task as workspace for language learning and teaching martin bygate st mary’s university college,...
TRANSCRIPT
Task as workspace for language learning and teaching
Martin BygateSt Mary’s University College, Twickenham
&Lancaster University, UK
Task as workspace for language use and development
Draw and number the
boxes Throw the stone in the right square
Hop or jumpDo it in the right order
Don’t step outside
box, or fall over!
Language learning and task learningLanguage as a tool to learn to perform
structured activities…
‘That box should be number 3’
‘Your stone missed the
box!’
‘You didn’t hop – you
got to hop!’ ‘But you didn’t do it in the right
order!’
‘You’re out - you stepped outside the box!’ ‘And he fell over!’
Variations are possible
…without using a stone…….
….working as a team
LearningLanguage as a tool to learn to perform
structured activities…
…individually or…….
….jointly!
2) Language helps perform the task
1) The task focuses, and helps understanding of language
Painting a fence (one everyday task)
Cf. Long & Crookes 1993/2008
Painting a fence (one everyday task)
Cf. Long & Crookes 1993/2008
Preparing the materials,
paint, fence and brush
Painting the wooden slats, top to bottom, & all the edges
Moving the paint pot!
Cleaning up!
Learning through doing!
Organisation of the rest of this talk
1. Tasks in everyday life, work and play and in education
2. Students’ language on three tasks (PLUS one)3. Task as the ‘hub’ of lessons: increasing our
options4. Conclusion
TBLT as a view of language use and learning
Much of our language is naturally learned and used in the context of structured and self-structuring activities and tasks, in
everyday life, and at work and at play.
Language use in self-structured contexts
Everyday contexts:
service encounters in
restaurants
check-in desks at airports
service encounters
in shops
interviews at the bank
doctor’s consultations
organising one’s
children
exchanging news at the end of the
day
At work
Providing goods and services
Joint planning, managing, evaluating
Using the computer for writing, email, preparing materials, preparing talks and lessons, using spread
sheets
At play
Meetings
Language use in self-structured contexts
Everyday contexts:
service encounters in
restaurants
check-in desks at airports
service encounters
in shops
interviews at the bank
doctor’s consultations
organising one’s
children
exchanging news at the end of the
day
At worktelling stories
Walking and climbing
Planning activities
Providing goods and services
Joint planning, managing, evaluating
Using the computer for writing, email, preparing materials, preparing talks and lessons, using spread
sheets
At play
sports Photography & painting
Dance & theatre
Singing and music
Pottery….
cooking
Meetings
School learning through tasks
in drama and
music
tasks in technology
and ICT
Science tasks
Economics tasks
History tasks
Geography tasks
in sports
Maths tasks
TBL continues into adulthood, at work, at play, and in everyday life.
Cf. Mercer & Hodgkinson (eds) 2008
Rationale for the use of tasks for teaching language
• Tasks provide contexts which support, focus and challenge learners’ thinking and communicating
• Language as a tool for completion of the activity
Tasks seen as activities in which learners develop knowledge of language, and the
skills to use it while working towards communicative outcomes
TBLT sees tasks as providing a workspace for learning and teaching language through use, and around use.
So what questions might we ask about how tasks develop language knowledge
and skills?Language: (NOTE THE RELEVANCE ALSO FOR TESTING!)•What domains (or sets) of vocabulary to refer to people, objects, and processes – e.g. in the kitchen, the factory, the farm, on the railway, in travel, buildings, food, or management?•What types of discourse – e.g. description, narration, instruction, description of processes, explanation, advising, questioning and answering….?Tasks in lessons: •How can different tasks be used in lessons to develop language?
DO RESEARCHERS AND METHODO LOGISTS FOCUS
ON THESE THINGS?
NO!!!
