teacher’s guide to archaeology at meadowcroft rockshelter...• archaeologyis the science of...
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Teacher’sGuidetoArchaeologyatMeadowcroftRockshelterAComponentofFirstPeoples:ArchaeologyatMeadowcroftRockshelter
ThisprogramisgenerouslyfundedbytheClaudeWorthingtonBenedumFoundation
Page1of32FirstPeoples:ArchaeologyatMeadowcroftRockshelterFirstPeoples:ArchaeologyatMeadowcroftRockshelterTeacher’sGuidetoArchaeology
ContentsTeachingArchaeologyatMeadowcroftRockshelter...................................................................................2
IntersectionofArchaeologyThemeandDisciplines................................................................................4
ArchaeologyGigaPanInquiry...................................................................................................................5
MajorTermsandConcepts......................................................................................................................6
ArchaeologyatMeadowcroft.......................................................................................................................7
FindingaFieldSchool...............................................................................................................................8
PreparingforaFieldSchool.....................................................................................................................8
ExcavationProcess...................................................................................................................................9
DatingMeadowcroftRockshelter..............................................................................................................12
AssigningTimeTermsforTimeBeforetheWrittenWord.....................................................................12
RelativeDating.......................................................................................................................................13
AbsoluteDating......................................................................................................................................14
DiagnosticArtifacts................................................................................................................................15
ReportingtheStratigraphyofMeadowcroftRockshelter..........................................................................16
TheOfficialReports................................................................................................................................17
Tables.........................................................................................................................................................28
StratigraphicProfileofMeadowcroftRockshelter.................................................................................28
ReportingTimeatMeadowcroftRockshelter........................................................................................29
Bibliography...............................................................................................................................................31
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TeachingArchaeologyatMeadowcroftRockshelter
WhenplanningtherevisionsforFirstPeoples:ArchaeologyatMeadowcroftRockshelter,theAdvisoryteammettheirgreatestchallengeindetermininghowtoproceedwiththethemeofArchaeology.TheprimaryaudiencefortheprojectwasK-12students,butarchaeologyisnotadisciplinethatisdirectlydefinedbyanysetofacademicstandards.Mostoftenitisapproachedasanelectivecourseforsecondaryclasses,ortaughtinsocialstudiesclassesforelementarystudents.However,Meadowcroftisknownfirstandforemostasanarchaeologicalsite.Howthentomakethearchaeologicalaspectsofthesiterelevantandinterestingforschoolstudents?
ThefirstchallengeinansweringthisquestionwastodeterminewhatstudentsshouldknowaboutarchaeologyatMeadowcroft,followedbyhowto“teach”it.ThefollowingpointsprovedusefulindetermininghowtodevelopprogrammingandresourcesfortheArchaeologytheme:
• Archaeologyisthescienceofstudyingmaterialevidenceleftbehindbypeopleinthepast.Archaeologyisabranchofthesubjectanthropology,thescientificstudyofallpeopleandwhattheydo,throughouttheworldandatalltimes.Anthropologystudiestheentirehumanexperience,includingourbiology,waysoflife,languages,andobjects.Anthropologydrawsuponthehumanities,socialsciences,andnaturalsciences.
• Archaeologyisusedtorefertotheprocessusedforexcavatingasitetoacquireevidenceofpastcultures,butalsoasthetermappliedtointerpretationsofwhatculturalevidencemightmean.
• Archaeologyborrowsmethodologiesfromnumerousdisciplines.Inparticular,archaeologyatMeadowcroftwoulddrawonmorethan30disciplines.Generally,theexcavationprocessandtheanalysisofretrieveddataareapproachedusingscientificmethods.Interpretationsoftheevidenceusesmethodsfromsocialstudies.
• AtMeadowcroft,exactingscientificmethodologiesresultedintheretrievalofdatafrom11naturalstratasupportedbyradiocarbondatesexceeding16,000years.Thestratigraphyrevealedacontinuousbutintermittenthumanoccupationoverthose16,000years,indicatingthepresenceofallmajorculturalgroupscommonlyassociatedwithPennsylvania.However,materialevidenceandradiocarbondatesindicatedthepresenceofpre-ClovisPaleo-Indiangroups,disruptingpreviouslyacceptedinformationabouttheidentityofthefirstprehistoricNorthAmericans.
MeadowcroftstaffcompiledseveralideasforarchaeologyprogrammingbasedonsuggestionsbytheAdvisoryteam.Intalkswithpilotteachers,theneedfordividingthearchaeologythemeintoaprocess/methodsprogramandafindingsprogramgainedcredenceforseveralreasons.First,pilotteachersfeltthedivisionemphasizedthescientificprocess,explainingwhyscientificmethodologyandinquiryisso
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significanttodiscussionsofMeadowcroft.Second,teachersfeltthatexplorationsofculturalsignificancewereenhancedwhenstudentscouldexplaintheprocessbehinddataacquisition.Third,splittingthethemeensuredbetterprogramflowandtimingforon-siteprogramming.Asaresult,theinformationinthisguideexploresthearchaeologicalprocess,fromthediscoveryofthesite,toitspreparationandexcavation.Theclosingsectionofthisguideexploresthestratigraphyofthesiteandtheevidencescontainedineachlayer.InterpretationsofwhattheevidencemeansandthesignificanceofthePre-ClovisradiocarbondatesandartifactsaredetailedintheCulturalFindingsTeacherGuide.
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IntersectionofArchaeologyThemeandDisciplinesThetablebelowsummarizeshowtheArchaeologythemeoftheFirstPeoples:ArchaeologyatMeadowcroftRocksheltercurriculumcanbeusedtoexplorevariousacademicdisciplines.
ArchaeologyInquiryinFirstPeoples Science History Environmentand
EcologyGeography Technologyand
EngineeringArchaeology Althoughoften
groupedwithsocialsciences,archaeologyusesscientificmethodologyandprocedurestounderstandthelivesofhumansinthepast.AttritionofthesandstonecliffanddepositionofsedimentscreatedthestratigraphyofMeadowcroftRockshelter(geology).Radiocarbonassaywasusedtoscientificallydateculturalevidenceatthesite.
Thepurposeofarchaeologicalinvestigationistorevealpatternsabouthumancultureoverperiodsoftime.
Geofactsandecofactscontributeevidencetothestudyofarchaeology,particularlyregardingtheavailabilityofnaturalresourcesandhumanresponsetoenvironmentalconditions.
Geographycontributesevidenceaboutthemovementofhumansthroughthelandscape,resourcedistribution,humancharacteristicsofthelandscape,andtheinteractionsbetweenpeopleandtheenvironment.
