teacher perceptions of instructional best practices …
TRANSCRIPT
TEACHER PERCEPTIONS OF INSTRUCTIONAL BEST PRACTICES IN DISTANCE
LEARNING EDUCATION
A Dissertation
Presented to
The Faculty of the Education Department
Carson-Newman University
In Partial Fulfillment
Of the
Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Education
By
Andrew David Sheets
May 2021
ii
Dissertation Approval
Student Name: Andrew David Sheets
Dissertation Title: Teacher Perceptions of Instructional Best Practices in Distance Learning
Education
This dissertation has been approved and accepted by the faculty of the Education Department,
Carson-Newman University, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree, Doctor of
Education.
Dissertation Committee:
Dr. Julia Price, Dissertation Chair
Dr. P. Mark Taylor, Methodologist Member
Dr. Samuel Hollingshead, Content Member
Approved by the Dissertation Committee Date: March 24, 2021
iii
Abstract
There is a need for greater understanding of best practices in distance learning education. The
proliferation of distance programs in conjunction with a widespread need for such programs has
created a challenging situation in which the quality of educational outcomes is at risk. There is a
necessity to understand teacher perceptions of best practices in distance learning education to
better chart the course ahead. This qualitative, phenomenological study collected and analyzed
data regarding teacher perceptions of best practices in distance learning education based on the
perspectives of current teachers in the field. Triangulation of data occurred using a survey, semi-
structured interviews, and a focus group. Purposeful sampling included teachers from a Classical
Christian School that currently serves students in grades 6-12. Data supported the emergence of
three major themes: the importance of instructor to student interaction, the importance of
student-to-student interaction, and the importance of student to content interaction. Data pointed
to the viability of distance learning programs and that these programs incorporate many of the
same best practices as those utilized during in-person learning. Data from the current study
substantiates a need for continued professional development in distance learning education as the
outcomes may be heavily dependent on the inclusion of identified best practices. Educators must
be familiar with best practices in distance learned education as it appears that the need for such
programs will not only remain, but perhaps increase in the future.
iv
Copyright
Copyright @ 2021 by Andrew David Sheets All rights reserved
I hereby grant permission to the Education Department of Carson-Newman University to
reproduce this research in part or in full for professional purposes, with the understanding that in
no case will it be for financial profit to any person or institution.
Signature: Andrew David Sheets
Date: March 15, 2021
v
I hereby grant permission to the Education Department of Carson Newman University to
reproduce this research in part or in full for professional purposes, with the understanding that in
no case will it be for financial profit to any person or institution.
Signature: Andrew David Sheets
Date: March 18, 2021
vi
Dedication
This is dedicated to my Lord and Savior Jesus Christ, to my incredible wife, Tabitha, and
to our four children: Joshua, Brogan, Zachary, and Abby.
Thank you, Lord Jesus, for saving me from my sins, giving me new life, and a future
inheritance that is incorruptible, undefiled, and fadeth not away (1 Peter 1:4). For I was once
dead in my sins and pursued the thoughts and desires of the flesh, but because of your great love,
and your rich mercy, I have been made alive with Christ (Ephesians 2:1-10). Thank you, Lord
for your great love for me. All I have is yours, and I offer this work as a humble offering back to
you.
Tabitha, thank you for your faithful love for me for over two decades now. Several
moves, four children, various travels, job changes, trials, and celebrations, it is a joy to share this
life with you. Thank you for believing in me and supporting me in this journey. It wasn’t
always easy, but we did it! Thank you for the important part you played in this success, and in
all of my successes. I love you!
Joshua, Brogan, Zachary, and Abby, I am incredibly thankful to simply be your Dad.
Any accomplishment I ever achieve will pale by comparison to this role, my life’s greatest work.
I am so proud of who each of you, and I know that God has wonderful plans for your life
(Jeremiah 29:11). You each have so much to offer this world and I hope to witness it all unfold.
Continue to seek Him in all you do and give Him the glory and honor for what you accomplish.
Know that I am always here for you and I love you deeply!
vii
Acknowledgments
It is hard to believe that I have finally arrived at this moment. This journey began nearly
ten years ago when I originally set out to pursue my doctoral studies. Needless to say, the
journey did not go as I had planned, in fact, journeys rarely do. An unexpected job change, and
many years later I began my journey again, this time seeing it to completion. For me, this has
been an exercise in grit and perseverance, one that I questioned many times. I would never have
finished the race if it were not for the many that have encouraged me along the way – I am
forever grateful.
Thank you to all of my family and friends for your constant encouragement and support.
The frequent checks to see how my program was going or the quick word of encouragement to
keep working all made a significant difference. I am thankful for such a strong community that
is constant in my life.
Thank you to my school community and for everyone that participated in this research
project. I truly could not have done this without your willing participation and candid feedback.
I am thankful to work and serve in such a loving, gracious, encouraging, professional, and
passionate community – we have an incredible mission and it is a privilege to serve and lead
with you. Thank you to Dr. Steve Willis for serving as my peer debriefer. I appreciate your
time, wisdom, and investment in me. Thank you particularly to Dr. Bill Mott for your
mentoring, trust, encouragement, and support – I could not have done this without you.
Thank you to the Carson-Newman community for the privilege of studying under such an
encouraging group of educational leaders. Thank you especially to my committee members, Dr.
viii
Taylor and Dr. Hollingshead, for your consistent support, encouragement, wisdom, and
expertise. Likewise, thank you to my committee chair, Dr. Price! I can’t thank you enough for
your constant encouragement, gentle prodding, and unwavering belief in me (and my
colleagues). You consistently helped me maintain focus on the goal not the obstacles, and did so
with some much-needed humor along the way. I am proud to have a Dr. P Thought specifically
for me, “even a slow walker will arrive”. Thank you for helping me to get to this point.
ix
Table of Contents
Dissertation Approval ................................................................................................................... ii
Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... iii
Copyright ...................................................................................................................................... iv
Signature Page ............................................................................................................................... v
Dedication ..................................................................................................................................... vi
Acknowledgments........................................................................................................................ vii
Table of Contents .......................................................................................................................... ix
List of tables, figures, and illustrations........................................................................................ xiv
1. Introduction............................................................................................................................. 1
Background of the study ................................................................................................................ 1
Statement of the Problem................................................................................................................ 2
Purpose and Significance of Study ................................................................................................ 3
Theoretical Framework .................................................................................................................. 3
Conceptual Framework .................................................................................................................. 4
Research question .......................................................................................................................... 5
Rationale for the Study .................................................................................................................. 5
Researcher Positionality Statement.................................................................................................6
Limitations, Delimitations, and Assumptions.................................................................................7
Definition of terms……………………………………………………………………..…………7
Organization of the Study...............................................................................................................8
Summary ........................................................................................................................................8
2. Review of Literature ............................................................................................................ 10
x
Overview…………………………………………………………………………………………10
Organization of the Chapter...........................................................................................................12
Methodology……………………………………………………………………………………..12
Theoretical Framework………..................................................................................................... 13
Literature Related to the Topic…………..................................................................................... 18
Learners Today..................................................................................................................18
Technology in Education………………………………………………………………...19
Distance Learning………………………………………………………………………. 23
Specific Literature Related to the Current Study ......................................................................... 27
Distance Learning Pandemic Response………………………………………………… 27
Ineffective Distance Learning (Costs)………………………………………………….. 29
Effective Distance Learning (Benefits)………………………………………………… 30
Course Design…………………………………………………………………... 32
Instructor, Content, and Peer Interaction……………………………………….. 36
Learning Activities……………………………………………………………... 38
Differentiation………………………………………………………………….. 42
Technology Tools………………………………………………………………. 43
Summary....................................................................................................................................... 45
3. Methodology ......................................................................................................................... 46
Research Question ....................................................................................................................... 46
Qualitative Research Method ...................................................................................................... 47
Phenomenological Approach........................................................................................................ 48
Description of the Specific Research Approach... ....................................................................... 48
xi
Data Collection ............................................................................................................................ 49
Survey. ............................................................................................................................. 49
Semi-structured interviews .............................................................................................. 50
Focus group...................................................................................................................... 50
Triangulation……………………………………………………………………………..51
Description of Study Participants and Setting………………………………………………….. 51
Data Collection Procedures……………………………………………………………………... 53
Data management.............................................................................................................. 52
Interview Protocols………………………………………………………………………52
Data Analysis Procedures ............................................................................................................ 53
Coding process.................................................................................................................. 53
Data analysis process. ...................................................................................................... 54
Rigor and Ethics in Qualitative Research……………………………………….………………54
`Credibility. ..................................................................................................................... 55
Transferability.................................................................................................................. 55
Dependability.................................................................................................................. 55
Confirmability…………………………………………………………………………...56
Ethical considerations ................................................................................................................. 56
Summary ..................................................................................................................................... 56
4. Presentation of the Findings ............................................................................................... 58
Role of the Researcher ................................................................................................................. 59
Descriptive Characteristics of the Participants ............................................................................ 59
Description of the Setting ............................................................................................................ 65
xii
Research Methodology Applied to Data Analysis ....................................................................... 66
Phenomenological Analysis…………………………………………………….………………..66
Organizing and Familiarizing……………………………………………………………67
Coding and Reducing…………………………………………………………………….67
Interpreting and Representing……………………………………………………………68
Theoretical and Conceptual Framework…………………………………………………….…..68
Data Sources……………………………………………………………………………………..69
Survey .............................................................................................................................. 69
Semi-structured Interviews ............................................................................................. 69
Focus Group..................................................................................................................... 69
Field Notes………………………………………………………………………….……69
Data Analysis ............................................................................................................................... 70
Research Question………………………………………………………………….……70
Emerging Themes………………………………………………………………………….…….70
Instructor and Student Interaction………………………………………………………..70
Student Interaction with Other Students…………………………………………………76
Student Interaction with Course Content……………………………………...…………79
Trustworthiness Techniques……………………………………………………………...……...85
Credibility………………………………………………………………………………..85
Transferability……………………………………………………………………………86
Dependability…………………………………………………………………………….86
Confirmability……………………………………………………………………………86
Coding Table……………………………………………………………………………………..87
xiii
Summary…………………………………………………………………………………..…….88
5. Conclusions, Implications, and Recommendations .......................................................... 89
Research Question ....................................................................................................................... 89
Conclusions and Summary of Findings ....................................................................................... 90
Relevancy to Theoretical and Conceptual Framework…………………………………..90
Limitations ................................................................................................................................... 94
Implications for Practice................................................................................................................94
Professional Development…………………………………………………………….…95
Course Design……………………………………………………………………………95
Instructional Practice…………………...………………………………………………..96
Tools and Resources……………………………………………………………………..97
Recommendations for Research ...................................................................................................97
Summary of Study ....................................................................................................................... 99
References................................................................................................................................... 100
Appendices.................................................................................................................................. 106
Appendix A-Informed Consent Documents .............................................................................. 107
Appendix B-Interview and Focus Group Protocols .................................................................. 115
Appendix C-Raw Coding Data………………………............................................................... 124
Appendix D-Survey Data………………………........................................................................ 126
Appendix E-Distance Learning Enrollment Statistics……………………………………….…137
xiv
List of Tables, Figures, and Illustrations
Tables
Table 4.1 Summary of Participant Characteristics....................................................................... 60
Figures
Figure 4.1 Teacher Perceptions of Best Practices in Distance Learning Coding Data................. 87
1
Chapter One: Introduction
Background of the study
In many ways, the methods utilized for teaching and learning have remained constant for
the past 200 years (Collins & Halverson, 2018). However, the age of technology has provided
countless opportunities to transform education through a consistently advancing platform. One of
the critical developments is the opportunity for distance learning. For distance learning to be a
viable service delivery model, it must be able to meet or exceed the outcomes from traditional
education (J-PAL, 2019). Further, the instructors must be able to conduct classes according to
widely accepted best practices for teaching and learning through this model.
While learning from a distance is nothing new, the educational opportunities due to
technology in the 21st century are like none seen before. Collins & Halverson (2018) outlined
many of the ways the technology is driving educational reform to include distance education.
Technology allows for just-in-time learning, meaning that knowledge and information can be
accessed at any point in time from virtually anywhere through smartphones, internet search
engines, educational sites, YouTube, and more. Technology also provides the opportunity for
individual customization to meet the unique needs of each learner through platforms that can be
personalized or adjust during learning. This individualized approach also allows for scaffolding
of learning toward mastery at the pace required by each learner, rather than driven by the pace of
the majority or those inclined to move at a faster pace. Technology also creates the opportunity
for the learner to take control of the learning process rather than cede control to a centralized
authority. This autonomy also permits greater interaction between learner and the learning
interface, producing greater engagement and feedback to drive individual growth and
development. These components are driven by technology tools that are characterized by highly-
2
developed visual tools, apps, and gamified content that engages students and uses multimedia to
enhance the learning experience and meet the varied needs of divergent learners. The demand
for the utilization of this type of technology in education, the increased preference for distance
learning, and the demands produced by the COVID-19 global pandemic, have created the
impetus for this research study which investigated the issue further. This study explored these
concepts further and illuminated teacher perceptions regarding best practices in distance
learning.
Statement of the Problem
The global COVID-19 pandemic created a significant surge in distance learning as school
districts around the country, and the global education community, transitioned to online learning
as a way to provide continuity in education for the remainder of the school year. The residual
uncertainty due to the pandemic and the need to return to school has kept distance learning at the
top of the priority list for nearly everyone in education. While distance learning appears to have
emerged as a viable option for educating students, it is far from new (Online Education, 2010).
However, with the rush to thrust both teachers and students in front of computers for school, the
need to explore best practices should be the utmost priority, especially considering what is at
stake during this time. The Northwest Evaluation Association estimates that the impact of
school closings due to COVID-19 could be 30% in reading and math to a full year of learning.
That is for students that were on grade-level previous to the pandemic. For those already behind,
the damage could be a loss of between 24 and 36 months of learning (Feldman & Reeves, 2020).
3
Purpose and Significance of the Study
The purpose of the study was to explore teachers’ perceptions regarding best practices in
distance learning education. The significance of this application to the millions of students
engaged in this platform illuminated the need to determine whether teachers are adequately
prepared to teach online (Kuhfeld & Tarasawa, 2020). Additionally, the findings in this study
produced information regarding the type of professional development needed to give teachers the
skills and tools to be competent instructors from a distance.
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical foundation for this study was constructivism. According to Clark &
Avrith (2017), constructivism is the idea that students construct knowledge and meaning through
experiences. These experiences inform their perspective, guiding the development of knowledge
and aiding in the understanding of concepts. This theory relies on Piaget’s theory of cognitive
development, which relies on the construction of knowledge by the learner, not the input of
knowledge from another (Clark & Avrith, 2017). A constructivist class, according to Clark &
Avrith (2017) is one that: places students at the center, is activity-based, includes problem-
solving, applies real-world scenarios to learning, allows time for reflection, cultivates meaning
over facts, offers differentiation, and encourages student agency. Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory
also served as a guide for the interpretation of the study. Primarily the study concentrated on the
concepts of zone of proximal development, the more knowledgeable other, and the importance of
social development (Gravells, 2014). The concepts of pedagogy and andragogy were applied to
the understanding of the study in the context of the classroom. Clark & Avrith (2017) defined
pedagogy as the “method and practice of teaching, especially as an academic subject or
theoretical concept” (p. 2). Andragogy, as defined by Knowles (1970), is an “emerging
4
technology for adult learning.” Andragogy focuses more on the learner by moving to self-
directedness, drawing upon personal experience, readiness, problem-solving, and real-world
application.
Conceptual Framework
According to Nilson & Goodson (2018), abundant research confirms that best practices in
teaching contain the same principles regardless of platform. Therefore, the concepts of best
practices in education in general merit consideration as a framework of reference for research
study. Persellin & Daniels (2014) offered six principles of effective teaching practice: desirable
difficulties enhance long-term retention, spaced repetition enhances retention, emotional
intensity and relevance deepen learning, multisensory learning deepens learning, small group
work engages students, low-stakes formative assessment enhances retention. These principles
allow for varied application and significantly inform teaching practice in the classroom and
beyond. Nilson & Goodson (2018) reviewed these principles and extrapolated from them a list
of teaching best practices for faculty that informed this research study. According to them, best
teaching practices should include: faculty and student interaction as much as possible, small
group work, active learning, frequent and interleaved practice, prompt and targeted feedback,
focused time learning for students, set and communicate high expectations for students, activate
prior knowledge and correct misconceptions, help organize and connect students’ prior
knowledge, build desirable difficulties into student learning, display instructor enthusiasm for
content and build real world connections, create a supportive environment for learning by
aligning outcomes, activities, and assessments, scaffold tasks to help build mastery, create a
positive and inclusive course climate, engage students in activities and assignments that rely on
5
their own executive functioning skills, educate students about brain plasticity and growth
mindset, incorporate emotions into all aspects of instruction and activities.
Research Question
One research question guided this qualitative phenomenological study. The research
question is drawn from the background and purpose and significance of the study. The question
considers important factors rising from the theoretical and conceptual frameworks, most
significantly, the concepts of best practices in instruction through the digital learning context,
which are drawn from the work of Marzano (2017), Lemov (2010), and Nilson & Goodson
(2018). The following research question guided this study:
Research question:
What are teacher perceptions of best practices regarding effective online instruction for
grades 6-12?
Rationale for the study
There was a significant need for this study to provide insight from a typical school in
operation regarding teacher perceptions of best practices for distance learning education. The
results informed not only the researcher, but any who participate or read the study regarding the
current state of teacher knowledge and preparation on the topic and the need for further
professional development as warranted. Further, the findings in this research report can readily
be generalized to a school with similar demographics. This study was particularly important due
to the proliferation of this form of education even prior to the COVID-19 global pandemic, but
even more so considering the developments due to schools transitioning to this learning context.
Indeed, the progression toward distance learning is accelerating at a rapid pace. Over 70% of
6
degree-granting institutions that are open to the public in the United States have at least some
form of distance offerings (Nilson & Goodson, 2018). In 2013, the number of students enrolled
in a distance education course was 3,750,745 in public institutions, 770,219 in private nonprofit
schools, and 736,415 in private for-profit schools (Nilson & Goodson, 2018). A 2014 survey by
the Instructional Technology Council reported that student enrollment in online courses grew
faster than overall enrollment in colleges and universities (Nilson & Goodson, 2018). Likewise,
in addition to fully on-line courses, educators are utilizing hybrid courses to supplement face-to-
face interactions (Nilson & Goodson, 2018). This demand was evident long before the necessary
transition of 55.1 million students to distance learning in the spring of 2020 (Kuhfeld &
Tarasawa, 2020). Due to this increased demand upon a new and burgeoning learning platform,
the importance of establishing and utilizing best practices in instructions in this research is
evident and timely.
Researcher Positionality Statement
Interest in the topic of technology in education led to an exploration of issues facing
teachers and schools today. The primary impetus for the focus on distance learning developed
from the global COVID-19 pandemic. The study was conducted in a local private school where
access to teachers in grades 6-12 was available. These teachers provided the necessary sample
for the study. Further, the school, like most in the United States, had to respond to COVID-19
with a shift to distance learning. The research completed is essential to further understand
teacher perceptions regarding best practices in distance learning to better understand the learning
platform, but also to appropriately prepare for further necessary use, should it become necessary.
7
Limitations, Delimitations, and Assumptions
The sampling method was a delimitation as it limited generalizations to similar
private/independent schools rather than all schools. Further, the sampling method limits the
study to typical student populations. The sample size was a limitation, as the perspectives and
perceptions were based on a limited number of teachers from one school. Some underlying
assumptions were that all have a limited perspective and view of distance learning, all
participants are competent teachers, and all were familiar with the concepts of effective teaching
and best practices.
Definition of Terms
Effective instruction or best practice - According to Marzano (2017), this can be
defined by considering three categories of feedback, content, and context, and corresponding ten
subgroups of providing clear learning goals, using assessments, direct instruction, deepening
lessons, application lessons, strategies that appear in multiple types of lessons, using engagement
strategies, implementing rules and procedures, building relationships, and communicating high
expectations.
Distance learning - The NEA defines distance learning as follows, “distance education”
means a form of education in which courses are delivered via the internet (or other types of
digital technologies that may evolve from the internet that exists today) without face-to-face
interaction between student and instructor.
Learning Management System (LMS) – The primary system utilized to drive distance
learning education. This serves as the virtual classroom for students engaged in schooling in this
context (Clark & Avrith, 2017).
8
Student Management System (SMS) – This is the primary software component to
manage student information for both typical classroom education as well as distance learning
education. The SMS tool houses the bulk of student information and is often the tool utilized for
grading, communication, and student records (Clark & Avrith, 2017).
Traditional education - This term refers to the delivery of educational services by
means that involve face-to-face interaction between student and instructor (NEA).
Organization of the Study
The study is organized into five chapters. Chapter One includes introduction and
background, statement and purpose of the problem, purpose, and significance of the study,
theoretical framework, conceptual framework, research question, researcher positionally
statement, limitations, delimitations, and assumptions, definitions, organization, and summary.
Chapter Two consists of a review of the pertinent literature on the topic, the theoretical lens and
related academic literature, methods for the review, specific literature related to the study, and a
summary. Chapter Three consists of the research question, description of the research approach,
description of the study participants and setting, data collection procedures, ethical
considerations, data analysis procedures, and summary. Chapter Four consists of the analysis of
the data and presentation of findings. Finally, Chapter Five reports the conclusions,
implications, and recommendations from the research.
Summary
This qualitative study gathered the perceptions of teachers regarding best practices in
teaching through the distance learning model. The participating teachers served in 6th-12th
grade classrooms in a private school impacted by the global COVID-19 pandemic of 2020. The
9
theoretical framework of constructivism and Vygotsky’s theory (Gravells, 2014) guided the
interpretation of the research. Further, the study was informed by the concepts of pedagogy and
andragogy, as defined by Gravells (2014). The data from this study serve as a guide for
educational leaders seeking to hone distance learning practices or to develop appropriate
professional development programs on the topic of distance learning.
