TAMING THE

TAKS TEST

Objective Two

• Biology– All 6 Kingdoms (everything about them)– Prokaryote vs Eukaryote– Cell Parts and Functions– Taxonomy– ATP– Homeostasis– Osmosis– Body Systems and Functions– DNA (everything about it)

What Makes You Alive?• Organized into

cells.

• Grow and develop.

• Respond to the environment.

• Use energy

• Reproduce

Cells are organized into. . .• Tissues, like types of

cells

• Tissue layers form organs

• Organs that work together form organ systems

• Organ systems that work together make an organism

6 Kingdoms – Largest groupings of living things

Animalia

PlantaeFungi

Protista Eubacteria Archaebacteria

Prokaryotic Cells

Eukaryotic Cells

Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic Cells

Prokaryote• One Cell • No Nucleus• No membrane bounded

organelles• HAS DNA• 1 um in diameter• ONLY BACTERIA

(MONERANS)

Eukaryote• One or More Cells• Contains a Nucleus• Has membrane bounded

organelles• HAS DNA• 5 um to 50-100um in

diameter• EVERYTHING ELSE

protists, fungi, plants, animals (you are an Eukaryote)

Cell Part Function Cell membrane Controls what enters and leaves the cell

Cell Wall Provide structure and support (plants)

Nucleus Control center of the cell

Chloroplast Site of photosynthesis, makes chemical energy (plants)

Endoplasmic Reticulum Transport system in cell

Ribosome Organelle makes proteins

Golgi Body Organelle packages proteins

Vacuole Stores water and/or waste

Lysosome Breaks down old cell parts

Cytoplasm Jelly-like substance that holds organelles

Nuclear Membrane Controls what enters and leaves the nucleus

Nucleolus Makes ribosomes; located in the nucleus

Mitochondria Organelle for cellular respiration – provides energy

Plant Cells have, and Animal Cells don’t

• Chloroplasts – organelle responsible for photosynthesis

• Cell Walls – a structure outside of the membrane to provide support

• Very large vacuoles to store extra water

This is a typical plant cell

• It contains a cell wall, chloroplasts, a very large vacuole.

• Why do plants need large vacuoles?

•ANSWER: This is where food and water are stored.

52 Compared to annual rings of trees that have experienced years of sufficient rainfall, the annual rings of trees that have experienced a dry period will —

F be softer

G grow at a faster rate

H be thinner

J photosynthesize at a faster rate

These would indicate more water, not less

What an Animal Cell Looks Like

• Circled in shape• NO CELL WALL• NO CHLOROPLAST• HAS LYSOSOMES• HAS CENTRIOLES

• MITOCHONDRIA used for Cellular Respiration

Photosynthesis vs

Cellular Respiration

• Plants go through Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration

Plants use chloroplast & sunlight for Photosynthesis

Plants use mitochondria for Cellular Respiration

• Animals go through Cellular RespirationAnimals use mitochondria

6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2

This is photosynthesis

Carbon + Water Produces Glucose & Oxygen Dioxide (sugar)---------------------------------------- ------------------------------------

Reactants Products

Sunlight

Plants do photosynthesis and cellular respiration.

Cellular Respiration

C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy

Glucose + Oxygen Carbon + Water + Energy

(sugar) Dioxide

---------------------------- ---------------------------------------------

Reactants Products

***All living things use mitochondria for cellular respiration***

They are OPPOSITES!

Photosynthesis reactants are cellular respiration products…Cellular respiration reactants are photosynthesis products…

DO YOU GET IT?

Let’s Describe

All 6

Kingdoms!

Animal Kingdom

• Multicellular heterotrophic

• This kingdom includes all vertebrates (one major phylum) and invertebrates (several phyla)

• Insects, jellyfish, people are all animals

Kingdom PlantaeMulticellular and

autotrophicMeans that all plants

perform photosynthesis This kingdom includes

mosses, ferns, conifers, and flowering plants (grasses, fruit trees, shrubs, most garden plants, most crops, wildflowers)

Kingdom Fungi

• Multicellular and some single-cells

• Most of these organisms are decomposers

• Includes mushrooms, yeasts and infections like athlete's foot

Protists

Kingdom Protista: largest source of food and oxygen for the entire planet. Includes plankton, amoeba, and ciliates. Described as Unicellular Eukaryotes

2 Kingdoms of Bacteria“Prokaryotes”

• Kingdom Eubacteria: Unicellular Prokaryotes which are often decomposers

• Kingdom Archaebacteria: Unicellular Prokaryotes from extreme environments.