ArchaeologicalevidenceandstratigraphycanbeusedtodemonstratehowprehistorictechnologiesandpracticeschangedovertimeatMeadowcroft.FieldSchoolsatMeadowcroftinthe1970sutilizedearlycomputertechnologiesinthesystematicorganizationofdataduringtheexcavation.
CulturalFindings(addressedintheCulturalFindingsCurriculum)
Elevennaturallyoccurringstrata(geology)and52RadiocarbonassaysindicateacontinuoushumanpresenceatMeadowcroftover16,000years.
AllknownNew-WorldculturalperiodsarerepresentedatMeadowcroft.Archaeologicalevidenceexplainshowthesecultureschangedovertimeandthesignificanceofthechanges.
TheabundantnaturalresourcesandarelativelystableclimateresultedincontinuousbutintermittenthumanuseofMeadowcroftover16,000years.Prehistoricpeoplesadaptedtominorclimaticepisodesandmodifiedtheiractivityatthesitebasedontheseasons.
Throughout16,000years,humanshavemodifiedtheCrossCreekwatershedtomeettheirevolvingneedsinresponsetothechangingenvironments.
Prehistoricpeopleadaptednewtechnologiesandpracticesinresponsetonaturalandculturalevolution.
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ArchaeologyGigaPanInquiryTheFirstPeoplesArchaeologyGigaPaninquiryaddressesthefollowingpointsofinquirywithstudents.
ObjectivesStudentswill...
GradeBands
IndicatorsofMasteryStudentswillbeableto...
• Definearchaeology
• Identifyanddefinethetwocategoriesofculturalevidence:artifactsandfeatures
• Explorehowarchaeologistsuseagridsystemtodocumentthecontextofartifactsandfeatures
• Explorehowarchaeologistscreateachronologyforthesiteusingrelativedating(stratigraphyandtheLawofSuperposition)andscientificdating(radiocarbonassay)
• Discoverthepurposeofthefieldschoolandfieldlab
• Recognizethearchaeologicalmethodologiesandexcavationprocessasstate-of-the-art
11th-12thGrade
• AnalyzethearchaeologicalmethodologiesemployedatMeadowcroftRockshelter
• Differentiatebetweenartifactsandfeaturesandevaluatewhycontextiscrucialtointerpretingthem
• AnalyzeandEvaluaterelativeandscientificdatingmethodsthatareusedtoconstructachronologyofthesite
• Evaluatetheroleandfunctionofafieldschoolinarchaeologicaltraining
• AnalyzethemethodologiesusedatMeadowcroftanddescribehowthesehelpedtoadvancearchaeologicalthinking
8th-10thGrade
• ExplainthearchaeologicalmethodologiesemployedatMeadowcroftRockshelter
• Differentiatebetweenartifactsandfeaturesandevaluatewhycontextiscrucialtointerpretingthem
• Evaluaterelativeandscientificdatingmethodsthatareusedtoconstructachronologyofthesite
• Evaluatetheroleandfunctionofafieldschoolinarchaeologicaltraining
• ExplainthemethodologiesusedatMeadowcroftanddescribehowthesehelpedtoadvancearchaeologicalthinking
5th-7thGrade
• Explainthegoals,processandevidenceofarchaeologyatMeadowcroft
• Describeartifact,featureandcontextandexplainhowtheycontributetoanunderstandingoflifeatasite
• Explainhowarchaeologistsuserelativeandscientificdatingtoestablishchronology;writeanexampleofeachusingdatafromMeadowcroft
• Explainwhyarchaeologistsparticipateinfieldschools• ExplainwhyMeadowcroftisconsideredtobestate-of-
the-art
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K-4thGrade
• RecognizetheMeadowcroftisanarchaeologicalsite• Explainthatarchaeologistsstudyartifactsandfeatures;
giveexamplesofeach• Explainwhatchronologyis• Describeafieldschool• Describewhatitmeansthebea“state-of-the-art”
excavation
MajorTermsandConceptsScatteredthroughoutthecurriculumguideandGigaPanexplorationaretermshighlightedinbold.Theseincludekeyvocabularyterms,concepts,anditemsofsignificance.Teacherscanincorporatethetermsinvocabularyandspellinglists
Terms Concepts IdentificationSignificanceArchaeologyArtifactClosed-SiteContextCulturalevidenceCulturalfeaturesDatumDriplineExcavationFeatureFieldDesignationTagsFieldLabFieldSchoolGeoarchaeologyGridSystemMethodologyMulti-disciplinaryStrata
Stratigraphy/LawofSuperpositionRelativeDatingScientificDating
IdentificationSignificanceAlbertMillerMeadowcroftRockshelterMeadowcroftVillageDr.JamesAdovasio
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ArchaeologyatMeadowcroftThousandsofyearsagosmallgroupsofpeopletraveledtheCrossCreekValleylookingforfoodandshelter.Thesepeopledidnotusewrittenlanguageandwecannotreadaboutwhattheythoughtorhowtheylivedsowestudyarchaeology.Archaeologyisthescienceofstudyingmaterialevidenceleftbehindbypeopleinthepast.
Archaeologyisabranchofthesubjectanthropology,thescientificstudyofallpeopleandwhattheydo,throughouttheworldandatalltimes.Anthropologystudiestheentirehumanexperience,includingourbiology,waysoflife,languages,andobjects.Theseobjectsmadeormodifiedbyhumansaretheartifactsstudiedbyarchaeologists.Artifactsareobjectsproducedorshapedbyhumancraftinthepast.Mostarchaeologicalartifactsareburiedunderground.Thesecluesarerecoveredthougharchaeologicalexcavations.
Archaeologicalsitesoccurthroughouttheworld.Manymoderncities,roads,andotherstructuresarebuiltdirectlyontopofoldsites.Archaeologistscanoftenpredictwherethesesitesarebecausehumanbehaviorpatternstodayarenotverydifferentthanthesettlementpatternsexhibitedbyprehistoricpeople.Archaeologicalsites,likemodernsites,areoftenwherepeoplecanfindtheresourcestomeettheirbasicneeds,includingwater,shelter,andfood.MeadowcroftRockshelterisapredictablearchaeologicalsitebecause
itmeetsthesebasicneeds.