10
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
Education is in the midst of a revolution, similar to the one that took place following the
Industrial Revolution. Just as the Industrial Revolution led to universal schooling, the
Knowledge Revolution led to a transformation in how education is delivered (Collins &
Halverson, 2018). The International Commission on the Futures of Education, established by
UNESCO in 2019, echoes this idea in their tagline, "we cannot return to the world as it was
before". They have produced nine ideas for concrete actions today that will advance education
tomorrow. To properly understand the shift that is taking place in education, one must first
understand the events and contributions that influenced the current paradigm. Collins &
Halverson (2018) note that the American school system was created due to the following
circumstances: the invention of the printing press, the Reformation, the American Revolution,
and the Industrial Revolution. The last event prompted a shift from apprenticeship to universal
schooling, led by Horace Mann. They further posit that education has undergone several
modifications over the years, including compulsory attendance, graded schools, tests, textbooks,
Carnegie units, and comprehensive high schools. Despite this evolution, there appears to be a
growing disconnect between schooling today and society's advancement due to a proliferation of
technological advances and widespread access to knowledge. It seems that a significant
revolution in education is once again on the horizon. One of the primary drivers of
contemporary educational reform is technology, and of the associated possibilities it creates,
such as distance learning.
11
Overview
Distance learning has been around in one form or another for quite some time. Students
in the early to mid-1900s could participate in schooling to some degree through a connection to
the radio (Moore & Kearsley, 2012; Simonson, Zvacek, & Smaldino, 2019; Online Education,
2010). Some of the early pioneers to effectively utilize distance learning were the University of
Houston and the University of Chicago. The University of Houston offered televised college
courses for credit in 1953, while the University of Chicago produced a series of televised lecture
courses called Sunrise Semester in 1959 (Moore, 2019; Simonson, Zvacek, & Smaldino, 2019;
Online Education, 2010). The rapid technological advances in computers from the 1960s to the
1980s produced an evolution of interactive software and interactive programs that could be
utilized in education. One of the first to capitalize on these opportunities was the Lancaster
University in Great Britain, when they launched a master's degree program in 1989 that was
entirely taught on-line (Moore & Kearsley, 2012; Simonson, Zvacek, & Smaldino, 2019; Online
Education, 2010). The University of Phoenix quickly followed suit by creating their on-line
campus that same year. They were the first private university to offer both bachelor's and
master's degree programs to an on-line audience, and by 2010, they had over 500,00 students
(Moore, 2019; Simonson, Zvacek, & Smaldino, 2019; Online Education, 2010).
The progression of programs continued rapidly once universities grasped the value and
opportunities inherent in distance learning. By 2006 more than 96% of the largest colleges and
universities in the United States were offering on-line courses. By 2010 virtually all of the most
selective colleges and universities were on board, including Harvard, Johns Hopkins, Stanford,
Cornell, Columbia, Notre Dame, Brandeis, Yale, the UPenn, and MIT. Additionally, several
online-only institutions were established, including Kaplan University and Kaplan's Concord
12
Law School. In September 2009, 2.1 million students were enrolled in on-line college classes
(Moore & Kearsley, 2013; Simonson, Zvacek, & Smaldino, 2019; Online Education, 2010). In
order to fully understand the shift to distance learning, consideration must be given to the
progression of enrollment since 2009 (Appendix E). In the fall of 2018, there were 6,932,074
students enrolled in any distance education courses at degree-granting postsecondary institutions
(NCES, 2018). These statistics illustrate that the interest in distance learning, particularly at the
college level, is growing and has become a regular offering for students seeking further
postsecondary studies.
Organization of the Chapter
The literature review provides an overview of the resources discovered, consulted, and
reviewed in the research of distance learning and best practices in instruction utilized such a
method. Chapter Two includes six major sections: an introduction; an overview of the
organization of the chapter; the methodology of the research of the topic; the theoretical
framework of the study; historical literature related to the topic; and specific literature related to
the study.
Methodology
A systematic approach was used in research for this literature review, and the
investigation was directly conducted for approximately one calendar year. General study
regarding effective teaching and practice was cumulative over a more extended period, however.
Coursework on technology in education was pursued to prepare for this study. Direct research
via review and acquisition of books and articles for the literature review was conducted over the
six months leading up to the research project. The investigation's primary focus was on peer-
reviewed articles, books, book chapters, e-books, and reports. Databases from several fields of
13
study were searched using the Carson Newman library, including EBSCO, Gale, ProQuest,
ERIC, and the Tennessee Electronic Library. The Boolean method was used to conduct digital
searches properly. Search terms included but were not limited to the following: K-12, distance
learning, on-line education, technology in education, higher education, history of distance
learning, COVID-19, teaching best practices, educational reform, and education. Many books on
the topic of distance learning were purchased in addition to accessing research via on-line
formats. The materials were then reviewed, organized, and sequenced to contribute to the
categories within this overall project framework. Particular priority was given to materials within
the range of 2010-2020 due to the rapid development of technology. Due to the timing of the
COVID-19 pandemic and its relevance to this research, additional searches for professional
literature were conducted to gather pertinent information and data.
The initial focus on peer-reviewed materials and academic studies produced data relevant
to the history and progression of distance learning, but given the advancement of technology and
applications in education, the importance of additional forms of research and recent literature
became more apparent. Thus, many books were culled, reviewed, and rented or purchased to
broaden and strengthen the review. Finally, reports, educational websites, and available statistics
completed the examination.
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical lens for this study is constructivism, specifically Vygotsky's theory. The
theoretical framework provides the lens for the study, guides research, and helps interpret the
data. This framework helps make decisions in the qualitative research study; therefore, it must
be established and relevant to the study's focus. Consider the following comments from Moore
14
& Diehl (2019) indicating the relevance of constructivism and Vygotsky's theory to the study of
distance learning:
Probably more identifiable in the design for mlearning is constructivism. Learners can
work their way through such active techniques as experiments, immersive gaming,
simulations, and real-world problem solving to construct their own knowledge and reflect
on it. This can be done collaboratively, also, which may increase motivation and
engagement. Thus, overlapping in many ways with the constructivist approach is social
constructivism (Vygotsky, 1962, 1978) as mobile devices allow users to discuss and share
information in a collaborative, learning environment (p. 215)
This theoretical framework has great relevance to the study and will significantly inform the
research during the exploration process. The literature review provides a framework that
undergirds the study.
The concepts of pedagogy and andragogy also informed the research as it pertains to
teacher and learner roles in the context of the distance learning model. Gravells (2014) defines
constructivism as a process of active discovery in learning whereby the student is engaged in
constructing knowledge, rather than acquiring it from another. The learning method is informed
by the unique perspective and experiences that the learner brings to the interaction, thereby
creating an individualized interpretation and process of knowledge construction.
Vygotsky's (1978) theory is one of the fundamental pillars of constructivism, and it is
predicated on three tenets that much inform this research. The first tenet is that social interaction
is integral to cognitive development. Vygotsky believed that children experienced social
learning first and then experienced corresponding personal growth. This has been well
documented and gradually incorporated into schools since Goleman (1995) pioneered the idea of
15
emotional intelligence. Goleman (2005) characterized this as a set of skills, like, self-control,
zeal and persistence, and the ability to motivate oneself. He believed that these skills might, in
fact, be more critical to success than intelligence. The emotional intelligence movement gave
birth to social-emotional learning or SEL. Organizations like the Collaborative for Academic,
Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL) have advocated for SEL's inclusion and advancement
in schools for nearly 20 years. Building on the work of Kahneman (2011), SEL advocates
believe that students can learn to access system two of the brain, which would allow them to
think and process before reacting, rather than system one, which functions quickly, emotionally,
or automatically (Sprenger, 2020). SEL's impact on learning is widely documented, and a meta-
analysis of 668 evaluation studies of SEL programs for children from pre-K through high school
demonstrated a substantial improvement in academic accomplishment as seen in grade point
averages and achievement test results (Goleman, 2005). Social-emotional learning is essential to
cognitive development, and part of education must include aspects of SEL to develop learners
fully. A fully integrated SEL model should contain programs, objectives, and activities to
incorporate the following competencies: emotional regulation, cognitive regulation, social skills,
public spirit, and identity and agency (Frey, Fisher, & Smith, 2019). Similarly, Fosslien & West
Duffy (2019) claim that students must possess emotional intelligence, emotional regulation, and
emotional agility. Finally, Hoerr (2020) argued that social-emotional learning incorporated into
the school culture must include explicit training in the following skills, which he calls the
formative five: empathy, self-control, integrity, embracing diversity, and grit.
The second tenet of Vygotsky's theory is the more knowledgeable other, or MKO
(Gravells, 2014). The MKO is relatively self-explanatory as it represents someone with a greater
understanding, skill, or experience with a particular competency. In general terms for the
16
classroom context, the MKO refers to the teacher; however, this paradigm is shifting due to the
digital revolution as other opportunities now exist. Elmore (2017) suggested that the teacher's
role as MKO must directly change from sage on the stage to a guide on the side, as students have
unlimited and unfettered access to information.
The third tenet of Vygotsky's theory is the concept of the zone of proximal development
or ZPD (Gravells, 2014). Functionally, this is the space between where the learner is currently
performing independently and where the learner can accomplish the task with another's
guidance. The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) is the distance between a learner's ability
to perform a task under adult guidance or peer collaboration and their ability to independently
solve the problem. According to Vygotsky, this is the ideal place for the learner to grow and
achieve. This is often referenced in the context of reading levels when discussing independent
level, instructional level, and frustration level. Ideally, the instructional level would be the ZPD.
This is just enough to challenge the learner, but not enough to produce frustration. The zone of
proximal development is an essential concept in this research as digital learning presents myriad
opportunities for individualization and targeted practice.
Formal teaching is frequently referred to as pedagogy (Gravells, 2014). In this paradigm,
the teacher typically directs the learning for all students at the same time. Additionally,
pedagogy often refers to instruction that is directed at children (Pappas, 2015). Much teacher
preparation is focused on honing the teacher's pedagogical skills and competencies to best serve
the collective needs of the corporate class, and often the individual student as well. Lemov's
taxonomy is an excellent example of a set of pedagogical skills that guide teachers to focus on
skills like setting high expectations, planning, lesson structure and delivery, student engagement,
classroom culture, behavioral expectations, amongst others (Lemov, 2010). Likewise, Marzano
17
(2017) provides a similar framework focused on learning goals, assessments, content delivery,
teaching strategies, engagement, rules and procedures, building relationships, and creating high
expectations. These formal strategies should not be discounted; however, they may need to be
adjusted to meet the needs of the digital revolution.
According to Pappas (2015), andragogy refers to the art and science of helping adults
learn. This approach may allow for a more individualized form of learning. It may incorporate
more guided inquiry, discussion, interest inventories, self-guided exploration, metacognition,
amongst others. Additionally, learners may construct knowledge by interacting with one another
and sharing individual experiences with peers in this framework (Gravells, 2014).
Pappas (2015) outlined five main differences between pedagogy and andragogy in the
approach to learning based on the learners' needs. There are distinctions in learning behavior as
adults are more self-directed than children and tend to take greater responsibility for their actions
and learning. On the contrary, students tend to rely more on the teacher for direction in the
learning process. Adults bring a great deal of experience to the learning environment, and this
experience tends to greatly inform their learning. Understandably, children lack a sense of real-
world experience and, thus, tend to rely on their teacher's expertise. Adult learners are inclined
to focus their learning on that which most benefits or interests them concerning career and life
application. Student learning is more subject-driven and broad in scope due to their limited
perspective. If prompted to learn something due to a change in life circumstances or a desire to
advance in a career, adults typically demonstrate a strong readiness to learn.
On the contrary, children are prompted to learn based on the established requirements set
forth by the authorities in their lives. Finally, adults are typically motivated to learn by intrinsic
factors, such as self-development, quality of life, curiosity, etc. In short, they usually have a
18
stronger sense of motivation. Alternatively, children are motivated by extrinsic factors like
grades and incentives or negatively by the consequences of inadequate performance. The
implications of both pedagogy and andragogy are essential to this research due to the widespread
application of them in both in-person educational contexts and distance learning.
Literature related to the topic
Learners today. Collins and Halverson (2018) highlight recent survey data regarding the
frequency with which teens are utilizing technology. It appears that 92% go on-line daily and
over 75% use mobile devices to go on-line, connect, game, and learn, amongst other reasons.
Understanding the connected students of today is essential to gauge which instruction methods
are most adequate to meet their needs, particularly from a distance. Similarly, Twenge (2017)
characterized members of iGen as people who are: in extended adolescence, connected to the
internet, not connected in-person, insecure, irreligious, inclined towards safetyism and the
extrinsic, uncertain regarding income, indefinite towards commitment, inclusive, and politically
independent. Similar to Twenge, Elmore (2019) posits a generational shift for these digital
natives that he calls generation Z. He claims they are: empowered without wisdom, stimulated
without ownership, privileged without responsibility, involved without boundaries, prone to
individualism without perspective, have access to content without accountability, fluid without
integrity, laden with opportunities without resilience, and finally consumers without reflection.
Consider some of the characteristics of learners today:
they are digital natives, they talk in images, they are social entrepreneurs, they think in 4-
D, they prefer to do hands-on and interactive projects, the communicate in bite-sized
ideas, they like to create, their social circle is global, their cell phones are the hub of their
19
lives, and they want to win using strategies, practice, and do-overs (Clark & Avrith,
2017).
Technology in education. Indeed, technology is in the process of transforming education
by providing advanced tools for classroom use and bring virtual worlds to the classroom. These
tools can offer a discernible advantage to learners and teachers alike, providing greater access to
information, increased learning processes, and allow for more ways for teachers and students to
connect (Simonson, Zvacek, & Smaldino, 2019; Technology, 2020). Collins & Halverson
(2018) referenced several of these new tools as seeds of a new education system. Khan
Academy delivered video learning resources to all learners regardless of location. Computer-
adaptive systems provided individualized learning pathways to help meet the needs of diverse
learners. Platforms like Pinterest provided ways to crowdsource lesson design, giving teachers
access to various tested approaches to content. The introduction of Massive open on-line courses
or MOOCs opened up higher education opportunities to virtually anyone interested. These
developments advanced the distance education paradigm through technology and innovation.
Tech enthusiasts readily support the advancement of technology in education due to the
perceived advantages to both students and educators alike. They posit that the world has
changed, and a new approach is essential to meet the 21st-century learner's needs. Even the
United States Department of Education has touted the benefits of distance education. In a 2009
meta-analysis and review of on-line learning studies, it was determined that on-line learning
students performed better than their traditionally educated peers since they spent more time on
their studies (Simonson, Zvacek, & Smaldino, 2019). Technology presents the opportunity to
access information quickly, customization, learner control, interaction, scaffolding, games and
simulations, multimedia, multiple avenues for communication, amongst others (Collins &
20
Halverson, 2018). However, technology is not without critics, and the voice of those in dissent
raises valid points for consideration. A study conducted by Berge and Muilenburg (2000)
reviewed the literature and surveyed thousands of people involved in education regarding
barriers to distance education. After analyzing the data, it was concluded that the following were
the ten most significant barriers: increased time commitment, lack of funds, resistance to change
(organizational), lack of shared vision in the organization, lack of support staff, lack of strategic
planning, the slow pace of implementation, faculty compensation/incentives, difficulty keeping
pace with advancements, and lack of technology (Simonson, Zvacek, & Smaldino, 2019). One
of the most fundamental objections is that technology is extremely costly and the financial
burden on schools is already significant. Further, due to the cost, issues of access present
concern over equity and the fear that considerable advancement may widen the already
troublesome achievement gap. Technology also presents concerns regarding classroom
management, the need for emotional intelligence and social-emotional learning, a negative
impact on the teacher's authority, and concerns with assessment, among others (Collins &
Halverson, 2018).
Regardless of position, the reality is that technology and the corresponding tools are seen
as vital components of instruction today. Hardware, such as computers, whiteboards, servers,
cabling, projectors, document cameras, etc. are essential to operation. Additionally, schools need
substantial internet speeds and capacity, database memberships, software tools, programming,
and other tools that drive up the budget. Schools in the U.S. spend over $13 billion each year on
educational technology (Technology, 2020). While some districts have one to one technology
programs in place, the cost is too prohibitive for many. The COVID-19 pandemic illuminated
this disparity as schools were forced to a distance learning model, exposing districts ill-equipped
21
to provide options for families without access to technology. For example, in response to the
need for a distance learning response, Nashville Mayor John Cooper recently declared that he
would use newly acquired CARES Act funding to purchase 90,000 Dell laptops for the projected
84,740 students in the district. The cost of the project is estimated at $24 million (Shelton,
2020).
Obtaining the hardware solves one issue of equity; however, access to the internet is
another issue that can impede equity in access to educational resources. According to the Pew
Research Center, 15% of people with students in the home (7 million) lack access to reliable
and fast internet (Demographics, 2019; Castelo, 2019). Some estimates may even increase that
number to nearly 35 percent. This significantly impacts students from low socioeconomic
backgrounds, students from diverse backgrounds, and students in rural areas, further
compounding the concerns over widening the achievement gap due to a lack of access to
necessary resources. According to Castelo (2019), 99% of schools have the bandwidth
required to support digital learning; however, 81% of superintendents indicated that the
disparity in access in the home is a significant hindrance to implementing any form of on-line
education. The federal government provides some relief through the E-Rate initiative, part of
the Telecommunications Act of 1996, allowing discounted access of up to 90% for families
below the poverty line; however, the E-Rate budget has a cap limitation (Technology, 2020).
Schools have sought creative solutions to bridge the gap, including providing mobile hotspots
and partnering with local providers, but there remains no fixed solution to the problem. This
may combat the issue of access to avoid inequality; however, a meta-analysis study published
by MIT in 2019 revealed that access would help to improve skill and comfort with technology;
however, it does not necessarily improve educational outcomes (J-PAL, 2019).
22
The type of investment required to incorporate technology, particularly in the public
sector, should yield significant dividends, particularly in student achievement. Unless this is
proven to be so, administrators and policymakers may become reluctant to allocate the necessary
funds to provide the essential resources. That is why studies like the aforementioned MIT
analysis are vital to research the effectiveness of technology in education. Another outcome of
the study was that blended learning was the most effective way to incorporate technology in
education (J-PAL, 2019). Likewise, a meta-analysis by Bernard, Borokhovski, Schmid, Tamim,
and Abrami (2014) analyzed comparative studies of blended learning and classroom instruction
in higher education. It determined that blended learning was slightly more effective than
classroom instruction concerning achievement outcomes.
Additionally, the researchers claimed that enhanced computer support and the inclusion
of interactive treatments also strengthen student achievement. Blended learning incorporates
face-to-face instruction in a traditional classroom setting with on-line aspects of learning.
Further, the MIT analysis results revealed that the technology that allowed students to
individualize their learning experience and progress at their own pace could demonstrate similar
effectiveness as in-person instruction, like tutoring programs.
While technology presents many valuable educational opportunities, it is not without
risks. It is difficult to monitor student access. A myriad of methods exist to access objectionable
content, sites presenting misleading or inaccurate information, and become distracted by
notifications, media, and other enticing entrapments. This is an issue both in and out of school as
students are spending an increasing amount of time connected to their devices and the internet.
The amount of time twelfth graders spent on-line doubled in 9 years between 2006 and 2015.
They spend nearly six hours on-line per day, comprised primarily of texting, internet, social
23
media, and gaming (Twenge, 2017). Much of this time on-line is dedicated to social media.
While social media experience can provide some benefits for the distance learner, Simonson,
Zvacek, & Smaldino (2019) indicated some definite drawbacks due to social media conditioning
and inclusion in the course content. The research determined that seven negative distractions can
inhibit learning on-line: an element of greediness in which students desire likes and immediate
feedback, an element of gluttony in which students wish to know everything about the subject
being discussed, a lustful element to the interactions where the students want what they want, an
aspect of pleasure-seeking where students only desire to participate in that which is pleasing
rather than displaying grit through engagement in the difficult, some students can be afraid of
social media usage on-line, and it can distort levels of participation, social media use can lead to
the exclusion of systematic planning in course design, and finally, some interactions can lead to
students feeling excluded or marginalized. This further reinforces the importance for educators
to help students interpret information. Elmore (2017) demonstrated that students no longer need
adults to access information. Still, they do need them to add context to the content, teaching them
how to process the data and make educated decisions.
Distance learning. All of the above advancements made it possible for students to
access learning from virtually anywhere, leading to the creation of distance learning programs.
In this paradigm, students take courses on-line without the need to be physically present.
Simonson, Zvacek, & Smaldino (2019) defined distance education as institutional-based, formal
education where the learning group is separated and where interactive telecommunications
systems connect learners, resources, and instructors. Moore and Diehl (2019) utilized the term
mobile learning (mlearning) synonymously with distance learning and define it as learning
across multiple contexts, through social and content interactions, using personal electronic
24
devices. They further expanded this definition, relying on Crompton (2013), who broadened the
context. He claimed that mobile learning could occur inside or outside the classroom,
participating in a formal lesson through a personal device. It can be self-directed, spontaneous,
and the environment may be part of the learning experience, or it may be neutral. Ko and Rossen
(2017) defined distance education as conducting a course partially or entirely through the internet
or various apps in a way that allows one to manipulate on-line course elements. Fundamentally,
any form of learning that doesn't involve the traditional classroom setting in which students and
instructors must be in the same place simultaneously.
Similarly, Moore & Kearsley (2012) defined distance education as teaching and planned
learning in which teaching normally occurs in a different place from learning, requiring
communication through technologies and particular institutional organization. These definitions
serve as a foundation to understand the platform and context for learning that is being studied in
this research. This form of learning, distance education, is the fastest growing mode of both
formal and informal teaching, training, and learning today (Moore & Diehl, 2019).
Colleges and universities began offering on-line coursework in the 1990s. Due to
popularity, these programs have steadily increased over time, particularly those that include
credit and degree opportunities. In 2003-2004, just over 15% of undergraduate students were
enrolled in on-line courses. That number surged to over 42% in 2015-2016 (Technology, 2020).
This is a much more advanced form of correspondence education, once utilizing the mail for
course completion. Nearly 10% of students completed a degree entirely on-line in 2015-2016.
Universities have taken advantage of these opportunities to increase enrollment beyond the
limitations of physical location. These programs are fully accredited as part of the university
program. Likewise, as previously mentioned in reference to Collins & Halverson (2018), many
25
universities and colleges provide select courses for free on-line. These MOOC's enroll thousands
of students worldwide (Technology, 2020). Access to these courses is typically unrestricted and
does not require any prerequisite experience. They are not for credit or part of a degree program
but can often be utilized for professional development or include a completion certificate.
Distance learning is not exclusive to higher education, however. As of 2020, several
states had virtual public school options for their students (Technology, 2020). Some of these
programs were open to anyone to participate. In contrast, others restrict participation to those
who are homeschooled, homebound due to illness, or those who are unable to participate in
traditional programs for other reasons. Some states also included dual enrollment and advanced
placement coursework. Additionally, at least 48 states utilized distance learning for
supplemental instruction and blended learning opportunities (Technology, 2020).
