Devika BahadurHistory IIIHISTORY OF CHINA AND JAPANTHE TAIPING MOVEMENTQ. For Western historians the Taiping movement was nothing more than a peasantinsurrection. For Communistsitwasnothinglessthanafull-fledgedrevolution.Elucidate and comment on the nature of the Taiping Movement.China in the mid !th "entury #as "on$ronted %y a series o$ "rises& es'e"ia((y in the 'eriod$o((o#in) the O'ium #ars* Rea"tions to the #estern assau(t on China+s "om'(a"ent senseo$ su'eriority and se"urity #ere varied and "ou(d %e seen at t#o (eve(s , o$$i"ia( and'o'u(ar* The Tai'in) #as one su"h movement& #hi"h mani$ested 'o'u(ar dis"ontent at atime#henChina#asree(in)underthee$$e"tso$thede$eat intheO'ium#ars* The%urdeno$ the -ne.ua( treaties& #hi"hChina #as sadd(ed#ith& #as shi$tedtothe'easantry and dis"ontent amon) them #as %ui(din) u'* The attention #hi"h the Tai'in)movement attra"ted in the /01s and /21s a(( over the #or(d #as un're"edented* The Tai'in) movement& #hi"h ro"ked the 3an"hu dynasty durin) !"#-!$% "overed 2o$ the / 'rovin"es o$ China and 211 "ities* 4ar( 3ar5 "a((ed it a 6$ormida%(e revo(ution+and indeed the movement "ha((en)ed not on(y 3an"hu authority %ut a(so the traditiona(ChineseCon$u"ian%e(ie$s that #erethe$oundationo$ its authority* 7hat madetheTai'in) di$$erent $rom ear(ier movements and even other "ontem'orary movements su"has the re%e((ions o$ 3iao& 8o(o& Nien or 3ose(mas its "on"rete ideo(o)y and so(id'ro)ramme #hi"h #ent %eyond sim'(e dis'(a"ement o$ 3an"hu authority* It aimed to%rin) a%out a complete reconstruction in all spheres of life , 'o(iti"a(& e"onomi"& so"ia(and re(i)ious* In the "ourse o$ its stru))(e& it $ormed a #ho(e set o$ 'o(iti"a(& e"onomi"mi(itary edu"ationa( and so"io9"u(tura( institutions and even $ounded its o#n state 'o#erhi"h stru))(ed $or a "onsidera%(e 'eriod a)ainst that o$ the 3an"hu dynasty& #hose ru(eit mana)ed to shake to the very $oundations*Inessen"e& as'ut %yJeanChesneau5& theTai'in)3ovement #asa:so"ia( "rusade&e5'ressin) the 'oor 'easants desire $or e.ua(ity& a nationa( "am'ai)n a)ainst the $orei)ndynastyo""u'yin)the throne inPekin)andthe modernist trendthat deve(o'edinres'onse to the "ha((en)e 'resented %y the #est throu)h the O'ium #ars* Traditiona( Chinese %e(ie$ su%s"ri%ed to the Con$u"ian theory that interna( distur%an"e&%e it 'o(iti"a( or even natura( disasters and e5terna( distur%an"es (ike $orei)n invasionso""urred on(y#hen an e5istin) 'o#er #as de"(inin)* For these distur%an"es thenmani$estedthemse(ves inthe#ithdra#a( o$ theMandateof &eaven* The'(nasticC(cle theor( has o$ten %een invoked %y #estern historians to understand and e5'(ain theout%reak o$ the Tai'in) movement* But the Dynasti" Cy"(e theory "annot %e seen as itsso(e "ause and the movement had some s'e"i$i" "auses #hi"h )ave it a 'e"u(iar "hara"ter&;ust (ike the O'ium #ars* It is in $a"t more "orre"t to say that the Tai'in) #as a "ause o$3an"hu dynasti" de"(ine rather than vi"e versa*