OnNovember15,1955,AlbertMillerwalkedalongCrossCreekonhisfamily’sfarmjustwestofthetownofAvella.Hisfamilyhadownedandfarmednearly800acrestheresince1795.AlbertintendedtoinvestigatetheRockshelternearthefarm’sboundarybecausemanyteenagerswouldhangoutandcampthere.ScatteredundertheRockshelterwerebottlesandtheremainsofcampfires.ThenMillerstumbleduponagroundhogholecontainingbitsofcharcoalandworkedflint.Heenlargedtheholeandfoundadditionalcharcoalandaprojectilepoint.Herealizedthatthesefindingsandtheideallocationofthesiteasacampprobablymeantthatmoreartifactswerebeneathhisfeet.Albertknewthatthehiddenstoryrequiredcarefulexcavationifthepartsofthestoryweretomakesense.Hewaitedtocross
Figure1AlbertMiller'sJournalnotinghisdiscoveryoftheRockshelter
ReadMoreAbouttheDiscoveryofMeadowcroftRockshelter:
40yearsofArchaeologyattheMeadowcroftRockshelterdiscussesAlbertMiller’sdiscoveryofMeadowcroftRockshelter,hissearchforanarchaeologisttoexcavatethesite,andtheUniversityofPittsburghfieldschoolsheadedbyDr.JamesAdovasio.ThepiecewouldbeusefulascontentforreadingactivitiesthatintroducestudentstoMeadowcroftRockshelter(2pages)
LegacyoftheLandexplorestherolesofDelvinandAlbertMillerinestablishingMeadowcroftMuseumonaportionoftheirfamily’sfarm.IncudesalengthyquotefromAlbertMillerthatdetailshisdiscoveryandinvestigationofagroundhogholeatMeadowcroftRockshelterwhicheventuallyresultedintheprofessionalarchaeologicalinvestigationofthesite.ThearticleisusefulfordiscussionsofpreservationandconservationandforAlbertMiller’sfirst-personexplanationofhisexplorationoftheRockshelter(6pages)
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pathswithaprofessionalarchaeologistwhowouldbringthepropermethodologytoanexcavationoftheRockshelter.
FindingaFieldSchoolIn1972,Dr.JamesAdovasio,anarchaeologistattheUniversityofPittsburgh,waschallengedtolocateasitelocatedwithinworkingdistanceofPittsburghtouseasafieldschoolforstudentsintheArchaeologicalResearchProgram.Thesitewastoserveasthefocalpointofamulti-yearresearchenterprise.Thesite’srequirementsincludedaccessibility,manageablesize(under50,000acres),potentiallong-termprehistoricoccupation,andtheabsenceofanypreviousextensiveresearchactivitiesinthearea.Mostimportantly,thesitewastohaveatleastonerelativelyundisturbedclosed-site,eitheracaveorarockshelter.Dr.Adovasio’spreviousresearchwasinclosed-sitecontexts,whichallowforbetterpreservationoforganicmaterials.Suchsitesareoftenoccupiedandreoccupiedintermittentlyforthousandsofyearsandcanbeusedaschronologicalanchorpointsforgivenareas.
Throughoutthewinterof1972-1973,wordcirculatedthroughoutsouthwesternPennsylvaniathattheUniversityofPittsburghwaslookingforarockshelterorcavesitetoconductafieldschool.AprofessoratCaliforniaStateCollege(nowCaliforniaUniversityofPennsylvania)informedDr.AdovasioofaRockshelteratMeadowcroftVillage,areconstructednineteenth-centurystyle“village”developedbyAlbertandDelvinMilleronaportionoftheirfamilyfarm.Afterviewingthesite,Dr.AdovasiodeterminedthatMeadowcroftcouldserveasanexcellentfieldschoolbecauseofitsproximitytoPittsburgh,theintactnatureofthesite,thepresenceoftherockshelterandampleabundantresources,andtheproperty’ssituationandoperationasMeadowcroftVillage.
PreparingforaFieldSchoolTheinvestigationatMeadowcroftRockshelterstartedpriortobreakingground.Firstthearchaeologicalteamconductedsurveysofthelocalfloraandfaunathenmappedthesitetopography.AllvegetationinandaroundtheRockshelter,onthetalus(brokenrockdebris)slopeinfrontoftheshelter,andonthecontiguousuplandslopewasinventoried.ThentheyclearedthelandinandaroundtheRockshelter,strippingallvegetationwithin20m(65.6feet)eastandwestofthemid-pointonthemodern-dayRockshelteroverhangwasstrippedtogroundlevel.
ReadMoreAboutDr.AdovasioandtheMeadowcroftFieldSchoolTheGreatJourneyisanautobiographicalaccountofhowDr.JamesAdovasiocametobeinvolvedwiththetwomosthighlycontestedpre-ClovisNewWorldarchaeologicalsites:MeadowcroftRockshelterandMonteVerdeinChile.Adovasiodetailshisworkwithclosed-sitemethodologiesandperishabletechnologies.Thearticleisofgreatuseinexplainingthetwistingpathsofacareerinacademia;studentsthinkingofpursuingsecondaryandpost-secondaryeducationwillbenefitfromreadingAdovasio’sexperience.Thearticleisusefulforcareerexplorationandpresentsahumanfacetoarchaeology.
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Withthephysicalexcavationspacereadied,archaeologistsestablishedagridsystemtoenablethereckoningofallhorizontalcoordinates.Thegridsystemoriginallyconsistedof2m(6.6ft.)squareunits,whichwaslatermodifiedinto1m(3.3ft.)squareunitsduringthe1974andlaterfieldseasons.Inaddition,0.5mand0.25m(1.6and0.8ft.)squareunitswereemployedwhenrequiredformorepreciserecording.Last,apermanentelevationdatumandsubsidiarydatawereaffixedtothenorthwalloftheRockshelterfromwhichallverticalmeasurementsweretaken.Archaeologistswouldrecordthelocationofallexcavateddatabyusingthegridsystemcoordinatesandtheverticaldatawithinthesite.
ArchaeologistsarrivedatMeadowcroftonJune15,1973forthefirstsummerfieldschool.Duringthenextsixfieldseasons(springandsummer),amulti-disciplinaryteamofexpertsworkedside-by-sidewithcollegestudentsforatotalof417excavationdaysof12to14hours.AdditionalworkwasconductedunderDr.AdovasiowiththeMercyhurstArchaeologicalInstitute,MercyhurstCollegeinthe1990sassitemaintenance.
ExcavationProcessDr.Adovasio’steamdesignedtheexcavationatMeadowcrofttogatherallpossibledata.Everystepoftheprocesswasplannedanddocumentedtopreservethecontextofanyrecovereddata.Contextisthethree-dimensionallocationofanartifactorfeatureinrelationtoalltheotherartifacts,features,geofacts,orecofactsaroundit,includingsoil.Theexcavationprocessistediousbecauseoncethesoilisremovedfromasite,itcannotbereplaced.Archaeologyisadestructivescience:evidenceonceremovedcannotberecreated.Greatcareisnecessarytoensurethatallinformationisrecordedandrecordedaccuratelysincetherearenosecondchances.