The most common criticism for these programs is that they are not nearly as effective as
traditional programs concerning student learning outcomes. The previously mentioned MIT
study confirmed this, along with research from 2019 by the National Education Policy Center
(NEPC). The studies revealed that students enrolled in a full-time distance learning program
performed worse than students in traditional or blended settings. Further, graduation rates of 50-
61% are significantly lower than the 85% for traditional public schools (Technology, 2020).
While growing in popularity, these programs had yet to measure up to conventional programs in
learning outcomes or successful program completion rates. The graduation rates for students
enrolled in a full-time college or university programs were also lower; however, this may be due
to the possibility that non-traditional students are taking advantage of programs that they
otherwise may not be able to access due to the inherent flexibility of such programming
(Technology, 2020).
26
However, a growing body of research indicates that the achievement gap between
distance programs and traditional classroom instruction has been closed, and there is no
significant difference. Moore & Kearsley (2012) presented a litany of studies to demonstrate this
point. Reuter (2009) compared the learning success of two terms of study for on-line and
traditional students and discovered no discernable difference in performance. Hughes, McLeod,
Brown, Maeda, and Choi (2007) assessed achievement across these platforms in the study of
algebra, reported relative success, and noted that on-line students had access to high-quality
content and instruction. Donkor (2010), when comparing video-based and print-based
instructional materials, determined that there was pedagogical equivalency regarding theoretical
instructional knowledge; however, skill acquisition favored the video format. Cragg, Dunning,
and Ellis (2008) determined that instructor and student interaction were equivalent through both
mediums, and students mastered complex, abstract concepts successfully. When comparing
engagement, autonomous learning, and peer and faculty interaction, Rabe-Hemp, Woollen, and
Humiston (2009) determined that on-line students spent more time independently preparing for
coursework, were more reflective in their learning practices, and were more involved in class
discussions, while traditional students were more collaborative in their learning with classmates.
Lobel, Neubauer, and Sweberg (2005), in a comparative study, determined that on-line students
had the tendency to interact longer with the expert teacher than students in the traditional setting.
Valore and Diehl (1987), in summation of a meta-study on home study courses, claimed that all
research since 1920 indicated that correspondence students perform just as well or better than
their classroom peers. Glass, McGraw, Smith, and Williams (2006) conducted a meta-analysis
of research that included findings from 25 comparative studies from 1990-2003. It determined
27
that higher education on-line programs significantly outperformed their peers in traditional
classrooms.
Similarly, Neumann and Shachar (2003), in a meta-analysis of 86 studies, determined
that distance students outperformed traditional students by a two-thirds margin. Olson and
Wisher (2002) determined that web-based instruction is at least as effective as classroom
instruction. Finally, Russell (2001) claimed that in 350 studies since 1928, when measuring the
difference between distance education students and their traditional peers, there is typically no
significant difference.
Specific literature related to the current study
Distance learning pandemic response. Whether or not distance learning programs lag
behind when compared with traditional programs, the global pandemic as a result of COVID-19
presented the need for such programs more than ever before. In fact, states, districts, and local
schools without access to such programs were forced to scramble for alternative solutions when
face to face schooling came to an abrupt halt across the United States in March of 2020. Schools
had to remain closed for the remainder of the 2019-2020 school year, and the prospects for the
2020-2021 school year were very much in doubt. These school closures impacted more than
124,000 institutions and over 55 million students across the nation (Technology, 2020). Some
institutions were able to utilize technology resources and begin distance learning programs
quickly. At the same time, many were forced to provide little to no instruction for students for an
entire quarter of the academic year. The loss of learning and other social, emotional
consequences had yet to be fully quantified at the time of this study. As the 2020-2021 school
year began, many states and locales were still wrestling with plans to re-open or institute a
distance learning model of instruction. Again, the aforementioned access to resources and
28
connectivity greatly impacted many plans. While the primary concern for families surrounding
the initial stages of the pandemic was personal and familial health, consider the demonstrated
concern over education in Appendix A2 below. During a relatively short time, from late March
to early April 2020, there was a demonstrated elevation in moderate to severe concern over the
education of children. This equated to an approximate 10% increase in concern within a matter
of weeks. (K-12 Students, 2020). This concern has been exacerbated by the virus's progression
and a perceived lack of solutions on the part of educational leaders in the United States. As
schools were forced to develop schooling options, most resorted to an on-line distance option
when and where possible. Data on engagement in on-line schooling during this same period is
demonstrated through Appendix A3 and A4. The progression of schooling options employed by
parents from March to April of 2019 during the early weeks of the COVID-19 pandemic
indicated a sharp increase in the use of on-line learning. In late March, approximately 65% of
parents were engaged in distance learning, but the number rises dramatically to 83% in the early
part of April (K-12 Students, 2020). These numbers are associated with distance options related
to a child's previous school, while other children were engaged in homeschooling, alternative on-
line programs, private programs, or no schooling whatsoever. Of particular concern were those
who were not participating in any education, potentially widening the achievement gap due to a
lack of realistic options.
Additionally, the ability to focus on learning during the pandemic created several other
issues that may need to be addressed through a distance learning response. Consider the study
conducted by the University of British Columbia's department of sociology regarding effective
course design. Out of the 576 students surveyed, 75 percent of student respondents
communicated difficulty focusing on their studies due to various challenges not related to
29
academics. Concerns noted included quarantine implications, caring for sick family members,
working to cover lost family wages, being in different time zones, amongst others (Kong, 2020).
Ineffective distance learning (Costs). A negative example can often reveal as much
about a topic as an excellent example. According to Quillen (2015), there are some common
missteps by on-line instructors. He posits that there are six common mistakes by these
ineffective educators: an unclear syllabus, no set timetable for emails, converted print resources
rather than the utilization of multimedia, hiding a lack of experience, the instructor has never
been an on-line student, and the teacher is an ineffective face-to-face instructor. Sull & Peckham
(2019) also note some potential negatives pertaining to the characterization and treatment of
varied social groups based solely on digital communication. They note that teacher tendencies,
preconceived ideas, and biases could create an imbalance that negatively impacts learners.
Without the social cues, classroom context, and myriad other factors that face to face classes
provide, these pitfalls are worth noting. Lei & Gupta (2010) also pointed out some of the costs
of distance learning for administrators, faculty, and students. The main concern for
administrators is the exorbitant cost of technology and the need for consistent hardware and
software upgrading. For faculty, the complexity of explaining complicated or abstract concepts
from a distance to a relatively unmotivated audience can be quite challenged and often
compounded by challenges with technology, potentially on both ends. Students can become
easily overwhelmed or anxious when faced with the challenges of intricate on-line course work
and a lack of face to face interactions, further complicated by the need for consistent self-
discipline and motivation.
Likewise, Lei & Lei (2019) noted several concerns for students engaged in coursework
that includes a distance learning component. Instructors suggested that digital learning is not a
30
good fit for some students, as they must be self-motivated and be good managers of their time.
Instructors also indicated that students may become lost, confused, or even frustrated with digital
learning. Some may also struggle with the expectations for technology use and technological
difficulties that may be experienced during the course. These challenges are real; however, there
are benefits as well.
Effective distance learning (Benefits). It appears that distance learning is here to stay,
at least as long as the pandemic impacts daily life in the United States. However, based on the
previous information and timeline, distance learning progression indicates the trend will only
continue. Therefore, a discussion of effective technique and practice is warranted and pertinent
to this research. Fisher, Frey, & Hattie (2021) noted that some important lessons can be gleaned
from the pandemic shift in education in the spring of 2020. The first is that social and emotional
learning is connected with academic learning. The second is that partnerships with families are
central to success in education. The third is that ineffective teaching strategies from in-person
teaching can be equally ineffective in digital learning. While the results from the spring of 2020
were not in at the time of this study, there is basis for optimism based on another historical event.
When students missed three to seven weeks of school due to Hurricane Katrina, there appeared
to be only a slight drop in achievement; however, the students quickly recovered and made
significant gains in scores (Fisher, Frey, & Hattie, 2021). Responding to a crisis can provide an
opportunity to grow and learn, further improving distance learning for future use.
Simonson, Zvacek, & Smaldino (2019) conducted a comprehensive review of the
research on the theory and practice of distance education and summarized their findings in the
following: distance education works as effectively as classroom instruction, student retention in
distance education programs is lower than in traditional settings, instructor attitude toward
31
teaching and learning in distance education is a component of effectiveness, course quality is
critical, student computer anxiety must be low or effectiveness suffers, course flexibility is
essential, learning communities are an important aspect of distance learning, student interaction
is critical – student to student/student to content/student to instructor, learner control is
necessary, training for students and instructors in effective distance education practice is a
contributor to success, technical support is critical, instructor expertise and support are strong
predictors of student learning, distance education offers excellent autonomy and convenience for
the learner, quality instruction should be equivalent to classroom instruction but not identical,
computer competency is related to student success, retention is related to student satisfaction,
frequency and quality of interaction is key to effectiveness, best practices in classroom
instruction should be the starting point for distance education with equivalency being the goal,
class size for instructors should be limited to an average of 20 students per class, on-line students
report they spend more time on coursework than traditional students. These factors must be
considered by administrators and educators when planning distance learning courses.
Additionally, Fisher, Frey, & Hattie (2021) implored educators to remember the following
lessons: focus on what students don't know, keep learning balanced, harness the most exciting
digital platform for the situation, focus on the subjects that require the most help from the
teacher, provide opportunities for feedback, create opportunities for social interaction.
Lei & Gupta (2010) presented several benefits to all constituents involved in distance
learning. Administrators can realize the opportunity to reach a much wider audience and offer
flexible options to students with conflicting schedules. Faculty have the opportunity to
differentiate learning and promote greater student participation, critical thinking, and provide
greater flexibility through asynchronous programming. Students experience greater flexibility,
32
constant access to course materials and help from digital assistance and guidance from an
instructor, and the opportunity to gain essential skills for the 21st century. Flexibility and the
ability to differentiate based on student needs are considered some of the most significant
advantages to distance learning. Consider the possibilities for working students or students with
young children who now have access to course material around the clock and don't have to worry
about commuting or parking to further their education (Online Ed, 2010).
These best practices in distance learning provide great insight into the essential elements
that must be included to create effective learning and promote student satisfaction, which leads to
retention. Miller (2014) compared traditional classroom instruction with distance learning,
considering the following six best practices in instruction: peer-to-peer interaction, active student
engagement in learning, emphasis on practice and student effort, personalization to the individual
student, variety, and focus on higher thought processes. Her research highlighted the significant
overlap in these instructional best practices, which is endorsed by the American Distance
Education Consortium. Fundamentally, both classroom instruction and distance education must
incorporate these six practices, albeit in a different manner, appropriate to the context and needs
of the divergent learners.
Course design. The design of the course is one of the critical aspects of distance
education. Many elements must be considered before launching a course that engages students
in that learning process. Simonson, Zvacek, and Smaldino (2019) outlined some of the essential
design considerations when developing a distance education course. They claimed that the
following guidelines should be followed: good teaching matters and therefore the focus should
be on objectives and activities, each medium has its aesthetic, education technologies are
flexible, there is no super technology, and consequently one must integrate many, multiple forms
33
of media should be available, balance variety with economy, interaction is essential, student
numbers are critical, new technology is not necessarily better than old, teachers need training to
use technology effectively, teamwork is crucial, and therefore it is better to design with others,
learning objectives are the issue, and therefore technology should not be the focus of the course.
Ko and Rossen (2017) simplified course design elements to the following: identify desired
results, determine acceptable evidence, and plan learning experiences and instruction. There is
much that contributes to these components. Still, the structure of the process is sound, and it
provides a roadmap for course design that would deviate from traditional instruction by the
platform and mediums utilized to accomplish the desire results. Other considerations that must
be made, according to Moore and Diehl (2019), are whether or not the course will be designed
by the individual instructor or a design team, personalization vs. a one-size-fits-all cohort, the
learning model that will be utilized, whether the course will be content-centric or the learner will
be able to navigate the learning objectives in the way they choose, and the desired depth and
breadth which includes the desired time constraints.
Likewise, effective distance learning requires the incorporation of cognitive science and
commonly understood best practices in education. These practices may be applied differently in
the distance learning model; nonetheless, they must be understood, recognized, and used best to
meet the needs of the learner from a distance. Nilson & Goodson (2018) outlined 25 principles
based on cognitive science that inform on-line course design and teaching. These principles are
essential to understanding best practices in distance learning. The principles are as follows: the
sequence of procedural and processual steps, active learning, targeted feedback, the validity and
organization of prior knowledge, safe and welcoming environment, attention attractors and
holders, elaborative rehearsal for long-term memory, cognitive load minimized, multimodal
34
repetition, structured knowledge, stories and cases, varied examples, emotions, spaced practice,
interleaved practice, self-regulated learning, the testing effect, comprehensive exams, the
generation effect, desirable difficulties, challenges to current mental models, deep thinking and
explanation questions, error correction, prompt feedback on errors, and print text for reading.
Each of the principles merits further explanation; however, a superficial understanding is
sufficient to apply them to the design and teaching of a distance learning course.
Considerations to the above must be made as the instructor designs learning outcomes,
creates learning activities, delivers content, and provides assessments. The principles could
serve as a checklist of sorts for the instructor to reflect upon to ensure that they are incorporated
into the course's fabric. To expound on one of the principles in more detail, the instructor must
consider the design of learning activities. Examples of such may include quizzes, interviews,
debates, group projects, discussions, case studies, simulations, blogs, interactive videos, etc.
Even this principle connects with several of the others as it may create an opportunity to gain
attention, create practice, structure knowledge, allow for deep thinking, provide feedback, etc.
Miller (2014) emphasized the importance of course design as a means to achieve
cognitive optimization. Her approach to the design of a distance learning course is predicated on
the following essential tenets: learning objectives or what the instructor wants the students to
know, learning activities or how the instructor wants the students to spend their study time,
assessments or how student learning will be measured, peer to peer interaction or how students
will learn from one another, grades and other incentives or how to get students motivated. Each
of these design features should be comprised of essential questions based on cognitive learning
principles and then tethered to the tools and techniques that the instructor will utilize to
35
accomplish that desired outcome. For example, under the learning activities section, there is a
question regarding how learning activities will use emotions to promote learning. The principle
of emotions boosting memory should be utilized to help students recall information. Suggested
tools and techniques include TED talks, video clips, role-playing, case studies, gamification
techniques, etc. This type of research-based course design is one of the keys to effective distance
learning practice.
Moore and Kearsley (2012) advocated for the systematic incorporation of the
instructional systems design (ISD) process when preparing a distance education course. The
stages in this model are analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation. An
author-editor or a design team can conduct this process. The analysis stage is comprised of
determinations regarding desired content and skills, as well as considerations of learner
characteristics and needs. The design stage includes the formation of learning objectives that
should consider all levels of Bloom's Taxonomy: knowledge, comprehension, application,
analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. The design of objectives should include a method to present
material, and a means to measure understanding. During the development stage, instructors
create their instructional materials and learning activities. The implementation stage is the time
when courses open, and students begin to participate in the course. The evaluation stage includes
formative and summative assessments for the students and course evaluation by the instructor,
who is evaluating the effectiveness of the course design, perhaps leading to a re-engagement in
the ISD process as needed to make necessary adjustments.
Further design considerations relate to assumptions made by instructional designers.
Simonson, Zvacek, and Smaldino (2019) claimed that it is essential to discuss assumptions
36
during the design process to address elements that may be taken for granted during a systematic
design process, which is utilized by most distance education programs. This type of approach
focuses on the importance of defining, understanding, and documenting all aspects of the system
in the design process. They stated that designers must address assumptions in the following
areas: learners, structure, communication, technology, interaction, and literacy – visual and
verbal learning. These assumptions encompass myriad decisions, such as prerequisite skill
requirements, communication methods, time-frame for the course, technology to be utilized,
frequency and methods of interaction, medium for learning, and many more. These assumptions
and factors are essential components in the design process and often contribute to the course's
success.
Instructor, content, and peer interaction. The instructor must develop relationships with
students in the distance learning format. Research shows that student-instructor interactions
produce positive learning outcomes and seem to matter more than other forms of interactions
(Nilson & Goodson, 2018). Some of the most effective ways to do this are to engage fully in the
course with the students, affirm students and provide constructive and encouraging feedback as
often as possible, share personal stories and experiences with the students, and to redesign
assignments as needed to provide the most possible interaction (Johnson, 2013). There is strong
evidence to support the need for positive relationships between students and teachers,
particularly from a distance when it is more challenging. The reality is that it impacts learning.
According to Fisher, Frey, & Hattie (2021), the following elements are necessary: teacher
empathy, unconditional positive regard, genuineness, non-directivity, and encouragement of
critical thinking. Likewise, Johnson (2013) stated that the four essential qualities of an on-line
teacher must be compassion, good listening skills, available to the students, and flexible. These
37
interactions with the instructor yield tangible benefits for all involved. According to Nilson and
Goodson (2018), some of the benefits of student and instructor interaction are: creates teaching,
cognitive, and social presence, develops a feeling of community, raises student engagement and
satisfaction with on-line learning, improves student learning, and increases student persistence
and retention.
Students must also interact with their peers during a distance education course.
Collaborate learning is an essential component of typical classroom instruction and a necessary
21st-century skill as well. On-line courses must include collaborative discussions and work as a
skill to be exercised as part of the designed learning experiences. Miller (2014) believed that
collaborative work should be included in the course design as discussions and problem-solving.
Some of the ways these can be incorporated include discussion posts, discussions as part of
problem-based activities, case study exercises, role-playing, scenario-based learning, and
discussion threads sustained over time.
Additionally, students must interact with the course content in meaningful ways to
achieve desired learning outcomes. Students may interact with content a myriad of ways, often
through one source, initially, the Learning Management System (LMS). From the LMS, students
may interact with content in some of the following ways: browse the organization of the lesson
or learning module in advance, review expectations for learning, readable and engaging
textbook, links to previous lessons or materials, interactive visuals, access to relevant library
materials, links to supplemental information and extension activities, automated feedback from
lesson exercises, videos, and more (Nilson & Goodson, 2018). One of the strategies that
promotes all three forms of interaction is an asynchronous discussion forum. These forums
encourage peer interaction, interaction with the content, and interaction with the instructor
38
through feedback processes. These discussions establish knowledge and understanding through
varied instructional strategies, including open-ended questions and debates. These activities
often promote deep metacognitive work on the part of students through learning reflections,
which only enhances their learning (Moore & Diehl, 2019). Finally, there are numerous internet
resources for an instructor to access free materials that promote content interaction. Some of
these resources include: digital course materials, demonstrations, performances, virtual labs,
virtual field trips, case studies, and problem-based learning, simulations, STEM problems,
remediation exercises, personality tests, and similar personal exercises, and multimedia resources
(Nilson & Goodson, 2018).
Learning activities. The opportunities for active and experiential learning through
technology are not only possible but essential for best practice. The on-line delivery model
allows for a more dynamic and learner-centered experience (Moore & Diehl, 2019). Kolb's
(1984) model for experiential learning illuminated the process a student participates in when
engaged in these types of activities. They interact in a concrete experience, reflective
observation, abstract conceptualization, and then active experimentation. This type of learning is
active and defined by characteristics of analysis, evaluation, creation, etc. It promotes long-term
memory due to activity and engagement per Dale's Cone of Learning (Budhai & Skipwith,
2017). According to Moore and Diehl (2019), project-based learning is a subset of active
learning and adaptive or personalized learning. Problem-based learning can include several
learning approaches, including scenario-based, design-based, experiential, story-based, game-
based, and rhizomatic. According to Budhai and Skipwith (2017), project-based learning and
scenario-based learning are two methods to employ these principles in the distance learning
environment. Both methods allow students to engage with real problems to solve, increase
39
learner control over learning, have teachers serve as guides for exploration, and provide
opportunities for students to work in teams or pairs on the projects. These approaches promote
the following skills: learn, think, discover, invent, imagine, know, construct, explore, and build.
Scenario-based learning allows students to engage in the following five types of projects: skill-
based scenario, problem-based scenario, issue-based scenario, hypothetical scenario, and gaming
scenario.
All learning activities should support the course's overall objectives rather than simply
incorporate a sample of trending media or utilize a popular app or new technology. Learning
activities cannot only reinforce course content and skills but also allow for active learning,
reflection, and individualization. Moore (2014) claimed that distance education could
incorporate best practices in instruction supported by a vast body of empirical research. These
best practices present information in conjunction with media aid, both students and instructors in
the learning process. The first strategy is the signaling principle. The instructor highlights the
most important points that he/she wants the student to retain, thus helping the information stand
out against the less critical data. Likewise, the spatial contiguity principle allows students to
properly understand the relevance of graphics, charts, and organizers, but aiding them in
associating the significance of the information when supporting text is placed close to the
images. The temporal contiguity principle refers to presenting narration and graphics as close in
time as possible and helps students associate the information with the images.
Additionally, instructors should present long sequences of information in short chunks or
segments, ideally paced by the student, and this is referred to as the segmenting principle. The
pretraining principle outlines the importance of pre-teaching prerequisite information in a
separate module for those that may be unfamiliar with the material. Finally, and perhaps most
40
importantly, the modality principle reminds instructors to utilize multiple learning modalities as
much as possible as students process information differently, and better when multiple modalities
are engaged.
Interestingly, Theall & Farrell (2002) pointed out the advantages of utilizing an
androgogical approach to education via technology. Consider the following elements: voluntary
participation and engagement, respect and admiration for individual experiences and knowledge,
collaborative approach, constant integration of activities to form a unified outcome, critical
reflection, and self-directed study and empowerment of the learner. These constructivist
elements are considered commonplace approaches to on-line education. The researchers further
cited some established practices that are advantageous to distance education. The course must be
interactive rather than content-driven. Faculty and student relationships must shift, and direct
instruction should no longer be utilized to significant proportions. Technological skills are
essential for all parties involved in the process. Support for faculty and students must be present.
Institutions must further develop distance learning programs through strategic planning and
implementation.
Robust infrastructure and varied and applicable tools should be gathered and employed.
Fisher, Frey, and Hattie (2021) believed that engagement is essential to incorporating
active learning activities, and there are multiple forms of engagement. Typically, one considers
behavior engagement in the classroom, or fundamentally, whether or not the student paying
attention in class. However, they posited that cognitive engagement and emotional engagement
are far more critical for student success. Cognitive engagement is focused on planning,
monitoring self-progress, setting goals, and solving problems. In contrast, emotional engagement
includes the affective domain and involves engagement in discussions, posing questions, seeking
41
help, and exhibiting curiosity about the subject matter. From a design standpoint, this leads the
instructor to create varied activities that involve students in the learning process, whereby they
actively work to find information, use information, create information, and share information.
