect current provin-cial, national, and internationalthinking on meeting the needs ofall students in becoming scientifi-cally literate citizens.

This document outlines thenature of science education,science curriculum outcomes, theinstructional philosophy forscience, and principles of assess-ment. It reflects exemplarypractices currently taking place inschools and classrooms in AtlanticCanada.

This document has been designedto

• provide teachers with anoverview of science educationand act as a companiondocument to curriculumguides

• identify knowledge, skills, andattitudes that nurture thedevelopment of scientificallyliterate individuals

• briefly describe the nature ofthe instructional environmentin which effective sciencelearning can take place

• provide suggestions for theassessment of students’learning specifically related toscience

• present the view of the natureof science currently acceptedby the majority of the scientificcommunity

• briefly describe the role ofscience in students’ achieve-ment of the Atlantic Canadaessential graduation learnings

• serve as the basis for thedevelopment of new programsin science, both provinciallyand for the Atlantic region

Introduction

PURPOSE OF DOCUMENT

C

CURRICULUMFOCUS

SCIENTIFIC LITERACY

anadian society is experi-encing rapid and fund-amental economic,

social, and cultural changes thataffect the way people live. Cana-dians are also becoming aware ofan increasing global interdepend-ence and the need for a sustain-able environment, economy, andsociety. The emergence of ahighly competitive and integratedinternational economy, rapidtechnological innovation, and agrowing knowledge base willcontinue to have a profoundimpact on people’s lives. Ad-vancements in science andtechnology play an increasinglysignificant role in everyday life.Science education will be a keyelement in developing scientificliteracy and in building a strongfuture for Canada’s young people.

Consistent with views expressedin a variety of national andinternational science educationdocuments, the following goalsfor Canadian science educationhave been established:

• encourage students at allgrade levels to develop acritical sense of wonder andcuriosity about scientific andtechnological endeavours

2 Foundation for the Atlantic Canada Science Curriculum

The goal of science educationin the Atlantic provinces is todevelop scientific literacy. Theaccomplishment of this aimwithin the school context cantake place only if certain opportu-nities are presented. Whileteachers play the most significantrole in helping students achievescientific literacy, they needsupport from the rest of theeducational system if the chal-lenge is to be met. Science mustbe an important component ofthe curriculum at all grade levelsand must be explored in anenjoyable environment thatstudents find interesting andintrinsically rewarding. Thedesignation of science intovarious categories should bediscouraged at the primary andelementary levels. At the highschool level students will beintroduced to the traditionalsciences. These divisions arearbitrary and do not reflectcurrent scientific practice. At allstages of science education theconnections within and across thesciences, as well as the connec-tions of science to technology,society and the environmentshould be stressed.

• enable students to use scienceand technology to acquirenew knowledge and solveproblems, so that they mayimprove the quality of theirown lives and the lives ofothers

• prepare students to addresscritically science-relatedsocietal, economic, ethical,and environmental issues

• provide students with afoundation in science thatcreates opportunities for themto pursue progressively higherlevels of study, prepares themfor science-related occupa-tions, and engages them inscience-related hobbiesappropriate to their interestsand abilities

• develop in students, ofvarying aptitudes and inter-ests, a knowledge of the widevariety of careers related toscience, technology, and theenvironment

To achieve scientific literacy for allstudents (entry–12), the sciencecurriculum is expected to

• address the three basic scien-tific fields of study—life,physical, and Earth and spacescience. From entry–9, allstudents will be exposed to allfields. At the high school levelstudents may opt to takespecific sciences. However, inall cases attempts should bemade to develop the connec-tions among the basic sciences

• engage students in inquiry,problem solving, and decision-making situations and con-texts that give meaning andrelevance to the sciencecurriculum. These include theprocesses of science such aspredicting and formulatinghypotheses, higher level skillssuch as critical thinking andevaluating, and manipulativeskills such as the use of amicroscope and a balance

• utilize a wide variety of printand non-print resourcesdeveloped in an interestingand interactive style. Commonmaterials, laboratory equip-ment, audiotapes andvideotapes, computer soft-ware, and video disks shouldprovide a substantial part ofthe student’s experience

• exhibit the character ofscience to be open to inquiryand controversy, and free ofdogmatism; promote studentunderstanding of how wecame to know what we knowand how we test and reviseour thinking

3Outcomes

• give students the opportuni-ties to construct the importantideas of science, which arethen developed in depth,through inquiry and investiga-tion

• be presented in connectionwith students’ own experi-ences and interests by fre-quently using hands-onexperiences that are integralto the instructional sequence

• demonstrate connectionsacross the curriculum

• involve instructional strategiesand materials which allow alllearners to experience bothchallenge and success

• incorporate assessmentapproaches that are alignedphilosophically with theinstructional program andcorrelate with the intendedprogram

Student achievement in scienceand in other school subjects suchas social studies, English languagearts, and technology is enhancedby coordination between andamong the science program andother programs. Furthermore,such coordination can maximizeuse of time in a crowded schoolschedule.

THE THREE PROCESSES OFSCIENTIFIC LITERACY

Introduction

evidence to determine which ofthese explanations is most usefulin accounting for the phenomenaunder investigation. Teachersshould engage students inscientific inquiry activities todevelop these skills.

Problem SolvingThe second process, problemsolving, seeks solutions to humanproblems. It is also often repre-sented as a cycle. In this case thecycle represents the proposing,creating, and testing of proto-types, products, and techniquesin an attempt to reach an opti-mum solution to a given prob-lem. The skills involved in thiscycle, often called the design-technology (DT) cycle, facilitate aprocess which has different aimsand different procedures from theinquiry process. Students shouldbe given ample opportunity inthe curriculum to propose,perform, and evaluate solutionsto problem-solving or technologi-cal tasks or questions.

Decision MakingThe third process is decisionmaking. It is the determination ofwhat we, as global citizens,should do in a particular contextor in response to a given situa-tion. Increasingly, the types ofproblems that we deal with, bothindividually and collectively,require an understanding of theprocesses and products of science

A science education whichstrives for scientific literacymust engage students in

asking and answering meaningfulquestions. Some of these ques-tions will be posed by the teacher,while others will be generated bythe students. These questions areof three basic types: “Why…?”“How…?” and “Should…?”.There are three processes used toanswer these questions. Scientificinquiry addresses “why” ques-tions. “How” questions areanswered by engaging in theproblem solving process, and“should” questions are answeredby engaging in decision making.

Scientific InquiryThe first of the three processes,scientific inquiry, is a way oflearning about the universe. Itinvolves the posing of questionsand the search for explanations ofphenomena. Although there is nosuch thing as a “scientificmethod,” students require certainskills to participate in the activityof science. There is generalagreement that skills such asquestioning, observing, inferring,predicting, measuring, hypoth-esising, classifying, designingexperiments, collecting data,analysing data, and interpretingdata are fundamental to engagingin science. These skills are oftenrepresented as a cycle whichinvolves the posing of questions,the generation of possible expla-nations, and the collection of


and technology. The actualprocess of decision makinginvolves the identification of theproblem or situation, generationof possible solutions or courses ofaction, evaluation of the alterna-tives, and a thoughtful decisionbased on the information avail-able. Students should be actively

Question:

Process Involved inAnswering theQuestion:

Response:

Scientific inquiry

Personal health, the environ-ment, cost, and availabilitymust be considered alongwith science and technologyinformation

Problems Arise from: Different views or perspec-tives based on different orthe same information

Types of Questions: What alternatives or conse-quences are there? Whichchoice is best at this time?

Solutions Result in:

Technological problemsolving

Decision making

Heat energy istransferred byconduction,convection, andradiation.

A styrofoam cup willkeep liquids warm for along time.

Curiosity about eventsand phenomena in thenatural world

Coping with everydaylife, practices, andhuman needs

What do we know?How do we know?

How can we do it?Will it work?

Knowledge about theevents and phenomenain the natural world

An effective and efficientway to accomplish atask

A defensible decision in theparticular circumstances

How can I make acontainer to keep my

coffee hot?

(Technology question)

Why does my coffeecool so quickly?

(Science question)

Should we use styrofoamcups or ceramic mugs for

our meeting?

(STSE question)

involved in decision-makingsituations as they progressthrough the science curriculum.Decision-making situations notonly are important in their ownright, they also often provide arelevant context for engaging inscientific inquiry and/or problemsolving.

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A COMMON APPROACH

In 1993, work began on thedevelopment of commoncurricula in specific core

programs for Atlantic provinces.The Atlantic education ministers’primary purposes for collaborat-ing in curriculum developmentare to

• improve the quality of educa-tion for all students throughshared expertise and resources

• ensure that the educationstudents receive across theregion is equitable

• meet the needs of bothstudents and society

Under the auspices of the AtlanticProvinces Education Foundation,development of Atlantic commoncore curricula for mathematics,science, language arts and socialstudies follows a consistentprocess. Each project requiresconsensus by a regional commit-

tee at designated decision points;all provinces have equal weight indecision making. Each provincehas established procedures andmechanisms for communicatingand consulting with educationpartners, and it is the responsibil-ity of the provinces to ensure thatstakeholders have input intoregional curriculum development.

In February 1995, the Council ofMinisters of Education, Canada,adopted the Pan-CanadianProtocol for Collaboration onSchool Curriculum. CommonFramework of Science LearningOutcomes K–12 was the first jointcurriculum development projectinitiated under the protocol. Theframework sets out a vision andfoundation statements for scien-tific literacy in Canada. This visionand the foundation statements areincluded in the Foundation for theAtlantic Canada Science Curriculumdocument.

The science foundation documentincludes statements of essentialgraduation learnings, generalcurriculum outcomes for theprogram, and key stage curricu-lum outcomes for the end of keystages (entry–grade 3, grades 4–6, grades 7–9, grades 10–12).Essential graduation learnings andcurriculum outcomes provide aconsistent vision for the develop-ment of a rigorous and relevantcore curriculum. In addition tothis foundation document,teachers will receive curriculumguides that will include specificcurriculum outcomes for thegrade levels they teach.

In Atlantic Canada, the general,key-stage, and specific curriculumoutcomes for science have beenadopted from the Pan-Canadianframework.

Introduction


Essential graduationlearnings are statementsdescribing the knowledge,skills, and attitudes expected ofall students who graduate fromhigh school. Achievement ofthe essential graduationlearnings will prepare studentsto continue to learn throughouttheir lives. These learningsdescribe expectations not interms of individual schoolsubjects but in terms ofknowledge, skills, and attitudesdeveloped throughout thecurriculum. They confirm thatstudents need to makeconnections and developabilities across subjectboundaries if they are to beready to meet the shifting andongoing demands of life, work,and study today and in thefuture. Essential graduationlearnings are cross-curricular,and curriculum in all subjectareas is focussed to enablestudents to achieve theselearnings. Essential graduationlearnings serve as a frameworkfor the curriculumdevelopment process.

FIGURE 1 – Relationship among Essential GraduationLearnings, Curriculum Outcomes & Levels of Schooling

Curriculum outcomes are statements articulating what students areexpected to know and be able to do in particular subject areas. Theseoutcomes statements also describe what knowledge, skills, andattitudes students are expected to demonstrate at the end of certainkey stages in their education as a result of their cumulative learningexperiences at each grade level in the entry-graduation continuum.Through the achievement of curriculum outcomes, studentsdemonstrate the essential graduation learnings.