Is Bacteria Bad or Good?

• Bacteria is both…we know of the bad bacteria that causes Strepthroat…BUT what are some good bacteria…– Ecoli is found in your digestive system to help

break down your food

8 Some bacteria benefit mammals by helping with —F growth

G defense

H digestion

J respiration

• Kingdom Bacteria has beneficial and harmful members

• The best answer here is H, since digestion systems of mammals contain bacteria.

• Bacteria found in the respiratory system usually result in illness, which would trigger the defenses, not help them.

MAJOR WORDS YOU MUST KNOW!

• Prokaryote – one celled, bacteria, no nucleus

• Eukaryote – one or more cells, everything besides bacteria, true nucleus

• Decomposer – breaks down dead materials

• Autotrophic – makes its own food (plants)• Heterotrophic – cannot make its own food,

has to go get its food (animals)

Taxonomy-how to classify lifeB io log ica l C lass ifica tion

Genus Genus

Genus

Family

Order

Family

Order

C lass

Genus Genus

Family Family

Order

C lass

Phylla

Genus Genus

Genus Genus

Family

Order

Genus

Family

Order

C lass

Family

Genus Genus

Genus Genus

Family

Order

C lass

Phylla

K ingdom

49 Which of these classifications is most specific?

A Family

B Genus

C Phylum

D Order

The taxonomy divisions from largest to smallest are:

Kingdoms (5)

Phylla

Class

Order

Family

Genus

species

Binomial Classification

• Living things are given a two-part scientific name. This 2-part name is also the species name. The first part is the Genus which is capitalized, and the second, which is the species, part of the scientific name is never capitalized.

• Scientific names are used because the same plant or animal in different places may have different common names.

• Your scientific name is Homo sapiens

12 The bullfrog, Rana catesbeiana, is most closely related to the —

F spotted chorus frog, Pseudacris clarki

G Asian flying frog, Polypedates leucomystax

H northern leopard frog, Rana pipiens

J African bullfrog, Pyxicephalus adspersus

Related in biological terms means family, genus, species.

F spotted chorus frog, Pseudacris clarki

G Asian flying frog, Polypedates leucomystax

H northern leopard frog, Rana pipiens

J African bullfrog, Pyxicephalus adspersus

• Genus is always a capital letter,

species is lower case.

• Most closely related would be in the

same genus, Rana.

• ANSWER? • H

What is ATP?

• Another word for Energy!

• Stands for Adenosine Triphosphate

Homeostasis

• This is the maintenance of the normal operating conditions of an organism.

• Control of body temperature, pulse rate, blood pressure, blood sugar, urine output, digestive absorption, metabolism rate, growth rate and hormone levels all need to be maintained.

Homeostasis Examples

• What happens when you are hot? Why?

• What happens when you are cold? Why?

How does our CELLS go through Homeostasis?

• All Eukaryotic cells have Cell Membranes. A Cell Membrane’s job is to let nutrients in and out of the cell. This function is called Permeability. Basically you can say “it has the ability to be permanent”. Which means the cell membrane gets to decide if it wants the nutrient and does it want it to stay in forever.

Transporting into Cells -

• Passive movement from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration is diffusion.

• The diffusion of water is called osmosis.

Diffusion

Osmosis is the diffusion of H2O

Osmosis

• Osmosis is the movement of WATER across a selective permeable membrane

Hypertonic Hypotonic Isotonic

34 When a sea urchin egg is removed from the

ocean and placed in freshwater, the egg swells

and bursts. Which of these causes water to enter the egg?

F Coagulation

G Sodium pump

H Active transport

J Osmosis

Means to clump together – Incorrect

Sodium is not being moved – Incorrect The egg would not use energy

to do this since it kills the cell.