These activities should continue to be tethered to course objectives and outcomes to
ensure no inconsistencies exist in what the instructor teaches, how the instructor teaches, and
what is assessed. These learning activities should always be relevant, accurate, comprehensive,
free of extraneous content, and organized in a logical sequence of meaningful chunks (Nilson &
Goodson, 2018). Some sample activities utilizing technology from a distance are student
publishing using digital books, visual storytelling, podcasting and creating audio music
recordings, screencasting, blogging, collaborative creations using slides, collaborative writing in
Google Docs, and collaborative work in math using an interactive whiteboard (Clark & Avrith,
2017). Some examples incorporate specific tools, while many others are incredibly versatile and
not dependent on specific digital tools. Consider the following learning activities recommended
by Nilson & Goodson (2018) from their review of relevant literature: short lectures, student self-
assessments, written reflections, quizzes, games, debates, discussions, demonstrations, short
writing to learn exercises, analyses and critiques of artistic or intellectual work, presentations by
guest speakers and expert panels, case studies and their analysis, role plays, on-line simulations,
team-based learning like jigsaw, surveys, virtual field trips, problem-based learning, student peer
feedback and review, service learning, individual and group projects and presentations. This list
is expansive but not exhaustive. The authors posited that any activities should illicit action and
include verbs like read, study, listen, view, watch, write, discuss, do, describe, explain, analyze,
or evaluate.
42
Differentiation. The opportunity and need to transition from teacher-led practices to
those that utilize technology to focus on individual student need is possible through the distance
learning platform. This provides teachers the opportunity to tailor learning to the individual
rather than the collective. Clark & Avrith (2017) characterized this as transformational teaching
rather than traditional teaching. They posited that transformational teaching is marked by a focus
on personalization, student agency, collaboration, fluid information from various sources,
dynamic lessons led by student interests, cross-curricular connections, process orientation,
growth-focused, flexibility, portfolio-based demonstrations of learning, real-world application,
and publication.
This type of transformational teaching allows for levels of differentiation amongst a
diverse set of learners in ways that classroom instruction can't always provide. The instructor
must account for general ability, prior knowledge, and learning styles in preparing to teach
(Simonson, Zvacek, & Smaldino, 2019). A general understanding of the students' cognitive
abilities enrolled in the distance education course is essential for the instructor to meet their
needs. Additionally, the instructor must have a way to determine the prior knowledge applicable
to the course content. This may be accessible before the course or through initial assessments
during the course. This is particularly important concerning any instructional technology that
will be utilized. Understanding the skills and abilities that the diverse students possess will help
inform learning activities for the course. Finally, the instructor needs to have a working
knowledge of the students' various learning styles in the course. An instructor in a distance
learning course can tailor coursework to the unique needs of the learners in the course if the
course design is set up to allow for differentiation of activities, course content presentation, as
well as assessment options.
43
Nilson and Goodson (2018) made a case for differentiation clear when they encourage
course designers to make sure that they: provide multiple ways to acquire the course content,
provide multiple ways to assess what students learn, and provide multiple motivations to learn
and multiple opportunities for engagement, interaction, and challenge. This level of
differentiation can meet the individual needs of students, but it can also help to close the
achievement gap by utilizing technology to meet each student's individual needs through
computer-adaptive learning tools. Collins & Halverson (2018) touted the benefits of such
programs claiming that they can carefully allocate support, so students get just the right amount
of help, so they are appropriately challenged but not overwhelmed. All learners can be
appropriately challenged to accomplish more than they thought they could through attempting
problems that they once thought were too difficult to complete. Budhai and Skipwith (2017)
advocated for this approach, believing that it impacts intrinsic motivation that feeds the desire to
learn. They claimed that engagement in project-based and scenario-based learning affords
students individualized choices in what to do in each activity. This increases feelings of self-
determination, interest, and engagement, all of which increase participation, problem-solving
skills, responsibility, and, ultimately, improved motivation to learn.
Technology tools. There are virtually limitless technology resources available for
instructors to choose from when designing course activities. There is a strong case for variety;
however, too many tools can overwhelm both instructors and students alike. It is essential to
have a systematic way of choosing the right technology tool for the job. Moore and Kearsley
(2012) believed that instructors should ponder the following when selecting technology and
media for their courses: the characteristics of the technology or media and how they can be used
44
in the course, which media or technology are the best for this subject, and group, and how this
media or technology can be combined for maximum effectiveness for this course.
Similarly, Clark and Avrith (2017) developed the following critical considerations for
choosing a technology tool for a distance education course: is the app easy to use, can students
set it up, does it give a place to leave comments, is it free or are costs associated with it, can
students use the tool to share with a global audience, is it available on multiple platforms, can
students use the tool to add text, images, voiceovers, and videos to their work, does it help make
their thinking visible and give them a voice to share their work, and how easily does it allow
parents to see their students work?
All of the tools available have benefits and drawbacks. Moore and Kearsley (2012)
pointed out that print, audio, and visual recording, computer conferencing, web-based learning,
social media, and mobile technology have strengths that make them a viable tool to utilize, but
they also have weaknesses that could stunt learning progress if misused. It is important to have a
wide array of tools at your disposal and a process for determining what device is best for the job.
Some of the necessities for distance learning today are to provide the tools to achieve the
following functions: collaborate, create videos, publish, create books/journals, create
presentations, show what you know through formative assessment, image editing, digital
portfolios, create audio files, and screencast (Clark & Avrith, 2017). A selection process should
be utilized whenever choosing media. A summary of several research models on the topic
revealed that the process should include the following steps: identify the media needs required by
the instructional objectives, identify the student characteristics that eliminate or qualify certain
media, identify aspects of the learning environment that favor or preclude certain media, identify
45
economic or organizational factors that may affect the feasibility of certain media (Moore &
Kearsley, 2012).
Summary
Advances in technology continue to impact society, students, and education in the United
States. Distance learning continues to grow as a viable option for K-12 students, higher
education students, and adult learners. The benefits of distance learning are well documented,
and there is no longer any discernable difference in learning outcomes between distance
education and traditional classroom instruction. It is clear from a comprehensive collection of
literature on distance learning that certain best practices must be utilized to effectively engage
students from a distance, help them experience success and satisfaction, and provide a safe and
effective learning experience. These essential practices required instructors and course designers
to focus on course design, teacher-student relationships, active learning activities, and
differentiation. Each should be included in all distance learning courses, and they should
regularly be evaluated to ensure they continue to help students achieve desired learning
outcomes.
46
Chapter Three: Methodology
This chapter provides an outline of the research methodology that was utilized in this
qualitative, phenomenological research project regarding teacher perceptions of the best
practices in distance education. This study generated feedback and perceptions from teachers
based on their experience with distance learning during the COVID-19 global pandemic. The
research question was reiterated as the context for the design and the type of data to be gathered
during the project. The appropriateness of qualitative, phenomenological research approach was
explained through a discussion of the research design, data collection procedures, coding
processes, data analysis procedures, as well as research subjects, and research setting. Ethical
considerations were reviewed as well, including efforts to achieve trustworthiness, credibility,
transferability, and dependability. Additionally, the influence of both theoretical and
conceptional frameworks was evaluated and discussed.
Research Question
One research question inspired this qualitative, phenomenological research study, and the
question was aligned with the purpose of the study and the theoretical and conceptual
frameworks. The question considered the conceptual framework of widely accepted best
practices in instruction and the corresponding application to the distance learning context.
Additionally, the research considered the theoretical application of constructivism, as well as the
theories of pedagogy and andragogy as they pertain to learners in the field of education and
particularly to the distance learning context. The following research question guided the study:
What are teacher perceptions of best practices regarding effective online instruction for grades 6-
12?
47
Qualitative Research Method
This study used a qualitative research process to gain greater insight of teacher
perceptions of best practices in distance education. A qualitative study was the best approach to
gain a deeper understanding of teacher perspectives in a typical environment. According to Ary,
Jacobs, Irvine, & Walker (2019), qualitative research gathers nonnumerical data to study various
phenomena without a preconceived hypothesis. Qualitative research has several common factors
that distinguish it from quantitative research. These include concern for context and meaning,
naturally occurring settings, human as instrument, descriptive data, emergent design, inductive
analysis (McLeod, 2019). It is these factors that made qualitative research the best approach to
address the problem and research question.
According to Ary, Jacobs, Irvine, & Walker (2019), qualitative researchers utilize data to
construct patterns through discussion and analysis, interpret significance or meaning from
events, or analyze relationships between events and corresponding stimuli or corresponding
factors. This type of research varies from quantitative research in many ways. It is founded in
phenomenology with the intent to explore behaviors and build theories. It approaches problems
in the natural context and often uses inductive methods. It uses holistic processes and responds
to emergent designs, allowing for reality to be constructed in the process. The researcher is
highly involved in the process and the movement is from specific to general. The sample is
typically purposeful and small, focused on quality, with the researcher serving as the primary
instrument.
Due to the active involvement of the researcher, limitations on sample size, and a lack of
numerical data, qualitative research may be subject to criticism for a lack of trustworthiness and
credibility, calling into question the conclusions from the research. However, when careful
48
attention is paid to these important ethical considerations, qualitative research can glean
important results that can be generalized to similar populations. Ethical considerations and
safeguards in qualitative research include: credibility, transferability, dependability or
trustworthiness, and confirmability (Ary, Jacobs, Irvine, & Walker, 2019). These concerns were
addressed in this study using several approaches discussed in more depth in the methodology
section of this chapter. The methods employed include, but are not limited to: audit trail,
triangulation, peer review, reflexivity, intrarater agreement, peer debriefing, thick rich
description, and member checks. Given these safeguards, the qualitative method approach was
the most appropriate for this study because it allowed for sufficient depth of study to address the
research problem and question, generating data from a relatively small sample that can be
generalized to similar populations.
Phenomenological Approach
The research question addressed teacher perceptions of best practice in distance learning,
and as such, there was a level of subjectivity based on individual teacher perceptions regarding
experience, education, or exposure. According to Creswell (2013), phenomenological studies
focus on the experience of an event from the perspective of particular participants. This
subjective experience was at the center of the research and informed the outcomes. Additionally,
each participant experienced the shared phenomenon of teaching through distance learning
during the COVID-19 global pandemic, and thus was able to respond accordingly from their
perspective.
Description of the Specific Research Approach
This study regarded teacher perceptions of best practices in distance learning. Data were
collected from various subjects within the organization, analyzed, and conclusions were drawn.
49
Conclusions, implications, and recommendations were made from the results and may be applied
to similar or larger contexts.
The research design was a series of qualitative inquiries to assess teacher perceptions of
effective online instruction for grades 6-12. Inherent in the design was the widely accepted
understandings of what constitutes effective instruction in the traditional sense, as well as for
online or distance learning. Effective teaching, according to Marzano (2017), consists of the
three categories of feedback, content, and context, and corresponding ten subgroups of providing
clear learning goals, using assessments, direct instruction, deepening lessons, application lessons,
strategies that appear in multiple types of lessons, using engagement strategies, implementing
rules and procedures, building relationships, and communicating high expectations. The data
were collected via survey, interview, and focus group, all of which will be appropriately coded
and analyzed. All participants were supplied with informed consent forms which relayed the
purposed of the study and participant rights. All forms were signed prior to participation in the
study. The following trustworthiness techniques were utilized in the research project: peer-
debriefing, triangulation, audit trail, member checks, detailed descriptions of context, and
reflexivity.
Surveys. Data were gathered via survey, interview, and focus group. The survey was
used to gather teacher perceptions regarding best practices regarding effective online instruction.
This was informed by their experience, knowledge of distance learning, and personal tendencies.
All teachers in grades K-12 were invited to participate in the survey (35). Surveys consisted of
questions related to the research problem and question and they were derived from the literature
review. All questions were based on the likert scale and teachers had to respond to all questions.
The survey was conducted digitally and the results were automatically calculated. Teachers had
50
the opportunity to participate in an open response question at the end of the survey to provide
any desired further information regarding their perspectives on best practices in distance learning
education.
Interviews. Interviews with teachers were used to further expound upon survey data and
to query into greater depth of individual understanding of best practices for distance learning,
based on personal experience and personal knowledge. Results from the surveys were reviewed
and analyzed prior to selection of interview participants. Seven participants were selected based
on survey responses and in consideration for broad representation of grade-level. Interview
protocols were adhered to regarding process and purpose and all participants were fully briefed
on their rights. The sessions were recorded and transcribed. Member checks were conducted
and steps were taken to protect anonymity and confidentiality. Coding processes were conducted
to determine themes and categories. Data were used to determine focus group participants.
Focus group. A focus group was gathered to interview and to respond to the research
question, but also to interact with one another and relate to each other’s responses. Focus groups
helped to combine the previous data and develop conclusions, implications, and
recommendations regarding the individual and collective impressions of what constitutes
effective instruction via the distance learning platform. Four participants were selected to
participate in this stage based on participation in individual interviews. Participants were
selected based on interview criteria and based on grade-level representation. The focus group
was recorded and data were transcribed. Member checks were conducted and steps were taken
to protect anonymity and confidentiality. Results were coded and reduced to further identify and
finalize themes.
51
Triangulation. According to Ary, Jacobs, Irvine, & Walker (2019), triangulation is the
process of confirming data by using multiple data gathering techniques. These efforts remove
researcher bias and help to give credibility to the research findings. This study utilized data
triangulation using surveys, interviews, and a focus group.
Description of the study participants and setting
The study took place at a Pre-K-12 private Classical Christian school in Tennessee that is
located on one campus. The school served over 600 students and is located in a suburban section
of a college town of nearly 150,000 people. The school has been in existence for over 20 years
and annually graduates students with 100% college acceptance. The focus group for the study
was comprised of teachers of students in grades 6-12. These participants were an excellent
source of data due to ease of proximity and availability, as well as relational access, and the data
fit the problem and question. All participants were invited to participate in the survey phase of
the research. The approximate number of possible participants was 35. From the initial survey,
seven teachers were selected to be interviewed based on the grade level taught, to ensure there
was a representative from each grade and from the results of the survey. This allowed for some
selectivity, as well as some element of randomness concerning experience and knowledge of the
research problem. This broad spectrum of participants was selected to help achieve more
credible results. From the interview participants, four were chosen to participate in the focus
group. Selection was based on interview results, after coding processes were accomplished, and
grade-level representation considerations.
Data Collection Procedures
Data were collected through digital survey, structured interviews, and an informal focus
group. The survey was conducted digitally for ease of access, privacy purposes, and accurate
52
recording of data. The formal interviews and focus group were conducted in a conference room
to maintain confidentiality and for practical purposes to avoid interruptions and distractions. The
digital recording of the interviews and focus group was immediately transcribed using a
confidential application and checked for accuracy.
Management of the data. Digital data from the surveys, interviews, and focus group
were kept in a password-protected digital storage device. Likewise, all interview notes,
reflections, and other related transcriptions were kept in a personal password-protected
computer.
Interview protocols. Ary, Jacobs, Irvine, & Walker (2019) established the importance
of the interview protocol to qualitative research, outlining the format including an introduction,
body, and conclusion. The introduction should establish the relationship between the interviewer
and interviewee, purpose, why the participant was invited, outline the rights of the participant,
establish ground rules, permission to record, and check for understanding. The middle section is
the substance of the interview and should include clearly directed questions that are tethered to
the objectives of the research project and soundly based on research from the literature review
(Jacob & Furgerson, 2012). Finally, the conclusion is an opportunity to add some final open-
ended questions and thank the participant for their role in the research. The example protocol
established by Ary, Jacobs, Irvine, & Walker (2019) was utilized in this project. In addition to
the interview questions, attention was given to the body language of the interviewees, as well as
tone and inflection during their responses, all of which was carefully noted and recorded during
the interview process (Jacob & Furgerson, 2012).
A similar procedure was utilized for the focus group interview. Ary, Jacobs, Irvine, &
Walker (2019), outlined that focus groups are helpful to gain insight into how participants are
53
thinking about a given topic as they engage with others with different perspectives. Focus
groups are effective for brainstorming and collaborative discussions but can restrict individual
thought in response and are more inclined to socially acceptable responses. The questions for the
focus group were derived from the objectives in the research problem and based upon
information in the literature review and then modified based on the coding results from the
survey and interview data.
Data Analysis Procedures
Coding process. Survey data were comprised of Likert Scale responses and open-ended
questions. The data were then reduced through the process of open and axial coding.
Reductions were made based on questions and answers (based on the direction of research and
sampling criteria for further exploration). Interview questions consisted of open-ended questions
that were reduced through the process of open and axial coding analysis afterward (Jacob &
Furgerson, 2012). This established manageable categories and themes in the data, reduced the
data in this manner, and then revealed connections in the data. Selective coding was utilized to
establish themes to extrapolate and apply to the research problem. Focus group data consisted of
open-ended questions initially and further open-ended questions based on results from the
interview stage. Open and axial coding, as well as selective coding was utilized in the same
manner as above. The following strategies were utilized in the coding process, as outlined by
Ary, Jacobs, Irvine, & Walker (2019): ask questions about the data, make comparisons, consider
different meanings or applications, use the flip-flop technique, draw on personal experience,
wave a red flag, look at language, look at expressed emotion, look for words that indicate time,
think figuratively, look for negative cases, consider narrative structure, dismantle dichotomies,
examine silences, attend to disruptions.
54
Data analysis process. Survey analysis was guided by both theoretical and conceptual
framework. Professional practice, conventional pedagogy, and widely accepted best practices in
instructional techniques guided the survey stage. However, it is understood that there was
variance amongst the practitioners based on personal preference and comfort level with certain
aspects of the problem. The interview data, as mentioned above, was guided by both a
theoretical and conceptual framework (Jacob & Furgerson, 2012). Professional practice,
conventional pedagogy, and widely accepted best practices in instructional techniques guided the
interview stage. However, it is understood that there was variance amongst the practitioners
based on personal preference and comfort level with certain aspects of the problem.
Additionally, the interview process provided for the opportunity for some aspects of
communal professional discourse, albeit limited to in-person exchanges. These types of
conversations are an essential aspect of the teaching profession. Similarly, the focus group was
guided by both a theoretical and conceptual framework. Professional practice, conventional
pedagogy, and widely accepted best practices in instructional techniques guided the interview
stage. However, it is understood that there was variance amongst the practitioners based on
personal preference and comfort level with certain aspects of the problem. Additionally, the
focus group stage was greatly influenced by the element of communal professional discourse.
These types of conversations are an essential aspect of the teaching profession, and the
interactions here, similar to professional learning communities, may provide some of the most
insightful data.
Rigor and Ethics in Qualitative Research
Ary, Jacobs, Irvine, & Walker (2019), outline the importance of establishing
trustworthiness in a qualitative research study to ensure the data are valid and reliable. They
55
posited that to do so, one must establish credibility, transferability, dependability, and
confirmability.
Credibility. To establish the credibility of this study, several processes were utilized.
Data triangulation was used to ensure structural corroboration. Data were used from surveys,
interviews, and a focus group to confirm the findings. Peer debriefing was utilized at multiple
points in the data gathering process to establish consensus. To establish interpretive adequacy,
member checks were conducted frequently with participants to ensure the proper transmission of
data (Connelly, 2016). Low-inference descriptors with the aid of digital recording helped to
produce a thick rich description to appropriately describe the context of the study. Additionally,
reflexivity was utilized by completing a research journal to provide for ample reflection
opportunity to eliminate researcher bias.
Transferability. To establish transferability in this study, the utilization of sufficiently
thick and rich descriptions in method, participants, and setting helped to produce descriptive
adequacy (Ary, Jacobs, Irvine, & Walker, 2019). Comparisons within the literature and
established limitations helped to provide similarity for the purpose of application or
generalization. Reactivity limitation was achieved through reflective statements and clear
detailed descriptions of observational strategies and interview methodology.
Dependability. To be able to establish the dependability of this qualitative study, the
primary technique utilized is the production of an audit trail. While a qualitative study may not
be able to be exactly reproduced, the method to obtain the findings can be tracked and explained
through the use of an audit trail that explains what was done, when, and why (Connelly, 2016).
Additionally, the code-recode strategy was employed during the coding process to ensure
intrarater agreement.
56
Confirmability. To ensure that the research findings were neutral and free of researcher
bias, several processes were utilized. Proper documentation of each step in the research process
produced an audit trail that can be investigated. Triangulation, peer review or debriefing, along
with member checks provided multiple sets of trustworthy data (Ary, Jacobs, Irvine, & Walker,
2019). Finally, reflexivity through the use of a research journal ensured the identification of and
consequent elimination of any researcher bias.
Ethical considerations
Proper protocol for the project was established through the approval of the Head of
School, as well as the Institutional Review Board of Carson Newman University. Additionally,
all participants did so freely and of their own accord, readily agreeing to sign the provided
informed consent forms without fear of reprisal or coercion. The primary ethical consideration
was protecting the anonymity of the respondents in the project. This was not entirely possible
since four were engaged in a focus group together; however, all data were anonymous
throughout the project by assigning numbers to participants, rather than names.
Summary
The research project sought to examine teacher perceptions of effective teaching via the
distance learning model. The context and participants of the study were teachers in grades 6-12
at a private, Christian, Pre-K through 12 school in Tennessee. Participants were offered the
opportunity to participate in a survey regarding effective teaching through distance learning.
Seven teachers were then selected by grade level to be interviewed regarding the same topic.
After the interviews, four participants were chosen to join a focus group discussion on the
subject. All interviews and focus group discussions were transcribed, appropriately coded, and
analyzed for common themes and ideas. The data were recorded and summarized, along with
57
conclusions, upon completion of the study. Methods to ensure reliability and trustworthiness
were applied throughout the research study.
58
Chapter Four: Presentation of Findings
Chapter Four presents the analysis of findings from the data collected in this qualitative,
phenomenological study that sought to determine teacher perceptions of best practices in
distance learning education. Distance learning has continued to grow in use and value, as
evidenced by widespread utilization in virtually all forms of schooling and incorporation into the
long-term strategies of institutions (Simonson, Zvacek, & Smaldino, 2019). Additionally,
distance learning provided the opportunity for schools to keep their doors open during the
COVID-19 global pandemic, in which, according to David Griffith (2020), schools engaged in
efforts to "reposition, resupply, retrain, and even reprovision students and teachers…a feat for
the history books" (p. 92). Indeed, this situation was not ideal, and Fisher, Frey, & Hattie (2021)
do not characterize it as distance learning but rather as crisis teaching. Nonetheless, the
pandemic and subsequent response forced the distance learning paradigm into mainstream
discourse. While the effectiveness of learning from a distance has been long debated, a wide
body of research supports its effectiveness (Simonson, Zvacek, & Smaldino, 2019). Thus,
discerning best practices in this approach is essential to improve teaching and learning further
and maintain the integrity of educational programming.