Limitations in research to date: focusing away from the clasroom
Interaction hypothesisTheory: acquisition seems to derive from: Mutual attempts to understand each other i.e. ‘negotiation of meaning’;‘Recasts’ – implicit corrective feedback:Research focused on: how far students check clarify and correct each other’s expression;the impact of negotiation on acquisition(e.g. Long, Doughty, Gass, Mackey, McDonough, Pica, Ross-Feldman)
Socio-cultural theoryTheory: All learning seems to derive from co-construction between learner and other – i.e. joint attempts to make meaning. Research: focused on identifying processes of co-construction of utterances, of discourse and of task performance – how students ensure that they develop joint understanding(Lantolf, Swain, Duff, Donato)
Skill theoryTheory: Language development involves combining complexity, accuracy and fluency, but attention cannot be given to all three simultaneously. Research focus on: •impact of tasks or task conditions (e.g. with or without pre-task planning) on students’ focus on fluency, or accuracy or complexity; •whether there is a trade-off between the three.(e.g. Skehan, Foster, Ellis, Robinson, Gilabert)
Relatively little research has focused on the language of learners,
or on how teachers can exploit pedagogical tasks in their teaching.
A classroom perspective: a need to shift the focus to pedagogical questions
What kinds of language do students actually use on tasks?
How can teachers use tasks for teaching language?
If teachers are to use tasks to teach with…
In what follows then …A definition of task:An activity for learning language requiring a non-linguistic outcome (the answer to a problem, a decision, a plan, a picture or diagram, a story, a table or chart) which students complete using whatever language they wish.
….differing in two main ways:1) The types of phases the students went through to complete the task;2) The features of language the students used in completing the task
Focus on three tasks( + one)…..
The three tasks?Ap: But er, in my picture is pretty much the
same thing. Yas: Mine tooAp: Yeh, but erm the; so we all get the
same? … Ok and err. <<Laughter>>
Ap: Oh so you have the bird, the bird
eating the food. Am: YeahAp: What do you have? Yan: There is no food in my picture.
Yas: My dog looks happy, and excited, and
bird is on the left side and the food is on
the right side. Several: Yeah
S3: yeah – eh in the cafeteria is a man drinking coffeeS2: right
S3: ya mhm - - mm mmS1: er a man is getting . out of the cafeteria er with a bagsS2: right
S1: I see here there’s a woman who is in the cafeteriaS2: I don’t have itS1: no – oh well - - there are some er
advertisements of picture behind the woman
S10: right – you may ask – very easy S9: is it your countryS10: well not – not our country butS9: a proper foreign country I mean – limiting our countryS10: no no noS9: they want to be part of our country or they want our country to be part of theirsS10: aha I suppose so I suppose at least we – at least we are very interested in that countryS9: it’s aha we’re very interested in that country
The three sample tasks for discussion (+ one)
1) A picture differences activity: pairs of students have similar pictures and talk to each other to find out the differences (outcome: students find a number of differences)
2) A 20-questions game: students ask questions to enable them to work out a word on a students’ card (outcome: succeed or fail to work out the word)
3) A picture story activity: students find story in pictures without seeing each others’ (outcome: students may or may finish by telling the storyPLUS4) Followed by a fourth task to illustrate a further relationship between task and language.
…..S3: yeah – eh in the cafeteria is a man drinking coffeeS2: rightS3: ya mhm - - mm mmS1: er a man is getting . out of the cafeteria er with a bagsS2: rightS1: I see here there’s a woman who is in the cafeteriaS2: I don’t have itS1: no – oh well - - there are some er advertisements of picture behind the womanS2: right - what do they sayS1: myeah one says mo mo motorail and the other interciS2: above thatS1: myeah you have way way out toilet and buffetS2: y how’bout the> - clock , on the wall - what time is itS1: the time it’s at twelve o’clockS2: I got ten o’clockS1: you have tenS2: then we have two differences…..