This is the movement of water from an area of high concentration (the fresh water) to low concentration (inside the Salt Water Urchin EggSalt Water Urchin Egg)

Functions and

Major Organs of the

Body Systems

Skeletal System

• Bones are to – Support &

structure – Make blood cells – Allow movement – Muscle

attachments– Ligaments hold

joints together

Muscular System• 3 types of muscles

– Smooth, involuntary – Striated, voluntary – Cardiac, heart

muscle somewhat like both above

• Allow for movement • Attached by tendons

above and below joints

17 Which structure in the upper arm isresponsible for raising the lower arm?A 1B 2C 3D 4

In order to raise it, it must be attached, so its not 1 or 2.

4 is a bone not a muscle, so its answer:

Nervous System - 1 Consists of brain and

spinal chord Voluntary, you control

and choose Involuntary, allows parts

to keep functioning without you knowing

Nerve cells send and receive information . .

Nervous System - 2

Nerve cells have 3 parts – Axon – Sends

signal – Cell Body –

controls cell functions

– Dendrite – Receives signal from another

– Synapse – space between cells

Nervous System - 3

• Involuntary is controlled by the medulla oblongata of the brain.

• This is how you keep breathing while sleeping and digest food without thinking about it.

Circulatory System - 1This system helps to

connect many other systems as it provides the transport of substances from one organ to another.

Every cell must touch a blood vessel to take in what it needs and get rid of waste.

Arteries carry blood away from the heart and veins carry it back to the heart.

The heart pumps the blood

Circulatory System - 2• The top parts of the

heart receive blood – Atrium

• The bottom two are very muscular and pump the blood – Ventricles

• Two contractions, right ventricle pumps to the lungs, and the left ventricle pumps to the body and brain.

A circulatory system

B integumentary system

C excretory system

D endocrine system

29 Nutrients from digested food move from the digestive system directly into the —

Endocine system does not transport anything. So . . .

Excretory system gets rid of waste CO2 and H2O, not food. So . .

Integumentary system holds organs and tissues in place. So. . .

The Circulatory System carries everything to every cell, so it is . .

25 The medulla, part of the brain stem, reacts quickly to increased levels of CO2 in the blood and stimulates a response from the —

A excretory system

B immune system

C respiratory system

D integumentary system

Increased respiration gets rid of excess CO2

Immune (Lymphatic) System - 1• Your immune system protects you

from infections and illness • 1st Order Non-specific includes

skin, mucous membranes, cilia of trachea and bronchi, stomach acid, tears

• 2nd Order includes the inflammatory response (swelling, redness due to histamine release), fever, white blood cells such as phagocytes and macrophages destroying the pathogens and infected tissue cells.

Immune (Lymphatic) System - 2

• Two main types of immunity

• ACTIVE – body makes its own antibodies after being sick - permanent OR a vaccination to help your body make antibodies

• PASSIVE – injection with antibodies, or transferred from mother to unborn baby

6 Most viruses infect a specific kind of cell. Which of the following are infected by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)?

F Helper T cells

G Liver cells

H GABA-receptor cells

J Red blood cells

Digestive System

• Digestion is the process by which food and drink are broken down into their smallest parts so the body can use them to build and nourish cells and to provide energy.

• Digestion begins in the mouth, when you chew and swallow, and is completed in the small intestine.

Endocrine System

• The endocrine system is an integrated system of small organs that involve the release of extracellular signaling molecules known as hormones. The endocrine system is instrumental in regulating metabolism, growth, development and puberty, tissue function, and also plays a part in determining mood.

Integumentary SystemThe Integumentary system has

many functions: • Protects the body's internal

living tissues and organs • Protects against invasion by

infectious organisms • Protects the body from

dehydration • Protects the body against

abrupt changes in temperature • Helps dispose of waste

materials • Acts as a receptor for touch,

pressure, pain, heat and cold • Stores water, fat, and vitamin

D.

This is the skin, and skin derivatives; (hair, nails, glands and receptors).

Excretory (Urinary) System

• The job of the excretory system is to remove various produced by the body. The removal is known as excreation. It is important for the body to remove these various waste, also known as toxic, because toxic build up can lead to servere death.

Reproductive System

• The reproductive system is a system of organs within an organism which work together for the purpose of reproduction.

• A combination of genetic material between two individuals allows for the possibility of greater genetic fitness of the offspring.

Respiratory System

• The respiratory system consists of the airways, the lungs, and the respiratory muscles that mediate the movement of air into and out of the body.

• Within the alveolar system of the lungs, molecules of oxygen and carbon dioxide are passively exchanged, by diffusion, between the gaseous environment and the blood.