One research question guided this research study. The research question aligned with the
purpose and significance of the study. The question considered the concepts of best practices as
outlined by Marzano (2017), Lemov (2010), and Nilson & Goodson (2018) and their
applicability through the distance learning paradigm. The following research question guided
this study: What are teacher perceptions of best practices regarding effective on-line instruction
for grades 6-12?
59
The chapter is organized into 10 major sections. These include the following: the
researcher's role, descriptive characteristics of the participants, description of the setting, the
research methodology applied to data analysis, phenomenological analysis, data sources, data
analysis, emerging themes, trustworthiness techniques, and summary.
Role of the Researcher
Interest in the future of technology, experience with instructional technology, and
previous participation in distance learning were all factors that influenced the pursuit of this
research topic. It was affirmed and cemented when the COVID-19 global pandemic forced
schools across the nation to close their doors and seek alternative means to educate students. To
avoid bias based on preconceived ideas, previous experience, or desired results. Additionally,
the peer debriefer reviewed coding processes and data, participants reviewed survey and
interview data through member checks, data were triangulated, and the peer debriefer challenged
categories, themes, and ideas during and after survey, interviews, and the focus group. The peer
debriefer posed questions such as the following: What did you learn? How did you come to that
conclusion? Were there differences or similarities between the data? What was consistent with
your research? What was different from your research? What new information did you gather?
What were your big takeaways, and how did you arrive at them?
Descriptive Characteristics of Participants
Purposeful sampling was utilized to obtain and select participants throughout the research
study. Participant criteria included: teacher at a K-12 Classical Christian School in Tennessee,
teacher of grade 6-12, and at least one year of experience with distance learning education.
60
Table 4.1
Summary of Participant Characteristics
Participant Grade level (s)
Years of
teaching
experience M/F
Years of
distance
learning
experience Race
1 10, 11 10 M 1 W
2 9, 11 16 F 1 W
3 6, 11, 12 16 M 1 W
4 7, 8 17 F 1 W
5 11, 12 19 M 3 W
6 9, 11, 12 15 F 2 W
7 10, 12 2 F 0 W
8 11, 12 20 M 4 W
9 8 13 M 1 W
10 10, 12 4 F 1 W
11 7, 8 4 M 1 W
12 8 15 M 1 W
13 9, 10, 11, 12 14 F 3 W
14 6 13 M 1 W
15 9, 10, 11, 12 10 F 1 W
16 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 18 F 1 W
17 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 3 M 1 W
18 8, 9 5 F 1 W
19 9, 10 3 F 1 W
20 7 12 M 1 W
21 9, 10, 11, 12 7 F 1 W
22 10, 12 8 F 1 W
23 6 11 F 1 W
24 9, 10 15 M 1 W
25 6 15 F 1 W
26 11 3 M 6 B
27 7, 9, 10, 11 1 F 1 W
28 9, 10, 11, 12 27 M 1 W
29 7, 8 12 M 1 W
61
Participants provided informed consent to participate at each stage of data collection, and
they were informed that their names, the name of the institution, and the exact location would not
be revealed (Appendix A). A number was assigned to each participant to protect their identity.
Participant 1. Participant 1 was a ten-year veteran teacher with one year of experience
in distance learning education. He was a male that taught sophomore and junior students and
served in the Bible and History department.
Participant 2. Participant 2 was a sixteen-year veteran teacher with one year of
experience in distance learning education. She was a female that taught freshmen and juniors
and served as the Department Head for the Literature department.
Participant 3. Participant 3 was a sixteen-year veteran teacher with one year of
experience in distance learning education. He was a male that taught sixth-grade juniors,
seniors, and served in the Science department.
Participant 4. Participant 4 was a seventeen-year veteran teacher with one year of
experience in distance learning education. She was a female that taught seventh and eighth grade
and served in the Literature department.
Participant 5. Participant 5 was a nineteen-year veteran teacher with three years of
experience in distance learning education. He was a male who taught juniors and seniors, served
in the Language department, and served as a Curriculum Coordinator.
Participant 6. Participant 6 was a fifteen-year veteran teacher with two years of
experience in distance learning education. She was a female that taught freshman, juniors, and
seniors and served as the Science Department Head.
62
Participant 7. Participant 7 was a relatively inexperienced teacher with two years of
teaching and zero experience with distance learning education. She was a female and taught
sophomores and seniors and served in the Science department.
Participant 8. Participant 8 was a twenty-year veteran teacher with four years of
experience in distance learning education. He was a male that taught juniors and seniors and
served as the History Department Head.
Participant 9. Subject 9 was a thirteen-year veteran teacher with one year of experience
in distance learning education. He was a male that taught eighth-grade students, and he served in
the Bible and Theater departments.
Participant 10. Participant 10 was a teacher with four years of teaching experience and
one year of distance learning educational experience. She was a female that taught sophomores
and seniors, and she served in the Literature department.
Participant 11. Participant 11 was a teacher with four years of teaching experience and
one year of distance learning educational experience. He was a male that taught seventh and
eighth grade, and he served in the Science department.
Participant 12. Participant 12 was a fifteen-year veteran teacher with one year of
experience in distance learning education. He was a male that taught eighth grade and served as
the Language Department Head.
Participant 13. Participant 13 was a fourteen-year veteran teacher with three years of
experience in distance learning education. She was a female who taught all upper grades (6-12)
in support of the Student Learning Services Director.
63
Participant 14. Participant 14 was a thirteen-year teacher with one year of experience in
distance learning education. He was a male that taught sixth grade and served in the Math
department and as the Bible Department Head.
Participant 15. Participant 15 was a ten-year veteran teacher with one year of
experience in distance learning education. She was a female that taught all grades 9-12, and she
served as the Math Department Head.
Participant 16. Participant 16 was an eighteen-year veteran teacher with one year of
experience in distance learning education. She was a female that taught all upper grades (6-12)
and served as the Fine and Performing Arts Department Head.
Participant 17. Participant 17 had three years of teaching experience and one year of
experience with distance learning education. He was a male who taught all upper grades (6-12)
and served in the Fine and Performing Arts department and the technology department.
Participant 18. Participant 18 had five years of teaching experience and one year of
experience in distance learning education. She was a female that taught grades eight and nine
and served in the Math department.
Participant 19. Participant 19 had three years of teaching experience and one year of
experience in distance learning education. She was a female that taught freshmen and
sophomores and served in the Language department.
Participant 20. Participant 20 was a twelve-year veteran teacher with one year of
experience in distance learning education. He was a male that taught seventh grade, and he
served in the Bible department.
64
Participant 21. Participant 21 had seven years of teaching experience and one year of
experience in distance learning education. She was a female that taught all grades 9-12 and
served in the History department as a dual enrollment instructor.
Participant 22. Participant 22 had eight years of teaching experience and one year of
experience in distance learning education. She was a female that taught sophomores and seniors
and served in the Math department.
Participant 23. Participant 23 was an eleven-year veteran teacher with one year of
experience in distance learning education. She was a female that taught sixth grade and served
in the Language department.
Participant 24. Participant 24 was a fifteen-year veteran teacher with one year of
experience in distance learning education. He was a male that taught freshmen and sophomores,
and he taught in the History department.
Participant 25. Participant 25 was a fifteen-year veteran teacher with one year of
experience in distance learning education. She was a female that taught sixth grade and served
in both the Literature and History departments.
Participant 26. Participant 26 had three years of teaching experience and six years of
distance learning experience as both a teacher and student. He taught juniors and served in the
History department.
Participant 27. Participant 27 was a rookie teacher with relatively no experience
teaching or in distance learning education. She was a female and taught seventh-grade freshmen,
sophomores, and juniors, and she served in the Language department.
65
Participant 28. Participant 28 was a twenty-seven-year veteran with one year of
experience in distance learning education. He was a male who taught all grades 9-12 and served
in the Physical Education department.
Participant 29. Participant 29 was a twelve-year veteran with one year of experience in
distance learning education. He was a male that taught seventh and eighth grade and served in
the History department.
All participants contributed data to the study, however, to varying degrees. All 29
participants responded to the survey, providing both closed and open-ended responses. From the
29 initial participants, seven were selected to participate in a semi-structured interview based on
breadth and depth of open-ended responses and current grade level being taught. This allowed a
sample interview from every grade level under study (6-12). Of the participants, four were
selected to join a focus group to further discuss emerging themes and ideas from the interviews.
The four were selected based on the breadth and depth of interview responses. All interviews
and the focus group were conducted on campus, recorded, and transcribed.
Description of Setting
Data were gathered from teachers at a private Classical Christian Pre-K-12 school in
Middle Tennessee. Data collection took place virtually and on the campus of the school. All
teachers participating in the research currently teach in grades 6-12. The name of the
participants and the institution's names have been withheld to maintain privacy and
confidentiality.
Research Methodology Applied to Data Analysis
Phenomenological research methods were applied to the data analysis of the data
produced through this research study. Phenomenological studies focus on the meaning events
66
have for individuals in particular situations (Ary, Jacobs, Irvine, & Walker, 2019). This requires
comprehensive descriptions and data from actual participants to obtain the essence of the
experience as perceived by the participants, not just the appearance. These methods, when
applied, yield raw data that includes survey feedback, open-ended responses during interviews,
focus group interactions, and researcher observations, all of which is an effort to determine what
has been experienced by the participants with regards to the phenomenon under study. The
structures that emerged from the data in this study described the teachers' lived experiences and
perceptions of best practices in distance learning education.
Phenomenological studies require the researcher to set aside personal beliefs and
experiences in the research process. This is important to prevent undue influence and bias during
data collection and analysis, thus compromising the results and preventing the research from
obtaining the essence of the phenomenon. Phenomenological researchers employ a method
called bracketing, or epoche, to intentionally suspend their assumptions (Ary, Jacobs, Irvine, &
Walker, 2019). This is further prevented through additional trustworthiness techniques.
Phenomenological Analysis
The data reduction process was thorough and designed to bring aspects of meaning into
focus. Data were gathered from surveys (closed and open-ended questions), semi-structured
interviews, focus groups, and field notes. The Rev Recorder application was used to transcribe
interviews and the focus group. The transcripts were reviewed for accuracy and immediately
shared with participants for member checks.
According to Ary, Jacobs, Irvine, & Walker (2019), qualitative analysis stages involve
organizing and familiarizing, coding and reducing, and interpreting and representing. These
stages were followed during the stages of data analysis in this research project.
67
Organizing and Familiarizing. In addition to taking notes during the interviews and
focus groups, all transcripts were read multiple times. This provided an opportunity to review
the data and gain a well-rounded familiarity with it. Data were organized by source and date and
properly labeled and stored electronically.
Coding and Reducing. Corbin and Strauss (2008) and Creswell (2007) identified the
following techniques utilized in developing codes during the research process: ask questions
about the data, make comparisons, consider alternative meanings, use the flip-flop technique,
draw on personal experience, wave a red flag, look at language, look at expressed emotion, look
for words that indicate time, think in metaphors and similes, look for negative cases, consider
narrative structure, dismantle dichotomies, examine silences, and attend to disruptions. These
techniques were utilized in the data reduction process. All data from surveys, semi-structured
interviews, and the focus group were analyzed for codes, categories, and themes. The initial
process utilized a color-coded system to identify units of meaning through open coding. Each
code was given its unique color and labeled accordingly. These labels were derived were in vivo
codes, derived from the actual words of respondents. During analysis, fourteen initial codes
were identified from the survey data, semi-structured interviews, and the focus group. All
relevant and significant quotes were assigned into one of these codes (Appendix C). Open codes
were then analyzed through axial coding to make connections between and across categories.
This produced six categories that provided essential meaning from the data sources. These axial
codes were reduced to produce three selective codes that answered the research question. The
coding process was conducted independently, reviewed, and then reviewed with a peer debriefer
to assure validity and a lack of bias in the process.
68
Thorough and comprehensive descriptions of the lived phenomenon of teacher
perceptions of best practices in distance learning education were developed during the research
process. This included all of the themes identified through the coding process. The themes that
were identified through selective coding identified teacher perceptions of best practices in
distance learning education. This captured the essential components to the structure of the
phenomenon. From there, three fundamental themes were identified. Verification was achieved
through member checks during and after the semi-structured interviews and the focus group and
returning for checks with participants at the end of the research study.
Interpreting and Representing. Data from the study were interpreted through the
coding process above and narrative reporting in both this chapter and the subsequent one. Data
were thoroughly analyzed and subjected to trustworthiness techniques outlined in this narrative.
Data were represented in narrative comments from participants, survey data, tables, figures,
categories, descriptive details, and themes. Conclusions, implications, and recommendations
from data are further discussed in Chapter Five.
Theoretical and Conceptual Framework
The analysis of the data was influenced by constructivism. According to Clark & Avrith
(2017), constructivism is the idea that students construct knowledge and meaning through
experiences. These experiences inform their perspective, guiding the development of knowledge
and aiding in the understanding of concepts. A constructivist class is one that: places students at
the center, is activity-based, includes problem-solving, applies real-world scenarios to learning,
allows time for reflection, cultivates meaning over facts, offers differentiation, and encourages
student agency. Additionally, the conceptual framework of best practices guided the coding
process. According to Nilson & Goodson (2018), abundant research confirms that best practices
69
in teaching contain the same principles regardless of platform. Therefore, the concepts of best
practices in education in general merit consideration as a framework of reference for the research
study.
Data Sources
Analysis from four data sources revealed three emergent themes as teacher perceptions of
best practices in distance learning education: instructor to student interaction, student to student
interaction, and student to content interaction.
Survey. Of the respondents, 29 of 35 participated in the survey portion of the research.
The survey consisted of seven Likert-scale questions, one open-ended question regarding best
practices in distance learning, and a few demographic questions. Appendix A includes a copy of
the survey questions and the informed consent documents. Full survey results are available in
Appendix D.
Semi-structured Interviews. To prevent interruption and ensure privacy, the seven
semi-structured interviews were conducted in a private setting on the school campus. Interviews
ranged in time from 17-29 minutes. These seven interviews were adequate to achieve saturation
and to promote reliability. The questions used in the interviews are located in Appendix B.
Focus Group. Of the participants, four took part in the focus group based on the breadth
and depth of interview responses. Questions for the focus group were created to follow up on
interview responses, push for clarity on emerging themes, and fully answer the research question
(Appendix B). The focus group also served as a form of member check.
Field Notes. Field notes were taken during the interviews and the focus group. Data
from four sources were coded and contributed to review and analysis.
70
Data Analysis
Data were gathered and analyzed to answer one research question: What are the teacher
perceptions of best practices in distance learning education? Data were generated from four
sources, two of which were converted to transcripts (semi-structured interviews and focus
group). Transcripts were reviewed multiple times and all statements were coded and
categorized. Notes were made in margins and on separate sheets. Codes, categories, and themes
were identified through a thorough coding and reduction process. Examples of the coding
process are available for review in Appendix C.
Research Question. The following research question guided this study: What are the
teacher perceptions of best practices in distance learning education? The analysis of all of the
data indicated that three fundamental best practices are essential to success in distance learning
education: instructor interaction with students (and vice versa), students interaction with one
another, and students interaction with the course content.
Emerging Themes
In answering the research question, three themes emerged through the coding process, all
of which pertained to an overarching theme of interaction. The first was the importance of
interaction between the instructor and the students, and the converse, interaction between the
students and the instructor. The second theme was the importance of students interacting with
one another during the process of distance learning. Finally, the third theme was the importance
of students' interaction with the course content. These themes have several subthemes that
surfaced during the coding process and are essential to understand the research outcomes.
Instructor and Student Interaction. Participants agreed that there was significant
importance placed on the interaction between the instructor and the student in the distance
71
learning paradigm, perhaps even more so than traditional in-person learning. In the initial
survey, nearly 76% of the 29 respondents strongly agreed that frequent and meaningful
interaction with the instructor impacted learning outcomes. The other 24% agreed with the
statement. This was also verified during the opened ended survey responses. Participant 1
indicated the need for teachers to know the students on a personal level. Participant 6
emphasized the importance of regular face-to-face opportunities with the instructor. Participants
8, 10, 16, 18, 19, 22, and 23 echoed the importance of regular non-educational check-ups on the
students. Several other participants mentioned this in social-emotional contact with the students
to ensure their emotional well-being. With universal affirmation, the importance of these
interactions is evident from participants in this study.
This importance was easily verified upon closer investigation during the seven interviews
and focus group interactions. The importance of teacher and student interaction was an evident
theme in all seven semi-structured interviews. In fact, not only was it frequently identified as a
best practice, but it was also often identified as a limitation to distance learning should it not be
practiced. Participant 1 stated that his time in distance learning reminded him of how important
it is to meet face-to-face, and he came out of it with a greater appreciation for the ability to meet.
He further stated that the most effective aspect or the thing that helped make success happen was
frequent contact. Participant 2 shared that during her experience with distance learning, she had
a handful of kids who, because of isolation or lack of connection, just needed to see her face and
hear her voice, but they gave her a great deal of interaction and feedback. Participant 12 shared
that his most significant difficulty was not having direct access to students consistently for them
to be able to ask questions for clarification and to ask for help, even though he was available
through the technology platforms. Many students were reluctant to do this. The participants
72
from the focus group discussed this theme as well. Participant 1 summarized the participants
sentiments when he said, "I think the development of the ethos between the teacher and the
student forms a foundation that I think transforms learning. And so I would love to, for myself,
come up with better ways of how can I make the student know they're cared for and that I see
them, as opposed to a screen with 24 pictures on it. I think that could be hugely important".
The three subthemes that were most readily identified within the theme of instructor and
student interaction were: teacher availability and support, social-emotional learning (SEL), and
frequent feedback.
Teacher Availability and Support. The need to be available to help and support students
was offered as a best practice throughout the research process. During the survey process,
Participants 1, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 26, and 27 addressed the importance of
teacher availability through regularly scheduled office hours to provide the much-needed support
that is necessary for success in distance learning education. Most of these respondents spoke of
the need for easy access to the teacher for help, feedback, and support. Further, many mentioned
the importance of the teacher taking the lead to establish this connection.
During the semi-structured interviews, participants echoed the importance of teacher
availability and support. Participant 12 spoke of the teacher's need to change and devote more
significant effort to reach out and make connections with the students to establish the personal
connections necessary to build the desire for learning. He emphasized that this will also take
more time and may necessitate that teachers are responsible for smaller groups of students to be
able to manage the increased load. He further stated later that he was surprised by how
important he thought instructor and student interaction was for distance learning. Participant 1
also emphasized the importance of the teacher's availability and support through what he called a
73
personal touch. Consider his statements, "As we all know, they don't care what you know until
they know how much you care. If I had to go back and do it again, I would certainly improve
those areas of personal touch. I know that I saw videos of teachers dropping by houses or
leaving notes or something that gives that sense of ethical connection to the student, which I
think ultimately motivates the student to do even better. Finding creative ways to connect on a
personal level with students is something that I think is just; it's difficult in the on-line model. It's
not impossible, but it has to be even more purposeful than what I thought". Most felt that there
was an elevated need for teacher availability and support due to the level of social isolation and
the lack of familiarity with the learning platform. Building a connection with the teacher during
distance learning is a means to help mitigate the impact of social isolation and to address
questions and concerns regarding the navigation of a foreign learning environment.
Social-Emotional Learning (SEL). Likewise, participants identified the teacher's need
to provide social, emotional learning (SEL) support to the students during distance learning. As
has previously been mentioned, the students learning from a distance may be doing so in a form
of isolation that is not typical for them. This was certainly the case during the COVID-19
pandemic, which likely heavily influenced this research's responses. During the survey opened-
ended responses, several mentioned the need for SEL support for the students. Participant 1
noted that the purpose of education should be to educate the whole person, which includes mind,
body, soul, and spirit, which may come through relationship more than through book study.
Participants 10, 19, 21, 24, and 27 mentioned the need for SEL support specifically. Participant
27 elaborated that teachers must meet their students' social-emotional needs and that it can be
more challenging to perceive emotional well-being from a distance. She emphasized that SEL
needs are just as important as the content being taught, and one impacts the other.
74
SEL support was also a frequent topic that surfaced in both the semi-structured
interviews and the focus group. Participant 23 shared that during her time in distance learning,
she found herself as more of a facilitator, not just for content-related instruction, but as someone
checking in emotionally a little bit with some of the struggling students and being there for their
parents well. She felt like that relationship really went deeper than just the surface interactions
she would have during the time of traditional in-person learning. She ended up feeling as if she
was providing emotional support for students and families. Participants indicated that this type
of care is essential to ensure students' overall well-being when learning from a distance. To do
so requires the active engagement of educators willing to take the extra time and proactive steps
to engage with students through multiple available means.
Frequent Feedback. The third subtheme of instructor and student interaction is the
importance of regular feedback. This subtheme was manifested as simply frequent feedback as
suggested by participants 8, 15, and 16 from the initial survey or as frequent formative
assessments as indicated by participants 2, 3, 7, 9, and 15. The prevailing rationale was that
since students are navigating a very different learning experience, it was essential to ensure that
they were tracking with the content and how to actually engage with the content through the
designated tools. Since the teachers are not present with the students during class, and often
students were engaging asynchronously, the opportunity for misunderstandings, lack of clarity,
disengagement, and more, was readily present. The solution suggested by the participants was to
engage students with frequent feedback and frequent formative assessments to ensure
engagement, clarity in directions and procedures, as well as an understanding of the content and
achievement of the desired learning outcomes. This was overwhelmingly preferred over
75
delaying until a summative assessment that may have been preferred during traditional in-person
learning.
This perception was affirmed in the semi-structured interviews as well. Participant 8
described the importance and benefits of frequent feedback through distance learning as he
lauded the instant feedback he was able to give students through quick corrections that they
could immediately see on the screen. It was beneficial because it was a streamlined process.
Consider this feedback, "You're getting quick feedback to them, they're hearing back from you,
informing their learning, and it's a smoother process." He further explained how private
comments add another layer of opportunity for frequent, targeted feedback that could be an
affirmation or a correction. He touted the benefits and the fact that students responded to it very
well. Likewise, Participant 2 found that it was essential to perform more frequent mini-
assessments because she could not gauge student engagement in the way that she could during
in-person instruction. This allowed her to assess understanding. In her words, she was able to
have them "prove it to me, you prove to me you know, prove to me you understand, respond to
this, respond to that." She likened it to a virtual thumbs up or thumbs down, a frequent in-person
formative assessment technique that she adapted for distance learning.