Outcomes

7Outcomes

GESSENTIAL GRADUATION LEARNINGS

raduates from the public schools of Atlantic Canada will be able todemonstrate knowledge, skills and attitudes in the following

essential graduation learnings. Provinces may add additionalessential graduation learnings as appropriate.

GAesthetic Expression

raduates will be able to respondwith critical awareness to variousforms of the arts and be able to

express themselves through the arts.

Graduates will be able to, for example,

• use various art forms as a means of formulatingand expressing ideas, perceptions, and feelings

• demonstrate understanding of the contributionof the arts to daily life, cultural identity anddiversity, and the economy

• demonstrate understanding of the ideas,perceptions and feelings of others as expressedin various art forms

• demonstrate understanding of the significanceof cultural resources such as theatres, museumsand galleries

Through an emphasis on the interdependency ofliving things and on their connections to thephysical environment, science fosters the kind ofintelligent respect for nature that should informdecisions on the uses of scientific knowledge andtechnological developments. Without that respect,people are in danger of destroying their life-support systems. Science and technology will bepresented in the curriculum as creative humanendeavours that must be viewed as comparable toand complementary to other creative endeavourssuch as the arts and literature.

GCitizenship

raduates will be able to assesssocial, cultural, economic, andenvironmental interdependence in

a local and global context.


• demonstrate understanding of sustainabledevelopment and its implications for theenvironment

• demonstrate understanding of Canada’s politi-cal, social and economic systems in a globalcontext

• explain the significance of the global economyon economic renewal and the development ofsociety

• demonstrate understanding of the social,political and economic forces that have shapedthe past and present, and apply thoseunderstandings in planning for the future

• examine human rights issues and recognizeforms of discrimination

• determine the principles and actions of just,pluralistic and democratic societies

• demonstrate understanding of their own andothers’ cultural heritage, cultural identity andthe contribution of multiculturalism to society

Some of the most serious problems that humansnow face are global in nature. Science provideshumanity with important knowledge of thebiophysical environment and of the behavioursneeded to develop effective solutions to globalproblems. Although many pressing global prob-lems have technological origins, technology mayprovide the tools for dealing with such problems,


Citizenship (continued)

and the instruments for generating, throughscience, crucial new knowledge. Without thecontinuous development and creative use of newtechnologies, and the continual search for newscientific knowledge, society will limit its capacityfor survival and for working toward a world inwhich the human species is at peace with itself andits environment. The science curriculum willprovide numerous examples of interdependence atthe local, regional, and global levels.

Scientific and technological habits of mind canhelp people in every walk of life to deal sensiblywith problems that often involve evidence, quanti-tative considerations, logical arguments, anduncertainty. Without the ability to think criticallyand independently, citizens may fall victim todogmatism and simplistic solutions to complexissues. In a democratic society it is the citizens whomake decisions and who ultimately control scienceand technology.

The social and economic future of the provinces,the region, and the world depends on the appro-priate use of science and technology to managethe resources, to develop new economic opportu-nities, and to sustain economic vitality, which inturn depends on how well youth are educated toutilize science and technology in decision makingand problem solving.

Communication

raduates will be able to use thelistening, viewing, speaking,reading and writing modes of

language(s) and mathematical and scientificconcepts and symbols, to think, learn andcommunicate effectively.


• explore, reflect on, and express their own ideas,learnings, perceptions and feelings

• demonstrate understanding of facts and rela-tionships presented through words, numbers,symbols, graphs and charts

• present information and instructions clearly,logically, concisely and accurately for a varietyof audiences

• demonstrate a knowledge of the second officiallanguage

• access, process, evaluate and share information

• interpret, evaluate and express data in everydaylanguage

• critically reflect on and interpret ideas presentedthrough a variety of media

Since science is a process for producing knowl-edge, it is essential that scientists communicatetheir new-found knowledge in a way that isunderstandable to the science community and thepublic at large. Scientific knowledge serves nopurpose unless it can be communicated to those towhom it is relevant. The science and technologycurriculum will emphasize the importance of, andprovide opportunities for, communicating forinforming others and for demonstrating an under-standing of the scientific concepts and principles.

G

ESSENTIAL GRADUATION LEARNINGS

9Outcomes

Personal Development

raduates will be able to continue tolearn and to pursue an active,healthy lifestyle.


• demonstrate preparedness for the transition towork and further learning

• make appropriate decisions and take responsibil-ity for those decisions

• work and study purposefully both independ-ently and in groups

• demonstrate understanding of the relationshipbetween health and lifestyle

• discriminate among a wide variety of careeropportunities

• demonstrate coping, management and interper-sonal skills

• demonstrate intellectual curiosity, an entrepre-neurial spirit and initiative

• reflect critically on ethical issues

The very nature of science and technology suggeststhat people depend on each other for knowledgeand skills and that cooperative efforts generallyproduce the quickest and most effective results.While people must understand how scientificknowledge and technological developments affectsociety, they must, at the same time, understandhow they affect them as individuals. Scientific andtechnological issues are rapidly changing anddeveloping and therefore current information isnecessary for a thorough understanding of theissues. The science and technology curriculum willprovide opportunities for students to focus andextend their curiosities about the natural world andinstil in them a desire for lifelong learning and therefinement of their learning skills.

Problem Solving

raduates will be able to use thestrategies and processes needed tosolve a wide variety of problems,

including those requiring language, and math-ematical and scientific concepts.


• acquire, process and interpret informationcritically to make informed decisions

• use a variety of strategies and perspectives withflexibility and creativity for solving problems

• formulate tentative ideas, and question theirown assumptions and those of others

• solve problems individually and collaboratively

• identify, describe, formulate and reformulateproblems

• frame and test hypotheses

• ask questions, observe relationships, makeinferences and draw conclusions

• identify, describe and interpret different points ofview and distinguish fact from opinion

Scientists can apply the principles of scientificinquiry to help solve problems in society. Theseproblems are often far too complex for sciencealone to solve. However, science can play a valuablerole by providing factual information, predicting theeffects of possible courses of action, and helping toestablish relevant causal linkages. Technology is theprocess and product of human skill and ingenuity indesigning creative solutions to human needs andproblems. The processes of technology centrearound problem solving. Science and technologyeducation will address the needs of students ascitizens who need to be critical thinkers, informeddecision makers, and creative problem solvers. Thecurriculum will provide opportunities for students toacquire the skills necessary to live and work in asociety that is shaped by science and technology.

G G



Technological Competence

raduates will be able to use avariety of technologies, demon-strate an understanding of tech-

nological applications, and apply appropriatetechnologies for solving problems.


• locate, evaluate, adapt, create and shareinformation using a variety of sources andtechnologies

• demonstrate understanding of and use existingand developing technologies

• demonstrate understanding of the impact oftechnology on society

• demonstrate understanding of ethical issuesrelated to the use of technology in a local andglobal context

Solving technological problems is the essence oftechnological competence. In addition to beingable to solve technological problems, it is impor-tant that students acquire knowledge abouttechnologies and about how technologies affect usindividually and collectively. Students should usethis knowledge as the basis for using technologyeffectively. While technological competencethrough technology integration is the responsibilityof the entire curriculum, the science curriculumtakes the lead in developing the knowledge, skills,and attitudes essential to students in today’stechnological society.

G


11Outcomes

A VISION FORSCIENTIFIC LITERACY

The Atlantic provinces’ sciencecurriculum is guided by the visionthat all students, regardless ofgender or cultural background, willhave an opportunity to developscientific literacy. Scientific literacy isan evolving combination of thescience-related attitudes, skills, andknowledge that students need todevelop inquiry, problem-solving,and decision-making abilities, tobecome lifelong learners, and tomaintain a sense of wonder aboutthe world around them.

CONCEPTUAL MAP FOR THE OUTCOMESFRAMEWORK

The conceptual map below provides the blueprint of the outcomesframework and is the basis from which general and key-stage outcomeshave been developed. At all times when making use of this framework,educators must keep in mind that the outcomes are intended to developscientific literacy in students. The vision of scientific literacy in thisdocument sets out the need for students to acquire science-related skills,knowledge, and attitudes, and emphasizes that this is best done throughthe study and analysis of the interrelationships among science, technol-ogy, society, and the environment (STSE). The outcomes in the followingsection are taken from the Pan-Canadian framework document CommonFramework of Science Learning Outcomes K–12.

CURRICULUM OUTCOMES

Nature of science andtechnology

Relationship betweenscience and technology

Social and environmentalcontexts of science and

technology

Initiating and planning

Performing and recording

Analysing and interpreting

Communication andteamwork

Life Science

Physical Science

Earth and space science

KNOWLEDGESKILLSSTSE ATTITUDESAppreciation of science

Interest in science

Science inquiry

Collaboration

Stewardship

Safety➔ ➔ ➔ ➔

➔ ➔ ➔ ➔

➔

➔

➔➔

Essential GraduationLearnings

Four General CurriculumOutcomes:

➔➔

A Vision for ScientificLiteracy

in Atlantic Canada

Key-stage Curriculum Outcomes

Specific Curriculum Outcomes

➔➔

➔


General Curriculum Outcome 1:

Science, technology, society, and theenvironment (STSE)—Students willdevelop an understanding of the nature ofscience and technology, of the relationshipsbetween science and technology, and of thesocial and environmental contexts of scienceand technology.


Skills—Students will develop the skillsrequired for scientific and technologicalinquiry, for solving problems, forcommunicating scientific ideas and results,for working collaboratively, and for makinginformed decisions.


Knowledge—Students will constructknowledge and understandings of conceptsin life science, physical science, and Earthand space science, and apply theseunderstandings to interpret, integrate, andextend their knowledge.


Attitudes—Students will be encouraged todevelop attitudes that support theresponsible acquisition and application ofscientific and technological knowledge to themutual benefit of self, society, and theenvironment.

The general curriculum outcomes form the basis of the outcomes framework. They constitute a starting pointfor the development of all subsequent work. The also identify the key components of scientific literacy. Fourgeneral curriculum outcomes have been identified to delineate the four critical aspects of students’ scientificliteracy. They reflect the wholeness and interconnectedness of learning and should be considered as interre-lated and mutually supportive.

GENERAL CURRICULUM OUTCOMES

13Outcomes

The descriptions on the followingpages provide an overview of thedepth and breadth of eachgeneral curriculum outcome, andhave been taken from the Pan-Canadian framework document(Common Framework of ScienceLearning Outcomes K–12)

General CurriculumOutcome 1:

Science, technology, society,and the environment (STSE)—Students will develop anunderstanding of the nature ofscience and technology, of therelationships between science andtechnology, and of the social andenvironmental contexts of scienceand technology.

This outcome statement is thedriving force of the curriculumoutcomes framework. Many key-stage curriculum outcomespresented in this document flowdirectly or indirectly from theSTSE domain. The outcomestatement focusses on three majordimensions:

• the nature of science andtechnology

• the relationships betweenscience and technology

• the social and environmentalcontexts of science andtechnology

Nature of science and technology

Science is a human and socialactivity with unique characteristicsand a long history that hasinvolved many men and womenfrom many societies. Science isalso a way of learning about theuniverse based on curiosity,creativity, imagination, intuition,exploration, observation, replica-tion of experiments, interpretationof evidence, and debate over theevidence and its interpretations.Scientific activity provides aconceptual and theoretical basethat is used in predicting, inter-preting, and explaining naturaland human-made phenomena.Many historians, sociologists, andphilosophers of science argue thatthere is no set procedure forconducting a scientific investiga-tion. Rather, they see science asdriven by a combination oftheories, knowledge, experimen-tation, and processes anchored inthe physical world. Theories ofscience are continually beingtested, modified, and improved asnew knowledge and theoriessupersede existing ones. Scientificdebate on new observations andhypotheses that challenge ac-cepted knowledge involves manyparticipants with diverse back-grounds. This highly complexinterplay, which has occurredthroughout history, is fuelled bytheoretical discussions, experi-mentation, social, cultural,economic and political influences,personal biases, and the need forpeer recognition and acceptance.