Excavationsbeganbyopeningasouthtonorthtrenchthatstartedoutsidethedriplineandworkedintothedryportionoftheshelter.Thedriplineisasmallbutdistinctpatterninthesoilthatformswhenrainwaterisfocusedtodripincertainplaces;inthiscase,itisthelineofwherewaterdripsofftheRockshelteroverhang.Thistrenchprofilerevealedthevariousstrataandprovidedabaselinesiteprofilethatspannedtheexteriorandinteriorportionsoftheshelterrelativetothedripline.Thetrenchwasexpandedasthesituationdictatedin1973,andsubsequentfieldseasonsintoitspresentconfiguration.
Archaeologistsexcavatedeachsquareofthegridusingtrowels,dentalpicksorothersmallutensilsasneeded,whilefollowingthenaturalstratigraphyand,whenpossible,microstratigraphyoftheshelter.Whenanaturalstratumwassufficientlythick,itwassubdividedintoarbitrary5or10cmexcavationlevels.Strataandmicro-stratawereinitiallydefinedbysubjectivecriteriaincludingtexture,apparent
ViewlookingwestofMeadowcroftRockshelterpriortoexcavation(PhotographybyDr.JamesAdovasio,May1972)
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composition,friability,degreeofcompactionand,onamorelimitedbasis,color.Objective,quantifiableverificationsoftheintegrityoftheseunitswaslaterprovidedbychemical,grainsize,andcompositionalanalysis.
Standardizedfieldformswereusedtomapandmakenotesabouteachlevelwithineachsquareatthesite.Thedatawerecodifiedandcomputerizedeitheronsite(1974andlater)orinthearchaeologicallaboratoryattheUniversityofPittsburgh.Atthebeginningofthe1974season,phonelineswerestrungintotheshelterandaTTYcomputerterminal(teletype:adesksizedkeyboardwithcomputerpaperfeedthatprintedoutallcommandsandresponses,ithadnovisualmonitordisplay)wassetupintheshelter.TheTTYterminalwasconnectedtotheUniversityofPittsburghmainframeoverthephonelineusinga300-baudacousticalmodem.TheTTYterminalwasusedtoinputdataasitwasgeneratedonthesiteforfasterprocessingandanalysis,whichinturnaidedindetermininghowtheexcavationswouldproceed.Inadditiontostandardizedfieldforms,archaeologistskeptextensivefieldnotes,torecordtheirobservations,thoughtsandnon-standardizedinformation.
Allfillfromthestrataexceptthedeepestoccupationalunit,StratumIIa,wasdry-processedthrough¼inch(0.6cm)meshhardwarecloth.FillfromStratumIIawaswetprocessedwithwaterthrough1/8-inch(0.3cm)meshhardwarecloth.Ifthefillwasfromstratumfillorfromafeatureunrelatedtofiring(i.e.notahearthorfire-floor),itwasprocessedusingwaterflotationthroughgradedsieves.Ifasamplewasderivedfromafirefeature,itwasalsoprocessedthroughgradedsievesusinghydrogenperoxideflotation.Thecombinationofdry/wetscreeningandflotationproceduresresultedintherecoveryofovertwomillionseparateitemsfromMeadowcroftRockshelter.Theseitemscanbesortedintoseveralcategories,includingartifacts,geofacts,andecofacts.
CulturalFeatures,orareasofhumanactivity,werequarteredorcross-sectionedandmappedinthreedimensions.Featuresincludefirepits,garbagepits,workspaces,etc.Theseareascannotberemovedfromthefieldbecausetheymustbedestroyedtobeunderstood.Archaeologistscarefullydocumentedeachculturalfeature.Excavationprofilesweredrawnevery1mor0.5m(3.3or1.6ft.)intervalsthroughouttheexcavation.Thedistributionofrockspallsfromtheshelterroofalsodeterminedtheamountoffloorspaceavailabletoprehistoricoccupantsthroughtime,andspecialcarewasmadetomapvirtuallyallspallsthatwerelargerthan4squaredcentimeters(1.6squareinches).Therecordingandcomputerizationofthecoordinatesforroofspalls,culturalfeatures,otherculturalandnonculturalremains,permittedlaterproductionoflarge-scale“floor”mapsforthestrataandmicrostateoftheshelter.Thesemapshelpedarchaeologists“draw”thehumanandgeologicalactivityatthesiteatanygiventime.
Inadditiontoexcavatingculturalmaterials,archaeologistssearchedforcluesaboutthenaturalenvironmentsurroundingtheRockshelter.Theseecofactsaredatathatrevealsinformationaboutpastenvironmentsandsourcesincludingpollen,plantremains(includingcharcoalfromburnedplants),andanimalbones.MuchoftheecologicaldatafromMeadowcroftwasrecoveredusingthefloatationprocessmentionedabove.Duringtheflotationprocess,excavatedsoilwasplacedinatubwithascreenbottom.Standinginflowingwater,archaeologistssubmergedthebottomofthetubinthewaterwithin
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afewinchesoftherim.Finegrainedsoilpassedthroughthesievebottomwithwater.Floatingmaterialswereskimmedandputinapantodry.Anyheavymaterialssanktothebottomandwereremovedforanalysis.Whentheskimmedmaterialsweredry,theywerecarefullysortedintocategoriesthatincludedseeds,grainsofpollen,andotherfragmentsofplants(includingcharcoalfromburnedplants).Theheaviermaterials,whichincludeanimalbonesandmolluskshells,wentthroughasimilarsortingandclassificationprocess.Thedatagatheredfromflotationhelpedarchaeologistsunderstandtheplantsandanimalsthatlivedaroundpre-historicMeadowcroft.
ArchaeologistscollectednumeroussamplestogaininsightaboutthecompositionofgeologicmaterialsinsideandsurroundingtheRockshelter.ThesegeofactshelpedarchaeologistsunderstandhowtheRockshelterstratigraphyformed.Geofactsaredatathatrevealsinformationabouttheageandformationoflandforms.Onegroupofsamplescutfromselectedareasacrossthesite,revealedthecompositionofallmajorstrata.Thesesampleswerealsoanalyzedforgeochemicalcomposition,traceelementanalysis,andmicro-faunalstudy.Anothersamplecollectedyear-roundbeginningin1974andcontinuingthrough1978establishedthetype,characterandvolumeofmodernsedimentationatthesite.Thesefindingswerecomparedwiththetemperature,humidity,precipitationandotherfactorstogaininsightintomodernsedimentationattheRockshelter.Athirdstudymeasuredthesheetwashaffectingthesite,providingagaugebywhichtoexaminethecolluvialpileattheRockshelter.ThefinalgeologicalsamplingstudiedtheerosionattheRockshelterface.
AttheendofeachfieldseasonatMeadowcroft,archaeologistsconstructedawoodenshelterovertheexcavation.Theenclosureprotectedthedigfromweatherandfromvandalism.Allexcavatedmaterialsfromtheseason,includingartifacts,floral,faunal,geologicalsamples,fieldnotes,filmoftheexcavations,andtheTTYterminalweretransportedtotheUniversityofPittsburghorprojectaffiliatedinstitutionsanduniversitiesforanalysisbytheappropriatespecialists.