What is DNA?

• Deoxyribonucleic acid– Carries all instructions for an organism

P

S

P

P

S

S

S

P

A T

C G

T A

Nitrogen bases

A = T

C = G

What is the Ladder made of?

Phosphates, Sugars, and Nitrogen bases

The Stuff of Life

• The structure of DNA is called a double helix, or twisted ladder

• The base Guanine always pairs to Cytosine. Adenine pairs to Thymine.

What is the DNA base pair rule?

24 If the template of a strand of DNA is 5' AGATGCATC 3', the complementary strandwill be —F 3' TCTACGTAG 5'G 5' CTACGTAGA 3'H 3' AGATGCATC 5'J 5' AGACGTCTA 3'

In DNA A to T and T to A, C to G and G to C

5' AGATGCATC 3‘

TCTACGTAG

• Base pair each letter by the above rule.

• So the answer is:

• F

38 In DNA, which of the following determines the traits of an organism? F Amount of adenine

G Number of sugars

H Sequence of nitrogen bases

J Strength of hydrogen bonds

This is only one of the 4 nitrogen bases, it can’t code for anything by itself.

Every nitrogen base is attached to a sugar, so this is not correct.

Hydrogen bonds strength does not change enough to code for trait changes.

Genetic Code • All of the information to

make a new organism is contained in the chromosomes of the cell.

• Chromosomes are made of tightly coiled DNA or Deoxyribonucleic Acid.

• Chromosomes contain genes each of which codes for a single protein. There are hundreds to thousands of genes on each chromosome.

DNAWhat is a Nucleotide?3 parts

one sugar one phosphate one nitrogen base

(a,t,c,or g)

Replication

• “Copy Machine”The process of copying DNA is called Replication

• DNA is copied to DNA

Happens in the nucleus of the cell!

Transcription . . . • DNA is changed into RNA

• RNA does not know T (thymine), so RNA uses U (uracil)

• Transcription starts in the nucleus and then takes the information to the ribosome.

Translation . . . Code into words • Changes RNA into

Proteins (words)• mRNA takes the code

from the nucleus to the Ribosome where it pairs with Transfer RNA to put Amino Acids into chains called proteins.

What does this chart represent?

It says codons, and has U instead of T, so it must be mRNA.

53 The table shows a comparison of some amino acids found in cytochrome c. The two organisms in the table that are most closely related are —

A Q and T B R and SC Q and R D Q and S

To be closely related means the amino acid composition should be almost the same, since that is what the DNA is coding. Between Q and T, only 4 levels are

the same – Between R and S only 4 levels are

the same – Between Q and S 5 of the levels

are the same, but – Between Q and R 5 of the levels

are the same and differ in the other 2 by a smaller percent. Answer:

Not A

Not B

Not D

C

Replication, Transcription, and Translation

Showing Replication and How Mutations Start

• When the DNA strands are separated and copied, the altered base will pair with an incorrect base and cause a mutation. In the example below a "modified" G now pairs with T, instead of forming a normal pair with C.

When nitrogen bases don’t match with its partner, a

MUTATION occurs!Mutation – a change in DNA sequence

Different types of MutationsPoint (Frameshift) – change with one codon (or all that follows)

Translocation – DNA moved to a different place

Inversion – DNA being placed backwards

Duplication – extra codons being replicated

Chromosomal – missing chromosome or having too many

Point and Frameshift• Point Mutation

A point mutation is a simple change in one base of the gene sequence. This is equivalent to changing one letter in a sentence, such as this example, where we change the 'c' in cat to an 'h':

• Original The fat cat ate the wee rat.• Point Mutation The fat hat ate the wee rat.

• Frame-shift mutationone or more bases are inserted or deleted

• adding or removing one letter changes each subsequent word. • An example of a frame-shift mutation using our sample sentence is when

the 't' from cat is removed, but we keep the original letter spacing:

• Original The fat cat ate the wee rat.• Frame Shift The fat caa tet hew eer at.

Inversion

• InversionIn an inversion mutation, an entire section of DNA is reversed. A small inversion may involve only a few bases within a gene, while longer inversions involve large regions of a chromosome containing several genes.

• Original The fat cat ate the wee rat.

• Inversion The fat tar eew eht eta tac.