While it is true that some of ourunderstanding of the world is theresult of revolutionary scientificdevelopments, much of ourunderstanding of the worldresults from a steady and gradualaccumulation of knowledge.

Technology, like science, is acreative human activity with along history in all cultures of theworld. Technology is concernedmainly with proposing solutionsto problems arising from humanadaptation to the environment.Since there are many possiblesolutions, there are inevitablymany requirements, objectives,and constraints. Hence, the chiefconcern of technologists is todevelop optimal solutions thatrepresent a balance of costs andbenefits to society, the economy,and the environment.

Relationships between scienceand technology

While there are important rela-tionships between science andtechnology, there are also impor-tant differences. Science andtechnology differ in purpose andin process. Technology is morethan applied science. It drawsfrom many disciplines whensolving problems. Throughouthistory, science and technologyhave drawn from one another.They are inextricably linked.

By understanding the relation-ships between science andtechnology, students learn toappreciate how science andtechnology interact, how they

DESCRIPTION OF THE GENERAL CURRICULUM OUTCOMES


develop in a social context, howthey are used to improve people’slives, and how they have implica-tions for the students themselves,for others, for the economy, andfor the environment.

Social and environmentalcontexts of science andtechnology

The history of science highlightsthe nature of the scientific enter-prise. Above all, the historicalcontext serves as a reminder ofthe ways in which cultural andintellectual traditions haveinfluenced the questions andmethodologies of science, andhow science in turn has influ-enced the wider world of ideas.

Today, a majority of scientistswork in industry, where researchis more often driven by societaland environmental needs than bythe pursuit of fundamentals. Astechnological solutions haveemerged, many of them havegiven rise to complex social andenvironmental issues. These issuesare increasingly becoming part ofthe political agenda. The poten-tial of science to inform andempower decision making byindividuals, communities, andsociety as a whole is central toachieving scientific literacy in ademocratic society.

Scientific knowledge is necessarybut is not in itself sufficient forunderstanding the relationshipsamong science, technology,society, and the environment. Tounderstand these relationships, itis also essential to understand thevalues inherent to science,technology, a particular society,and its environment.

As students advance from gradeto grade, the understandingsabout STSE interrelationships aredeveloped and applied in increas-ingly demanding contexts. In theearly years, considerable attentionis given to students acquiring anoperational understanding ofthese interrelationships. In thelater years, these understandingsare more conceptual in nature.Growth in STSE understandingsmay involve each of the followingelements:

• complexity of understand-ing—from simple, concreteideas to abstract ideas; fromlimited knowledge of scienceto more in-depth and broaderknowledge of science and theworld

• applications in context—fromcontexts that are local andpersonal to those that aresocietal and global

• consideration of variables andperspectives—from one or twothat are simple to many thatare complex

• critical judgement—fromsimple right or wrong assess-ments to complex evaluations

• decision making—fromdecisions based on limitedknowledge, made with teacherguidance, to decisions basedon extensive research, involv-ing personal judgement andmade independently, withoutguidance


Skills—Students will develop theskills required for scientific andtechnological inquiry, for solvingproblems, for communicatingscientific ideas and results, forworking collaboratively, and formaking informed decisions.

Students use a variety of skills inthe process of answering ques-tions, solving problems, andmaking decisions. While theseskills are not unique to science,they play an important role in thedevelopment of scientificunderstandings and in theapplication of science andtechnology to new situations.

The listing of skills is not intendedto imply a linear sequence or toidentify a single set of skillsrequired in each science investi-gation. Every investigation andapplication of science has uniquefeatures that determine theparticular mix and sequence ofskills involved.

Four broad areas of skills areoutlined. Each group of skills isdeveloped from entry to grade12, with increasing scope andcomplexity of application.

Initiating and planning—Theseare the skills of questioning,identifying problems, and devel-oping preliminary ideas andplans.

Performing and recording—These are the skills of carrying outa plan of action, which involvesgathering evidence by observa-tion and, in most cases, manipu-lating materials and equipment.

15Outcomes

Analysing and interpreting—These are the skills of examininginformation and evidence, ofprocessing and presenting data sothat it can be interpreted, and ofinterpreting, evaluating, andapplying the results.

Communication and team-work—In science, as in otherareas, communication skills areessential at every stage whereideas are being developed, tested,interpreted, debated, and agreedupon. Teamwork skills are alsoimportant, since the developmentand application of science ideasare collaborative processes bothin society and in the classroom.

Interactions among the four areas of skills

As students advance from gradeto grade, the skills they havedeveloped are applied in increas-ingly demanding contexts.Growth in skills may involve eachof the following skill elements:

• range of application—from alimited range to a broadrange of applications

• complexity of application—from simple, direct applica-tions to applications thatinvolve abstract ideas andcomplex interpretations andjudgements

• precision of measures andmanipulations—from coarsemeasures and manipulationsto those that are precise

• use of current and appropriatetechnologies and tools—fromworking with a few simpletools to working with a broadarray of specialized andprecise tools

Initiating andPlanning

Communicationand teamwork

Performing andrecording

Analysing andinterpreting

▲

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▲ ▲

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• degree of independence andstructure—from workingunder teacher guidance or in astructured situation to workingindependently and withoutguidance

• awareness and control—fromfollowing a predeterminedplan to an approach involvingawareness, understanding,and control, such as selectingskills and strategies that aremost appropriate to the task athand and making use ofmetacognition and strategicthinking

• ability to work collabora-tively—from working as anindividual to working as partof a team

Applying skills in context

Students should be provided withopportunities to develop andapply their skills in a variety ofcontexts. These contexts connectto the STSE outcomes by linkingto three processes for skillsapplication:

• science inquiry—seekinganswers to questions throughexperimentation and research

• problem solving—seekingsolutions to science-relatedproblems by developing andtesting prototypes, products,and techniques to meet agiven need

• decision making—providinginformation to assist thedecision-making process



Knowledge—Students will con-struct knowledge andunderstandings of concepts in lifescience, physical science, and Earthand space science, and apply theseunderstandings to interpret, inte-grate, and extend their knowledge.

This general curriculum outcomefocusses on the subject matter ofscience, including the theories,models, concepts, and principlesthat are essential to an under-standing of each science area. Fororganizational purposes, thisoutcome is framed using widelyaccepted science disciplines.

Life science

Life science deals with the growthand interactions of life formswithin their environments, in waysthat reflect their uniqueness,diversity, genetic continuity, andchanging nature. Life scienceincludes fields of study such asecosystems, biodiversity, the studyof organisms, the study of the cell,biochemistry, genetic engineering,and biotechnology.

Physical science

Physical science, which encom-passes chemistry and physics,deals with matter, energy, andforces. Matter has structure andthere are interactions among itscomponents. Energy links matterto gravitational, electromagnetic,and nuclear forces in the universe.The conservation laws of mass andenergy, momentum, and changeare addressed by physical science.

Earth and space science

Earth and space science bringsglobal and universal perspectivesto students’ knowledge. Earth,our home planet, exhibits form,structure, and patterns of change,as does our surrounding solarsystem and the physical universebeyond it. Earth and spacescience includes fields of studysuch as geology, meteorology,and astronomy.


Attitudes—Students will beencouraged to develop attitudesthat support the responsibleacquisition and application ofscientific and technological knowl-edge to the mutual benefit of self,society, and the environment.

Attitudes refer to generalizedaspects of behaviour that aremodelled for students by exampleand reinforced by selectiveapproval. Attitudes are notacquired in the same way as skillsand knowledge. They cannot beobserved at any particular mo-ment, but are evidenced byregular, unpromoted manifesta-tions over time. Attitude develop-ment is a lifelong process thatinvolves the home, the school,the community, and society atlarge. The development ofpositive attitudes plays an impor-tant role in students’ growth byinteracting with their intellectualdevelopment and by creating areadiness for responsible applica-tion of what they learn.

The attitudes outcome focusseson six ways in which scienceeducation can contribute toattitudinal growth. These havebeen articulated as statements orattitude indicators that haveguided the development of thekey-stage outcomes. They havealso provided links to the STSEand skills general curriculumoutcomes.

Appreciation of science

Students will be encouraged toappreciate the role and contribu-tions of science in their lives, andto be aware of its limits andimpacts. Science education cancontribute to attitudinal growthwhen students are encouraged toexamine how science has animpact daily and over the longterm on themselves and on thelives of others. In this way,students can increasingly appreci-ate science’s potential significancefor their own lives.

Interest in science

Students will be encouraged todevelop enthusiasm and continu-ing interest in the study ofscience. Science education cancontribute to attitudinal growthwhen students are involved inscience investigations and activi-ties that stimulate their interestsand curiosity, thus increasing theirmotivation for learning andencouraging them to becomeinterested in preparing forpotential science-related careersor furthering other science-relatedinterests.

17Outcomes

Scientific inquiry

Students will be encouraged todevelop attitudes that supportactive inquiry, problem solving,and decision making. Scienceeducation can contribute toattitudinal growth when studentsare provided with opportunitiesfor development, reinforcement,and extension of attitudes thatsupport scientific inquiry, such asopen-mindedness and flexibility,critical-mindedness and respectfor evidence, initiative andperseverance, and creativity andinventiveness.

Collaboration

Students will be encouraged todevelop attitudes that supportcollaborative activity. Scienceeducation can contribute toattitudinal growth when studentsare provided with opportunitiesto work in group situations andon real-life problems, thus devel-oping a sense of interpersonalresponsibilities, an openness todiversity, respect for multipleperspectives, and an appreciationof the efforts and contributions ofothers.

Stewardship

Students will be encouraged todevelop responsibility in theapplication of science and tech-nology in relation to society andthe natural environment. Scienceeducation can contribute toattitudinal growth when studentsare involved in activities thatencourage responsible actiontoward living things and theenvironment, and when studentsare encouraged to consider issuesrelated to sustainability from avariety of perspectives.

Safety

Students will be encouraged todemonstrate a concern for safetyin science and technology con-texts. Science education cancontribute to attitudinal growthwhen students are encouraged toassess and manage potentialdangers and apply safety proce-dures, thus developing a positiveattitude toward safety.


KEY-STAGE CURRICULUM OUTCOMES

Key-stage curriculum outcomesare statements that identify whatstudents are expected to knowand be able to do by the end ofgrades 3, 6, 9, and 12 as a resultof their cumulative learningexperiences in science.

The key stages are established tocoincide with the most commonschool organization. On thesurface these stages are discrete,separate divisions used primarilyfor planning curriculum. How-ever, in the continuum of anindividual student’s learningexperience, the transition from

grade 3 to grade 4 is not substan-tially different from the transitionfrom grade 4 to grade 5. Further-more, the key-stage outcomesrepresent what is intended or whatis expected at the end of thatstage. At the end of a particular keystage some students will have fullyachieved the intended outcomewhile others will not. While theoutcomes are intended for allstudents, it is acknowledged thatdifferent students will achieve theseoutcomes in different ways and todifferent depth and breadthdepending on interest, ability, andcontext.