AnarchaeologicalsitelikeMeadowcroftgeneratesalotofinformation.However,muchoftheinformationisoflittleusetonon-specialistswithoutsomeinterpretation.Archaeologistspublishedaseriesofinterimreportsonthedataderivedfromthe1970seraexcavations.ThematerialsinthesereportsaremorecomprehensivethanmostfinalreportsandprovidemostofthedataandsourcematerialforthiscurriculumandothereducationalprogramsabouttheMeadowcroftRockshelter.Whilesomearchaeologistscontestedtheresultsoftheexcavation(readmoreintheCulturalFindingsResources),allreviewersagreedthatthemethodologyandprocessesemployedontheMeadowcroftprojectwerestate-of-the-artandreflectedbestpracticesforclosedarchaeologicalsites.
DatingMeadowcroftRockshelter
MeadowcroftRockshelter’sstorycoversalongperiodoftime:theearliestgeologicdatesgobacknearly300millionyears.Individualarchaeological,geologicalorecologicalfactsareinterestingandimportant,buttheyoftenrepresentasinglemomentintime.Togainunderstandingofhowandwhythingschanged,archaeologistsandotherspecialistsmustlookforpatternsthatoccuroverbroadspansoftime.GeologichistoryoftheMeadowcroftRockshelterandCrossCreekwatershedoccurredslowlyovermillionsofyears.Bycontrast,theculturalstoryofthesiteiscondensedinthepast16,000years.Thesearevastamountsoftimethatentaildifferentmethodsofreporting.ThediscussionbelowisofferedtohelpexplainthedifferenttermsforexpressingthepassageoftimeandthereasonsfordoingsoindiscussionsofMeadowcroftRockshelter.
AssigningTimeTermsforTimeBeforetheWrittenWord
MeadowcroftRockshelterisprimarilyaprehistoricarchaeologicalsite.Meadowcroftspans16,000yearsofhumanoccupation;onlyaboutthelast300yearscanbecorroboratedwiththewrittenrecord.Mostofhumanhistoryissimilarlyprehistoric,oroccurringbeforetheadventofwrittenlanguage.Archaeologyisthereforetheonlymeanswehaveofunderstandingthelivesofpeoplepriortowrittenhistory.
Sinceprehistoryoccurredbeforewrittenlanguage,archaeologistsmustfindwaystodesignatethepassageoftime.Initially,attheturnofthenineteenthtothetwentiethcentury,thepassageoftimeatarchaeologicalsiteswasbasedontheChristiancalendar.TimewasrecordedbasedonthelifeofChrist:A.D.referredtoAnnoDomini(AfterChrist),whileB.C.referredtoeventsthathappenedBeforeChrist.Similarly,allartifacts,regardlessoforigin,wereidentifiedbycomparisonswiththoseofOldWorldarchaeologypertainingtoancientGreece,RomeandEgypt.However,withanincreaseinprofessionalanthropologicalstudy,theoldstandardsfordatingprovedinadequateandculturallybiased.
Archaeologyhascomealongwayfromthenineteenth-centurytechniquesusedfordatingartifactsandsites.Today,determiningthe
NativeAmericanCulturalPeriodsatMeadowcroftRockshelter
ArchaeologistsatMeadowcroftusefivedesignatorstoexplainthechangesbetweenculturalgroupsatMeadowcroft.Theyare:
HistoricorContact(1550-1750AD)
Woodland(1550-2700BP)
Transitional(2700-4300BP)
Archaic(4300-10,000BP)
Paleoindian(10,000-16,500BP)
TheWoodlandandArchaicperiodsaresubdividedintoEarly,MiddleandLate.Eachculturalperiodhasauniquesetofcharacteristicsthatdifferentiateitfromtheotherperiods.Mostofthecharacteristicsrelatetotechnologyasevidencesinmaterialculture:distinctionsintools,ceramics,basketryandotherartifacts.
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ageofartifactsandarchaeologicalsitesremainsanimportantstepininterpretingthesignificanceofasite.Fortunately,methodsforassigningdatesareincreasinglyaccurate:since1950,advancesinatomicsciencehavemadeitpossibletoassignprecisedatesderivedbymeasuringthepassageoftimeittakesforradio-carbon14todecay.Similarly,archaeologistshavedevelopednewsetsofdiagnosticartifactsthatapplytotheNewWorld.Byreportingtimeinrelativeandscientificways,archaeologistsarebetterequippedtocommunicatethepassageoftimeatexcavations.
RelativeDating
Thebasicmethodforassigningagetoarchaeologicalsitesisthroughstratigraphy,thelayeringofrockandsoilinanarchaeologicalsite.TheprinciplebehindstratigraphyistheLawofSuperposition.TheLawofSuperpositionindicatesthatartifactsclosesttothesurfacearenewest,whiledeeperartifactsareolder.Asarchaeologistsexcavate,thestratigraphyofthesiterevealsitself,withlayersofculturalactivitystackedontopofoneanother.Asstrataareuncovered,theyarecarefullydocumentedsincetheactofexcavationremovesthelayers.ArchaeologistsusestratigraphyandtheLawofSuperpositiontoassignrelativedatestoasite.Thedatesdonottellaspecifictime,butinsteaddemonstratethatobject#1isolderthanobject#2because#1wasfoundinalowerlayer.
AtMeadowcroftRockshelter,stratigraphicexcavationentailedsiftingthroughelevenlayersofinformationtodeterminetherelativeagesofeachculturallayerastheyrelatetooneanother.ThereareelevennaturalstrataatMeadowcroft,assignednumericaldesignatorsbeginningwiththeoldestStratum(I)andproceedingtothelatest(XI).StratumIistheoldestanddeepestlayer,whileStratumXIistheuppermostandnewestlayer.Onestrata,StratumIIisfurthersubdividedintoStratumIIaandStratumIIbbyarockfall.
ThefirstpeoplevisitedMeadowcroftRockshelterwhenStratumIIwasthesurfacefloorunderneaththeoverhangingroof.ThesepeopleusedPaleo-technologies,includinglargespearpointsliketheMillerlanceolate.TheystayedattheRockshelterforshortperiodsoftimebeforemovingon.Slowly,othergroupsofpeoplecametothesite,stayedandthenmovedon.Eachtimepeoplecametothesite,theyleftevidenceoftheiractivitiesintheformsofcharcoalfromfires,bonesandseedsfromfood,ortoolsthatwereforgotten.
