tajfel 1970 experiments in intergroup discrimination

7/30/2019 Tajfel 1970 Experiments in Intergroup Discrimination

1/8

Experiments in ntgou Discat

Can discrito be rd suh rig s sl

sry f hl? N neesrly. Apprey e er

vsn i r ng rgr discrmr ev

Intergru dcrmnn a feaure

f mt dern cee Te penenn deprengly mlar re

gardle f e cnttun f e "ngru nd f te "utgrup at peceved a beng me derent. ASlvene frend f ne nce decrbed te te teretypete cmmn tatatbutd t a lage uman guptae appled n untry, e etcnttuent eubl f uglva tmgrant Bnan w cme fr apre egn. Sm te late I preened t decrptn a grup f tuden at e Unvert f Ofrd andaked tem t gue by m t wa

ued and t t referred Te almt unanmu rey a at wate caracerzan aled by natveEngmen t "clred mmgrant:peple cmng pmarly frm te etInde, Inda and aktn

Te ntenty f dcrman varee tan te naure f te penenn. In cune gtndng ntegru prblebe tey al a nte U S, elgu a n Nrten Ireland lngutnanl a n Belgumtenn reac te blng t mre eytan tey d eleee In t f derng ecmc, culural, rcal, and ygca backrud, evr, te f prjdce twardgup nd e hv f dcnan agnt g cerly dply et f cmmn crcerc. Sclcett ave atray ben cceedt ty efy tee ctetc an ert rd e frjdce ad dcr.

e nvege pce t tk c r cd tcgre me rk r te cal deern f rjdce ad dct. ter mze yc

b H Tjf

lgcal cauan In C, pued n 1956 LeA. Ce f Brande Unverty etb

led a relate dmy wen e dtngued beteen t ye f ntegrup cnct: te "ratnal and t "ratnal Te fe a ean anend: te nct and te atude ttg t eet a genune cpettnbeteen grup t dvegent ne.Te latte an end n telf: t erve eleae aumulated enal tennf vau knd. A bt pul lreand te pyclgcal lteature tetfyntng bee uted fr t puretan a wellleted apegat.

Tee dte ave e vlue aanalycal tl bu tey need nt betken t eul t cae f nt between uan gup large mll ree an ntrcae ntedeendence f al an pyclgl cauan. Often t dult, and prbbyfrutle, t eulte abut at werete rt caue f real preentday caltuatn. eve ter a dleccal elatn beeen te jecve andte ubjectve determnant f nerruatttude and beav Once e pre et n mn tey renfrce c tern a relentle pral n wc te etf predmnant cue tend t f cntnuuly. Fr eape, ecmc r cl cmpen can ead dcrnatry beavr tat beavr c tn na nmbe f ay cree ude fpjdce te ade cn n trnd ne frm f dcmnay ev at cree ne cmc r cl dpare, and e vc crle cnnud

Te terdendence f e t ef cn de t mnfet ef y

ter muual efrement. Ty cualy cnverge bcaue f te yclcl eec n an ndvdl f

ccultl eu T cvrgence ften cnder n term f cal lenng and nfty. Fr ntnce, tee

muc evdene tat cldren lern uteearly te eckng rde f evaluatn fvaru gru tt peval n te cety, and tt te rder ean falabl. T l t nly t te valutn f gru tat are n dal ntuc a aal gru n e envrnent but al da abu fregnntn wt c tee lttle f anernal cntct

In ude cnduced t Ofrd a feyer ag my cllegue an I fun ag cnenu amng cldren f and even n ter peference f fufregn une. Te de Ameca Fne Geany and Rua, andtee w a crelatn f .98 bteente prefeece f ubjet frm tderent cl. A fr adul tudecnducd by T F. ettgre nte late 950' n Su Afca and n teAmercn Sut ave n tat nfrty an mrtt deermnant ftle ude tard black n bplace abve and beynd ndval tendence tard auranwc knn t be clly ete tpejudce rd utgru).