The key-stage outcomes pre-sented in the following pageswere taken from the Pan-Cana-dian framework document,Common Framework of ScienceLearning Outcomes K-12. Thenumber attached to each out-come links the statement to boththe Pan-Canadian framework andthe curriculum guides that will bewritten. The numbering system isnot meant to imply order ofimportance.

19Outcomes

Science, Technology, Society, and the Environment (STSE)Students will develop an understanding of the nature of science and technology, ofthe relationships between science and technology, and of the social andenvironmental contexts of science and technology.

KEY-STAGE CURRICULUM OUTCOMES

By the end of grade 3 (STSE/knowledge), studentswill be expected to

investigate objects and events in their immediateenvironment, and use appropriate language todevelop understanding and to communicateresults (100)

demonstrate and describe ways of using materialsand tools to help answer science questions and tosolve practical problems (101)

describe how science and technology affect theirlives and those of people and other living thingsin their community (102)

undertake personal actions to care for the imme-diate environment and contribute to responsiblegroup decisions (103)

By the end of grade 6, students will have achieved theoutcomes for entry–grade 3 and will also be expected to

demonstrate that science and technology usespecific processes to investigate the natural andconstructed world or to seek solutions to practicalproblems (104)

demonstrate that science and technology developover time (105)

describe ways that science and technology worktogether in investigating questions and problemsand in meeting specific needs (106)

describe applications of science and technologythat have developed in response to human andenvironmental needs (107)

describe positive and negative effects that resultfrom applications of science and technology intheir own lives, the lives of others, and the environ-ment (108)


Science, Technology, Society, and the Environment (STSE)Students will develop an understanding of the nature of science and technology, ofthe relationships between science and technology, and of the social andenvironmental contexts of science and technology.

By the end of grade 12, students will have achievedthe outcomes for entry–grade 9 and will also beexpected to

describe and explain disciplinary and interdiscipli-nary processes used to enable us to understandnatural phenomena and develop technologicalsolutions (114)

distinguish between science and technology interms of their respective goals, products, andvalues and describe the development of scientifictheories and technologies over time (115)

analyse and explain how science and technologyinteract with and advance one another (116)

analyse how individuals, society, and the environ-ment are interdependent with scientific and tech-nological endeavours (117)

evaluate social issues related to the applicationsand limitations of science and technology, andexplain decisions in terms of advantages anddisadvantages for sustainability, considering avariety of perspectives (118)


describe various processes used in science andtechnology that enable people to understandnatural phenomena and develop technologicalsolutions (109)

describe the development of science andtechnology over time (110)

explain how science and technology interact withand advance one another (111)

illustrate how the needs of individuals, society, andthe environment influence and are influenced byscientific and technological endeavours (112)

analyse social issues related to the applications andlimitations of science and technology, and explaindecisions in terms of advantages and disadvan-tages for sustainability, considering a few perspec-tives (113)

21Outcomes

SkillsStudents will develop the skills required for scientific and technological inquiry, forsolving problems, for communicating scientific ideas and results, for workingcollaboratively, and for making informed decisions.

By the end of grade 3, students will be expected to

ask questions about objects and events in theimmediate environment and develop ideas abouthow those questions might be answered (200)

observe and explore materials and events in theimmediate environment and record the results(201)

identify patterns and order in objects and eventsstudied (202)

work with others and share and communicateideas about their explorations (203)


ask questions about objects and events in the localenvironment and develop plans to investigatethose questions (204)

observe and investigate their local environmentand record the results (205)

interpret findings from investigations usingappropriate methods (206)

work collaboratively to carry out science-relatedactivities and communicate ideas, procedures, andresults (207)


SkillsStudents will develop the skills required for scientific and technological inquiry, forsolving problems, for communicating scientific ideas and results, for workingcollaboratively, and for making informed decisions.


ask questions about relationships between andamong observable variables and plan investiga-tions to address those questions (208)

conduct investigations into relationships betweenand among observations, and gather and recordqualitative and quantitative data (209)

analyse qualitative and quantitative data anddevelop and assess possible explanations (210)

work collaboratively on problems and use appro-priate language and formats to communicateideas, procedures, and results (211)


ask questions about observed relationships andplan investigations of questions, ideas, problems,and issues (212)

conduct investigations into relationships betweenand among observable variables, and use a broadrange of tools and techniques to gather and recorddata and information (213)

analyse data and apply mathematical and concep-tual models to develop and assess possible explana-tions (214)

work as a member of a team in addressing prob-lems, and apply the skills and conventions ofscience in communicating information and ideasand in assessing results (215)

23Outcomes


describe and compare characteristics and proper-ties of living things, objects, and materials (300)

describe and predict causes, effects, and patternsrelated to change in living and non-living things(301)

describe interactions within natural systems andthe elements required to maintain these systems(302)

describe forces, motion, and energy and relatethem to phenomena in their observableenvironment (303)


For grade 3, STSE and knowledge outcomes arecombined in the STSE section.

KnowledgeStudents will construct knowledge and understandings of concepts in life science,physical science, and Earth and space science, and apply these understandings tointerpret, integrate, and extend their knowledge.



Life Scienceexplain and compare processes that are responsi-ble for the maintenance of an organism’s life (304)

explain processes responsible for the continuityand diversity of life (305)

describe interactions and explain dynamic equilib-rium within ecological systems (306)

Physical Sciencedescribe the properties and components of matterand explain interactions between those compo-nents (307)

describe sources and properties of energy, andexplain energy transfers and transformations (308)

recognize that many phenomena are caused byforces and explore various situations involvingforces (309)

Earth and Space Scienceexplain how Earth provides both a habitat for lifeand resource for society (310)

explain patterns of change and their effects onEarth (311)

describe the nature and components of the solarsystem (312)


Life Sciencecompare and contrast the reproduction anddevelopment of representative organisms (313)

determine how cells use matter and energy tomaintain organization necessary for life (314)

demonstrate an understanding of the structure andfunction of genetic material (315)

analyse the patterns and products of evolution (316)

compare and contrast mechanisms used by organ-isms to maintain homeostasis (317)

evaluate relationships that affect the biodiversityand sustainability of life within the biosphere (318)

Chemistryidentify and explain the diversity of organic compoundsand their implications in the environment (319)

demonstrate an understanding of the characteris-tics and interactions of acids and bases (320)

illustrate and explain the various forces that holdstructures together at the molecular level, andrelate the properties of matter to its structure (321)

use the redox theory in a variety of contextsrelated to electrochemistry (322)

demonstrate an understanding of solutions andstoichiometry in a variety of contexts (323)

predict and explain energy transfers in chemicalreactions (324)


25Outcomes


By the end of grade 12, students will haveachieved the outcomes for entry–grade 9 and willalso be expected to

Physicsanalyse and describe relationships between forceand motion (325)

analyse interactions within systems, using the lawsof conservation of energy and momentum (326)

predict and explain interactions between wavesand with matter, using the characteristics ofwaves (327)

explain the fundamental forces of nature, usingthe characteristics of gravitational, electric, andmagnetic fields (328)

analyse and describe different means of energytransmission and transformation (329)

Earth and Space Sciencedemonstrate an understanding of the natureand diversity of energy sources and matter inthe universe (330)

describe and predict the nature and effects ofchanges to terrestrial systems (331)

demonstrate an understanding of the relation-ships among systems responsible for changes tothe Earth’s surface (332)

describe the nature of space and its componentsand the history of the observation of space (333)

continued



recognise the role and contribution of science intheir understanding of the world (400)

show interest in and curiosity about objects andevents within the immediate environment (401)

willingly observe, question, and explore (402)

consider their observations and their own ideaswhen drawing a conclusion (403)

appreciate the importance of accuracy (404)

be open-minded in their explorations (405)

work with others in exploring and investigating (406)

be sensitive to the needs of other people, otherliving things, and the local environment (407)

show concern for their own safety and that ofothers in carrying out activities and usingmaterials (408)


appreciate the role and contribution of science andtechnology in their understanding of the world (409)

realize that the applications of science and technol-ogy can have both intended and unintendedeffects (410)

recognize that women and men of any culturalbackground can contribute equally to science (411)

show interest and curiosity about objects andevents within different environments (412)

willingly observe, question, explore, and investi-gate (413)

show interest in the activities of individuals work-ing in scientific and technological fields (414)

consider their own observations and ideas as wellas those of others during investigations and beforedrawing conclusions (415)

appreciate the importance of accuracy andhonesty (416)

demonstrate perseverance and a desire to under-stand (417)

work collaboratively while exploring and investi-gating (418)

be sensitive to and develop a sense of responsibilityfor the welfare of other people, other living things,and the environment (419)

show concern for their own safety and that ofothers in planning and carrying out activities andin choosing and using materials (420)

become aware of potential dangers (421)

ATTITUDESStudents will be encouraged to develop attitudes that support the responsibleacquisition and application of scientific and technological knowledge to the mutualbenefit of self, society, and the environment.

27Outcomes


value the role and contribution of science andtechnology in our understanding of phenomenathat are directly observable and those that are not(436)

appreciate that the applications of science andtechnology can raise ethical dilemmas (437)

value the contributions to scientific and technologi-cal development made by women and men frommany societies and cultural backgrounds (438)

show a continuing and more informed curiosity andinterest in science and science-related issues (439)

acquire, with interest and confidence, additionalscience knowledge and skills, using a variety of re-sources and methods, including formal research (440)

consider further studies and careers in science andtechnology-related fields (441)

confidently evaluate evidence and consider alterna-tive perspectives, ideas, and explanations (442)

use factual information and rational explanationswhen analysing and evaluating (443)

value the processes for drawing conclusions (444)

work collaboratively in planning and carrying outinvestigations, as well as generating and evaluatingideas (445)

have a sense of personal and shared responsibilityfor maintaining a sustainable environment (446)


appreciate the role and contribution of science andtechnology in our understanding of the world (422)

appreciate that the applications of science andtechnology can have advantages and disadvan-tages (423)

appreciate and respect that science has evolvedfrom different views held by women and menfrom a variety of societies and cultural back-grounds (424)

show a continuing curiosity and interest in a broadscope of science-related fields and issues (425)

confidently pursue further investigations andreadings (426)

consider many career possibilities in science- andtechnology-related fields (427)

consider observations and ideas from a variety ofsources during investigations and before drawingconclusions (428)

value accuracy, precision, and honesty (429)

persist in seeking answers to difficult questions andsolutions to difficult problems (430)

work collaboratively in carrying out investigationsas well as in generating and evaluating ideas (431)

be sensitive and responsible in maintaining abalance between the needs of humans and asustainable environment (432)





project the personal, social, and environmentalconsequences of a proposed action (447)

want to take action for maintaining a sustainableenvironment (448)

show concern for safety and accept the need forrules and regulations (449)

be aware of the direct and indirect conse-quences of their actions (450)


project, beyond the personal, consequences ofproposed actions (433)

show concern for safety in planning, carrying out,and reviewing activities (434)

become aware of the consequences of their actions(435)

continued

29Contexts for Learning and Teaching

The instructional environmentrepresents much more than thephysical setting in which teachingand learning take place. While thephysical environment is impor-tant, the intellectual environmentin which teaching and learningtake place is more important.Glickman (1991) states that“Effective teaching is not a set ofgeneric practices, but instead is aset of context-driven decisionsabout teaching. Effective teachersdo not use the same set of practicesfor every lesson ... Instead, whateffective teachers do is constantlyreflect about their work, observewhether students are learning ornot, and, then adjust their practiceaccordingly.” (p. 6)All instructional practices mustreflect the nature of science andhow children learn science.Underlying every model ofteaching/learning that activelyinvolves learners in the process isthe theory of constructivism—theview that knowledge is con-structed in the mind of thelearner, rather than transferredintact from the mind of theteacher to the mind of thelearner.