YOUR TURN!

Original strand of DNA

TACGTTAACGGC

What is a Karyotype

• Chromosomes paired up to aligned from longest to shortest

• Chromosome pair 1 – 22 are autosomes – normal body

• Chromosome pair 23 are somatic - sex chromosomes – determines the sex of the baby

Examples of Karyotypes

Or you could see it like this

Can you determine the sex of this person?

What is wrong with this Karyotype?

What is wrong with this Karyotype?

What is Next?

• Every cell in your body divides or reproduces. Inside of each cell is DNA that is being replicated, transcribed, and translated to give your body its characteristics that make you different from everyone else.

• How do cells divide or reproduce?

Cell Division or Reproduction

• Mitosis - produces 2 daughter cells that are identical to the parent cell, known as diploid. This type of cell division allows multicellular organisms to grow and repair damaged tissue.

http://www.cellsalive.com/mitosis.htm • Meiosis - produces 4 daughter cells that have

1/2 the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. Meiosis enables organisms to reproduce sexually. Gametes (sperm and eggs) are haploid.

http://www.cellsalive.com/meiosis.htm

Cell Reproduction

• The Cell Cycle is the life cycle of a cell. It has two parts. Mitosis is the process of cell division and Interphase is the process of growing and functioning.

• During mitosis the cell separates into two new identical sister cells.

Cell Cycle

• http://www.cellsalive.com/cell_cycle.htm

DRAW THIS

Mitosis Meiosis

46

46 46

46

46 46

23 23 23 23

2 daughter cells are identical to parent cells

Diploid = same # of chromosomes

Normal body cells – repair and grow

4 daughter cells that are haploid to the parents

Sex cells – gametes (sperm and egg)

26 If a cat has 38 chromosomes in each of its body cells, how many chromosomes will be in each daughter cell after mitosis?

• F 11

• G 19

• H 38

• J 76Mitosis is the normal division of any body cell, so the chromosomes replicate exactly and then separate into two identical cells. So the answer is

H

When cells reproduce out of control

• Tumors are formed. This is what is called cancer.

• It may or may not be malignant (kind that spreads).

Genetics – How traits are inherited

• Father of Genetics is Gregor Mendel, he experimented with pea plants.

• Do you look like mom, dad, or grandparents?

Important Genetic Vocabulary

• Dominant – gene that will be expressed, Capital letter (B=brown)

• Recessive – gene that is hidden unless it is homozygous, Lowercase letter (b=blonde)

• Heterozygous – two different alleles, dominant will take over (Bb=brown will take over)

• Homozygous – two identical alleles (BB=brown or bb=blonde)

Punnett Squares

D D

d Dd Dd

d Dd Dd

d d

D Dd Dd

d dd dd

D d

D DD Dd

d Dd dd

D d

D DD Dd

D DD Dd

Heterzygous & Homozygous Recessive

Heterzygous & Heterozygous

Homozygous Dominant & Heterozygous

Homozygous Recessive & Homozygous Dominant

Phenotype is what you see

• Phenotype refers to what is visible – the dominant trait or the recessive trait.

• How do you know the phenotype?

• LOOK!!

Genotype – actual combination of alleles

• Only 3 possibilities• BB = Homozygous

Dominant• Bb = Heterozygous • bb = Homozygous

recessive • Must look at

inheritance pattern to find out.

Let’s Do One Together

B = brown eyes

b = blue eyes

A homozygous brown eyed man mated with a homozygous blue eyed woman, what will their offspring look like?

Genotype BB =_____

Bb = _____

bb = _____

Phenotype Brown eyed _____

Blue eyed _____

Now It’s Your Turn

R = red petals

r = white petals

Gregor Mendel mated two flowers. A heterozygous red flower with a white flower. What will the genotypes and phenotypes be?

Did you get it Right?

GenotypesRR = 0/4 or 0%Rr = 2/4 or 50%rr = 2/4 or 50%

PhenotypesRed petals = 2/4 or 50%White petals = 2/4 or 50%

You don’t have to put this, just make sure you know

Pedigree shows the Family Tree

Colorblindness Inheritance

Male ParentFemale Parent

Carrier

Male Colorblind Male Normal Female ?Female ?

Male Female

Male

Male Female

Male Colorblind Female

Parents: Father has; Mother is a Carrier