The importance of frequent feedback was likewise established during the focus group
discussion. Participants 2 and 10 quickly listed it as a best practice during the discussion and
demonstrated the importance of pre-planning frequent formative assessments during course
planning. All four participants suggested the use of various technology tools as a way to gamify
the content for formative assessment. Participant 10 elaborated on the importance of using these
tools, like Nearpod, Flipgrid, drawing a picture, respond to a Google Doc, etc., as engaging
methods to assess understanding frequently.
76
Student Interaction with Other Students. The second theme from the research was the
importance of student interactions with other students. Due to the distance learning
configuration, students are physically isolated from their peers, and therefore peer to peer
interaction can be challenging and must take on different forms. This was particularly evident
during the research due to the study's setting and the participants' approach. This school
emphasizes the importance of relationships and community from a Christian standpoint.
Regardless of that potential limitation, the importance of student interaction and peer
relationships is commonly accepted in the educational community. The two subthemes that
emerged during the research in this area are the best practice of creating assignments that foster
peer interaction and cultivating the soft skills associated with SEL. While SEL appeared as a
subtheme under teacher and student interaction, it appears here again for different reasons.
Under this theme, SEL is more closely associated with curriculum, engagement, and peer
relationships rather than in the context of teacher concern and care for students.
Assignments that Foster Interaction with Peers. This subtheme frequently appeared at
all stages of data collection. Participant 1 stated the importance of consistent interactive
opportunities for the entire class, smaller groups, and really small groups during the open-ended
survey portion. He added that this was especially important for the Classical Model,
emphasizing the importance of rhetorical skills through various means, including debates,
Harkness discussions, and frequent class discussions, particularly in the humanities. Participant
3 added that it was crucial for classmates to be collaborative opportunities, while Participant 4
said that Google Hangout was an important tool that cultivated interaction. Participant 5 also
emphasized the importance of interactive class projects, message boards, and other means for
students to remain connected. Participant 6 also thought well-designed group assignments were
77
essential to ensure the interaction of all students. In fact, Participants 12, 13, 14, 19, 21, and 27
all declared that interaction between students was a best practice that was manifest through
discussions, group work, live synchronous meetings, discussion boards, and other similar
activities. The survey data illuminated a strong need for student interaction with other students
as a best practice through assignments and content inquiry.
Likewise, the need for student interaction was evident in both the semi-structured
interview and focus group data. Participant 4, during her semi-structured interview, discussed
the void created in learning when there is no physical connection between the students. She
presented the importance of cultivating that connection through learning activities that promote
healthy competition. Through the on-line activity, the students have connected once again, in a
context that they are very familiar with due to the rampant use of multi-player on-line games.
She said the students love to compete with one another and track their scores and progress in a
healthy way that helps them learn the content and fosters the much-needed interaction with their
peers. Participant 8 also addressed the void that can be created due to a lack of peer interaction
and how it impacts learning. Essentially, he stated that due to a lack of interaction, which
typically sustains students during traditional in-person learning, engagement time, assignment
expectations, etc., become overwhelming quickly without the reward that comes through peer
interaction. Participant 12 emphasized the importance of holding synchronous meetings to
promote peer interaction through engaging assignments. This allowed students to ask questions
of one another, process the work together, see one another and work through the content
together. He mentioned the importance of community and the opportunity to bounce ideas off of
one another and mutually benefit through a shared learning experience.
78
The focus group participants also felt that utilizing assignments to foster peer interaction
was a best practice in distance learning. Participant 10 mentioned that she was surprised that
group work was successful due to the inherent limitations of the learning context. She lauded the
benefits and provided opportunities for students to engage around a Google Doc or work on a
Slide presentation together as it provided the much-needed social interaction and helped produce
greater learning outcomes while giving students opportunities to work on a shared problem and
hone their social skills. Participant 8 mentioned how he creatively modified a traditional
Harkness discussion in which students must respond verbally. Instead, he required them to
interact via Google Doc over a protracted period of time, rather than merely one class period.
The results were surprisingly effective. He opened the question and document for three days and
required students to post at least one comment per day. Comments are typically directed towards
a peer's previous statement, which promotes some debate and active discussion. Rather than
meeting the minimum standard, he received much more thoughtful, insightful responses than
typical, and perhaps most surprising, the students who are typically frightened and unwilling to
participate during a typical discussion flourished in this format. The interaction around the
content promoted a new level of engagement, participation, and interaction from some of the
most unlikely students.
Social-Emotional Learning (SEL). Research continues to suggest that minimal time
spent on SEL can facilitate academic learning. Frey, Fisher, and Smith (2019) outlined an
integrated SEL framework that included identity and agency, emotional regulation, cognitive
regulation, social skills, and a public spirit. Identity and agency subcategories such as strength
recognition, self-confidence, self-efficacy, growth mindset, perseverance and grit, and resiliency.
Emotional regulation is comprised of skills such as identifying emotions, emotional self-
79
perception, impulse control, delaying gratification, stress management, and coping. Cognitive
regulation includes metacognition, attention, goal setting, recognizing and resolving problems,
help-seeking, decision making, and organizational skills. Social skills are comprised of sharing,
teamwork, relationship building, communication, empathy, and relationship repair. Finally,
public spirit can be defined as having respect for others, courage, ethical responsibility, civic
responsibility, social justice, service-learning, and leadership. These skills encompass SEL in an
educational context, and the application of these skills in distance learning through interaction
with self, the teacher, and perhaps most importantly, other students is essential to success
according to the research participants. There were frequent responses at all research levels that
indicated the need for SEL skills through student-to-student interaction.
Survey participants mentioned SEL instruction's importance, including Participants 10,
21, 23, and 27. Participant 1 said the importance of integrating goal setting, as did Participant 4.
Several participants mentioned the importance of cultivating interaction between students to
develop pro-social skills, including Participants 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 14, 19, 21, and 27. Several
participants also addressed the topics of ethical behavior, resilience, communication, self-
advocacy, respect, leadership, agency, and emotional regulation. These concepts and topics were
further discussed during the interview and focus group stages. These skills were promoted as
critical components and best practices in distance learning education.
Student Interaction with Course Content. The final theme that emerged through the
data collection process was the importance of student interaction with the course content. As a
rigorous college preparatory school, the setting and participants influenced responses that held
academic progress in high regard. The school boasted 100% college acceptance with ACT
averages that were well above the state average; therefore, the prospect of accomplishing
80
learning objectives, essential questions, and enduring understandings via the distance learning
platform was not surprising. This theme had four subthemes that included tools and resources,
course structure that simplifies the learning process, active engagement with various learning
activities, and differentiation. Early on in the data collection process, the participants valued
student interaction with the course content. When responding to the following statement on the
survey, course content in distance learning should allow for multiple ways for the student to
access the content, interact with the content, and demonstrate learning; 55% of the participants
strongly agreed. Additionally, 38% of the respondents agreed. Only 7% were either neutral or
disagreed with the statement. Similarly, when responding to the statement, instructional
objectives and desired outcomes should inform decisions regarding learning activities and
corresponding assessments; 100% either agreed or strongly agreed. The importance of learning
activities and interactive course content was a powerful theme in the research.
Tools and Resources. The importance of utilizing various tools and resources to promote
interaction with the content emerged quickly and frequently in the research. When asked to
respond to the statement, a teacher should have a systematic way to determine which technology
tools should be utilized; 20% of the participants strongly agreed, 62% agreed, and the remaining
17% were neutral. In the open-ended survey responses, digital tools that allow for interaction
with the content were mentioned frequently. Participants 1, 2, 3. 6, 7, 10, 12, 15, 19, 20, 21, and
27 said the importance of utilizing various tools that promoted student engagement and
interaction with the course content. Participants frequently mentioned specific tools that they
valued and utilized distance learning instruction, including: slides, audio, video, YouTube,
songs, movies, games, puzzles, Nearpod, Peardeck, Gimkit, Fishbole, Google Hangout, Google
Chat, Google Slides, Google Docs, and Zoom.
81
The semi-structured interviews and focus group produced more data that established the
importance of tools and resources to promote student interaction with the content. Participant 2
mentioned that the technology tools were even better than the traditional in-person setting
methods because they layered content and provided opportunities for the student to interact with
the content in different ways. She also utilized tools to gamify the content, which the student
enjoyed, and was inclined to interact with content to compete. She continued to affirm the
gamification of content through various tools because the students loved engaging in that way.
When students had the option to choose their learning activity, she mentioned that they chose the
game every time. Likewise, Participant 1 said that he felt that varying the means through which
they engaged was definitely a best practice. He discussed utilizing different tools to provide
varied learning activities, such as Slides, songs, videos, movie clips, and having them respond by
writing poetry, an essay, a speech, and a small group project. He felt like the more variation he
provided, the better things went. He later emphasized that teachers have to be innovative,
creative, and willing to search for effective tools that are different from those that may be
utilized in a traditional setting. Likewise, Participant 10 mentioned tools and resources as the
primary best practice for distance learning. She reflected on the various new tools that she
encountered during her time teaching from a distance. She mentioned how she utilized tools like
Fishbowl, Slides, videos, zoom, and Chat to have students review content, participate in games,
draw in response to content, have a small group discussion, and record mini-lectures. Focus
group participants echoed these thoughts and universally agreed that many of the traditional
strategies didn't work in the distance learning setting, particularly lecture. The importance of
short, meaningful, interactive content was emphasized again and again.
82
Structure and Simplify Learning Process. The second subtheme under student
interaction with the content continued to emerge during the data collection process. There were
some initial comments by survey participants regarding the importance of tethering learning
activities with instructional objectives and creating a simplified learning process due to the
complexities and differences in learning from a distance, particularly for those students that may
be less familiar with the technology. Additionally, participants mentioned the difficulty with
communicating from a distance due to a lack of face-to-face meeting opportunities; therefore,
simplified instructions and processes would aid in the learning process.
This subtheme took on greater significance during the semi-structured interview and
focus group interactions. For example, Participant 10 discussed the need to consolidate
instructions and post the three things they needed to do that day on one document posted on the
LMS. She felt that the fewer clicks, the better. Participant 4 mentioned the importance of
structure and the need to be concise and clear with the students. She also said the importance of
structuring assignments that were age-appropriate and simpler for the younger, less experienced
students. She further mentioned the importance of scaffolding learning opportunities in a
graduated way so students could efficiently complete initial tasks and work toward more
complicated ones to prevent initial frustration and disengagement. Likewise, Participant 8
suggested that learning opportunities must remain connected to essential questions and learning
objectives, which could be readily posted, yet must be distilled down to more direct, cohesive
activities to prevent confusion and overwhelming students, yet he cautioned against letting the
pendulum swing in the direction of oversimplification. Finally, a significant portion of the focus
group discussion centered around this idea of planning for streamlined content that is structured,
connected to learning objectives, and easily accessed by the students. In fact, these ideas were
83
the springboard for the discussion, and the discussion frequently revolved back to these ideas.
The focus became on planning for cohesive learning that is connected to the overarching course
objectives yet concise, clear, and direct so students could readily process the instructions and
ideas and actively engage in the learning from a distance.
Active Engagement with a Variety of Learning Activities. The previous subtheme
directly contributes to this subtheme of active engagement in a variety of learning activities.
This requires thorough planning and consideration of the appropriate tools to utilize to
accomplish the desired outcomes. Without engagement, there can be no learning taking place;
thus, the relevance of engagement is readily apparent. Survey respondents, like Participant 2,
mentioned the importance of using open questions, portfolios, short quizzes, responses, and
student summaries to elicit active engagement. Participants 6 and 7 said the need for varied
instructional delivery formats and to include virtual activities, such as labs, to promote
engagement. Participants 9, 10, 11, and 13 responded, emphasizing the importance of
meaningful and relevant assignments, short lectures with embedded questions, varied methods
for student feedback, utilizing flipped models, and providing explicit succinct instructional
videos that required feedback to maintain engagement. As has been discussed, many promoted
the use of technology tools that elicited high engagement levels.
Likewise, the semi-structured interview participants and focus group agreed with the
need for active engagement in varied learning activities. Participant 8 responded with a clear and
emphatic need for engagement. The proper tool needed to be utilized, but he continued to
promote the idea of engagement with the content through varied learning activities; in fact, his
words were, "the first term I would think of is engagement. It has to be engaging". Likewise,
Participant 1 mentioned the importance of varying the means of engagement is essential. He
84
believed that not to do so was "a killer." The teacher must alter the means of connecting with the
students and not rely on the same thing each time. His example was a teacher who would engage
through a reading packet and slides or long lectures and questions. He emphasized the need for
ingenuity to create effective ways to engage and connect the students to the content. The
discussion during the focus group echoed these sentiments as well. Participant 2 elaborated on
the importance of engagement with the content when she said, "The Nearpod and games like
Gimkit and things like that, where they kind of interact with the material, it was enough to get
them kind of hooked into doing it. Gimkit has been awesome".
Differentiation. Finally, the last subtheme under the theme of student interaction with
course content is that of differentiation. The participants indicated that there were virtually
countless opportunities for teachers to differentiate student learning activities due to the tools
available and the context of distance learning. As students are frequently working
independently, the teacher can assign learning activities through various platforms that can tailor
the learning process to each student's individual needs. This would primarily be relegated to
independent or small group work, while students would come together for extensive group
instruction or full class interaction. Participants at all levels of the data collection process
indicated the opportunities present for differentiation were vast. The survey respondents
indicated that differentiation was a best practice, as noted by Participants 6, 21, and 27.
Specifically, Participant 6 mentioned opportunities for student choice in learning activities to
demonstrate mastery of desired objectives. Participant 27 spoke of the need for differentiation
and scaffolding due to the learner's varying needs, particularly from a distance.
The concepts of scaffolding and differentiation also surfaced during the semi-structured
interviews and focus group. Participant 8 mentioned the need and opportunity to address various
85
learning needs through differentiation using all available tools. Participant 2 referenced a
specific lesson on commas, and the options available to have one student continue to work on the
objective since they haven't mastered it. In contrast, another student who demonstrated mastery
could move on to the next learning activity. In her opinion, it was easier to differentiate through
distance learning than traditional in-person learning. She felt like the available tools helped to
make this possible. A fair amount of time was spent during the focus group discussing how the
course structure's asynchronous components allowed for a significant amount of differentiation,
both in learning activities and pacing. Collectively, participants felt like it was essential to have
synchronous parts for multiple reasons, but the asynchronous aspects were highly beneficial to
provide for differentiation.
Trustworthiness Techniques
Targeted strategies, methods, and strategies were utilized to ensure the validity and
trustworthiness of the data.
Credibility. Triangulation and corroboration of data from the survey, semi-structured
interviews, focus group, and field notes provided credibility. Additionally, a peer debriefer
reviewed the data and confirmed the results. Member checks during each stage and following
each stage added to the validity of data. Members were provided copies of the transcripts of
interviews and the focus group to ensure clarity and accuracy of data. Direct data utilization
further enhanced the credibility of the results. The use of the theoretical and conceptual
frameworks in the coding process also assisted in credibility. The peer debriefer helped to
ensure the results were free of researcher bias.
86
Transferability. Thick and rich descriptors were utilized to provide necessary details
regarding setting, participants, and process to allow for replication or application to given
contexts.
Dependability. A detailed audit trail was maintained, including digital recordings in two
formats of both semi-structured interviews and focus group. Additionally, transcriptions of
semi-structured interviews and focus group, survey results, field notes, coding notes, and color-
coded data were implemented. As well as documenting informed consent information for
participants, and utilizing interview and focus group protocols. Coding was conducted,
reviewed, and verified by a peer debriefer to ensure agreement.
Confirmability. The documentation of the data collection process, the audit trail, and
data triangulation established confirmability, while consultation with a peer debriefer and
personal reflexivity sufficiently controlled researcher bias.
Coding Table
Figure 4.1 is an example of coding answering the research question: What are the teacher
perceptions of best practices in distance learning education? This figure visually represents the
raw data, sources, and open codes, axial codes, and selective codes that emerged during the
research process.
87
Figure 4.1
What are the Teacher Perceptions of Best Practices in Distance
Learning Education?
Raw Data and Source Open Axial Selective
(survey) Creativity in teaching methods, (survey) gamifying content, (interview) you may have to use different tools than what you would in the classroom, (Focus) What tools do they know that we can use to get there? Flipgrid, Nearpod, Google Doc?
Creativity Tools/gamification
(survey) meaningful and relevant assignments, (survey) incorporate real-life examples and application, (interview) engagement, it has to be engaging, (Focus) small amounts of teacher-led discussion followed by highly interactive reflection using different tools.
Interactive assignments Active Learning/Real World Scenarios
Tools & Resources
(survey) Differentiate and scaffold - students have different needs on-line compared to in-person (interview) I can give them 3 or 4 links that connect directly to Google Classroom, (Focus) They had the choice of you can go and do this…or you can read along...
Student Choices/Differentiation
Active Engagement Variety of Learning Activities
Student Interaction with the Course Content
(survey) consistency in timing, goals, routines, (interview) teacher can set check-ins, but they are on their own to navigate their schedule, (Focus) They have all this time and no idea how to manage it.
Meta-cognitive skill development/Student Independence
Differentiation
(survey) collaborative opportunities for classmates, (interview) they have to interact with something every day for class…those assignments are as interactive as possible, (Focus) so they're still getting that social interaction, and they're still feeling the pains and the joys of group work...
Interaction
Interaction (teacher to student, student to student, student to content)
Student Interaction with Other Students in the Course
(survey) clear objectives (more than in-person) and succinct instructions for all assignments, (interview) Structure to be more concise, to be more clear with the students, (Focus) You have your objectives, essential questions, enduring understandings, you have to have all of that really, really, really well laid out.
Objective-driven planning, Structure and Clear Expectations, Rubrics and Clear Examples
Structure and Simplify Learning Process
(survey) greater attention must be paid to creating regular mini-assessments, (interview) the 'well done's and 'excellent' that feedback still matters, (Focus) having lots and lots of little check-ins and little assessments…
Formative Assessments Frequent Feedback
Student Interaction with the Teacher/Teacher Interaction with the Student
(survey) daily contact, (interview) You'd have to really prod, I'd call or email and get parents to check in with them, (Focus) I think drop by's are huge. Mailing a card or having a special prayer for them. All these normal things we do could actually be done in that setting.
Teacher Availability Support
Teacher Availability
(survey) daily SEL check-ins, (interview) making sure that they hear my voice and see my face on a regular basis. I would do that more, (Focus) I would schedule 10-minute check-ins prior to classes to see how they were doing.
Social-emotional learning (SEL) Emotional Support
88
Summary
This qualitative phenomenological study aimed to answer the research question: What are
the teacher perceptions of best practices in distance learning education? Due to the rapidly
increased use of technology and distance learning as an educational option, the importance of
this research is evident. Through this study, the concepts of best practices in distance learning
were examined through the lens of teachers in the field. The integration of the theoretical
framework of constructivism and the concepts of best practices, pedagogy, and andragogy, were
applied to this research. Data analysis yielded three emergent themes of teacher and student
interaction, student and student interaction, and student interaction with course content.
Participant perspectives on these themes were discussed at length in this chapter. These
perceptions of best practices in distance learning education were based on the data collected from
a survey, seven semi-structured interviews, a focus group, and research field notes.
Chapter Four presented the collected and analyzed data. The interpretation of these
findings is presented in Chapter Five. Additionally, Chapter Five includes a summary of the
critical analysis and a discussion of these three themes.
89
Chapter Five: Conclusions, Implications, and Recommendations
This qualitative, phenomenological study aimed to identify teacher perceptions of best
practices in distance learning education. The conclusions, implications, and recommendations
from the study draw importance from the movement of distance learning from that of a
disruptive technology for non-traditional or marginalized students (Simonson, Zvacek, &
Smaldino, 2019) to an essential educational function for all due to the COVID-19 global
pandemic. Distance education was thrust into the mainstream, and educators must be equipped
to sustain and further the practice to meet learning objectives and the students' needs in the
classroom, whether traditional or virtual. This importance is reinforced by the concerning
retention and completion statistics for students enrolled in virtual courses (Nilson & Goodson,
2018). Teachers must apply essential best practices to help guide students from a distance,
maintain engagement, and provide the necessary support and motivation to help them cross the
virtual finish line.
This chapter is organized into six major sections: the research question, conclusions and
summary of the findings, limitations, implications for practice, recommendations for research,
and a summary of the study. The results are reviewed through the lens of the theoretical
framework. This chapter's discussion includes the significant findings aligned to the conceptual
framework and the literature review on distance learning education.
Research Question
The qualitative question that guided this research was closely aligned with the purpose
and significance, and the theoretical and conceptual frameworks of the study. The question
considered the concepts of best practices in education as explicated by Lemov (2010), Marzano
(2017), and Nilson & Goodson (2018), and was applied in the distance learning educational
90
context. The following research question guided this study: What are the teacher perceptions of
best practices in distance learning education? Data analysis revealed three themes related to best
practices: student and teacher interaction, student interaction with other students, and student
interaction with the course content. Each of these themes was comprised of several subthemes
that contributed to the overall value as a best practice.
Conclusions and Summary of the Findings
The participants shared many characteristics as fellow teachers at a private Classical
Christian school in Middle Tennessee. Participants taught all subjects in grades 6-12. They had
varying levels of teaching experience, but all shared the common experience of teaching from a
distance during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020. Some had previous distance learning
experience as a student or instructor. Based on collected data and analysis, participants agreed
on the best practices of student and teacher interaction, student interaction with other students,
and student interaction with the course content. The relevance to the theoretical and conceptual
frameworks and the three themes that answered the research question are discussed in this
section.
Relevance to the theoretical and conceptual framework. The theoretical foundation
for this study was constructivism. Constructivism was particularly applicable to this study
because a constructivist class, according to Clark & Avrith (2017), is one that: places students at
the center, is activity-based, includes problem-solving, applies real-world scenarios to learning,
allows time for reflection, cultivates meaning over facts, offers differentiation, and encourages
student agency. Vygotsky's theory also served as a guide for the study's interpretation because
the study concentrated on the concepts of zone of proximal development, the more
knowledgeable other, and the importance of social development (Gravells, 2014). The concepts
91
of pedagogy and andragogy also informed the interpretation of the study, as the research was
focused on best practices in teaching and the inherent independent and self-directed aspects of
distance learning.