There#ereanum%er o$internal factors#hi"h're"i'itatedtheTai'in)movement*Amon) these #as the sta))erin) rise in China+s 'o'u(ation* The 01 years o$ 'ea"e and'ros'erity under the 3an"hus sa# an in"rease in the 'o'u(ation %et#een ?@ and/01A #hi(e there #as no "orres'ondin) rise in ara%(e (and %et#een 22 and/BBA* There #as a(so the rise in "ommodity 'ri"es& the virtua( e5haustion o$ the su''(yo$ne#(and& theruino$sma(( (andho(ders%y$ra)mentationo$inheritan"e(eadin)totremendous de%t and tenan"y amon) the 'easantry* By the se"ond ha($ o$ the !th "entury&21> o$ the 'eo'(e in China had no (and* This in turn (ed to "on"entration o$ (and in thehands o$ the ru(in) e(ite& and the "onse.uent dis'(a"ement o$ the 'easantry $rom the rura(areas& 'rovidin) ready materia( $or the movement* The stagnation) inefficienc() corruption and demorali*ation in the Manchuadministration a(on) #ith the humi(iation o$ de$eat in the First O'ium 7ar& a(so (ed to a)enera( $ee(in) o$ dissatis$a"tion #ith the 3an"hus* One "an a(so 'oint to thein"reasin)(y a))ressiveChristian conversionsand 'rea"hin)& ethni" riva(ries& and theseries o$ natura( "a(amites& su"h as the famines in Henan in /@?& in the midd(e Yan)tCe%asin in /@! and in Hunan around /01& as "auses or "ontri%utory $a"tors $or the Tai'in)movement* Po(iti"o9mi(itary$a"tors addedtothe )ro#in)$ee(in) o$ inse"urityanddis"ontent* The%ureau"rati"ma"hinehad%e"omeso"orru't andine$$i"ient that the'u%(i" #orks deteriorated* In /0=9B $or e5am'(e& ne)(e"ted dykes "aused the &uangheto +urst its %anks in the re)ion o$ 4ai$en)* The river "han)ed "ourse to $(o# into the seanorth o$theShandon) 'eninsu(a& /11 ki(ometers $romitsmouth& andvast areas #eredevastated*Another ma;or $a"tor #as the effects of the ,pium wars. The First O'ium 7ar and itssu%se.uent treaties in"reased 'ro%(ems& #ith (ootin) %y the $orei)n invaders& a heavy #arindemnity& #orsenin) o$ o'ium smu))(in) and a massive in$(u5 o$ $orei)n )oods* The"risis #as a""entuated %y the "urren"y and $is"a( 'ro%(em "reated %y the im'a"t o$ the#est* Throu)hout the !th"entury $orei)n im'orts& es'e"ia((y o'ium ke't on in"reasin)&"ausin) a hu)e out$(o# o$ si(ver $rom China* This in turn resu(ted in a "han)e in theinterna( va(ue o$ si(ver to "o''er $rom D= to DB* This a))ravated the $inan"ia( 'ro%(emso$theChinese'easantry& #hoseta5esandrents#ere"a("u(atedinsi(ver%ut #hosein"ome#as%asedondeva(ued"o''er* A(sotheune.ua( treatiesin"(udin)"(auseso$heavy indemnities di"tated %y the $orei)n 'o#ers on(y added to the ta5 %urden that had%e"ome un%eara%(e* Anotherim'ortant e$$e"t o$theO'ium#ars#asashiftinthetradingcentrefromCanton to -hanghai& (eavin) thousands unem'(oyed in Canton* Former trans'ortation#orkers "onne"ted #ith the shi'ment o$ tea and si(k #ere thro#n out o$ #ork* In thisre)ion a distin"tion )re# %et#een the 6natives+ * This de%ate ho#ever is not reso(va%(e and #hi(e the e5isten"e o$ a radi"a( 'easant'ro)ramme"annot %edenied& it is a(soseenthat the'easant hadthenotiono$ the%enevo(ent a%so(utism o$ the kin) and the radi"a(ism may or may not