S2: OK this – seems to be the hall of a strain of a train stationS1: mhmS2: it says south croydon at the topS1: mhmS2: a sign and then I can see a> buffet or a cafeteria there is a clock on – on the top – of the door that is open and a man is – getting away – through the door – he’s running – then I can see next to the door a> a window on the right through the widow I can see a man – drinking – coffee pr tea because he has a . cup . in his hand . there’s a little boy – outside – on the hall erm below the> the window then at the right hand so I’m just going from left to rightS1: mhmS2: then there’s an old lady who’s wearing a hat – carrying a handbag – wearing a coat a long coat – she is making /xxx/ the signs that says way out toilets buffet there are two er how you say two postersS1: ahaS2: and also there is below the posters – on the – on the floor next to the wall there is a – suitcase and a umbrella and an umbrellaS1: OKS2: it’s twelve o’clock on the top – on the top of the doorS1: OK so mine is very similar – but on the top of the> er door there is a clock also but it is not twelve o’clock – it’s just ten o’clock ten yes – one difference……
…..S3: yeah – eh in the cafeteria is a man drinking coffeeS2: rightS3: ya mhm - - mm mmS1: er a man is getting . out of the cafeteria er with a bagsS2: rightS1: I see here there’s a woman who is in the cafeteriaS2: I don’t have itS1: no – oh well - - there are some er advertisements of picture behind the womanS2: right - what do they sayS1: myeah one says mo mo motorail and the other interciS2: above thatS1: myeah you have way way out toilet and buffetS2: y how’bout the> - clock , on the wall - what time is itS1: the time it’s at twelve o’clockS2: I got ten o’clockS1: you have tenS2: then we have two differences…..
S2: OK this – seems to be the hall of a strain of a train stationS1: mhmS2: it says south croydon at the topS1: mhmS2: a sign and then I can see a> buffet or a cafeteria there is a clock on – on the top – of the door that is open and a man is – getting away – through the door – he’s running – then I can see next to the door a> a window on the right through the widow I can see a man – drinking – coffee or tea because he has a . cup . in his hand . there’s a little boy – outside – on the hall erm below the> the window then at the right hand so I’m just going from left to rightS1: mhmS2: then there’s an old lady who’s wearing a hat – carrying a handbag – wearing a coat a long coat – she is making /xxx/ the signs that says way out toilets buffet there are two er how you say two postersS1: ahaS2: and also there is below the posters – on the – on the floor next to the wall there is a – suitcase and a umbrella and an umbrellaS1: OKS2: it’s twelve o’clock on the top – on the top of the doorS1: OK so mine is very similar – but on the top of the> er door there is a clock also but it is not twelve o’clock – it’s just ten o’clock ten yes – one difference……
…..S3: yeah – eh in the cafeteria is a man drinking coffeeS2: rightS3: ya mhm - - mm mmS1: er a man is getting . out of the cafeteria er with a bagsS2: rightS1: I see here there’s a woman who is in the cafeteriaS2: I don’t have itS1: no – oh well - - there are some er advertisements of picture behind the womanS2: right - what do they sayS1: myeah one says mo mo motorail and the other interciS2: above thatS1: myeah you have way way out toilet and buffetS2: y how’bout the> - clock , on the wall - what time is itS1: the time it’s at twelve o’clockS2: I got ten o’clockS1: you have tenS2: then we have two differences…..