ee tde, lke may te, werecncee atde ae anbeav t rejudce rater tan drmnan Dcrmnatn, t ftend, e drely a fu f tejecve cl tun, c ete de ad metme de nt fce te pren f atude tettude f prejudce my be calylerned due endec t cnfmbut ey are n a very ecen redctr

f dcrmnry bvr. Accrdn t ve, ycl cnderate be elnn nd redct

1970 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, INC


2/8

-19 6 -13 0 7 -4

6 4 2

8 6 4 2

5 -2 -7 -3 -9

2 3 4 5 6

1 0 9

7 1 6 1 5 14 1

6 7 8 9 1 0

c

4 1 1 0 6 -4

23 9 1 5 7

7 4 1 8 5

8 5

FIRST EXPERIMENT conducted by the author and his colleague

utilized these six matrces. The numbers represented points ater

ranslated into awards or penalties in money) to be assigned by a

ubject to other indivduals; by checking a box the subject assiged

the number of points in the top of the box to one person and the

number in the bottom of the box to another person; he did not

now the identity of these people but only whether each was a

member of his own group or "the other group. (The groups ha

0 2 3 6

0 -4 -7 -10 - 6 -19

0 -9 1 -7 1 -25

0 2 4 6 8 0 2

7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 3

8 7 6 4

1 1 1 0 9 8 7 6

1 1 1 1 4 1 5 1 6 7 8

-1 7 1 5 1 9 3

1 4 6 8 1 0 1 4

1 4 5 6 7 8

2 8 1 7

been establshed by the experimenters on grounds that were arti

cial ad insgnicant) Each matrix apeared three times n a tet

booklet with each row of numbers laeled to ndcate whether the

sect was chooing between two members o his own group in

group) other than himself, two mebers of the outgroup or one

meer o the ingroup and one memer of the outgroup Choiceswere scored to see if sujects chose for fairness maximum gain to

their own group or maximum derence in faor of the ingroup



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n te ene ad fc f ttde te fc f e dcmtn ae bet ead t ad edcedfm bjece ndee f a cl ecnmc and demc ne

Alt I e ae ve I m le a an feelntat t mt an ma t ey e fct tt be ad e me mnnmaty a ade d ac a dey f cecnmc cntn aaent dety may f ce bce an ndelyn cmmn fc f"atnal cnct f e t eee a t q faabe t neelf t tan an etabe ae f calnte and bene Ante knd ndeyn eaty nneteecmmn a ety f cal atnand an mant yccl eecf cctl me It te aman by e dvda f te va

nm f cnct tat eal n cety

F t e f t ace lldene cl nm a ben an nddal eectatn f eeect m t beae and eectatnf te ll beave n ay enc tatn Wete e de den beave accd t tee eect

MAXIU GAN

FOR OTGROUPEBER

MAXU GAN

FOR NGOUPEBER X

MAXU GAN

FOR OUTGOUMEMBER X

2

2

2

3 4

3 4

3 4

tn deed y n dendn f ee nt and atan ee a ecc et f eectatn If a k mde eeen tee and te e an nd ndeand a n n c end me c at n e cetn fmla cal ae enentt te bee accdy

Tee ntn ne t fmtn t eent n mt de addcn f te ejdce anddcmatn tt te te mace cnfmy e t I ake bade Cfmty cnbte te atttde and bea tdeced f ele n tntat ae ally caactezed by a ty f nt tenn cc fnteet and eay acn y ndda f le e abt eeced t e ae den ee a ce tat me en and e

deee tan te len ae jdmen abt a ecc and tebeent actn t f acceted atten f beav tad tat cd lea y m e dlke dke n te cme ca envnment t c eed ba metn me bc An ddalcntct n "e ca an by aln nce e

NGROUP-OUGROUP CHOICS

,-I I I 6 9 10

NGROUP-INGROP CHOCS

6

I I7 9

0

OUGROUP-OUGROUP COICS

6 9 10

and mctn tt edce te cmety f ccn man catezan e e mt mtnt nce f te bjecte cal de ecnct f ee te ccat f a e and "teya n any nmbe em t ce en ben) and te cea f ee anment mayvay accdn te tatn ad teemna mct may be bt n cete t dvn nt mt ften me a cmetteeatn beeen te In te nte cezat f allknd may bn t ay at eem tte ndda be te aate ff ne bev

Vat t eenally mean ta tneed t bn me knd f de n "cl cntcn f ealty a temecenty ed by ete L Bee f tNe Sc f Sca Reeac and

Tm Lckmann f te Unvety fFkft) cmbne t tltyneent n many f te nte catezatn c e ae cntnallyeed t dee a "enec nm bea tad Wenevee ae cnfted t a ttn tc me fm f nte ctezn ae decty eleant e alkey t act n a manne tat dcm

11 12 13

11 12 13

11 12 13

14

14

14

MAXU GAN

FO GROUPMEMBER

MAXU GAN

FO NGOPMEMBE Y

MAX GAN

FOR OTGOUPMEMBER Y

RULS WR CORD by rkg te coice from 1 to 14

depedig on wic box w cecked. e ed of te mtix t

wic te igoup member got te mimum umber of poitd te out goup member te mxmum) w deignted 1; te

oter ed gig te igoup mebe te mximum w 14 e

e coce (colored vertical lins) e own ere In te iter

group ituto te ubect ge gicntly moe point to mem

ber of te own goup tn to member of te oter goup In teitrgoup tutio, owever te me of te coice fe

Rk between te coice of mximum fine brck).