MeadowcroftRockshelterStratigraphy
Strata CulturalPeriod
XI Historic
X LatePre-historic
IX LatePre-historic
VIII LatePre-historic
VII LateWoodland
VI Late/MiddleWoodland
V Early/MiddleWoodland
IV EarlyWoodland
III Terminal/EarlyWoodland
IIb MiddleArchaic
IIaupper EarlyArchaic
IIamiddle Paleoindian
IIalower Paleoindian
I Culturallysterile
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Overalongperiodoftime,geologicalactivityaroundtheRocksheltercausedsedimenttoentertheoverhangandburyevidenceofhumanactivity.Ittook13,000yearsforthe40-130inchesofsedimentthatmakeupStrataIItobedepositedontheflooroftheRockshelter.Eachstratigraphiclayerformedinasimilarfashion:sedimentwouldentertheRockshelter,graduallycoveringthepreviousfloorandburyinganyculturalartifactsintheprocess.
RelativeDatingisbasedonstratigraphy.Asmentionedabove,StratumIIislowerandthereforeolderthanStratumIII.Stratigraphydoesnottellustheageofartifactsinyears,butitdoeshelpustounderstandwhichartifactsareolderbasedontheirverticallocationwithinanexcavationsite.
AbsoluteDating
Incontrasttorelativedating,absolutedatingassignsahighlyaccuratedaterange,measuredinyearsbeforethepresent,toanartifact.Thisdate,orrangeofdates,isderivedfromcarefullaboratoryanalysisthathasoriginsinnuclearresearchduringWorldWarII.Since1950,advancesinthistechnologyhaveenabledscientiststomoreaccuratelymeasurethepassageoftimeexperiencedbyanobject.Thiscommontypeofabsolutedatingisreferredtoascarbon-14(C14)orradiocarbondating.
ArchaeologistsuseCarbon-14datingtodeterminehowoldanorganicsubstanceis.Alllivingthingscontainandabsorbcarbon,bothC12andC14,theunstable,radioactiveisotope.Assoonassomethingdies,theunstableC14beginstodecayintonitrogen.Whenhalf(50%)ofthenormalamountofC14inalivingthinghasdecayedintonitrogen,onehalf-lifeofcarbon-14hadelapsed.Scientistsknowthatthehalf-lifeofcarbon-14is5730years.Bymeasuringthepercentageoftheremainingofcarbon-14,wecancalculatetheageofanartifact.CarbondatesfromtheMeadowcroftRockshelterplacetheearliestculturalevidenceataround16,000yearsold.Whilehighlyaccurate,thecarbon-14datescanonlymeasuretheageoforganicsubstancesuptoabout50,000yearsold.Fortunately,humanoccupationatMeadowcroftfallswithinthatspanoftimeandalltheculturalartifactsatthesitearerelatedtoculturalfeaturescontainingcharcoalderivedfromwood.
Carbon-14datesarerecordedasanumberfollowedbytheletters“YBP”orjust“BP”.Theselettersstandfor“YearsBeforePresent”or“BeforePresent”.Theyear1950isusedasthepresent.Therefore,somethingwiththecarbondate10,000BPwoulddatebackto10,000yearsbefore1950.Asseenabove,Carbon-14datesarenotreallydates.Insteadtheyarenumbersthatreflectthepassageoftimesinceanorganicobjectdied.ThisnumbercanvarybecausetheamountofC-14intheatmospherechangesyeartoyear.Toaccountforthedeviation,Carbon-14datesmustbecalibrated,orcorrected,usingdendrochronological(tree-ring)recordsorcomputersoftwareprograms.MostCarbon-14datesarethereforereportedasanumber±anumber,forinstance,10850±870BP.
ToachievethedatesassignedtoMeadowcroftRockshelter,archaeologistssubmittedonehundred(100)charcoalsamplestotheRadiationBiologyLaboratoryoftheSmithsonianInstitution.OneadditionalsamplewassubmittedtotheDicarbRadioisotopeCompany.Allbuttwoofthesampleswere
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derivedfromfirepitsorcharcoallenseswithinthedepositsundertheRockshelter.Theothertwosampleswerebasketryfragments.Radio-carbondatingascribestheinitialoccupationoftheRocksheltertothefifteenthmillenniumB.C.,andthemostrecentradiocarbondatesassociatedwithaboriginalhumanmaterialsisA.D.1265±80(685YBP).
DiagnosticArtifacts
Archaeologistshaveoneadditionaltoolthatiscommonlyusedformakingsenseofwhenhumanscreatedorusedaspecificartifact.Thistechniqueisthecomparisonofcertaintypesofculturalartifactswithotherartifactsofknownageandorigin.Diagnosticartifactsareobjectsthathavestylistictraitsthataredistinctiveduringacertainperiod,usuallytheseartifactsarelithicprojectilepointsorceramics.
Thefunctionsofartifactsremainthesameoverlongperiodsoftimeandthroughdiverseculturalgroups:articlesofclothing,vesselsforfoodstorageandcooking,toolsforhunting,etc.However,astimepasses,changesinstyleimpacttheappearanceofartifacts.Thisisespeciallytrueforartifactsthatsurviveingreatnumbers,suchasceramics,lithics,and,forlatersites,glasswareandmetals.Archaeologistsusethestylisticcharacteristicsofartifactstounderstandtheevolutionofobjects.Theyillustratethesefindingsontypologychartsthatdemonstratewhencertaintechnologiescameintouseandhowtheychangedovertime.Thehistoryofanartifactcanbetracedonthesequencingchart,withdeviationsindicatingpreferencesbetweendifferentgroupsofpeopleorchangesinavailablematerials.Whenadditionalartifactsareunearthedatanyarchaeologicalsite,theycanbecomparedwithknowndevelopmentdatesontypologycharts.Comparisonswithknowntypesallowarchaeologiststomakeinformedestimatesabouttheageofanartifact.
Usuallyallthetechniquesareusedtodescribetheageofanartifact.Usuallyallthetechniquesareusedtoassignadatetoanartifact,rarelyjustonemethodisused.Anobject’splaceinthestratigraphyofasitecanassignarelativedatewhencomparedwithotherobjectswithinthesite.Thecontextoftheartifactcanalsobeusedtoexplainhoworwhentheartifactwasused.Forinstance,anarchaeologistmaydeterminethatapotsherdfoundnearanEarlyWoodlandcookinghearththatisinStratumIVatMeadowcroftmustalsodatetotheEarlyWoodlandperiodbecausetheshardisdirectlyassociatedwiththecookinghearth.TheLawofStratigraphydemonstratesthatthesherdandthehearthmustdatetothesameperiodsincetheyarefoundinthesamelayer.ComparisonswiththestyleofsimilarshardsfromMeadowcroftandothersiteswouldhelptoverifythepot’smanufactureintheEarlyWoodlandPeriod.Finally,byradiocarbon14datingthecharcoalassociatedwiththeshard,anarchaeologistmightfindthatthecharcoaldatesto3050YBPor340±90BCto1100±85BC.Thescientificallyderivedradiocarbondatefromaculturalfeaturesharingthesamecontext,theassociationwithotherdiagnosticartifacts,andtheshard’splacementwithinMeadowcroft’sstratigraphyallsuggestoriginsinthesameperiod.