have trans(ated intoa"tion* Therearea$e#other $a"tors that "an%e"onsidered#ithre)ardtotheanti9$euda("hara"ter o$theTai'in)movement* First(ytheir (andre$orms& #hi"hnomatter ho#(imited(y a''(ied& #ere hi)h(y anti9$euda(J %esides the $a"t that in some Tai'in) areas&tenants a"tua((y sto''ed 'ayin) rents* Se"ond(y& the $(eein) o$ a (ar)e num%er o$(and(ords in $ear o$ the Tai'in) ons(au)ht (ed to their (ar)e (andho(din)s $a((in) into the'easants+ hands& a(on) #ith many tem'(e (ands* Third(y& de"rees #ere 'assed to atta"k the$euda( e(ite&su"h as orders to surrender )rains& 're"ious stones and meta(s& et"* to theTai'in) storehouses* 8ast(y& the $a"t remains that most o$ the Tai'in) (eaders& and a(mosta(( o$ the mass $o((o#in)& #ere dra#n $rom 'easant sto"k& thou)h not e5"(usive(y* 7hen (ookin) at the nature o$ the Tai'in) #e a(so "annot i)nore itsanti-esta+lishment nature* The em'eror o$ China a""ordin) to the Tai'in)'ro"(amation#asakeensu''ortero$the$euda( system* Thus& theem'eror#hohadhitherto%eenseenasa%ornsa)e#asno#"a((ed6The3onster4in)o$He((+*They%e(ievedthat $or thousands o$ years thes'irit o$ the'eo'(ehad%eentorturedand'erse"uted* Con$u"ius& #ho had %een the su'reme tea"her o$ China& #as de"ried %y theTai'in) $o((o#ers* They )athered the "oura)e to "a(( the Four C(assi"s and the Five GreatBooks o$ Con$u"ius %ooks o$ sor"ery and $euda( ideas* Thus& in many #ays the Tai'in)"an %e "a((ed a cultural revolution& as the (ater revo(utions in China tar)eted these verythin)s* 2Another de%ate on the nature o$ the Tai'in) movement& is re)ardin) itsanti-imperialist character* This is an e5treme(y "om'(e5 .uestion i$ one (ooks at theideo(o)i"a( as'e"ts o$ the Tai'in) $orei)n out(ook* 7hi(e they #ere $ar removed $rom the"on"e't o$-ino-centrism& $orei)ners #ere sti(( "a((ed de'endents* One "an reasona%(ysay that #hi(e %ein) anti9im'eria(ist& the Tai'in)s #ere de$inite(y not 6enopho+ic& and#erein$a"t .uitepro-foreign* They#ere$as"inated%yvarious as'e"ts o$ $orei)nthou)ht& and #e("omed $orei)ners to (earn $rom them #hatever #as 'ositiveJ they #antedre$orm in Chinese 'o(ity& so"iety and e"onomy throu)h this (earnin) $rom the 7est* TheTai'in)s 'ro'a)ated $ree trade and #e("omed $orei)n missionaries #ith )reat Cea( andhad )reat admiration $or #estern te"hno(o)y and as #e have seen they even %orro#ed"ertain tenets $rom Christianity* They #e("omed the 'ositive as'e"ts o$ #estern in$(uen"esu"h as edu"ation and s"ien"e* It is a si)n o$ maturity o$ the Tai'in) movement& that ins'ite o$ su"h stron) 'ositive in$(uen"es& they "ou(d sti((oppose western goodsand the"om'etition they 'osed* Thus& it is remarka%(e that this o'enness did not su""um% to an6a""e'tan"e o$ im'eria( a"tivity+*They "ontinued to o''ose #estern intrusion and $reetradenevermeante5'(oitationtothem*Hen"e they "ondemnedthe#esterners ;ust asmu"h as they a""e'ted their 'ositive 'oints* This sur$a"e "ordia(ity ho#ever had a (ot o$"ontradi"tions %eneath it* The Tai'in) a(#ays sou)ht to e5tend the idea o$ e)a(itarianisminthes'hereo$ internationa( re(ations* Behindtheo'ennessto#ardsthe#est (aya"ertain desire to %e"ome (ike that and emu(ate it* For anun%iasedandsoundassessment o$ theTai'in)movement #eneedtodoathorou)h ana(ysis o$four +asic aspects of the movement @itso+Aectives) their implementation) participation in themovement and its result or legac(. As #e have noteda%ove& the Tai'in)s haddefinite aimsanda de$inite ideo(o)y*Irres'e"tive o$ its im'(ementation&it envisioned not on(y an overthro# o$ the 3an"hudynasty& %ut a(so the esta%(ishment o$ a ne#so"io9e"onomi" and re(i)ious order*Egalitarianism #as its "ore 'rin"i'(e and #as re$(e"ted in its so"ia( as #e(( as e"onomi"'ro)rammes* 7ith re)ard to implementation ho#ever #e see that the Tai'in) ideo(o)y #as not %y and(ar)e a"tua(iCed* The entire Tai'in) system #as too "om'(e5& and the 'ro)rammes had auto'ian"hara"ter* Furthermoretheyre.uiredsta%i(ityand'ea"eto%eim'(ementedJneither o$ #hi"h the Tai'in)s had* As time 'assed& the e$$e"tiveness o$ the 'ro)rammesa(so%e"ame dou%t$u(* Di$$eren"es inas'irations& motives andideo(o)y%et#eentheori)ina( nu"(euso$the(eadershi'& andthemass%aseo$themovement #orsenedthesituation* The5and 4rogramme was implemented in limited areas& most(y in southern'rovin"es su"h as 4#an)si and in the Tai'in) "a'ita( o$ Nankin)* Im'(ementation #asdi$$i"u(t in the 'revai(in) "onditions o$ shi$tin) %oundaries and $re.uent "(ashes* No rent#as taken $rom the 'easants in these areas and ta6 'ayments #ere "ut %y 01>* There iseviden"e o$ landlords $rom the (o#er Yan)tCe va((ey area $(eein) to Shan)hai #hen their?'re"ious meta( and sur'(us #as "on$is"ated* Ho#ever& the ne#(y a".uired (and #as notredistri%uted and the Tai'in) (eaders amassed )reat #ea(th* The (and(ords+ (ands #ere nota(#ays "on$is"ated in Tai'in) Cones* Furthermore& the Tai'in) (eaders starteda""umu(atin)(andandthemse(veso$ten%e"amethene#(and(ords* The'rea"hin)o$"hastity#asa""om'anied%ythekee'in)o$"on"u%ines%ymanyo$the(eaders*Theemancipationof women#asho#ever tru(ya"hievedand#omenen;oyedthesamee"onomi"and'o(iti"a( o''ortunities as men* Themi(itaryor)aniCationtooin"(uded#omen*7omena(soo""u'ied%ureau"rati"'osts& #erehorse%a"kridersand#ereno(on)er su%;e"ted to an in$erior so"ia( status*4rohi+ition of opium#as a(so e$$e"tive(y"arried out* The issue o$ 'arti"i'ation in the Tai'in) movement is (ar)e(y (inked to the.uestion o$ its 'easant or 6anti9$euda(+ identity* It shou(d %e noted thou)h that #hi(e the'o'u(ar %ase o$ the Tai'in) movement #as the 'easantry& the Tai'in) (eadershi'es'e"ia((y #as de$inite(y not e5"(usive(y 'easant in "hara"ter* 8ast(y& #e a(so need to "onsider the legac( or resulto$ the Tai'in) movement*Bn theimmediate sense) des'ite its (imited a"hievements& the Tai'in) movement #as a failure*The im'ressive mi(itary or)aniCation o$ the Tai'in)s #as una%(e to dis(od)e the3an"hus* The (eadershi' $a"tiona(iCed& 'arti"u(ar(y a$ter /02& #eakenin) the im'a"t o$themovement* Ironi"a((y& 3an"hu'o#er #as