S2: OK this – seems to be the hall of a strain of a train stationS1: mhmS2: it says south croydon at the topS1: mhmS2: a sign and then I can see a> buffet or a cafeteria there is a clock on – on the top – of the door that is open and a man is – getting away – through the door – he’s running – then I can see next to the door a> a window on the right through the window I can see a man – drinking – coffee pr tea because he has a . cup . in his hand . there’s a little boy – outside – on the hall erm below the> the window then at the right hand so I’m just going from left to rightS1: mhmS2: then there’s an old lady who’s wearing a hat – carrying a handbag – wearing a coat a long coat – she is making /xxx/ the signs that says way out toilets buffet there are two er how you say two postersS1: ahaS2: and also there is below the posters – on the – on the floor next to the wall there is a – suitcase and a umbrella and an umbrellaS1: OKS2: it’s twelve o’clock on the top – on the top of the doorS1: OK so mine is very similar – but on the top of the> er door there is a clock also but it is not twelve o’clock – it’s just ten o’clock ten yes – one difference……
S10: right – you may ask – very easy S9: is it your countryS10: well not – not our country butS9: a proper foreign country I mean – limiting our countryS10: no no noS9: they want to be part of our country or they want our country to be part of theirsS10: aha I suppose so I suppose at least we – at least we are very interested in that countryS9: it’s aha we’re very interested in that country[…]S11: it’s at the north or the south of peruS10: it’s at the north the very north of peruS9: towards ecuador perhapsS10: noS11: - - - it limits with peruS10: no it’s very far from peruS12: mexicoS9: ahS10: it’s at the north of peru , right but it’s very far from peruS11: not lmiting peruS9: it cou-ld be in europe [laughter]S11: ehm is it to the> . pacific oceanS10: it it has . a part of it has . er it limits with the pacific oceanS9: so it’s in north south or central americaS10: north americaS9: so it’s the united statesS10: yes
S15: how many peoples mm habitantsS14: this country (laughs) – has - - - I d’no about er this is a . you know this is a . small country – which has . a lot of peopleS15: mhmS14: a lot of peopleS15: a lot of peopleS14: lot and lots of people I think it has more people . than it should haveS13: mhmS14: OKS13: mhmS14: another questionS13: mhm a developed or a un or a> developing countryS14: it’s a developing country very developing countryS13: developing countryS14: yesS15: culturallyS13: I mean . developed . are the ones already developed like united states and allS14: it’s a developed . ‘ts a developed
10: right – you may ask – very easy S9: is it your countryS10: well not – not our country butS9: a proper foreign country I mean – limiting our countryS10: no no noS9: they want to be part of our country or they want our country to be part of theirsS10: aha I suppose so I suppose at least we – at least we are very interested in that countryS9: it’s aha we’re very interested in that country[…]S11: it’s at the north or the south of peruS10: it’s at the north the very north of peruS9: towards ecuador perhapsS10: noS11: - - - it limits with peruS10: no it’s very far from peruS12: mexicoS9: ahS10: it’s at the north of peru , right but it’s very far from peruS11: not limiting peruS9: it cou-ld be in europe [laughter]S11: ehm is it to the> . pacific oceanS10: it it has . a part of it has . er it limits with the pacific oceanS9: so it’s in north south or central americaS10: north americaS9: so it’s the united statesS10: yes
G: My dog look not surprised, but kind of, no, yes surprised. He’s surprised by something. But I don’t know what the
bird did. But the dog is surprised by, by something, you know kind of, not
surprised in the sense that you know when you kind of you are surprised but
scared by something, you know the first reaction you have. And it’s kind of,
he’s kind of reacting like that.