Contexts for Learningand Teaching

The central goal of scienceeducation is scientific literacy. Allactivities that fall under theumbrella of instruction shouldtherefore be aimed at that centralgoal. While curricula can bedesigned to encourage thedevelopment of scientific literacy,it is the instructional environmentthat must bring curricula toreality. The instructional environ-ment will determine the congru-ity between the intended curricu-lum and the actual curriculum.

There are two overriding philoso-phies that should pervade allinstruction (teaching/learning) inscience. One of these philoso-phies, resource-based learning,is not specific to science instruc-tion but is applicable to allteaching and learning. Thesecond, the science-technology-society-environ-ment connection, is a curriculumapproach and an instructionalapproach that addresses all thegoals of science education.

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING AND TEACHING SCIENCE

STSE IN THECLASSROOM

General Curriculum Outcome 1(STSE) states that students willdevelop an understanding of thenature of science and technology,their applications and implica-tions, and the relationshipsamong science, technology,society, and the environment.However, STSE also refers to anapproach to the teaching ofscience. This approach to scienceeducation has been advocated bymany groups within both thescience and science educationcommunities.

STSE science places the scientificendeavour in the context of acontemporary societal or environ-mental situation, question, orproblem. The desire to investi-gate the situation, answer thequestion, or solve the problemcreates in the students a mean-ingful context in which to ad-dress the skills, concepts, andunderstandings of the course.The STSE approach aims tosupply this organization throughproviding a relevant context. TheSTSE approach also allows thecurriculum to reflect more


accurately the current under-standing of the nature of science,the nature of technology, andSTSE interrelationships.

The following categories of STSEinvolvement in the curriculum arebased on the work of Aikenhead(1990):

1. Motivation by STSE Content

Standard school science, plus amention of STSE content in orderto make a lesson more interesting.Students are not assessed on theSTSE content.

2. Casual Infusion of STSEContent

Standard school science, plus ashort study (2 hours) of STSEcontent attached to the sciencetopic. The STSE content does notfollow cohesive themes. Studentsare assessed almost completely onpure science content and onlysuperficially on STSE content.

3. Purposeful Infusion of STSEContent

Standard school science, plus aseries of short studies of STSEcontent integrated into sciencetopics, in order to systematicallyexplore the STSE content. Stu-dents are assessed to some degreeon their understanding of theSTSE content.

4. Singular Discipline throughSTSE Content

STSE content as an organizer forthe science content and itssequence. The science content isselected from one science disci-pline. A listing of pure sciencetopics looks quite similar to a

category 3 science course, thoughthe sequence would be quitedifferent. Students are assessed ontheir understanding of the STSEcontent, but not as extensively asthey are on the pure sciencecontent.

5. Science through STSEContent

STSE content as an organizer forthe science content and itssequence. The science content ismultidisciplinary, as dictated bythe STSE content. A listing of purescience topics looks like a selectionof important science topics from avariety of standard sciencecourses. Students are assessed ontheir understanding of the STSEcontent, but not as extensively asthey are on the pure sciencecontent.

Research indicates that significantincreases in scientific literacy occurwhen the STSE component of thecourse is at the third level orbeyond. Unless there is a purpose-ful application of STSE principles,and they are included in theformal evaluation scheme, thenmuch of the benefit of STSE is lost.

The use of STSE in the organiza-tion of curriculum and the crea-tion of learning situations is notnew. Teachers have always pro-vided students with opportunitiesto view science from some mean-ingful context. This meaningfulcontext encourages more studentsto engage actively in makingsense of the topic and allows thestudents to make personal con-nections to the topic under study.STSE attempts to provide thismeaningful context.

An STSE context can be used intwo general ways. The first isfollowing the normal sequence ofinstruction. In this case, the STSEproblem or situation causes thestudents to analyse, synthesize, orevaluate a new situation or solve aproblem. The students’ under-standing of the science contentand concepts is clarified andstrengthened as they attempt toapply their existing knowledge inthe context of complex STSEsituations. This also allows stu-dents to be exposed to STSE issuesand make the types of connec-tions between science, technol-ogy, society, and the environmentthat were previously identified.

The second type of STSE contextresults in a re-organization ofscience curriculum to establishconnections.

The net result of this process is ascience curriculum based on howstudents learn, rather than on thetraditional view of science as afield of study. This restructuring ofthe scope and sequence beginswith a societal problem or situa-tion. To solve the problem orunderstand the situation, studentsaddress a series of questionsrequiring knowledge of certaincontent, concepts, and skills in theareas of science and technology.The societal issue chosen suggestsa matching piece of technology toexamine and also determineswhich concepts are to be investi-gated and understood. Ap-proached in this fashion, the corescience material is constructedand understood within themeaningful context of attemptingto investigate or solve a societalproblem.


CONSTRUCTIVISM

In the last two decades manywriters have called for majorchanges in the aims and peda-gogy of science education (Al-berta Education 1990; Dawson1992; A.A.A.S. 1989). They arguethat traditional science educationhas dealt mainly with the memo-rization, and to some extent, theapplication of science content.Current curriculum researchersand developers are working withteachers to focus on the acquisi-tion of those science conceptsand principles that are fundamen-tal to understanding the world.

The constructivist perspectiveholds that meaningful learning orunderstanding is constructed inthe mind of the learner as a resultof interactions between senseimpressions and the learner’sprevious understanding (Appleton1993; Posner, Strike, Hewson &Gerzog 1982; Saunders 1992).Constructivists see the learner as anaive scientist who attempts toexplain new events and phenom-ena by creating rules and hypoth-eses. Thus the learner has a set ofcognitive structures (ideas) thathelp to explain the world aroundhim/her. However, as new experi-ences are encountered the learnermay find that his/her existingrules and hypotheses are insuffi-cient to explain everything. Thus,the learner may have to add newideas or make adjustments toexisting ones to get the necessaryexplanations.

This adding or adjusting of ideasor cognitive structures was madefamous by Piaget. He defined

intelligence as an individual’sability to adapt to the environ-ment. He argued that twoprocesses were key to thisadaptation: assimilation andaccommodation. Assimilationwas his name for the addition ofnew cognitive structures thatwere consistent with the existingones. Accommodation was theterm used for reshaping of thestructures (conceptual frame-work) based on disparitiesbetween the existing structuresand new experiences. Piagetbelieved that acquisition ofconcepts and intellectual growthproceeded slowly, since muchthought is needed for the learnerto understand complex phenom-ena in light of the existingstructures, reflect on the match,and make adjustments to thestructures that allow for animproved match with the senseperceptions of reality.

Science is often seen as anappropriate subject for theapplication of constructivistprinciples, since the hypothesiz-ing and testing of cognitivestructures that are fundamentalto cognitive growth in theconstructivist scheme mirror thework of scientists. Therefore,many writers have argued thatone of the major aims of scienceeducation should be the develop-ment of concepts in the minds ofthe students that would allowthem to make sense of the world.However, science itself is a way oflooking at and explaining theworld. Thus, the acquisition ofconcepts to help explain aphenomenon is too broad anaim. The concepts that the

learner develops should beconsistent with those conceptsthat scientists already hold forthat particular phenomenon(Appleton 1993; Saunders 1992).

The literature abounds withstudies that have examined theconcepts that science studentsuse to explain natural phenomena(Erikson 1979; Hashwell, 1988;Lawson 1988; Stavy 1991). In thevast majority of cases the researchhas shown that science students,even very successful ones, holdconcepts that are inconsistentwith those held by the scientificcommunity. These concepts havebeen referred to as misconcep-tions, alternative conceptions,naive conceptions, and intuitiveframeworks or alternative frame-works. Eylon and Linn (1988)summarize the finding of suchstudies as follows:

“Empirical studies of many differentdomains indicate that studentsbegin their study of science withstrongly held conceptions aboutsome phenomena, conflicting ideasabout some phenomena, and littleknowledge of other phenomena.Studies of students’ everyday ideasand naive conceptions includeexaminations of conceptions heldboth before and after instruction.These investigations reveal thatstudents’ ideas are often inconsist-ent with the principles taught inscience class and that studentsoften maintain their ideas whenincorporating information frominstruction, thus fitting newinformation presented in scienceclass into everyday views ratherthan altering their frameworks.”(p. 253)


One reason that helps explainhow strongly students hold on totheir alternative concepts is that,“To the learner, they make logicalsense within the world view he hasconstructed out of his experience,”(Saunders 1992, p. 137). Ifscience teachers seek to imposetheir explanations of the world onthe students by direct presenta-tion and transmission teaching,they can expect to meet withlittle success.

The constructivist approach toscience education involves theteacher and students in thesearch for explanations to makesense of new experiences andphenomena. The task of theteacher is to organize the curricu-lum and the classroom experiencesuch that the student, in anattempt to make sense of theevent under investigation, comesto invent, examine, and passjudgment on those scientificexplanations that are normally“covered” in the course.

From entry to grade 6 thispassing judgment is basedessentially on the notion ofviability; that is, an idea is ac-cepted if it explains the phenom-enon under investigation. At thehigher grades this judgmentprocess will evolve so that it willallow the teacher and the stu-dents to examine the importantscientific principles involved intheory choice. These discussionsand examinations will also assistin developing an understandingof the nature of science and thenature of scientific knowledge.

Driver and Leach (1992) identifythe features that characterize ateaching and learning environ-ment from a constructivistperspective:

• Learners are not viewed aspassive but are seen aspurposive and ultimatelyresponsible for their ownlearning. They bring theirprior conceptions to learningsituations.

• Learning is considered toinvolve an active process onthe part of the learner. Itinvolves the construction ofmeaning and often takes placethrough interpersonal negotia-tion.

• Knowledge is not “out there”but is personally and sociallyconstructed; its status isproblematic. It may beevaluated by the individual interms of the extent to which it“fits” with his or her experi-ence, is coherent with otheraspects of the individual’sknowledge, and is consistentwith the knowledge schemeswithin particular social groups.

• Teachers also bring their priorconceptions to learningsituations, in terms of not onlytheir subject knowledge, butalso their views of teachingand learning. These caninfluence their way of interact-ing with students in class-rooms.

• Teaching is not the transmis-sion of knowledge but in-volves the organization of thesituations in the classroomand the design of tasks in a

way that enables students tomake sense of the “ways ofseeing” of the scientificcommunity.

• The curriculum is not thatwhich is to be learned, but aprogram of learning tasks,materials, resources, anddiscourse from which studentsconstruct their knowledge.

CREATING LINKAGESAMONG SCIENCEDISCIPLINES

There are a number of unifyingideas that represent a way oforganizing and connectingscientific knowledge. Theseorganizing concepts are not theexclusive domain of science forthey apply as well in mathemat-ics, technology, business, govern-ment and politics, education,law, and other domains. Theseunifying concepts are really waysof thinking rather than theories,discoveries, or knowledge.Although there is some variationin the literature, there is a degreeof consistency; for the purpose ofthe Atlantic science curriculumthe unifying concepts of change,diversity, energy, equilibrium,matter, models, and systems willbe used. For the most part, theseconcepts should not be taught asseparate topics. At every oppor-tunity the various unifyingconcepts should be brought upin the context of the sciencebeing studied. Only after accu-mulating a wealth of examples,illustrations, and experiences willstudents integrate their knowl-edge related to these abstractconcepts into their thinking.