ReportingtheStratigraphyofMeadowcroftRockshelterThisessaywascompiledfromseveralofthereportspublishedinMeadowcroft:CollectedPapersontheArchaeologyof
MeadowcroftRockshelterandtheCrossCreekDrainage.Abibliographyoftheseworksislistedattheendofthisessay.Alldataiscitedtothespecificreportinthetext.
Chronologyisthebackboneofarchaeology.Archaeologistshavenumeroustoolsforestablishingthechronologyofasite,butthesinglemostbasictoolisstratigraphy.Stratigraphyisthelayeringofmaterialsinanarchaeologicalsite.
ThestratigraphyofMeadowcroftRockshelterformedoveralongperiodoftimeasnaturalgeologicalforcesessentiallyfilledtheRockshelterbackin.BytheendofthePleistocene,CrossCreekhaderodeddowntothebedrockthatwouldserveasStratumI,leavingtheRockshelterhighanddryabovethefloodplainofCrossCreek.Gradually,overthousandsofyears,sedimentsweredepositedundertheroofoverhang-fillinginthespacetodepthsofover15feetinsomeareas-untilthegroundlevelwasatthegroundhogholediscoveredbyAlbertMillerin1955.
StratigraphyatMeadowcroftismadeupofcolluvium,fill(sedimentandsoil)depositedbygravityordownslopemovement.Therearenoabruptdemarcationsinthecolluvialfilltoindicatetothenakedeyewhereonestratumstopsandanotherbegins.Instead,eachstratumiscomposedofvariouscolluviallayersandinterfaces.Eachwasmeticulouslyexcavatedusingthebeststratigraphicmethodologyavailableinthe1970s.Precisegeologicalanalysiswasnecessarytodistinguishthelayers,someofwhichweresofinethattheyhadtoberemovedwithrazorblades.Theselayersvaryinthickness,depositionalmode,forceandrate.ThegeologicprocessofcolluvialdepositionisdetailedintheFirstPeoplesGeologymaterials.
Archaeologistsexcavatedfromthe1973surfacedownward,assigningeachstratumanumberedtagastheyencounteredit.Thetagsweremountedtothewalloftheexcavationsitetohelpmaintainthe
ReadingStratigraphyforTeachers
Inthediscussionbelow,bothtextandtablesareusedtosummarizethestratigraphicfindingsatMeadowcroftRockshelter.TeacherscanusethisinformationtoprovidedataforclassroomactivitiesortoexplainwhatstudentsareseeingwhentheyexaminetheGigaPanphotographsoftheinterioroftheRockshelter.
Thetablesareorganizedtodemonstratestratigraphythroughchangeovertime:Radiocarbon(scientific)dates,diagnosticartifacts,andassignedculturalperiodsarenoted.Archaeologistsusetheradiocarbonassaysanddiagnosticartifactstocomparewithotherknownsitesbeforeassigningtheculturalperiod.
ThestratigraphicfindingsareinterpretedintheCulturalSignificanceTeacher’sGuide.
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contextforanydataretrievedfromthelayer.Thetagsarelabeledwith“F”+anumber.The“F”standsfor“fielddesignation,”meaningacriticallocationwithintheexcavation.Manyfielddesignationtagsremainintheexcavationsitetoday:eachwhitetagaffixedtothewallisafielddesignationtag.
Meadowcroft’sstratigraphyprovedtobeexceptionallydeepandintact:archaeologistsultimatelyfoundelevenwell-definedstratigraphicunitsatthesite.ThestrataarenumberedfromStratumI(F99),theoldestanddeepestunit,toStratumXI(F3,F8),theuppermostandyoungest.Eachstratumrepresentstheperiodoftimewhenthelayerwasonthesurface.ApplyingtheLawofSuperpositiontothestratigraphy,archaeologistscoulddeterminethatthedeepestmaterials(StratumIIa)wereoldest.Theirpremisewassubstantiatedbyradiocarbonassayswererunonsamplesfromthisandotherstrata,firmlydatingtheelevenstrataandvariousoccupationsoftheRockshelter.
TheOfficialReportsTheofficialreportsonthestratigraphyofMeadowcroftRockshelter,summarizedbelow,explainthreeprimarycategoriesofinformation.First,thecomposition,thickness,continuity,andlocationofeachstratasuggeststhegeologicstratigraphyofthesite.ThisinformationexplainsthegeologicforcesthatfilledtheRockshelterbackin,creatingthestratigraphy.Secondly,theorderingofthelayersprovidesageneralmarkerusedforrelativedating,calledtheLawofSuperposition.UsingtheLawofSuperposition,archaeologistscouldconcludethatitemsinStratumIIIareyoungerthanthoseinStratumIIbecausethoseofStratumIIIarefoundaboveStratumII.Thisdatingwasthensubstantiatedwhenpossiblethroughradiocarbonassay,scientificdatingwhichwhencorrected,yieldsanapproximatedatefororganicmaterialsinaspecificlayer.Lastly,thereportsfocusontheappearanceofculturalmaterialsineachlayerandthechangesindiagnosticartifactsandsiteuseatthesiteatatimewheneachlayerwasatthegroundlevel.
Thestratigraphyishererepresentedindescendingorder,asitwouldhavebeenexcavated.StratumXIrepresentsthesurfaceofthegroundwhentheMeadowcroftfieldschoolscommencedin1973.
StratumXIStratumXIwasfoundatthetopofeveryexcavatedunitandisconsideredcontinuousacrossthesite.ItoverliesStratumXinsidethedriplineandStratumIXoutsidethedriplineandinsidethedriplinewhereStratumXdoesnotoccur.Itrangesinthicknessfrom12to15cm(4.7to5.9in)andismostlysiltyclaywithsomelargerparticlesbroughtinbysheetwash.A
SummaryforStratumXI(F3,F8)RadiocarbonDateRange
DiagnosticArtifacts CulturalPeriod
175B.P.+50years(A.D.1775,uncorrected;SI3013)
Lithic(Fitzgibbons1982:102):2ChesserNotchedpointsCeramics(Johnson1982:146):WatsonWaresherdsMonongahelawaresherds
Historic
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singleradiocarbondatewasobtainedoncharcoalfromafeatureinthislevel.Fourfirepits/hearthsandonedogburialwererecordedinStratumXI(Stuckenrathetal.,1982:79).