re'(a"ed%ytheTai'in)s& #hi"h#asprovincial not centrali*ed& and de$inite(y not authoritarian* The Tai'in) (eaders a(so (ost'o'u(ar su''ort onideo(o)i"a( )rounds* Theanti93an"hua''ea( o$ theTai'in)#as"ause #as "om'romised %y its Christian ideo(o)y* H)a(itarian 'rin"i'(es as #e(( as thedestruction of ancient templesresu(ted in the (oss o$ su''ort o$ the traditiona(orthodo5y* Bn the long run the movement hastened the 'ro"ess o$ dynasti" 'o(iti"a( disinte)ration*The 'hysi"a( dama)e #as tremendous , hundreds of towns and cites were destro(ed&and %et#een C# and %# million people were .illed* Po#er )ravitated into the hands o$(o"a( stron) men& 'arti"u(ar(y 'rovin"ia( )overnors& (eadin) to the rise o$ re)iona(ism in(ater years* The movement a$$e"ted China economicall( a(so* It 'revented ta5 "o((e"tionin many o$ the ri"hest 'rovin"es* Ne# ta5es had to %e devised to 'ay the e5'enses o$su''ressionJ o$ these& likin& the interna( transit ta5 (evied on "ommodities in "hina #as themost im'ortant*The most im'ortant in$(uen"e o$ the Tai'in) movement iscultural* The Tai'in)movement remained hi)h(y 'o'u(ar in Chinese tradition* Survivors o$ the :Great Pea"eFen;oyed "onsidera%(e 'resti)e amon) the 'easants and ke't its memory a(ive* Fore5am'(e& -un ?at--en #as )reat(y stirred as a "hi(d %y the stories o$ his un"(e& #ho had%e(on)ed to the Tai'in)* The movement initiated a "entury o$ re%e((ions and revo(utions*The 'o(iti"a(& e"onomi"& so"ia( and "u(tura( re$orms it attem'ted #ere mode(s $or (aterattem'ts o$ the Chinese Im'eria( administration& and even the Communist Revo(ution* This %rin)s us to the .uestion o$whether or not the Taiping was aprecursor to the Communist movement of the C#th centur(. The (inkso$the Tai'in)s#iththe(ater"ommunist movement #erea"kno#(ed)ed%yMao TseTung #ho a(#ays 6$e(t inde%ted to the Tai'in)+ as they tru(y re'resented a revo(utionary/'ro)ramme* Certain'oints#ithintheTai'in)"an%emadeinthisre)ard* BoththeTai'in) and the Communists #ere modernists in nature* Sudden im'a"t o$ the #est ands"ienti$i"& te"hno(o)i"a( and so"ia( advan"es had their in$(uen"e on the ideo(o)y o$ theTai'in)s* In the same #ay& the Communists 'rovided a modern and 'ra"ti"a( 'hi(oso'hy#ith#hi"htoreAect +oththe traditions of the Chinesepast andtheWesterndomination of the present. The Tai'in) 'resented a "oherent 'ro)ramme o$ agrarian communismand the 3aoist'ro)ramme o$ "o((e"tive o#nershi' "an %e seen as o#in) its ori)ins to this* Se"ond(y& the'rin"i'(es o$social egalitarianisma(so in"(uded e.ua(ity o$ the se5es& #as a(sosomethin) that 3ao es'oused* Third(y& %oth #ere anti-imperialist in nature* Fourth(y&there is the $a"t that 3ao#as seekin)to%ui(da histori"a( tra;e"tory$or %ui(din)"ommunism in a 'rimari(y a)rarian "ountry and so the "on"e'tion o$ su"h a (ink #ith theTai'in) "an %e seen as a de(i%erate attem't to "onstru"t a history o$ the movement& sin"e3ao #anted to %reak a#ay $rom the mode(s o$ "ommunism that had %een s'read in other'arts o$ the #or(d* Ho#ever thereareother