ChangeChanges in systems occur inseveral distinct ways—as steadytrends, in a cyclical fashion,irregularly, or in any combinationof these patterns. Recognizing thetype of change depends onobservation and analysis of thesystem. One’s perception ofchange comes from one’s experi-ence with time.

A steady trend is a change thatoccurs in the same direction andcan be described in simplemathematical terms. Examples ofthis type of change include anindividual’s growth and develop-ment, pond succession, or thesteady increase in world popula-tion growth. A cyclical change is asequence of changes repeatedover time, for example, thecyclical changes that occur inclimate. Cyclical change ischaracterized by a range invariation, a set length of timeover which the cycle occurs, andthe timing of peaks within thecycle. This type of change iscommonly found in systems withfeedback loops. Although theymay not understand the reasonsfor it, young students will knowthat the changing of the seasonsis a cyclical phenomenon. Anirregular trend is one that appearsrandom at first inspection, but isactually a disguised trend orcycle. The ability to discern thetrend depends on the method ofobservation. Statistical analysis isoften used to establish a patternfrom measurable data. Newbranches of mathematics such aschaos theory and fractal geom-etry are attempting to uncover

the underlying patterns in irregu-lar changes. It appears that thereare hierarchies of change pat-terns. Identifying the type ofchange can lead to more accuratepredictions and, therefore,perhaps some degree of controlof the change that may be ofvalue in the design of technologi-cal systems, for example.

On a sufficiently small scale allchange appears to have a randomcomponent. This phenomenon istermed chaos. Although detailsmay be unpredictable, often, on alarger scale of observation,changes can be highly predict-able. For example, components,individuals, or systems may gothrough much the same develop-mental sequences, but as in theformation of snowflakes orshorelines, the details are neverthe same twice.

DiversityStudents must develop an under-standing and appreciation of thevast array of living and non-livingforms of matter and the proce-dures used to understand, classify,and distinguish those forms onthe basis of structure and func-tion. This understanding can bedeveloped only if students haveconcrete experiences with phe-nomena and objects before theyencounter explanations andabstract theories.

At the entry to grade 3 level, thisconcept might be introducedthrough an examination of thevariety in the kinds of materials(cloth, wood, stone, plastic,metal, etc.) or the variety ofcommon animals with which

students are already familiar.Progressively through the grades,diversity will be dealt with in anincreasingly complex manner.

For example, the earth was underclose scrutiny long before Darwinprovided a new framework forexplaining evolution and beforethe microscope led scientists tocells. Botanists, zoologists,geologists, surveyors, and explor-ers were the first to find out whatwas “out there.” As informationaccumulated, interest in classifica-tion systems grew, and thosesystems became more complex,especially after microscopes,telescopes, and other toolsrevealed a whole new world toexplore and catalogue. Eventually,scientists produced and tested thetheories and models used toexplain people’s observations.They came to understand thenatural world first throughobservations, then classifications,and then theories.

EnergyEnergy is a central concept of thesciences. It is a bond linkingscientific disciplines as diverse asagriculture, quantum physics, andoceanography. In the physicalsciences, energy is perhaps themost important unifying conceptbecause all physical phenomenaand interactions involve energy.In the natural sciences, the flow ofenergy through individuals andecosystems controls, maintains,and drives such diverse processesas photosynthesis, growth,metabolism, and trophic levelinteractions. Biochemistry is thestudy of how energy is organizedby biochemical reactions that


allow organisms to synthesize avariety of molecules essential forlife. In the earth sciences, energiesof the wind, precipitation, physi-cal and chemical changes, as wellas volcanic eruptions and conti-nental drift, alter the face of theearth and are responsible formany geological processes.

The study of energy and itstransformations, whether electri-cal, mechanical, chemical,thermal, or nuclear, is a unifyingintellectual thread that stretchesacross all disciplines of science.Physicists study energetics,chemists study electron energylevels within and between atomsand energy of activation, andbiologists study the energyabsorbed or released in breakingor forming bonds. The unifyingconcept, energy, helps organizethe facts of the various disciplinesinto patterns of study. For exam-ple, at the primary and elemen-tary levels students will probablyfirst understand that they getenergy from the food they eat,and will be able to trace thesource of that energy back to thesun. At the junior and senior highlevels, students will be able toanalyse more complex energytransformations, and will under-stand energy transformations atthe molecular level.

EquilibriumThe child’s first experience withthis concept may appear at theplayground where he/she, with afriend, attempts to find the rightbalance on the teeter-totter,thereby developing an intuitiveunderstanding of equilibrium inthat situation. Over time, this

type of concrete experience willbe supplemented by less obvious,even abstract, examples of theconcept of equilibrium. Equilib-rium is the state in which oppos-ing forces or processes balance ina static or dynamic way. A systemin which all processes of changeappear to have stopped displaysconstancy or stability. There aretwo ways in which this can occur.A system in which the rate ofinput into the system is balancedby the rate of output, such thatthe system itself appears static, isin dynamic equilibrium. Forexample, within a capped bottleof club soda, molecules of waterand carbon dioxide escapingfrom the solution into the airabove increase in concentrationuntil the rate of return to theliquid is as great as the rate ofescape. The flow of water andcarbon dioxide molecules in thisexample is a reversible process.

Some processes are not so readilyreversible and therefore result instatic equilibrium. This is asituation where all processes ofchange have stopped untilsomething of sufficient magni-tude is done to the system todisturb it and cause change. Forexample, a rock on the ledge of acliff has the potential to fallfarther down the cliff if an addi-tional force of sufficient magni-tude disturbs it.

Many aspects of a system areconserved. Once the boundariesof a system have been defined,the total amount of matter andenergy within that system maynot change, regardless of howmuch the system may change in

other ways (e.g., form). Forexample, in an explosion of acharge of dynamite (in a con-tained explosion), the total mass,momentum, and energy of allproducts remains constant.Conservation is broken only whenenergy and/or matter passthrough the boundary.

MatterMatter is anything that has massand can exist ordinarily as a solid,liquid, or gas. Animals and plantsare organic matter; minerals andwater are inorganic matter. Theunifying idea of matter deals withtwo main components—thestructure of matter and thecycling of matter in nature.

The scientific understanding ofatoms and molecules requirescombining two closely relatedideas: all substances are com-posed of invisible particles, and allsubstances are made up of alimited number of basic ingredi-ents, or “elements.” These twomerge into the idea that combin-ing the particles of the basicingredients differently leads tomillions of materials with differentproperties. In developing thistheme, students need to becomefamiliar with the physical andchemical properties of manydifferent kinds of materialsthrough first hand experiencebefore they can be expected toconsider theories that explainthem.

Living organisms are made of thesame atomic components as allother matter; thus all of theprinciples that apply to thestructure of matter in the physical


(inorganic) world also apply tothe organic world. Organisms arelinked to one another and to theirphysical setting by the transferand transformation of matter andenergy. This basic conceptconnects the understandingsfrom the physical, earth, andbiological sciences.

The cycling of matter can befound at many levels of biologicalorganization, from molecules toecosystems. The study of foodwebs, for example, can start withthe transfer of matter. An aware-ness of recycling, both in natureand in human societies, may playa helpful role in the developmentof thinking about the notion thatmatter continues to exist eventhough it changes from one formto another and moves from oneplace to another, but that it neversimply appears out of nowhereand never just disappears. Stu-dents must understand that therecycling of matter involves thebreakdown and reassembly ofinvisible units, rather than thecreation and destruction ofmatter.

ModelsModels are vehicles for suggest-ing how things work. Modelsserve as extremely useful tools fordealing with abstract ideasbecause they allow the ideas tobecome more concrete in natureand therefore easier to under-stand. From the earliest years,children understand that theirtoys are only representations ofreal-life objects, and their role-playing is another form of repre-senting reality by pretending tobe someone or something else.

There are two major types ofmodels—physical and conceptual.Physical models use a “hands-on”approach. Examples includeplans, drawings, devices, andpilot programs in a school.Conceptual models consist ofmathematical representations ofthe essential components andtheir interactions (equations).Such models may, however, beapplicable only under a narrowrange of conditions. Conceptualmodels may also consist ofanalogies in which a systemunder investigation is likened to asystem that is more familiar to theobserver.

Models, regardless of type,represent a simplification of anidea or process. Only the essentialcomponents and interactions areidentified. This is their majorattribute, since in reality ideas andprocesses are often much toocomplex to deal with in detail.However, this aspect of a modelcan also be a negative feature:models may be misleading ifessential components are left out.Models are designed to evolvebased on their success as arepresentation of reality. Aspeople’s understanding of phe-nomena improves, modelsbecome more refined.

SystemsOne of the essential componentsof higher-order thinking is theability to think about a whole interms of its parts and, alterna-tively, about parts in terms of howthey relate to one another and tothe whole. This type of thinkingbegins fairly early in a child’sschool experience as he/she

begins to learn about, for exam-ple, some of the human bodysystems. Children, and manyadults, accept on faith that insidetheir own bodies there aresystems that have specific func-tions and that the whole bodycannot function properly if one ofthese systems is not functioningproperly.

A system is a collection of compo-nents that interact with oneanother so that the overall effectis much greater than that of theindividual parts together. Exam-ples of systems are politicalsystems, transportation systems,the respiratory system, computernetworks, and environmentalecosystems. The boundary of asystem is defined by the observerand is dependent on the scalefrom which the observation isbeing made. For example, boththe cell and the human body canbe considered systems. Theboundary of some systems, suchas a rocky shore ecosystem, canoften be difficult to establish.However, an increased under-standing of a system can lead to abetter definition of its boundaries.

Even with systems that haverecognized boundaries, there isinput and output of matter and/or energy through definedpathways and feedback loops(both positive and negative) thatprovide a measure of stability forthe system. For example, theoutputs of angiosperms in anecosystem (fruit and oxygen) areinputs for some animals, while theoutputs of animals (droppingsand carbon dioxide) may serve asthe inputs for plants. Change


occurs in a system over time asrates of transfer into and out ofthe system change.

Systems interact with othersystems. Systems also containinteractive subsystems. Whether asystem is regarded as a system ora subsystem is dependent uponthe scale of observation. Engi-neering concepts of inflow,outflow, system dynamics, andsystem change or evolution areoften employed by scientists toclarify the components, dynam-ics, and interactions of systems.For example, air and fuel go intoan engine and mechanicalenergy, exhaust, and heat comeout, and material characteristicssuch as friction rates and techno-logical calibrations determine theefficiency and life of the engine.Similar analyses can be done withcirculatory systems, developmentof new material alloys, or compu-ter networks.

RESOURCE-BASEDLEARNING

As students and schools enter thetwenty-first century, they findthemselves in an era of rapidlyincreasing knowledge and chang-ing technology. It is no longeradequate or realistic for studentsto acquire a select body ofknowledge and expect it to meettheir needs as citizens of the nextcentury. The need for lifelonglearning is shifting the emphasisfrom a dependence on the whatof learning to the how of learn-ing—today’s students must learnhow to learn. This is particularlytrue of the science curriculum,which addresses a body ofknowledge that is expanding at aphenomenal rate.