Ap: But er, in my picture is pretty much the same thing. Yas: Mine tooAp: Yeh, but erm the; so we all get the same? … Ok and err. <<Laughter>>Ap: Oh so you have the bird, the bird eating the food. Am: YeahAp: What do you have? Yan: There is no food in my picture. Yas: My dog looks happy, and excited, and bird is on the left side and the food is on the right side. Several: Yeah
Am: He is very very angry, there, it looks like smokeAp: so the bird could tie the dog up and that would be a nice idea butG: Mmm, no. I don’t think so. Just the bird wanted to eat something so and then maybe the dog Yan: I think maybe the bird eat the leader of the dog Ap: Leader? Yan: Leade
Ap: So what’s the sequence? G: I don’t know xxxAp: It starts, it either starts with hers and ends with hers or ends with h, um begins with her and ends with hersAm: I think for me my picture is the last Ap: Ok, so then it beginsYan: I think my picture maybe in the middle… not er start
G: and then the bird I mean arrive next to the food and the dog is surprised and the dog is kin(d) of not so happy that the bird is xxx the food at him. And the dog wants to get rid of the bird but kind of scared at the same time so … that it Yan: I have maybe the wrong sequence. Just the dog just come from another place and then and then went to the bird and the bird flying to a branch not on a not on ground and maybe the black stuff everyone see is food and I think also it’s food <<Laughter>> on the right side. I can see a high, maybe it’s like tree, a high on .. in the middle, so this all the information.Am: in my picture the dog is .. is connected to the tree and it is very very angry, and the bird is on the ground close to the food and it is eating the food .. from the dishes
G: My dog look not surprised, but kind of, no, yes surprised. He’s surprised by something. But I don’t know what the bird did. But the dog is surprised by, by
something, you know kind of, not surprised in the sense that you know
when you kind of you are surprised but scared by something, you know the first reaction you have. And it’s kind
of, he’s kind of reacting like that.
Ap: But er, in my picture is pretty much the same thing. Yas: Mine tooAp: Yeh, but erm the; so we all get the same? … Ok and err. <<Laughter>>Ap: Oh so you have the bird, the bird eating the food. Am: YeahAp: What do you have? Yan: There is no food in my picture. Yas: My dog looks happy, and excited, and bird is on the left side and the food is on the right side. Several: Yeah
Am: He is very very angry, there, it looks like smokeAp: so the bird could tie the dog up and that would be a nice idea butG: Mmm, no. I don’t think so. Just the bird wanted to eat something so and then maybe the dog Yan: I think maybe the bird eat the leader of the dog Ap: Leader? Yan: Leade
Ap: So what’s the sequence? G: I don’t know xxxAp: It starts, it either starts with hers and ends with hers or ends with h, um begins with her and ends with hersAm: I think for me my picture is the last Ap: Ok, so then it beginsYan: I think my picture maybe in the middle… not er start
G: and then the bird I mean arrive next to the food and the dog is surprised and the dog is kin(d) of not so happy that the bird is xxx the food at him. And the dog wants to get rid of the bird but kind of scared at the same time so … that it Yan: I have maybe the wrong sequence. Just the dog just come from another place and then and then went to the bird and the bird flying to a branch not on a not on ground and maybe the black stuff everyone see is food and I think also it’s food <<Laughter>> on the right side. I can see a high, maybe it’s like tree, a high on .. in the middle, so this all the information.Am: in my picture the dog is .. is connected to the tree and it is very very angry, and the bird is on the ground close to the food and it is eating the food .. from the dishes
Naturally occurring phases in the tasks
Picture differences
Phase 1: students focus on discovering the
differences in two ways:
a) they describe their pictures to each
other, and spot the differences as they
listenb) they ask each other information about
things they have in their own pictures
Phase 2: agree and summarise the differences
they have found
20-questions: ‘What’s my country’One single phase repeated: students ask questions in turn until one of them gives the correct name of the country; This phase is repeated when another student draws a card with the name of a different country.
Picture story taskPhases:a) in turn students each describe their own pictureb) students comment on similarities and differences between their picturesc) students suggest possible sequences based on the similarities and differencesd) students suggest a full story sequence, sometimes repeating it to checke) students sometimes then told the sequence as a story
Some aspects of the phases1) Students are not told
to use the phases – they use them naturally because they find them useful
3) Single phase tasks involve repetition of the phases for a new version of the same task (when another student draws a card); if the cards are all the same kind of word (a country, an animal, an electrical appliance) then similar questions become routine;
4) In multi-phase tasks different phases often give rise to different features of language and different types of discourse.