as'e"tsthat one"annot i)noreandthenoneseesthe%asi"difference that the Taiping have from the communists.The (and 'ro)ramme o$ theTai'in) $or instan"e& resem%(ed that o$ the "ommunists inso$ar as o#nershi' #as"o((e"tive* But the+asicunittheye5'ound#asthe$ami(yandnot the"ommunity*Se"ond(y& (and distri%ution #as sou)ht to %e e.ua(iCed& %ut no mention o$landredistri+ution #as made* The third thin) that distan"es the Tai'in) $rom the "ommunistmovement is that 3ar5ismenvisionsaclassless societ(andultimatel(astatelesssociet( too. The Tai'in)s on the other hand never distan"ed themse(ves $rom the "on"e'to$ a%so(ute %enevo(ent ru(e* The o''osition to monar"hy #as not on(y (imited& %ut a(sosu'er$i"ia(*Another di$$eren"e %et#een the Communist Chinese historians+ and the #estern s"ho(ar(ya''raisa(s o$ the Tai'in) movement #as in their di$$erent spiritual outloo.s* Communists"ho(ars have ar)ued that (ike the revo(ution that trans$ormed China even the Tai'in) didnot 'ossessanyre(i)ionandinsteadthey%e(ievedina"(ass(essuto'ia* Thou)htheCommunists mi)ht try to do#n'(ay the im'ortan"e o$ re(i)ion& s"ho(ars (ike Jen Yu97enta(k dee'(y a%out the re(i)ious nature and the Christian )round o$ Tai'in) idea(ism& #hi(eothers (ike Fan 7en(an s'eak o$ the Protestant (ink to the O'ium #ars and the Tai'in)*Hen"e& even thou)h the !@! revo(ution and its 'ioneer 3ao denied the e5isten"e o$ God&the Tai'in)s did not think so* One "an 'oint out that the Tai'in)s had severa( su"h as'e"tsthat ran "ontrary to the 3aoist revo(utionary 'ro)ramme* In "on"(usion& one "an say that %oth the terms o$ a $u((9$(ed)ed revo(ution and a merere%e((ion are too e5treme* It shou(d %e noted that %oth the Chinese "ommunist historiansand#esterns"ho(arsa)reeontheuni.ue"hara"ter o$theTai'in)movement andits$ai(ure* The di$$eren"e %et#een the t#o (ies in their a''roa"h* Advo"ates o$ itsrevo(utionary "hara"ter $o"us on its 'ro)rammes and 'o(i"ies& #hi(e those #ho see it as a'easant insurre"tion em'hasiCe its (a"k o$ im'(ementation and (eadershi'*The Tai'in)movement dared $or the $irst time to "ha((en)e and atta"k a system #hi"h had 'revai(ed!inChina $or "enturies* 3ore thananyother re%e((iono$ their day& theyaddressedthemse(ves dire"t(y to the "risis o$ the times and o$$ered "on"rete measures $or reso(vin)it* Their vision o$ a ne# system o$ 'ro'erty re(ations& a ne# me"hanism o$ (o"a( "ontro(&and a ne# re(ationshi' %et#een the individua( and the state #as an authenti" res'onse tothe distin"tive 'ro%(ems o$ the (ate im'eria( a)e* And so to redu"e the Tai'in)historio)ra'hy to .uestions o$ dynasti" de"(ine and revo(ution or re%e((ion de%ates doesnot do ;usti"e to the Tai'in) and the %a"k)round $rom #hi"h it emer)ed* DBD5B,/8;4&? John 4* Fair%ank , Hast Asia Jean Chesneau5 , China $rom the O'ium 7ars to ! Revo(ution Pekin) Forei)n 8an)ua)es Press , The Tai'in) Revo(ution Tan Chun) , Triton and Dra)on FranC 3i"hae( and GH Tay(or , Far Hast and the 3odern 7or(d S*Y* Ten) , Tai'in) Re%e((ion and the 7estern Po#ers1