8



4/8

ae again he ougoup and favorshe igoup

f his i ue, if ee exiss such ageei of behavio oward ougoups, seveal mpoan consequencesshould follow The s is ha hee maybe diciinaion agains an ougroupeven if here is no eason fo i in emsof he individual's own ineressiner of wha he can gin as a resul ofdisciinaing agains he ougroup Tesecond consequence is a ere may besuh disiinaion in he absence ofany peviously exising aiude of hosiliy o dislie owad e ougou Andhe hid consequence, following direcly fo he econd, i ha hi generio may anifes iself diecly in behavio owad he ougoup before anyaiudes of pejudice o hosiliy havebeen foed f his easoning is corec,he disiminaoy inegroup behaviocan soeies be expeced even if he

individual is no involved in acual (oeven imagined) conics of inees ndhas no pas hisoy of aiudes of inegoup hosiliy.

. he niversiy of risol, in colaboaion wih Claude lamen of he

nivesiy of Aixasile, P undyand M J Billig, have conduced expeimens designed o es is redicionand ohes ha follo from i Te mainpoble was o creae exerimenal condiions ha would enable us o assess e

eec of inegoup caegorizaion ese, unconainaed by oer variables,such as ineracions amog idividuls orpeeising aiudes Ve imed, moreove, o loo a he beaior rher nhe aiudes of e subjecs oard eiown group and e oer grou, o ensure ha is beavior s of some imponce o em and o presen emwih a lea aleive o iscrimiigagains he ougroup oud be amore "sensibe moe of beaior

Perhps e bes means of conveyig

he way ese criia were me is o escibe he procedure e foloe in ers exeimens an is varias i subsequen oes ur subjecs wer 64 boys1 and 15 years od from a se, o"compreensive, scool in a subur ofBisol Tey came o e laboraory inseparae grous of eig All e boys inach of e groups were from e smehouse in he same form a e scool, soa hey new each ohe ell befoe expeimen Te rs pr of he experien sevd o esabis an ie

group caegorizaion nd in e secondpa we assessed he eecs of cegoizaion on inergrou bevior

50,-0-

zwU:(

30

wuIUL 20 r-+----_--+zw=w

1 0 -r_

O L_____L_

AFAE

2 4 6

AFEEA

NTERGROU SRMNATON as a lbat stay n t inrou-outoup

cocs oloe uve an anss a lbat staty n t nounroup gy

an outrououtou l cocs is is incat by act at t quncs of

introu coics r sncantly om tos o ntaou ocs only at t

trm oints o t sribution, t onts o maimum anss an o mamum is

cimnation Fo ts analyss t two ast cos n ac mat, t two mil ons

w ank otr as an arturs in tr cton wr scor rom 1 to _

n e rs par he boy were brougogee in a ecure room and we old e were inesed in e sudy ofvisual judgens Fory cluses of vaying numbers of dos wee Hashed on ascreen Te boys were sed o esimaee nuber of dos in each cuse and orecord ac esimae in succession onrepared score sees Tere wee wocondiions in is rs par of he experimen n one condiion, afer e boysd compeed hei esmes ey weeold a in jugmens of is ind some

peole conisenly overesima heumbe of os ad some coisenluneesimae e numbe, bu ese enencies are in no way relaed occurcy n e oher condiion e boysere od a some eoe are consisenly more accuae an oes Fougrous of eig seve in eac of e woconiions