2) Some tasks involve single phases if that is all that is needed; some involve multiple phases where it is helpful to break the task down into stages
Language features on the tasks
Spot the difference
Grammar: simple present,
present progressive,
interrogatives, parallel
structures
Verbs: location, activity
Prepositions: location
Adjectives: appearance,
attitude
20-questions task ‘What’s my country?’Grammar: interrogatives, short utterances, echo responsesVerbs: be, haveNouns: geographical terms, cultural featuresAdjectives: size, wealth, temperaturePrepositions: location
Picture storyDescribing: grammar, vocabulary, adjectives, adverbs (including mood and intention)Similarities and differences: grammar, conjunctsTrial sequencing: grammar, conjunctsSequencing: ditto
The fourth task: What language domain is likely on this task?
An overcoat was found on a plane after a flight from San Francisco to London. The objects that you have in front of you were all found in the pockets of that overcoat. Can they tell us anything about the owner?
As a group, look at everything carefully, and share your ideas about the identity of the owner of the overcoat. Be ready to present your group’s ideas about the person to the rest of the class, and to explain how certain you are about your ideas.
Less than 50% certain (it’s possible)
90% certain (it’s probable)
100% certain (it’s certain)
name
sex
age
marital status
occupation
likes & interests
recent activities
any other ideas
You can use the chart to organise your ideasand to show how certain you are about each one. For example, if you are 100% certain that you know the person’s name, write it in column 3 (100% certain). But if you are not at all certain about the person’s name, use Column 1 (less than 50% certain). If you are almost certain that you know this person’s name, use Column 2 (90% certain).
Task as workspace for the lesson: how might the TIP task be used?
1. T asks students to guess what’s in her briefcase2. T introduces topic, procedure - working in groups – and brief – to
report back at the end3. Distributes instructions, and the objects, and checks
understanding4. Students work in groups5. After 5-7 minutes, T interrupts; gets preliminary thoughts; frames
responses on a table 0% likely – 100% certain; introduces potentially useful expressions (adverbs, modals)
6. Students continue working in groups, now starting to use suggested expressions for specific meanings
7. At end of task, each group reports back; T insists on precise estimate of probability, focuses on modals, and provides recasts of target language
8. Specific grammar practice on target language
TBLT: A new option for the lesson plan
Present Production in contextPractice
Communicate as far as possible
with all available resources
Present language items shown to be
necessary for communication
Practice/drill as
necessary
FROM….the PPP cycle
TO… (cf Brumfit 1979)
TBLT: A new option for the lesson plan
Present Production in contextPractice
TASK: Communicate as
far as possible with all
available resources
IN CONTEXT OF TASK: Present
language items shown to be necessary for
communication
Practice/drill as
necessary
FROM….the PPP cycle
TO…a task-based cycle (cf Brumfit 1979)
Task as ‘hub’ in a lesson
TASK ACTIVITY
Possible pre-task activities•Priming of topic or theme•Initial key language input•Task instructions•Pre-class student preparation•Student sharing of information•Student planning and rehearsal•Possible practice activities
• exercises• role plays
Post-task follow up activities:•Oral report•Written document•Poster•Written report•Practice activities
• exercises• role plays
See also Willis & Willis 2007
Teacher’s interactive introduction, input, cuing of meanings & key language, guidance
Teacher’s interactive feedback, correction, explicit explanation, evaluation
Conclusion: reorienting future research and development
Tasks provide opportunities for using and re-using the language: •as students continue working, or check or prepare to report back; •as teacher highlights relevant language; •as students report back to the teacher and whole class; •as teacher monitors, corrects and provides practice•as students check and write up their conclusions; •as they do another similar task.
Choice of task affects students’ language and discourse
Tasks can provide a valuable workspace including:a) a demand which focuses, helps understand the language and its useb) a context motivating future practice.
If TBLT is to work, we need research that is responsive to classroom needs: •Materials, and carefully designed programmes•Relevant explorations of the use of tasks in classrooms•Institutional support to enable teachers to explore the possibilities
BUT….
Thank you for your attention today
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