Likewise, the study was influenced by the concept of best practices in education. Many
authors and practitioners have sought to provide a framework or taxonomy for best practices in
education. The concept of best practices was informed by the work of Lemov (2010) and
Marzano (2017). Additionally, the work of Nilson & Goodson (2018) informed this study.
Their distilled list of instructional practices include: faculty and student interaction as much as
possible, small group work, active learning, frequent and interleaved practice, prompt and
targeted feedback, focused time learning for students, set and communicate high expectations for
students, activate prior knowledge and correct misconceptions, help organize and connect
students' prior knowledge, build desirable difficulties into student learning, display instructor
enthusiasm for content and build real-world connections, create a supportive environment for
learning by aligning outcomes, activities, and assessments, scaffold tasks to help develop
mastery, create a positive and inclusive course climate, engage students in activities and
assignments that rely on their own executive functioning skills, educate students about brain
plasticity and growth mindset, incorporate emotions into all aspects of instruction and activities.
Both the theoretical and conceptual frameworks affirmed the study's outcomes and guided the
conclusions, implications, and recommendations. Distance learning, by design, coincides with
constructivism and illuminates all three of the central tenets of Vygotsky's Theory. These inform
the concepts of best practice that emerged through the data collection and analysis process.
Instructor and Student Interaction. The importance of instructor and student interaction
was the first theme of the research. This theme highlights the fact that the instructor, as more
92
knowledgeable other (MKO), not only designs, orchestrates, and facilitates a constructivist
distance learning experience, but he directly communicates with the student in meaningful ways
to demonstrate availability and support, provides frequent feedback, and promotes personal
growth and development through SEL experiences. The SEL components of learning here are
focused on building identity and agency, aiding in emotional regulation, and boosting cognitive
regulation, which includes executive functioning skills (Frey, Fisher, & Smith, 2019). Due to the
inherent androgogical approach to learning in distance education, the students must function
more autonomously and thus possess the need for a strongly developed identity and personal
agency. As students possess these in varying degrees, it is incumbent on the teacher to facilitate
and aid in developing these skills and monitor progress and help maintain engagement and
motivation while doing so. The support for teacher and student interaction is very strong in the
literature (Simonson, Svacek, and Smaldino, 2019). Some posit that this type of interaction may
matter more than any other kind of interaction in distance learning (Nilson & Goodson, 2018).
Additionally, Moore & Diehl (2019) believed that the research indicates a high correlation
between teacher presence and increased cognitive presence and social presence, enhancing the
overall learning experience, both cognitively and affectively. Likewise, all of these practices, in
addition to others, are present in the best practice framework outlined by Nilson & Goodson
(2018), establishing a high level of transferability across learning platforms.
Student Interaction with Other Students. The second theme from the data was the
importance of student interaction with their peers during the course. This theme was comprised
of two subthemes: creating assignments that foster peer interaction and integration of SEL. This
type of coursework provides the opportunity for social development. It helps develop real-world
problem-solving skills, consistent with the constructivist approach to learning and Vygotsky's
93
theory. Creating highly collaborative course content helps to mitigate the feelings of isolation
that can be associated with learning from a distance and promotes the essential SEL skills of
social skill development and cultivating a public spirit. Students learn how to share, work as a
team, develop relationships, communicate, develop empathy, demonstrate courage, respect
others, lead, and reflect both civic and ethical behavior (Frey, Fisher, & Smith, 2019). The
literature strongly supports the integration of student-to-student interaction and frequently lists it
as a best practice in distance education (Nilson & Goodson, 2018; Simonson, Zvacek, &
Smaldino, 2019; Ko & Rossen, 2017). These interactions provide a sense of social belonging
that transforms the learning experience into a learning community that provides encouragement,
support, and accountability, all of which help maintain student engagement and promote success.
Student Interaction with Course Content. The third theme from the research was the
importance of student interaction with the course content. This theme comprised four subthemes
that emphasized the importance of developing the best tools and resources to promote
engagement, structuring the course design to simplify the learning process, creating active
engagement with varied learning activities, and providing differentiated learning opportunities.
These reflected the theoretical and conceptual frameworks and were strongly supported by the
data and the literature. This theme allows the teacher (MKO) to structure learning experiences
by using sound distance learning pedagogy through an andragogical approach to meet the needs
of the collective class and the individual student through well-crafted learning experiences that
assess prior knowledge and meet the student at their zone of proximal development. This is
perhaps one of the most significant aspects of the distance learning paradigm; meeting the needs
of the course while differentiating content to allow learners to progress at their own pace through
the use of the best and most engaging digital tools. The importance of student engagement with
94
the content is well documented in the literature (Fisher, Frey, & Hattie, 2021; Moore & Diehl,
2019; Simonson, Zvacek, & Smaldino, 2019; Ko & Rossen, 2017). Nilson & Goodson (2018)
posited that interaction with course content paves the way for successful learning. They do
emphasize the opportunities for differentiation through the use of carefully selected tools and
resources. Additionally, they strongly believed in streamlining content delivery and promoting
active engagement to maintain motivation, attention and promote successful learning.
Limitations
It is accepted that there were limitations to this study. The study was conducted at one
school, and therefore there are inherent limitations based on the setting, as it was a private
Classical Christian school. This limited comparisons to other divergent settings. Likewise,
because the study was conducted in one setting, the participants were relatively homogeneous,
and therefore present limitations regarding the generalization of the results. Further, the study
was not longitudinal as it was conducted within one academic year, 2020-2021. This could have
presented specific limitations due to the influence of the COVID-19 pandemic and consequent
national move to distance learning education. This may present as a limitation, or it could also
positively impact the validity of the results as the participants may have been more informed due
to recent experience.
Implications for Practice
Distance learning and the associated requisite skills have become essential topics for
discussion, research, and learning within the educational community. The demand for such
during the COVID-19 pandemic illuminated the need for distance learning readiness, but it also
presented the distance learning platform's opportunities. Teachers can teach students through
alternative means and in progressive and engaging ways that can provide numerous advantages,
95
as long as the limitations and drawbacks are mitigated. Consequently, the need for
understanding best practices in distance learning is warranted. From the research, five
implications for practice were identified: professional development, SEL integration, course
design, instructional practice, and tools and resources.
Professional development. Most teachers are not prepared to shift to distance learning
as they have been trained for traditional in-person instruction, and they may have little to no
distance learning experience. Based on the expansion of distance education programs and the
learning curve necessary to adapt to distance learners' unique needs, professional development in
this area for all teachers is warranted. The need to transition to distance education at a moment's
notice may continue to be something that all educators should be prepared to do should the need
arise. Teachers must be equipped to plan course content, design engaging learning assignments,
and assessments, provide SEL support for students, utilize the necessary tools to teach from a
distance, and create interaction at all levels of instruction, as identified in this research.
SEL integration. The integration of SEL provides several benefits for students and
appears to enhance academic progress. These skills help with individual student development in
multiple areas, relational interactions between students, and help provide a much-needed
connection between teacher and student. The integration of SEL is necessary during in-person
learning but may even be more so during distance learning, particularly when students are more
isolated from their peers and may even be left alone during the day when parents continue to
work. As anxiety and depression rates continue to rise amongst teens, SEL is a tool that schools
and teachers can utilize to address many of students' affective needs.
Course design. Participants frequently emphasized the importance of course design and
structure for students learning from a distance. Teachers should be acquainted with best
96
practices in distance learning that ensure course design is tailored to the distance learner's needs.
The design should provide clear guidelines and structure to aid in ease of use for the distance
learner. Students should be able to follow instructions and easily navigate between elements of
the course. Further, course design should provide engaging learning activities that are anchored
to overall course objectives and essential questions. Course design should also provide for
interaction between students and between students and the instructor. Professional development
and technology support should be provided where needed to accomplish needs related to course
design.
Instructional practice. While many best practices may be similar between in-person
traditional instruction and distance learning, there are some critical distinctions, particularly in
instructional practices. Instructors must be equipped to create a community of learners striving
to accomplish established learning objectives through shared learning experiences. To do so,
many decisions must be made concerning instructional practice. Simonson, Zvacek, & Smaldino
(2019), suggested the following as a guide: how to communicate with students, how to
encourage collaboration amongst students, how to create active learning experiences, how to
provide prompt feedback, how to cultivate high expectations and motivation, and how to respect
diversity. Further, instructors must determine instructional methods and learning tools, schedule
learning activities, and whether or not the instruction will include synchronous instruction or
merely asynchronous. These are just a few of the considerations regarding instructional practice
that teachers must entertain. Further work should be done to ensure that teachers are equipped to
handle the varied demands of instructional practice for distance learning education.
Consideration should be given to providing advanced professional development and support in
97
this area. Experience and growth in this area will also impact teacher effectiveness in traditional
in-person instruction.
Tools and resources. The first consideration is to ensure that all teachers and students
have access to the necessary tools and resources needed for engagement in distance learning
education. This is no small task given the finances required to participate and the disparity of
socio-economic resources accessible to school-age families across the nation. Everyone must
have access to high-speed internet, a computer, and the necessary digital tools to engage in
required learning activities. Further, to appropriately structure courses and design engaging
active learning activities, teachers need to be acquainted with all of the available tools and
resources that can be incorporated into distance learning. They also need a systematic way to
determine which is the best tool for the desired outcome; however, it is vital that the number of
tools and functions not overwhelm students or provide unnecessary complications across the
distance. In all likelihood, there needs to be a school-based or district-based approach to tools
and resources to help integrate, scaffold and streamline learning experiences for students. This
would allow students to become familiar with tools, gain confidence, and allow less time to be
spent on instruction to use the resources and more on the application for desired learning
outcomes. Likewise, there may need to be a systematic way to periodically review tools for
renewal, upgrade, or delete from use. This type of work would require the assistance of a
technology integrator and ongoing professional development for faculty.
Recommendations for Research
At the conclusion of this research, several questions remain regarding best practices in
distance learning education. Due to the proliferation of technology use in education and the need
for distance learning across a wide array of demographics and settings, it is important to study
98
this further to ensure desired outcomes and equity. Other studies should be conducted to extend
this research to the following areas. First, this study should be replicated in a more widespread
manner across various settings. Perhaps further studies could be conducted in private and public
settings in more diverse socio-economic contexts to provide data that can be more readily
generalized. This would ensure that the setting and limitations did not unnecessarily influence
the results of this data. Next, it would be beneficial to replicate a study that analyzed data from
the student perspective. The research could be focused on the best practices of distance learning
based on the perception of students. It would be fascinating to compare the results of this study
to a study that explored student perceptions of best practices. While such a study may not be the
most valid assessment of best practices, it would provide essential data that could influence and
drive instructional practice, primarily since there isn't the opportunity for direct observation in
distance learning education. This is a significant limitation that this type of study would address.
Finally, research should be conducted using a control group to assess the particular practice's
impact on learning outcomes. One such study would include two groups of distance learners
engaged in the same course utilizing different instructional practices while striving for the same
learning outcomes while controlling for student ability and instructor efficacy. This would allow
a comparative analysis of distance learning instructional practice. Another such study would be
a comparative study between distance learning and traditional in-person instruction. The
research would control student ability, instructor efficacy, and instructional methodology and
practice. Both groups would pursue the same learning outcomes during the investigation. This
would allow a comparative analysis of learning outcomes through the different delivery models
while yielding other vital data about the transferability of best practices between groups.
99
Summary of the Study
This qualitative, phenomenological study focused on determining teacher perceptions of
best practices in distance learning education. Participants were teachers of grades 6-12 in a
private Classical Christian school in Middle Tennessee. Participants had varying levels of
educational experience and limited experience with distance learning. Participants provided data
through a survey, semi-structured interviews, and a focus group. Data were transcribed and
coded for analysis. Trustworthiness techniques were utilized to ensure reliability, validity, and
mitigate bias. A peer debriefer was consulted during data collection and analysis as well.
Analysis of all data sources revealed three themes associated with best practices in distance
learning education: instructor and student interaction, student interaction with other students, and
student interaction with the course content. Several subthemes contributed to these overall
themes as well; they were: teacher availability and support, SEL, frequent feedback, assignments
that foster peer interaction, tools and resources, course structure that simplifies the learning
process, active engagement with various learning activities, and differentiation. The outcomes
from this research present several implications for practice, including the ongoing need for
professional development, SEL integration, a focus on course design in distance learning, a focus
on instructional practice in distance learning, the need for equitable access to tools and resources,
and systematic method for tool and resource acquisition and integration. Further research in
distance learning is strongly recommended due to widespread utilization in the field of
education, and the implications for practice identified based on the results of this research study.
100
References
Baggaley, J. (2015). Flips and flops. Distance Education, 36(3), 437–447.
Barbour, M. K., Grzebyk, T. Q., & EYE, J. (2014). Any time, any place, any pace-
really? Examining mobile learning in a virtual school environment. Turkish Online
Journal of Distance Education (TOJDE), 15(1), 114–127. https://doi.org/10.17718/
tojde.45828
Bernard, R. M., Borokhovski, E., Schmid, R. F., Tamim, R. M., & Abrami, P. C. (2014). A meta-
analysis of blended learning and technology use in higher education: From the general to
the applied. Journal of Computing in Higher Education, 26(1), 87-122.
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12528-013-9077-3
Budhai, S. & Skipwith, K. (2017). Best practices in engaging on-line learners through active
and experiential learning strategies. New York: Routledge.
Castelo, M. (2019, June 05). Continuing remote learning for students without internet.
https://edtechmagazine.com/k12/article/2020/04/continuing-remote-learning-students-
without-internet
Clark, H. & Avrith, T. (2017). The Google infused classroom: A guidebook to making things
visible and amplifying student voice. Monee: Elevate Books.
Collins, A. & Halverson, R. (2018). Rethinking education in the age of technology: The digital
revolution and schooling in America. New York: Teachers College Press.
Connelly, L. M. (2016, November-December). Trustworthiness in qualitative research. MedSurg
Nursing, 25(6), 435+.
https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A476729520/AONE?u=tel_main&sid=AONE&xid=2ae20
ad1
101
Creswell, J.W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry & research design: Choosing among the five
approaches. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, Inc.
Demographics of internet and home broadband usage in the United States. (2020, June 05).
https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/fact-sheet/internet-broadband/
Duncan, S. (2005). The U.S. Army's impact on the history of distance education. Quarterly
Review of Distance Education, 6(4), 397–404.
Elmore, T. (2019). Generation Z unfiltered: Facing nine hidden challenges of the most anxious
population. Atlanta: Poet Gardener Publishing.
Elmore, T. (2017). Marching off the map: Inspire students to navigate a brand new world.
Atlanta: Poet Gardener Publishing.
Evaluation of evidence-based practices in on-line learning: A meta-analysis and review of
on-line learning studies. (2010). U.S. Department of Education.
https://www2.ed.gov/rschstat/eval/tech/evidence-based-practices/finalreport.pdf
Fisher, D., Frey, N., & Hattie, J. (2021). The distance learning playbook: Teaching for
engagement and impact in any setting. Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press.
Frey, N., Fisher, D., & Smith, D. (2019). All learning is social and emotional: Helping students
develop essential skills for the classroom and beyond. Alexandria: ASCD.
Goleman, D. (2005). Emotional intelligence: Why it can matter more than I.Q. New York:
Bantam Books.
Gravells, A. & Simpson, S. (2014). The certificate in education and training. New York: Sage
Publishing Company.
102
Jacob, S.A., and S.P. Furgerson. (2012). Writing interview protocols and conducting interviews:
Tips for students new to the field of qualitative research. The Qualitative Report, 17:6,
110. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ990034.pdf
Johnson, A. (2013). Excellent! On-line teaching: Effective strategies for a successful semester
on-line. Monee: Aaron Johnson.
J-PAL North America (2019, February 26). What 126 studies say about education technology.
http://news.mit.edu/2019/mit-jpal-what-126-studies-tell-us-about-education-technology-
impact-0226
K-12 students engaging in on-line distance learning during the coronavirus pandemic, March–
April 2020. (2020). In Gale Opposing Viewpoints Online Collection. Detroit, MI: Gale.
https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/ONOSIR202300522/OVIC?
u=tel_s_tsla&sid=OVIC&xid=c75cffc7
Ko, S. & Rossen, S. (2017). Teaching on-line: A Practical guide, 4th ed. New York, Routledge.
Kong, S. L. (2020, July). Learning to learn from a distance. Maclean's, 133(6), 69.
https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A627969067/OVIC?
u=tel_s_tsla&sid=OVIC&xid=0025161c
Lei, S. A., & Gupta, R. K. (2010). College distance education courses: Evaluating benefits and
costs from institutional, faculty and students' perspectives. Education, 130(4), 616+.
https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A227597132/OVIC?
u=tel_s_tsla&sid=OVIC&xid=c956946d
Lei, S. A., & Lei, S. Y. (2019). Evaluating benefits and drawbacks of hybrid courses:
Perspectives of college instructors. Education, 140(1), 1+. https://
link.gale.com/apps/doc/A602231376/OVIC? u=tel_s_tsla&sid=OVIC&xid=b71c9808
103
Lemov, D. (2010). Teach like a champion: 49 techniques that put students on the path to
college. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Marzano, R. (2017). The new art and science of teaching. Bloomington: ASCD.
Mcleod, S. (2019). Qualitative vs quantitative research: Simply psychology. Retrieved from
https://www.simplypsychology.org/qualitative-quantitative.html
Miller, M. (2014). Minds on-line: Teaching effectively with technology. Cambridge: Harvard
University Press.
Moore, M. & Kearsley, G. (2012). Distance education: A Systems view of on-line learning, 3rd
ed. Belmont, Cengage Learning.
Moore, M. (Ed.) & Diehl, W. (Ed). (2019). Handbook of distance education, 4th ed. New York:
Routledge.
Naidu, S. (2018). Editorial: To interact or not to interact is NOT the question! Distance
Education, 39(3), 277–280. https://doi.org/10.1080/01587919.2018.1483715
National Center for Education Statistics (NCES): Fast facts on distance learning. (2018). In
Gale Opposing Viewpoints Online Collection. Detroit, MI: Gale. https://
link.gale.com/apps/doc/SIPRSJ861335535/OVIC?
u=tel_s_tsla&sid=OVIC&xid=9b7accbf
Nilson, L. & Goodson, L. (2018). On-line teaching at its best: Merging instructional design with
teaching and learning research. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
On-line education. (2010). In Current Issues: Macmillan Social Science Library. Detroit, MI:
Gale. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/PC3021900123/OVIC?
u=tel_s_tsla&sid=OVIC&xid=84813305
104
Pappas, C. (2015, November 13). Pedagogy vs andragogy in elearning: Can you tell the
difference? Retrieved from https://elearningindustry.com/pedagogy-vs-andragogy-in-
elearning-can-you-tell-the-difference
Poulin, R. (2002). Distance learning in higher education. In J. W. Guthrie (Ed.), Encyclopedia
of Education (2nd ed., Vol. 2, pp. 589-593). New York, NY: Macmillan Reference USA.
https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3403200182/OVIC?
u=tel_s_tsla&sid=OVIC&xid=760bde3c
Pourreau, L. (2015). Interview with Joe Freidhoff: A bird' s-eye view of K-12 on-line learning.
Online Learning, 19(5), 13–17. https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v19i5.746
Shelton, C. (2020, June 09). Nashville mayor uses CARES Act funding to give every Metro
Schools student a laptop. https://fox17.com/community/back-to-school/nashville-mayor-
uses-cares-act-funding-to-give-every-metro-schools-student-a-laptop
Simonson, M. (2019). Research in distance education: A summary. Quarterly Review of
Distance Education, 20(3), 31–43.
Simonson, M., Zvacek, S., & Smaldino, S. (2019). Teaching and learning at a distance:
Foundations of distance education, 7th ed. USA: Information Age Publishing.
6 signs of a bad on-line instructor. (2015, January 23). USNews.com. https://
link.gale.com/apps/doc/A489546867/OVIC?u=tel_s_tsla&sid=OVIC&xid=68b47b6c
Sprenger, M. (2020). Social emotional learning and the brain: Strategies to help your students
thrive. Alexandria: ASCD.
Sull, E. C., & Peckham, I. (2019, December). Creating the balanced yet exciting online
classroom. Distance Learning, 16(4), 79+. https://link.gale.com/apps/
doc/A622804822/OVIC?u=tel_s_tsla&sid=OVIC&xid=87e20c4a
105
Technology and education. (2020). In Gale Opposing Viewpoints Online Collection. Farmington
Hills, MI: Gale. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/PC3010999175/OVIC?
u=tel_s_tsla&sid=OVIC&xid=6b73147e
Theall, M., & Farrell, J. P. (2002). Teaching and learning. In J. W. Guthrie (Ed.), Encyclopedia
of Education (2nd ed., Vol. 7, pp. 2492-2501). New York, NY: Macmillan Reference
USA. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3403200616/OVIC?
u=tel_s_tsla&sid=OVIC&xid=f0c0d8f1
Tian Luo, Murray, A., & Crompton, H. (2017). Designing authentic learning activities to train
pre-service teachers about teaching online. International Review of Research in Open
& Distance Learning, 18(7), 141–157. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v18i7.3037
Twenge, J. (2017). iGen: Why today’s super-connected kids are growing up less rebellious,
more tolerant, less happy - and completely unprepared for adulthood. New York: Simon
& Schuster.
UNESCO International Commission on the Futures of Education (Ed.). (2020). Education in a
post-COVID world: Nine ideas for public action. Retrieved from
https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000373717/PDF/373717eng.pdf.multi
106
Appendices
107
Appendix A
Informed Consent Documents
108
Survey Instrument and Informed Consent
STUDY INFORMATION AND CONSENT Study title: Teacher Perceptions of Best Practices in Distance Learning Education Principle Investigator: Andrew Sheets The purpose of this study is to learn about teacher perceptions of best practices in distance learning education. You are being asked to participate in this survey because you are in an educator with experience in instructional best practices and distance learning education. Your responses will be confidential. Participating in a research study is completely voluntary. You may choose not to participate. If you decide to participate, you have the option to withdraw at any time. If you decide not to participate in this study or wish to withdraw at any time, you will not be penalized. If you agree to take part in this research, you will be asked to complete a survey that will ask questions regarding your perceptions of best practices in distance learning education. Completion of this survey will take about 10 minutes. The possible risks for taking part in this research are:
• Having someone else find out that you were in a research study
• Potential loss of confidentiality of data The possible benefits for taking part in this research are:
• Opportunities to reflect on personal instructional best practices the possibility of professional growth through dialogue with colleagues on professional best practices
To protect your identity as a research subject, we will not share any survey responses by any party outside the investigating team. Responses will remain confidential by: 1) limiting access to information, 2) by storing research data on an encrypted hard drive, 3) and by encrypting laptops that have access to the data. Additionally, all identifiers will be removed from the data. Neither you nor your program’s identity will be identified in any report or publication about this research. CONTACTS FOR QUESTIONS OR PROBLEMS? Call Andy Sheets at (615) 779-4962 or by email at [email protected] if you have questions about the study, any problems, unexpected physical or psychological discomforts, any injuries, or think that something unusual or unexpected is happening. The chair of this study may also be contacted: Dr. Julia Price, Director of the Carson-Newman University Advanced Programs, [email protected] CONSENT
109
You are making a decision whether or not to participate in a research study. Your agreement below indicates that you have decided to participate in the study after reading all the information above and you understand the information in this form. In addition, any questions you may have were answered and you have received a copy of this form for you to keep. I have read this informed consent document. I understand each part of the document, and I am voluntarily choosing to participate in this study. By selecting yes, I consent to participate. Yes No SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE
1. What grade level do you currently teach? 2. How many years have you been teaching? 3. How many years experience do you have with distance learning?