Afer e judgmens had been maeand a been oseniousy score byone of e expermeners, we od esubjecs a, sice we wee aso ier

esd in oer ki of ecision, we weregoing o ake dge of eir reseceo invesigae ee w, n for

ese of coding we were going o groupem o e bsis of he visual judgmens ey ad jus made n acualie subjecs were igned o groupquie a radom, af o "uneresimaors and half o overesimaos in ers coniion, half o "bee and halo "worse accuracy in e second one

nsrucions foowd bou e nureof e forcoming sk Te boys weeol a i oud consis of givig ooers reards and penales in rea money Tey woud no now e ieniy of

e individuas o who ey would beassignig ese rewars an penesince everyone ould have a code nuer Tey wou be aen o anoroom one by one and given informaions o wic grou ey wee i nce ine oer room ey were o work oeir on i sere cubices eaccuice ey wou nd a eci a abooke coaiig ses of orerednumers, oe o eac pge wasesse a o no occsion oud heoys be ewaring or penalizig e

seles; ey oud always be aoingmoney o oers A he end of he asec bo oud be broug back in



5/8

A

MTRX

IP

D

MTRIX

B

MTRIX

D

MTRIX

19 18

1 3

23 22

7

8

1 3

1 12

17 6 1 4

9 1

2 2 19 8

9 11 13 1

9 1 1 12

7 9

13 1 4 1 6

9 1

SEOND EXPEMENT inoled new tices Ech ws p

sened in ou esons lbeled (s n e illusttion t e botomo s pge to ndct whete te choce ws between mebes

o deent goups o between two mebes o the se gou;

te negou coices soetes d e ingou embe's onts

n te to ow nd soetes hd t}em in te bottom ow Te ob

jece now ws to nlze the inuence o tee vibles on the

subjects choces: m u ngu ot () u jotp (] nd mu deenc in vo o the ngoupembe () Tese ed ccodng to deent pttens n the

3 2

3 1 17 9

17 6 4

17 19 21 23

13 14 6

3 17 9

17 18 19 2

19 21 23

9 8

2 23

3 12

2 27

8

2 23

2 22

2 2

7

2

11

29

2

23

29

JP

MJ

MP

M

IP

JP

M

MP

M

pe nd Tpe B mtces nd n the deent esios in som

cses mm wee togete t one end o te m nd inote cses te wee t oosite ends o ele in the ngoup

oeoutgoup vesion o Te tices the mum ingoupt nd u dieence w t one end nd h miumjont pot t th ohe end colored type; in the outgouoe

ingoup esn o e se mtces t thee mim wee to

gee t t ighthnd end o te mtces blck ype Tp Bngoupeoutgoup esions on the ohe hnd dstnguish th

deence n vor o ingoup om te ohe two gns colr

Bokt for Iroup refing Kle

Thes nbr ewad for: .m [0_ Kl !up

b . Kiky grpE t 6 6[0[ t

Pleas fi n blw detais f h x yu v jut c:

Rewad fr mb no. 74 Kl gup

R m . 4 o Kk rp

PAE O BKT, esen sle t, s edced s sc e ed dn t ec , e

sec lled n e ls el o c s cce e ge

17

edg eded c go e ws n Te wds weede esns ded l e d go te suect

dd t e wee l e goup dentctn



6/8

h s oom and would civ hamoun f mony h h boys hadawadd hi. Th valu f ach poinhy w awading was a nh of apnny abou a nh of a U.S cn).Af hs nsucns w giv, hboys ld ndivdually o hi cubi-cls o ll u h bols.

On ach pag i h bool h waso ai consisig of 4 bos con

ainig wo nubs ach. Th nubsin h op o w h wads andpnalis o b aadd o o psonand hs h boom w hoso b aadd anoh. ach o waslabld "Ths a ads ad pnalisfo mb o. _ f you gup o" . . . of h oh goup. Th subjcshad o dica h chics by chc-ng bo ah ma. O h covof ach bool and a h op of achpag was win: "Bool fo mmbof h _ gup.

h s maics [s us-o o g 97 and ach of hmappad h ims n h booloc fo ach of h yps f choic.Th ngou hoics h hop and h b o sgnifying hwads and pnals b awadd owo mmbs of h subjcs own goup(oh han hmslf). Thn h wugoup chocs, wih boh ows sigi-fying h wads and pnalis fo amb f h h goup. inally

h w ingoup, o dinial,choics, on o indicaing h wadsand nalis o b awadd o an in-goup mmb (oh ha himslf andh oh h poins fo an ougoummb. (Th op and boom osiionsof ingoup and ougoup mbs wvaid a andom.)

Th suls fo h ingoup choicsw s scod i ms of ans ofchoics. n ach maix Ra sood foh choic of h ha gav o hmmb of h ngoup h minimumpossibl numb of ois ha maix;Ran 14 a h oposi xm f hax sood fo h maximum possiblnub of oins. Copaabl (bu ocomlx) mhods of scoing w ado-d fo h oh wo ids of choic, hingoup choics ad h ougou ns,and fo compaiso of hs choics wihos mad i h dinial siuaion.