This approach to learning isembodied in the philosophy ofresource-based learning, which isidentified by the followingfeatures:

• students actively participate intheir learning

• learning experiences areplanned based on curriculumoutcomes

• learning strategies and skillsare identified and taughtwithin the context of relevantand meaningful units of study

• a wide variety of resources isused

• locations for learning vary

• teachers act as facilitators oflearning, continuously guid-ing, monitoring, and assessingstudent progress

• teachers employ many differ-ent techniques to facilitatelearning

• teachers work together toimplement resource-basedlearning across grade levelsand subject areas

Resource-based learning hasmany advantages. Placing stu-dents at the centre of the instruc-tional process means that theywill

• acquire skills and attitudesnecessary for independent,lifelong learning (they learnhow to learn—one of thefundamental aims of educa-tion)

• interact in group work, sharingand participating in a varietyof situations

• think critically and creatively,experimenting and taking risksas they become independentand collaborative problemsolvers and decision makers

• make choices and acceptresponsibility for these choices,thereby making learning morerelevant and personal


A variety of instructional skills andprocesses exist. Some are broaderthan others and more complex innature. Some factors that mayinfluence teacher selection andapplication of instructional skillsinclude student characteristics,curriculum requirements, andinstructional methods. Instruc-tional skills include such activitiesas explaining, demonstrating, andquestioning.

INVESTIGATIVEACTIVITIES

While investigative activities arenot unique to science, they aremore commonly associated withscience programs than with anyother area of the curriculum.Investigative activities include avariety of activities ranging fromthe traditional experiment donein a science laboratory to a quickfield trip to the school yard. Allsuch activities are characterizedby active student involvement inattempting to find answers toquestions about the natural orconstructed world. Many activi-ties involve the use of scientificand technological tools andequipment; others simply involveobservation using the senses. Theinvestigation is a special instruc-tional format that providesstudents with the opportunity todo science, not just learn science.Without activities of this sort it isextremely difficult, if not impossi-ble, for students to develop anunderstanding of the nature of

science, to develop the cognitive,scientific, and technical skillsassociated with doing science, orto construct the important ideas ofscience.

HOMEWORK

Homework is an essential compo-nent of the science program as itextends the opportunity forstudents to think scientifically andto reflect on ideas explored duringclass time. Meaningful and positivehomework experiences can

• contribute to personal growth,self-discipline, and learningresponsibility

• reinforce the ideas and pro-cesses students have learned ordeveloped at school

• develop students’ confidence intheir ability to work withoutothers’ help

• provide opportunities forstudents to reflect on what theyare learning and how well theyare learning it

Homework provides an effectiveway to communicate with parents/guardians/caregivers and providesthem with an opportunity to beinvolved actively in their child’slearning. By ensuring that assign-ments model classroom practicesand sometimes require parentalinput, teachers can help a parent/guardian/caregiver to gain a clearerunderstanding of the sciencecurriculum and the progress of hisor her child in relation to it.

THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

T he learning environmentthat encourages studentsto construct or recon-

struct their knowledge mustexhibit certain features includingthe following:

• ensuring the learning environ-ment is a supportive onewhere learners feel able tocontribute their ideas

• using group work as a basis forthe social organization of theclassroom so as to give stu-dents opportunities to thinkthrough and exchange ideaswith peers

• ensuring that the teacher’s roleis a diagnostic one with anemphasis on listening tostudents to understand theirthinking and then intervening,when appropriate, withsuggested ideas or experiencesto extend students’ thinking

INSTRUCTIONAL SKILLS

Instructional skills are the mostspecific category of teachingbehaviours. These are usedconstantly as part of the totalprocess of instruction. They arenecessary for procedural purposesand for structuring appropriatelearning experiences for students.No matter how experienced orhow effective a teacher may be,the development and refinementof instructional skills and pro-cesses is a continual challenge.


the needs of a wide range ofabilities. In attempting to helpthose students who have difficul-ties teachers can sometimesforget about the gifted learnerswho, because of their exceptionalabilities, are capable of highachievement. These studentsrequire science programs thathave been adapted to challengethem and enable them to fulfilltheir personal potentials.

Because some exceptional stu-dents may lack co-ordination,have difficulty in followingsequential procedures, or havereduced sensory abilities, teachersoften express concerns aboutsafety. With some restructuring ofthe physical space, such asbuilding a bench of suitableheight for students in wheel-chairs, using mechanical aids suchas large plastic grips for manipu-lating test tubes, or encouragingpeer partnerships, it is possible forstudents and teachers to haverewarding learning and teachingexperiences. Every effort shouldbe made to ensure that thefundamental right of everystudent to be given full opportu-nity for a broad education is metin all science classrooms andlaboratories.

Because this document canaddress only basic principles ofthe rights of students with specialneeds, educators should refer toprovincial, district and/or schoolpolicies that should provide moredetailed guidelines.

GENDER EQUITY

On the surface, it may appearthat there is no problem with theparticipation of females in sci-ence. Up to the senior high levelall students participate in science.Furthermore, an analysis of theenrolment patterns in high schoolshows that the numbers of malesand females in science courses areapproximately equal. In addition,on the average, there is nosignificant difference in theachievement levels of males andfemales. However, a problemmanifests itself when an analysis ismade of post-secondary pro-grams. The number of femalesgraduating from science pro-grams and continuing in scienceand science-related careers issignificantly lower than thenumber of males.

While women have increasednumerically in many fields ofscience in recent decades, theystill face two stereotypes: asscientists they are unusualwomen, and as women they areunusual scientists. Since genderrole stereotyping begins at anearly age, it is important to piquegirls’ interest in science at thestart of schooling. Parents andteachers need to be convincedthat girls need science just asmuch as boys do and that theyshould provide role models foryoung girls interested in careers inscience. What should be toppriority is the transformation ofschooling and the image of

EQUITY AND DIVERSITY

A dvocatingscience for allstudents means

that the science curriculum mustbe designed and implemented toprovide equal opportunities foreach student according to his orher abilities, needs, and interests.Science provides a wealth ofopportunities and experiences forall learners to understand them-selves and the world aroundthem. The needs of studentsoften differ and these differencesmust be taken into account. Thisimplies that special provision maybe required to address individualneeds.

SCIENCE PROGRAMSFOR EXCEPTIONALSTUDENTS

Exceptional students have specialneeds. Science teachers can makeimportant contributions towardsfulfilling these special needswhether the student is a delayedor gifted learner, or whether thestudent is mentally, socially,physically, or emotionally chal-lenged. In a positive atmosphereand with ample time and consid-eration, exceptional students canattain much success in theirscience classes. Exceptionalstudents, like all other students,develop positive self-images andself-esteem when they meet withsuccess regularly. If science istaught as an inquiry, as a set ofstrategies for exploring ideas andanswering questions, then, by itsvery nature, science can address


science so that the language,curriculum, packaging of thecourses, and classroom teachingmethods and interactions reflectthe values and interests of womenand empower girls and youngwomen to develop fully theirself-esteem. Emphasis needs to beshifted from a curriculum whichdoes not reflect the values andinterests of women to the imple-mentation of a curriculum relevantto the entire population.

SCIENCE PROGRAMS FORA MULTICULTURALSOCIETY

Teachers of science should assistethnically diverse communities tomaintain their cultural and ethnicheritage, while sharing with othercommunities the commonlyaccepted values of equal opportu-nity for all in the political, social,and economic spheres of society.

The goals of science programs in amulticultural society follow:

• meeting the needs of raciallyvisible and ethnically diverselearners

• developing in students positiveattitudes toward cultural andlinguistic diversity

• combatting racial prejudice anddiscrimination

• dispelling stereotyped views ofother ethnic groups

• encouraging positive inter-cultural relationships

• facilitating an awareness of theinventions, discoveries, andcontributions of scientists from avariety of ethnic and culturalbackgrounds

Science is most often portrayed asthe achievements of Americanand European males. The historyof science needs to be part of abalanced science curriculum sostudents can see that all cultureshave made great contributions toscience. The Native peoples ofAtlantic Canada, for example,developed an advanced under-standing of naturally occurringcompounds found in plants andanimals before Europeans colo-nized the region. This type ofknowledge has assisted thedevelopment of medicine, andmany of these compounds areused in modern pharmaceuticals.

The foundations of science werebuilt on the contributions ofmany cultures—Islam providedgeometry and chemistry con-cepts; Egypt provided materialstechnology such as copper andglass; India developed surgicaltechniques and instruments; theAztecs and Mayans contributedastronomical knowledge; tropicalAfricans developed advancedmetallurgy; the Chinese inventedthe magnetic compass andgunpowder. Science classes thatincorporate societal and techno-logical components into theirstudies will help students toappreciate the contributions byother cultures to science. Sciencewill then rightfully be viewed as aglobal accomplishment.

Different cultures bring a diversityof equally valid perspectives totheir observations and interpreta-tions. The study of environmentalscience, for example, is oftenpursued as a cause and effectstudy of sub-systems; however,many cultures employ a holisticview that focusses on systemintegrity. Environmental sciencecan only benefit from a multiplic-ity of perspectives, especiallygiven our global responsibilitythat requires ecological interde-pendence among nations.

Some fundamentalist Christianand Islamic groups as well asother groups may object to theteaching of evolutionary theoryand scientific explanations of theorigin of life. Teachers shouldacknowledge that there are manyviews of the origin of life. Thescientific view should never bepresented as the only explana-tion, but rather as the bestexplanation of scientists on theavailable evidence.

Subtle forms of racial stereotypesare often developed during theteaching of evolution by thedepiction of early humans astechnologically primitive, withdark pigmentation, while modernhumans are portrayed as techno-logically advanced, with lightpigmentation. All humans haveachieved the same level ofevolutionary “advancement,”although each racial group hassome characteristics that reflectadaptation to environmentalconditions.


Adapting science programs for amulticultural society means thatteachers must facilitate students’understanding of the

• limitations of scientific expla-nations and theories

• contributions all cultures havemade toward the building ofscience

• key concepts that are essentialto understanding oneself

• the cultural heritage sciencehas contributed to people’sunderstanding of the naturalworld

Science classes that encourageactive learning and are respectfulof students’ ideas will facilitateequality of opportunity and willbuild students’ confidence andmotivation.


A

valued—what is worth learning,how it should be learned, whatelements of quality are consideredmost important, and how wellstudents are expected to perform.

ASSESSMENTTo determine how well studentsare learning, assessment strategieshave to be designed to systemati-cally gather information on theachievement of the curriculumoutcomes. In planning assess-ments, teachers should use abroad range of strategies in anappropriate balance to givestudents multiple opportunities todemonstrate their knowledge,skills, and attitudes. Many typesof assessment strategies can beused to gather such information,including, but not limited to, thefollowing:

• formal and informal observa-tions

• work samples

• anecdotal records

• conferences

• teacher-made and other tests

• portfolios

• learning journals

• questioning

• performance assessment

• peer assessment and selfassessment

ASSESSING AND EVALUATING STUDENT LEARNING

Teacher-developed assessmentsand evaluations have a widevariety of uses, such as

• providing feedback to improvestudent learning

• determining if curriculumoutcomes have been achieved

• certifying that students haveachieved certain levels ofperformance

• setting goals for future studentlearning

• communicating with parentsabout their children’s learning

• providing information toteachers on the effectiveness oftheir teaching, the program,and the learning environment

• meeting the needs of guidanceand administration personnel

EVALUATIONEvaluation involves teachers andothers in analysing and reflectingupon information about studentlearning gathered in a variety ofways. This process requires

• developing clear criteria andguidelines for assigning marksor grades to student work

• synthesizing information frommultiple sources

• weighing and balancing allavailable information

• using a high level of profes-sional judgment in makingdecisions based upon thatinformation

Contexts for Learning and Teaching

ssessment andevaluation areessential compo-

nents of teaching and learning inscience. Without effective assess-ment and evaluation it is impossi-ble to know whether studentshave learned, whether teachinghas been effective, or how best toaddress student learning needs.The quality of the assessment andevaluation in the educationalprocess has a profound and well-established link to student per-formance. Research consistentlyshows that regular monitoringand feedback are essential toimproving student learning. Whatis assessed and evaluated, how itis assessed and evaluated, andhow results are communicatedsend clear messages to studentsand others about what is really

Evaluationis the process of analysing,reflecting upon, andsummarizing assessmentinformation, and makingjudgments or decisions basedupon the information gathered.