Please respond to the following statements regarding by using this scale: Strongly Disagree (SD); Disagree (D); Neutral (N); Agree (A); Strongly Agree (SA)
Statement SD 1
D 2
N 3
A 4
SA 5
4. There is a significant difference between best practices in classroom instruction and best practices in distance education.
5. Frequent and meaningful interaction with the instructor has an impact on learning outcomes.
6. Course design in distance learning should allow for multiple ways for the student to access the content, interact with the content, and demonstrate learning.
7. Teachers should have a systematic way to determine which technology tools should be utilized.
8. Students today need minimal technology support in distance learning.
9. Despite recent gains, distance learning remains significantly less effective than traditional classroom instruction.
110
10. Instructional objectives and desired learning outcomes should inform decisions regarding learning activities and corresponding assessments.
Open-ended questions
11. In your opinion, what are the instructional best practices in distance learning? Please list them below.
12. Would you be willing to participate in an interview to share more of your feedback regarding distance learning education?
a. Yes b. No
111
INFORMED CONSENT DOCUMENT
SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW Study title: Teacher Perceptions of Best Practices in Distance Learning Education Principal Investigator: Andrew Sheets INTRODUCTION You are invited to join a research study to learn about teacher perceptions of best practices in distance learning education. You are being asked to participate because of your experience in best practices in instruction and distance learning. Participating in a research study is completely voluntary. You may choose not to participate. If you decide to participate, you have the option to withdraw at any time. If you decide not to participate in this study or wish to withdraw at any time, you will not be penalized. WHAT IS INVOLVED IN THE STUDY? If you decide to participate you will be asked to participate in an open ended semi-structured interview. This will take approximately 30 minutes. The investigator may stop the study or remove you from the study at any time she judges it is in your best interest. You can stop participating at any time. If you stop, you will not lose any benefits. RISKS There are minimal risks involving this study. The IRB (International Review Board) of Carson-Newman University has given permission for this study. The possible risks for taking part in this research are: having someone else find out that you were in a research study and the potential loss of confidentiality of data. BENEFITS There are potential benefits for participating in this study. I cannot guarantee that you will personally experience benefits from participating in this study; however, others may benefit in the future from the information I find in this study. The possible benefits for taking part in this research includes gaining opportunities to discuss best practices in distance learning education and possibly generate and share ideas CONFIDENTIALITY We will take the following steps to keep information about you confidential, and to protect it from unauthorized disclosure, tampering, or damage: Names will not be used in the study. Data files will be kept on a password protected computer. To protect your identity as a research subject, we will not share any survey responses by any party outside the investigating team. Responses will remain confidential by: 1) limiting access to information, 2) by storing research data on an encrypted hard drive, 3) and by encrypting laptops that have access to the data.
112
Additionally, all identifiers will be removed. Neither you nor your program’s identity will be identified in any report or publication about this research. INCENTIVES No incentives will be used in this study YOUR RIGHTS AS A RESEARCH PARTICIPANT? Participation in this study is voluntary. You have the right not to participate at all or to leave the study at any time. Deciding not to participate or choosing to leave the study will not result in any penalty or loss of benefits to which you are entitled, and it will not harm your relationship with the researcher or anyone involved in the study. CONTACTS FOR QUESTIONS OR PROBLEMS? Call Andy Sheets at (615) 779-4962 or by email at [email protected] if you have questions about the study, any problems, unexpected physical or psychological discomforts, any injuries, or think that something unusual or unexpected is happening. The chair of this study may also be contacted: Dr. Julia Price, Director of the Carson-Newman University Advanced Programs, [email protected] CONSENT You are making a decision whether or not to participate in a research study. Your signature below indicates that you have decided to participate in the study after reading all the information above and you understand the information in this form. In addition, any questions you may have were answered and you have received a copy of this form for you to keep. Signature ________________________________ Date ________________ Research Participant Signature ________________________________ Date ________________ Researcher
113
INFORMED CONSENT DOCUMENT FOCUS GROUP
Study title: Teacher Perceptions of Best Practices in Distance Learning Education Principal Investigator: Andrew Sheets INTRODUCTION You are invited to join a research study to learn about teacher perceptions of best practices in distance learning education. You are being asked to participate due to your experience with best practices in instruction and experience with distance learning. Participating in a research study is completely voluntary. You may choose not to participate. If you decide to participate, you have the option to withdraw at any time. If you decide not to participate in this study or wish to withdraw at any time, you will not be penalized. WHAT IS INVOLVED IN THE STUDY? If you decide to participate you will be asked to participate in an open-ended focus group. This will take approximately one hour. The investigator may stop the study or remove you from the study at any time he judges it is in your best interest. You can stop participating at any time. If you stop, you will not lose any benefits. RISKS There are minimal risks involving this study. The IRB (International Review Board) of Carson-Newman University has given permission for this study. The possible risks for taking part in this research are: having someone else find out that you were in a research study and the potential loss of confidentiality of data. BENEFITS There are potential benefits for participating in this study. I cannot guarantee that you will personally experience benefits from participating in this study; however, others may benefit in the future from the information I find in this study. The possible benefits for taking part in this research includes gaining opportunities to discuss best practices in distance learning education and possibly generate and share ideas. CONFIDENTIALITY We will take the following steps to keep information about you confidential, and to protect it from unauthorized disclosure, tampering, or damage: Names will not be used in the study. Data files will be kept on a password protected computer. To protect your identity as a research subject, we will not share any survey responses by any party outside the investigating team. Responses will remain confidential by: 1) limiting access to information, 2) by storing research data on an encrypted hard drive, 3) and by encrypting laptops that have access to the data. Additionally, all identifiers will be removed. Neither you nor your program’s identity will be identified in any report or publication about this research. INCENTIVES No incentives will be used in this study
114
YOUR RIGHTS AS A RESEARCH PARTICIPANT? Participation in this study is voluntary. You have the right not to participate at all or to leave the study at any time. Deciding not to participate or choosing to leave the study will not result in any penalty or loss of benefits to which you are entitled, and it will not harm your relationship with the researcher or anyone involved in the study. CONTACTS FOR QUESTIONS OR PROBLEMS? Call Andy Sheets (615) 779-4962 or by email [email protected] if you have questions about the study, any problems, unexpected physical or psychological discomforts, any injuries, or think that something unusual or unexpected is happening. The chair of this study may also be contacted: Dr. Julia Price, Director of the Carson-Newman University Advanced Programs, [email protected] CONSENT You are making a decision whether or not to participate in a research study. Your signature below indicates that you have decided to participate in the study after reading all the information above and you understand the information in this form. In addition, any questions you may have were answered and you have received a copy of this form for you to keep. Signature ________________________________ Date ________________ Research Participant Signature ________________________________ Date ________________ Researcher
115
Appendix B
Interview and Focus Group Protocols
116
Interview Protocol
Name of study: A. Sheets, CN Dissertation, Teacher Perceptions of Best Practices in
Distance Learning Education
Research question: What are teacher perceptions of best practices in distance learning
education?
Introduction (5 Minutes)
• Thank you for coming today
• Introduction of facilitator (myself):
• Name is Andy Sheets
• Currently I am the Head of Upper School @ PCA and a student @ Carson Newman in the Ed.
D. Program.
• In case of problems or concerns provide contact information - me/Dr. P
• Purpose of the discussion:
• The purpose of today’s discussion is to better understand your perceptions of best practices in
distance learning education.
• Informed consent:
• Key points:
• The purpose of the study is to determine teacher perceptions of best practices in distance
learning education.
• This interview is designed to pose no risks to you.
• Your identity will not be linked to your responses. That is, I will not report any information
that could potentially make you identifiable, like your name or personal characteristics.
• The data I collect will remain confidential. Only members involved directly with this
research will have access.
117
• You have the right to review the interview transcript, the material that is collected, and the
data that have been gathered as the result of this session.
• You have the right to withdraw from the study at any time without prejudice. You can
choose to leave or not answer any questions asked should you feel uncomfortable at any
time during our discussion of your experiences.
• The interview will not be disseminated and participants (me and you) will not be
benefitting monetarily or otherwise from its completion.
• Check for understanding and obtain consent:
• Are there any questions about the informed consent information?
• Do I have your consent to proceed with this interview?
• Confirm permission to record the session:
• To help me in my analysis I would like to record our session.
• Only the researcher will access to audio recordings. Transcripts will only be available to
members involved directly with the research.
• Instead of names I will use descriptors in the transcripts.
• As I reflect, summarize, and report on what we have discussed, I will never share information
that would allow you to be identified.
• Check for understanding and obtain consent:
• Are there any questions about the intent to record our session?
• Do I have your consent to record our session?
• Ground rules:
• There are no right or wrong answers—I am interested in your perceptions and experiences.
• Please let me know if you wish to stop or take a break at any time.
118
• Check for understanding:
• Are there any questions regarding the ground rules that were just shared?
Questions
• Question: Can you describe what you learned during your time teaching using distance
learning? What did you find effective? What was ineffective?
1. Potential Probes:
1. Can you tell me more about that?
2. Can you give me an example?
• Question: What do you consider to be best practices in distance learning education?
1. Potential Probes:
1. Why do you believe these to be effective?
2. How have your thoughts changed over time?
• Question: What do you consider to be ineffective practices in distance learning education?
1. Potential Probes:
1. What would that look like?
2. Can you give me an example?
• Question: How are the roles of teacher and learner different in distance learning education
compared with traditional classroom instruction?
1. Potential Probes:
1. Can you give me examples?
2. How have your thoughts changed over time?
119
• Question: Please explain what you believe to be important about the role of technology and
associated tools regarding distance learning education?
1. Potential Probes:
1. Can you give an example of what you mean?
2. How have your perceptions changed regarding tools, platforms, etc.?
• Question: If you had the opportunity to teach using distance learning again, can you describe
what you would do differently?
1. Potential Probes:
1. Why or why not?
2. Can you give some examples?
Wrap-Up (5 Minutes)
• Thank you for coming today.
• Remember that the thoughts you shared with us today will be used to understand perceptions
about distance learning.
• Remember that your identity will remain private. What was said during this interview will
remain confidential.
Confirm contact information—for further contact, questions, and/or concerns.
120
Focus Group Protocol
Name of study: A. Sheets, CN Dissertation, Teacher Perceptions of Best Practices in
Distance Learning Education
Research question: What are teacher perceptions of best practices in distance learning
education?
Introduction (5 Minutes)
• Thank you for coming today
• Introduction of facilitator (myself):
• Name is Andy Sheets
• Currently I am the Head of Upper School @ PCA and a student @ Carson Newman in the Ed.
D. Program.
• In case of problems or concerns provide contact information - me/Dr. P
• Purpose of the discussion:
• The purpose of today’s discussion is to better understand your perceptions of best practices in
distance learning education.
• Informed consent:
• Key points:
• The purpose of the study is to determine teacher perceptions of best practices in distance
learning education.
• This focus group is designed to pose no risks to any of the participants.
• Your identity will not be linked to your responses. That is, I will not report any information
that could potentially make you identifiable, like your name or personal characteristics.
• The data I collect will remain confidential. Only members involved directly with this
research will have access.
121
• You have the right to review the focus group transcript, the material that is collected, and
the data that have been gathered as the result of this session.
• You have the right to withdraw from the study at any time without prejudice. You can
choose to leave or not answer any questions asked should you feel uncomfortable at any
time during our discussion of your experiences.
• The focus group will not be disseminated and participants (me and you) will not be
benefiting monetarily or otherwise from its completion.
• Check for understanding and obtain consent:
• Are there any questions about the informed consent information?
• Do I have your consent to proceed with this focus group?
• Confirm permission to record the session:
• To help me in my analysis I would like to record our session.
• Only the researcher will access to audio recordings. Transcripts will only be available to
members involved directly with the research.
• Instead of names I will use descriptors in the transcripts.
• As I reflect, summarize, and report on what we have discussed, I will never share information
that would allow you to be identified.
• Check for understanding and obtain consent:
• Are there any questions about the intent to record our session?
• Do I have your consent to record our session?
• Ground rules:
• There are no right or wrong answers—I am interested in your perceptions and experiences.
• Please let me know if you wish to stop or take a break at any time.
122
• Check for understanding:
• Are there any questions regarding the ground rules that were just shared?
Questions
• Question: Let’s discuss planning for distance learning. What do best practices in planning
look like for this context? How should the instructor organize course content on via the
LMS?
1. Potential Probes:
1. Can you tell me more about that?
2. Can you give me an example?
• Question: What do you consider to be best instructional practices in distance learning
education? Learning activities - what type, why? Tools?
1. Potential Probes:
1. Why do you believe these to be effective?
2. How have your thoughts changed over time?
• Question: What does effective assessment look like in distance learning?
1. Potential Probes:
1. How does this differ from the traditional classroom?
2. Can you give me an example?
• Question: Let’s discuss the roles of teacher and learner in distance learning? What is the
same, what is different?
1. Potential Probes:
1. Can you give me examples?
123
2. How have your thoughts changed over time?
3. What does this mean for planning and instruction
• Question: What are the SEL considerations for distance learning? What is the emotional
impact on learning from a distance? How does this inform the roles of teacher and learner?
Follow up - how about executive functioning impact on learning - both teacher and learner?
What are best practices to address these?
1. Potential Probes:
1. Can you give an example of what you mean?
2. How have your perceptions changed regarding these considerations?
• Question: What is the best way to create interaction? Teacher? Student? Content?
1. Potential Probes:
1. Why?
2. Can you give some examples?
3. How did you learn this?
Wrap-Up (5 Minutes)
• Thank you for coming today.
• Remember that the thoughts you shared with us today will be used to understand perceptions
about distance learning.
• Remember that your identity will remain private. What was said during this focus group will
remain confidential.
Confirm contact information—for further contact, questions, and/or concerns.
124
Appendix C
Raw Coding Data
125
Code Survey Interview Focus Group
Interaction with Peers 15 56 23
Creativity 7 N/A N/A
Tools/Gamification 14 52 15
Metacognitive Skills 3 20 N/A
Teacher Availability/SEL 21 49 23
Student Independence 3 N/A N/A
Assignment Variety/Interactive 18 61 16
Objective-driven Planning 6 26 N/A
Formative Assessment 5 37 N/A
Clear Structure/Expectations 11 48 28
Student Choice/Differentiation 5 19 12
Active Learning/Real World Application 6 N/A N/A
Frequent Feedback 4 46 18
Provide Rubrics/Examples 3 N/A N/A
126
Appendix D
Survey Data
127
128
129
130
131
In your opinion, what are the instructional best practices in distance learning? Please list them below.
vary the formats of information delivery and practice; give the students a choice of
what kind of activity to complete to learn and/or show mastery of an objective; well -
designed group assignments that ensure interaction from all involved; incorporate
visuals; incorporate real-life examples and application; have regular face-to-face
access to the instructor
Being aware that the two are not the same— assuming that what i do in the
classroom is best for distance is not the case.
Set clear guidelines and expectations/check in with students frequently/provide
feedback (timely)
Small class sizes; frequent and varied touch points (e.g. live video conferencing, pre-
recorded digital content, interactive class projects, message boards, etc.); a learning
management platform that is easy to navigate and keeps communication streamlined;
132
shorter and more intentional live instructional periods. I'm sure there are others I am
not remembering.
Live interaction (zoom), video lesson by teacher, assignments from a text
-A reliable platform (like Google Classroom) that can be well organized and easily
navigated. -Slides and content that grab and keep the attention of the students along
with videoed lessons that are dynamic and concise, when teaching lessons live is not
possible. -Consistent interaction and connection with students-this is crucial.
Teachers need to be constantly checking in with students about their well-being, as
well as assessing their academic progress. -Gamifying content for review through
sites like Quizlet, Nearpod, etc.. -Creative assignments for students to comment and
interact with each other like Flipgrid.
Providing good, professional, instructional videos to help explain the content being
discussed and creating a google document that students need to complete as they
view or after they complete the video.
I would encourage a mixture all several different methods. A combination of large
group/small group meets, recordings of teacher and notes, and use of
textbook/materials available for students.
Fishbole, Flipgrid, any practice that puts my face and voice in as close proximity as
possible to them, Zoom, teach expectations and engagement requirements, Google
classroom tutorials and review, parent partnership through communication, teach new
routines and set goals with students, Google hangout
Consistent interactive opportunities (whole class, smaller group, and really small
group) - This is essential for the classical model. If it was just about info regurgitation,
133
then it wouldn't matter much...but this, as we know, is falling far short of our vocation
Creativity in teaching methods (by extension, creativity in learning methods for
students) - Slides, audio, video, youtube, songs, movies, games, puzzles, writing,
speeches, etc. Consistency in posting expectations, goals, and assignments (set
times on set days so a pattern can be discerned and followed) Office hours for the
teacher (I found myself working all day) Exploring and integrating the best tech to
accomplish the job The students have to know they are cared for on a personal level.
This links back to the first best practice but need emphasis here. Molding a mind is
more than learning info. It's about development of the whole person which includes
mind, body, soul, and spirit. This comes through relationship as much (or more) as
books with info.
Set expectations Engagement Material easily accessible Teacher is easily accessible
for help and feedback.
Best practices would include: having clear objectives (clearer than in-person lessons
due to mode of transmitting information), succinct instructions on
assignments/activities, requiring daily interaction with either the teacher or a peer
student, increased opportunity for accountability, and frequent communication with
students & parents involved to insure integrity in distance learning.
Video Interactive lessons Reading/ writing
Meaningful and relevant assignments Constant formative assessment
Be very specific about how things are to be worked on, completed, and turned in.
Expect to video conference with them a couple times a week to stay in contact with
the students/teachers. Be consistent.
134
1) Communication of classroom rules per distance learning format (Expectations are
the same, but how do the actions change?) 2) Providing clear instructions and
objectives 3) Maintaining positive "classroom" environment - foster discussion,
encourage critical thinking, respect one another. In addition, teachers must be aware
of and meet the social-emotional needs of their students. It can be more difficult to
perceive emotional well-being online. Meeting the emotional needs of the students is
just as important as the content being taught, as each affects the other. 4)
Differentiate and scaffold - students have different academic and learning needs
online than they do in-person. This requires teachers to cater to a wider variety of
needs in order that all students understand and comprehend the content.
Flipped classroom models (students read materials independently and
collaborate/discuss about the material through chat, meetings, discussion boards,
and zoom video meetings.)
Constant contact with students and well laid out digital classroom, assignments,
homework, etc. Easy to navigate so that the material is what is being worked on, not
time spent on the digital system.
Explicitly teach first how to use learning platforms and explain teacher expectations,
allow for differentiated learning opportunities, make live lessons and instructions
accessible at all times, build in opportunities for connectedness and social emotional
support, community building activities, live interaction with students, consistency in
instructional methods and timing of assignments.
Provide frequent and timely feedback. Be resourceful. Make learning active. Keep it
short, but meaningful. Zoom fatigue is real. Provide opportunities for non-educational
135
check-ups among students. Accommodate, but do not capitulate, to the limitations.
Redesign your assessments, but don’t redefine your objectives.
Distance learning can be effective, particularly for driven/self-disciplined students.
Guided reading assignments and corresponding discussion boards (if formatted well)
can be a very efficient way to move through material quickly and well. An excellent
lesson plan and clear objectives are key in any lesson online or not. However, in-
person teaching gives a skilled teacher an opportunity to guide student learning in a
very organic and personalized way that is very difficult to replicate in distance
learning. There is a valuable loss of connection to the material, the teacher, and the
class that occurs. For that reason, the audio/visual components of lessons need to be
strong to help compensate. Engaging slides with corresponding loom/fishbole type
videos are important to help students regain a bit of that connection and to help them
hear as well as see the information. Video responses to the teacher and one another
through apps like flipgrid also help students to engage on a more personal level as
well as work on their rhetoric skills. Rapid assessment of student learning is more
difficult and the number of available assessment methods are reduced in distance
learning, therefore greater attention must be paid to creating regular mini-
assessments. It is important to use open questions, portfolios, short quizzes,
responses, student summaries, etc often to make sure that students are falling
behind unawares to us. Applications like nearpod, peardeck, gimkit, and google
classrooms were key in allowing students to perform multiple types of tasks. The
gamelike format of some of them helped break up the monotony of distance learning
as well.
136
Short and meaningful videos, higher order questions, and quick feedback to frequent
formative assessments.
Daily SEL check-ins, short video lectures with embedded questions, reading, varied
questioning (short answer, comment to classmates, draw and upload a picture),
creative assignments (create a Google Slide, upload a video on Flipgrid)
Engaging all students via video. Recorded instruction (able to review as often as
possible). Providing links to other sources of instruction. Audio meetings. Direct
questioning during meetings. Provision of written, visual, or audio samples of
expectations of assignments. Office hours for contact purposes (questions,
guidance).
As a Chemistry teacher, videos that allow students to still have instruction on the
topic is necessary. Interactive powerpoints with both formal and informal
assessments. More frequent quizzes to be sure they know the direction I am trying to
lead them in with their learning on the subject matter. Virtual labs to keep students
engaged/ apply knowledge learned
Consistency in delivery of instruction and assessments so students are not trying to
figure out how to do school, instruction for students to learn how to seek answers and
where to look, collaborative opportunities for classmates, personality considerations
for students as far as levels and types of interaction.
Daily contact, digitize all assignments
Keep it short and let students research and practice.
Clear instructions, digestible assignments, meaningful objectives, not overwhelming
137
Appendix E
Distance Learning Enrollment Statistics
138
139