Th suls w sing. n mainghi ingoup choics a lag maoiyof h subjcs n all gous in boh con-diios, gav m mony o mmbs ofhi own goup han o mmbs of h

h goup. All h suls wa avy high lvl of saisical ignicac

abov boh Ran whch pssh oin of maimum fanss and hma ans of h igoup ad ugoupchoics. onas h ingoup and ou-goup choics w closly disibudabou h poi of faiss. uh anal-ysis mad i cla ha igoup dis-ciminaion was h dliba sagyadod in maing ngoup choics.

Bfo connung l us vi h

siuaio. Th boys wh n ach oh- wll w divdd goups ddby imsy ad unipoan cia. Thown individual inss w o acd by hi choics sic hy always as-signd pois wo h popl andn o coul o ha any h boyschoics w. Th amus of monyw o ival fo h ach boy lfh xpimn h h quivaln ofabou a dolla. nasmuch as hy couldo now wh as hi goup andwho was h h goup hy ould

hav adopd ih f wo asonablsagis. Thy could hav chosn hmaxiumjoinpo poi of h a-ics, which wuld man ha h oysas a oal gou would g h mos mo-y u of h xpimns, o hycould choos h poi of maximm fai-nss. ndd hy did nd o choosh scond alnaiv whn hi choicsdid no nvolv a dsincion bwn in-gou ad ougoup. As soon as his dif-fniaio was ivolvd, howv, hydisciminad favo f h ingou.

Th only hing dd o do oachiv his sul was o associa hijudgmns f numbs of dos wih hus of h ms "you gou and "hoh goup in h nsucions and onh bookls of maices.

Th suls w a a vy high lvlof saisical signicanc n all ighsaaly sd gous of igh boys.n vi of h consisncy of h h-nomnon w dcidd o analyz i fu-h and also o valida i wih a i-n ciio fo ingoup cagoiza-ion W sd h n gous of 16boys ach, his im wih ashic f-nc as h basis of h division inowo gous. Th boys w shown 12slids, six of which w oducionsof ainings by Paul Kl and six byassily Kandinsy, and hy w asdo xss hi pfnc fo on o hoh of hs wo "foign pains.Th oducions w snd wih-ou h ais sigau so ha halfof h subjcs could b assignd a an-dom o h "Kl goup and half o h

"Kandisy goup.Th maics ha confo h oys

subsqunly in hi ndividual cubiclsw din fm ho in h s xpim. W w o isd in as-sssing h laiv wighs of som ofh vaiabls ha may hav pulld hdcisios in on dico o h oh. his ximn w lood a h vaiabls: maximu joi po, o h lag-s possibl join awad o boh pol;maxium ngoup o, h lags

possibl awad o a mmb of h ngoup and maximum dinc, o hags possibl dinc in gain b-wn a mmb f h i gou ad ammb of h ougou in favo of hfom.

Th w fou din maics[s o uo o oos g.s n h s xpm, h wh yps of choic: bwn a mm-b of h ingup and a mmb of hougou, bwn wo mmbs of hngup and bwn mmbs of

h ougoup. h ougoupovin-goup vsion of Ty maics (has wh h numbs i h o osnd amouns givn o a mmbof h ougoup ad in h boom oo a mmb of h gou) h hgaisjoin , ngoup po and dif-fnc in favo of h ingoupvaidogh; hi maxima (maximum joino maximu ingou po andmaximum dic) w all a hsam nd of h maix. n h ingou-ovougou vson, ingo o

and dinc in favo of ingou wnogh in on dicion and w indic conic wih choics aochingmaximum join o. n Ty mics ougoovingo vsionsagain snd a covaiaion of h gains; in h ingouovou-go vsions dinc in fvo ofingou vaid in h dicio oosio join o and ingou o com-bind.