Assessmentis the systematic process ofgathering information onstudent learning.


REPORTING

Reporting on student learningshould focus on the extent towhich students have achieved thecurriculum outcomes. Reportinginvolves communicating thesummary and interpretation ofinformation about studentlearning to various audiences whorequire it. Teachers have a specialresponsibility to explain accu-rately what progress studentshave made in their learning andto respond to parent and studentinquiries about learning.

Narrative reports on progress andachievement can provide infor-mation on student learning thatletter or number grades alonecannot. Such reports might, forexample, suggest ways in whichstudents can improve theirlearning and identify ways inwhich teachers and parents/guardians/caregivers can bestprovide support.

Effective communication withparents/guardians/caregiversregarding their children’s progressis essential in fostering successfulhome-school partnerships. Thereport card is one means ofreporting individual studentprogress. Other means includethe use of conferences, notes, andphone calls.

GUIDING PRINCIPLES

In order to provide accurate,useful information about theachievement and instructionalneeds of students, certain guidingprinciples for the development,administration, and use of assess-ments must be followed. Principlesfor Fair Student Assessment Prac-tices for Education in Canadaarticulates five basic assessmentprinciples:

• Assessment strategies shouldbe appropriate for and com-patible with the purpose andcontext of the assessment.

• Students should be providedwith sufficient opportunity todemonstrate the knowledge,skills, attitudes, or behavioursbeing assessed.

• Procedures for judging orscoring student performanceshould be appropriate for theassessment strategy used andbe consistently applied andmonitored.

• Procedures for summarizingand interpreting assessmentresults should yield accurateand informative representa-tions of a student’s perform-ance in relation to the curricu-lum outcomes for the report-ing period.

• Assessment reports should beclear, accurate, and of practi-cal value to the audience forwhom they are intended.

These principles highlight theneed for assessment whichensures that

• the best interests of thestudent are paramount

• assessment informs teachingand promotes learning

• assessment is an integral andongoing part of the learningprocess and is clearly relatedto the curriculum outcomes

• assessment is fair and equita-ble to all students and involvesmultiple sources of informa-tion

While assessments may be usedfor different purposes and audi-ences, all assessments must giveeach student optimal opportunityto demonstrate what he/sheknows and can do.

ASSESSING STUDENTLEARNING IN SCIENCE

Assessment and evaluation areessential components of learningand teaching in science. TheAtlantic Canada science curricu-lum emphasizes having a class-room environment in whichstudents will be encouraged tolearn scientific processes andknowledge within meaningfulcontexts. It is important thatassessment strategies reflect thisemphasis and are consistent inapproach. An assessment pro-gram which provides regularfeedback, and is part of thelearning process, is important toboth student and teacher. Feed-back tells students if they demon-strate understanding of scientificconcepts and if their actions


display expected performancelevels for inquiry, decision-making, and problem-solving.Regular feedback inspires confi-dence in learning science and inbecoming scientifically literate.Effective assessment of studentlearning in science provideseducators with important infor-mation about the learning needsof individual students and thegeneral achievement of thecurriculum outcomes. It alsopermits teachers to monitor theeffectiveness of learning opportu-nities, strategies employed andavailable resources.

The assessment of studentlearning must be aligned withcurriculum outcomes and thetypes of learning opportunitiesmade available to students. TheAtlantic Canadian science curricu-lum provides suggestions fordeveloping student learningacross the four general curriculumoutcome areas: science, technol-ogy, society and environment(STSE); skills; knowledge; andattitudes. These outcomes de-scribe a balance of inquiry,problem-solving, and decision-making, within a suggestedsocial/environmental context, fora given set of scientific knowl-edge. Over time, assessmentshould allow students to monitortheir progress in various scientificskills: initiating and planning;performing and recording;analysing and interpreting;communication and teamwork.The curriculum calls for studentsto be actively involved in theirlearning, using the tools ofscience and of information

processing during classroom/laboratory activities. These shouldbe part of an assessment programwhich incorporates tasks similar tothose used on a regular basis.

External AssessmentAdministration of externallyprepared assessments is on alarge scale in comparison toclassroom assessments, and ofteninvolves hundreds, sometimesthousands of students, allowingfor use of results at the provincial,district and/or school levels.Depending on the comprehen-siveness of the assessment,information can be used for all ofthe same purposes as classroom-based assessment, but it can alsoserve additional administrativeand accountability purposes suchas for admissions, placement,student certification, educationaldiagnosis, and program evalua-tion. External assessments offercommon standards for assess-ment and for administration,scoring and reporting that allowfor comparison of results overtime.

As part of the regional agenda,development of external assess-ments in the core curriculumareas is being undertaken. Gener-ally, external assessment includesassessments prepared by depart-ments of education, national andinternational assessment groups,publishers, and research groups.Each provincial department ofeducation makes decisions onwhether or not to administerexternal assessments.

Contexts for Learning and Teaching

Program and SystemEvaluationThe results from both externaland internal assessments ofstudent achievement can be used,to varying degrees, for programand system evaluation. Externalassessment results, however, aremore comparable across variousgroups and are therefore morecommonly the basis for thesetypes of evaluation.

In essence, the main differencebetween student evaluation andprogram and system evaluation isin how the results are used. Inprogram evaluation marks orscores for individual students arenot the primary focus of theassessment—it is the effectivenessof the program that is evaluatedand the results are used to showthe extent to which the manyoutcomes of the program areachieved.

When results are used for systemevaluation, the focus is on howthe various levels and groupswithin the system, such as class-rooms, schools, districts, and soon, are achieving the intendedoutcomes. In many ways studentand program evaluation are verymuch the same in that bothemphasize obtaining studentinformation concerning students’conceptual understanding, theirabilities to use knowledge andreason to solve problems, andtheir abilities to communicateeffectively.


ment and supplies is an ideal wayto involve parents/guardians/caregivers in their child’s learning.

Whatever the needs and whateverthe source of the equipment andsupplies, teachers will need to bediligent in ensuring that appropri-ate materials are available so thatstudents can engage in meaning-ful and relevant science activities.An associated concern, especiallyat the entry–grade 6 levels, is thestorage of equipment and sup-plies. It may not be feasible forevery classroom to have all thenecessary material and somecentral storage may be necessary.

PRINT RESOURCES

Even with the advent of newmedia, print materials remain adominant type of resource forscience teaching and learning.There are a number of categoriesof print materials available toscience teachers and students—teacher reference materialsdealing with science teaching,student textbooks and accompa-nying teacher resources, scienceactivity books containing ideas forexperiments and/or demonstra-tions, science trade books andreference books (e.g., scienceencyclopedias), and supplemen-tary science books that augmentor complement science text-books.

NON-PRINT RESOURCES

There is an increasing variety ofresources in other formats such asvideo, computer software, CD-ROM, and videodisk. Computersoftware and CD-ROM disks offersimulations and models of real-lifesituations that permit the investi-gation of phenomena that are notavailable because of cost, safety,or accessibility. CD-ROM technol-ogy, with its tremendous storagecapacity allows the advantage ofsignificant depth and/or breadthof information on a single disk, adefinite convenience for theteacher attempting to accumulatematerials on a variety of sciencetopics.

THE USE OFTECHNOLOGY

Just as computers and othertechnology play a central role indeveloping and applying scientificknowledge, they can also facili-tate the learning of science. Itfollows, therefore, that technol-ogy should have a major role inthe teaching and learning ofscience.

Computers and related technol-ogy (projection panels, CD-ROMplayers, videodisk players, analog-digital interfaces, graphingcalculators) have become valuableclassroom tools for the acquisi-tion, analysis, presentation, andcommunication of data in waysthat allow students to becomemore active participants in

RESOURCES

O ne of the characteristicsof the science curriculumthat will help all students

become scientifically literate isthat it should utilize a wide varietyof print and non-print resourcesthat have been developed in aninteresting and interactive style.Traditional print materials, labora-tory equipment, and othermaterials, audio/visual resources,computer software, CD-ROMs,and videodisks should be anintegral part of a student’slearning experience.

SCIENCE EQUIPMENTAND SUPPLIES

The use of hands-on activities isan essential learning strategy in allscience programs. Hands-onactivities can range from simpledemonstrations to complexscientific investigations or experi-ments. At any level of activity, inany learning environment, thereexists a need for specific items ofequipment or supplies. Suchequipment should be appropriateto the grade level. For example,an expensive electronic analyticalbalance would be inappropriatefor an early childhood scienceactivity—a simple plastic platformbalance would be adequate andmore appropriate.

Some equipment and suppliesmust be obtained from commer-cial suppliers. Many other itemscan be homemade or improvisedusing everyday items. The provi-sion of the latter type of equip-


research and learning. In theclassroom, such technology offersthe teacher more flexibility inpresentation, better managementof instructional techniques, andeasier record keeping. Computersand related technology offerstudents a very important re-source for learning the conceptsand processes of science throughsimulations, graphics, sound, datamanipulation, and model build-ing. These capabilities can im-prove scientific learning andfacilitate communication of ideasand concepts. Lest the followingemphasis on computers bemisunderstood, it is asserted atthe outset that computers andrelated technology should en-hance, but not replace, essentialhands-on science activities.

The following guidelines areproposed for the implementationof computers and related technol-ogy in the teaching and learningof science:

• Tutorial software shouldengage students in meaningfulinteractive dialogue andcreatively employ graphs,sound, and simulations topromote acquisition of factsand skills, promote conceptlearning, and enhance under-standing.

• Simulation software shouldprovide opportunities toexplore concepts and modelsthat are not readily accessiblein the laboratory, e.g., thosethat require

· expensive or unavailablematerials or equipment

· hazardous materials orprocedures

· levels of skills not yetachieved by the students

· more time than is possibleor appropriate in real-timeclassroom, e.g., populationgrowth simulations.

• Analog-digital interfacetechnology should be used topermit students to collect andanalyse data as scientists doand perform observations overlong periods of time, enablingexperiments that otherwisewould be impractical.

• Databases and spreadsheetsshould be used to facilitate theanalysis of data by organizingand visually displaying infor-mation.

• Networking among studentsand teachers should beencouraged to permit studentsto emulate the way scientistswork and, for teachers, toreduce teacher isolation.

• Using tools such as the WorldWide Web should be encour-aged as it provides instantaccess to an incredible wealthof information on any imagi-nable topic.

In order to effectively implementcomputers and other technologyin science education, teachersshould

• know how to use effectivelyand efficiently the hardware,software, and techniquesdescribed above

• know how to incorporatemicrocomputers and othertechnology into instructionalstrategies

• become familiar with the useof computer applications asmanagement tools for grad-ing, reports, inventories,budgets, etc.

• exemplify the ethical use ofcomputers and software

• seek to provide equitableaccess for all students


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