A coaison of h boys' choics ih vaious maics showd ha maxi-mum join po xd hadly any f-fc a all; h c of maximum in-gou o and maxiu dinccombind agains maximum join owas song and highly sigican; hc of aximu dinc againsaximum joi po and maximum in-gou o was also sog and highlysignican. n oh wods whn hsubjcs had a choic bwn maximiz-ing h po fo all and aximizing ho fo mmbs of hi own goup,hy acd on bhalf of hi own gou.Whn hy had a choic bn po

fo all ad fo hi on gou com-bind as ans hi on gou's win



7/8

xfor d_The Face of the DeepBy BRUCE C. HEEZEN, Lamont-DohertyGeological Observtory, Columbi Uniersity,

nd CHARLES HOLLISTR Woos HoeOceanorapc Instttion. Ths volume oersa vvd pcture of the ocean bottom in morethan 00 hotograhs eght of whch ae nolo Text and catons rovde a fll descrton of ths nearly unexlod area. Indscussng such eatures as the Md-OceancRdge turbdty current bottom currentsand abyssl tracks and trl he authos rsent a ghly redable nd cent trodctono hyscl oceanogyMch 50 5 coth $5.00

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PS adisn venueew k,

nng mOTe tn te otgro t tesaie of bo of ese tilitian dvantages, it was the iiztion of dierence t seeed ore iortant tote

Evdene leadig n te sme diretion eerged fro te other two tye ofcoie, between two eber of te ingrou nd between two ebers of the

otgro: te ngro oies were onsistentl ad signiantly eae o taiu joint ot than were te otgro onesand tis was so in site ofte fat t giving as uh as ossibleto two emes of the otgro in teoie lying solely to em resented o oit wt he ingrou's inteest It sil wold e et giv-ing oe to "te otes witot givingany less to "ou own Ti eesented,teefore, lea ase of gtitos disciiatio We also inlded in teseod eeient soe of te oiginalates sed in te st one, wth eslts te sae as befoe Again allte results in this eeimet were at ig level of satstial signne

In sbseqent eeriens we testedte iotae of fainess in akig toices, te eect on e coie offmiliity wt te sition d hesbjets ideas about te coies taoters were making ress, e fod,ws an imortant deteint; ot othe oies ut be ndestood s beig oroise between faires d f

voring oe's own go We fond tdiriiatio not oly ersited blso iresed wen te etie itutiobeame ore fili to te sbject_Wit failiarty tere w alo in-ree wen te boys wee ked toredict e oe sbjes' beio) intei eetation tt oter bos weredisrimiaig

Mc ei o be doe o yzete entire eoeo i greer deild to gi flle ndetng o isdeteriig codiios, b some ler

iferences an alred be mde tgro discrmintio i eoiiyey to trigger o I ome reiodie of gro cict, c eodcted by Mzfe eri t e ieri o klaoma, go eled i iee comeio o eeral ys for sc rel o ocr [ee"eimes i Gro oict, byzer eri; oeer, 156; i oer soseaior o ti kid ca ocr iodirect coic if it i aed o reiol

eig otili Yet eie ojetiecoict o itee or otiiy yelece ee o t o e

were asked to do. t was enouh fo heto see teselvs as lal egoedinto an ngou d n outou, sas te tea fo hs diviso weeeven hough th o ew on notewell befoe th eeents, thei ownindividal gans wee n nvolved nter desions nd hei ations oldave been ed to heve the geatestoo good.

It wod seem, ten, tat th eneicno of otgou beavor o wicI hve refered does es nd tha iels to dtort wat migh he eenore reaonable ondu This no determines beaviors ote soal nosowen an individ nds hsl a saton to whih, n hs iew nor lies Beavio is neve oeless, bt it i a ud veloo tik tat otves n socl sutsiclde no more h alulos sefterest or th he an b dedfrom few suosdl uives hudries sc as aggessio towad e ousider, te need o liat nd s n. Tbee oall is a ol sess. ioles a lon lann oss ssed o the un o blsd bstractions i is h for modicaton f ondu h hsittio angesan sol tionsnever remain st. o appTO]Jl'tey is theeo w solotie, nd atet t d s s

to bee aordin o n udstdig of te situton. Jdns fwt i roiat de ocl o, o sets of tos.

It seems clea th two su ee dersood b ou subjs to te iion we osd "ges nd "fness Th ge o ieve a ea aln te to, d oe gh assu h nrelie iions th sae nd blce old al Unoruntl isol oo ey o tin of eals n al

lfe ee airess would o ou heidow, sie goess is ofte bsedo ier oe weigt tha etheeeri iter one as neve head beoe o reebling soene els inoe y of ontig dot Soializaionio gro e i owerl and naoidble; i ierable valablefo ao s some odd ide effe t myd doeinfoe teier teio whoe roots lie eleere Pers toe edators n orcoeiie oieties who fro the eli-

et oolig re o kee on "teas ad"em irit cold give soe oght toe erio of these sid eets.



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tajfel 1970 experiments in intergroup discrimination

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