TheculturalmaterialsfromStratumXIwereassignedprimarilytotheHistoricEuroamericanPeriod.However,afewprehistoricartifactswerealsorecovered(Stuckenrathetal,1982:78).WatsonwareandMonongahelawaresherdswererecoveredfromslumpedmatrixfromlevelsVIII-XI(depositionsthatmovedfromtheiroriginalpositionbecauseofnaturalsettlingactions).Perishableremainsincludedonequadrilateralunpointedwoodentwig,onesquarecutonequarterroundwoodentwig,onebeveledwoodchip,twoawltipsandoneutilizedantlertine(Stile1982:138).Thelargestamountsofnutshell,intermsofgrossweight,wererecoveredfromStratumXI.Walnut/butternut,hickoryandacornshellswererecoveredalongwithseedsfromCercissp.(rebud)andArctiumsp.(burdock).
StratumX
StratumXisonlyfoundinthewestern3/4softheexcavatedunitsinsidethedriplineanddoesnotoccuroutsidethedripline.ItliesaboveStratumIXandbelowStratumXIinsidethedripline.StratumXvariesinthicknessfrom1to5cm(0.4to2.0in)andiscomposedprimarilyofcoarserparticles(>0.4mm)withsomesiteandclay.Noradiocarbondateswereobtainedforthisstratumsincecharcoalsamplesweretoosmalltoprocess.Itshouldbeyoungerthan600B.PandhasaterminaldatepossiblyduringtheHistoricPeriod.Onlyonefireplace/hearthwasrecordedinthislevel(Stuckenrathetal,1982:79).
ChippedandgroundstoneartifactsfromStratumXwereassignedtotheLateWoodlandPeriodandtherealsoweresomeHistoricEuro-Americanartifacts(Stuckenrathetal,1982:77).Thelaterhistoricartifactswereconsideredintrusiveintothestratum.Nodiagnosticprojectilepointswererecoveredfromthisstratum.As
previouslynoted,aslumpfromStrataVIIItoXIproducedWatsonWareandMonongahelawaresherds.Perishableartifactsrecoveredincludedonequadrilateralunpointedwoodentwig,onewoodencube,onebeveledwoodchip,sevenirregularlycutwoodchipsandoneboneawltip(Stile1982:138).
StratumIXStratumIXwasfoundinallunitsexcavatedandispresumedtobecontinuousacrossthesite.ItisfoundoverStratumVIIIinsidethedriplineandStratumVIIoutsidethedriplineandinthoseunitsinsidethedriplinewhereStratumVIIIdoesnotexist.ItunderliesStratumXinsidethedriplineandStratumXIoutsidethedripline.Coarserparticles(>0.4mm)composemostofthematrixinsidethedriplinewithsomesilt-andclay-sizedparticles.Outsidethedripline,theamountofsilt-andsand-sizedparticlesexceedsthatofthecoarsermaterials.Oneradiocarbondatewasobtainedoncharcoalfromthis
SummaryforStratumX(F25)RadiocarbonDateRange
Diagnosticartifacts CulturalPeriod
none Lithics:NoneCeramics(Johnson1982:146):WatsonWaresherdsMonongahelawaresherds
LateWoodlandHistoric
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stratum.ItrepresentsoneofthefourdatereversalsnotedintheMeadowcroftradiocarbonsequenceasitisolderthanthedatefromStratumVIII.Twofirepits/hearthswererecordedinthisunit.
CulturalmaterialsfromStratumIXwereassignedtotheLateWoodlandperiod.DiagnosticCeramicswererecoveredfromaslumpoutsideofthedriplinethatincludedmaterialsfromStrataVIIItoXI.Noperishableartifactsandnoidentifiedfloralremainshavebeenidentifiedfromthisunit.
StratumVIII
StratumVIIIwasencounteredonlyinabout3/4softheunitsonthewesternsideoftheshelterinsidethedripline.Italsowasfoundinafewunitsoutsidethedripline,butitpinchesoutoutsidethedripline.Itisnotaparticularlythickstratumranginginthicknessfrom0.5to5.0(0.2to2.0in).Thematrixisprimarilylarger-sizedparticles(>0.4mm)withsmallerquantitiesofsandpresent.Thestratumrepresentsspallingandattritionfromtheshelterroofthatoccurredafterthe"NewRoofFall".Oneradiocarbondatewasobtainedfromcharcoalrecoveredinafeatureinthestratumandonefirepit/hearthwasrecordedinStratumVIII.
CulturalremainsfromthisstratumweresparseandwereassignedtotheLateWoodlandPeriod.NoceramicswererecoveredfromunequivocalStratumVIIIcontexts.Onepieceofunidentifiablecordageandonebonebeamerwerefoundintheunit(Stile1982:138).Floralremainsweresurprisinglycommoninthisunitwithwalnut/butternutshellsexceedingalltheothernutscombinedbasedonweightofthenutshells.TherealsoweresignificantamountsofAmaranthussp.(amaranth)andCrataegussp.(hawthorn)(Cushman1982:215-317).
SummaryforStratumIX(F9)RadiocarbonDateRange DiagnosticArtifacts Cultural
Period685B.P.+80years(A.D.1265,uncorrected;SI-2363)
Lithic(Fitzgibbon1982:102):1SteubenvilleStemmed-like,1BenningtonCorner-Notched,3JacksReefCorner-Notched,4LevannaTriangular,1MadisonTriangularformsCeramics(Johnson1982:146):WatsonWaresherdsMonongahelawaresherds
LateWoodland
StratumVIIISummary(F12)RadiocarbonDateforStratumVIII
DiagnosticArtifacts
CulturalPeriod
was630B.P.+100years(A.D.1320,uncorrected;SI-3023)
Lithic(Fitzgibbon1982:102):1untypedCeramics:none
LateWoodland
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StratumVII
StratumVIIwasencounteredinallunitsexcavatedandispresumedtobecontinuousacrossthesite.ItoverlaidStratumVoutsidethedriplineandStratumVIinsidethedriplineandwasunderStratumVIIIinsidethedriplineandStratumIXoutsidethedripline.Itrangedinthicknessfrom20to40
cm(7.9to15.7in)andthematrixwasasandyloam.Culturalfeaturesfromthisstratumincludedninefirepits/hearths,onefirefloor,twoash/charcoallenses,andonespecializedactivityarea(Stuckenrathetal.,1982:79).
CulturalmaterialsfromStratumVIIwereassignedtotheLateWoodlandoccupationofMeadowcroft.Perishableartifactsfoundincludedfivefragmentaryboneawlsandonebonepunch(Stile1982:138).Wildnutsandseedsrecoveredfromthisunitincludedwalnut/butternut,hickory,acorn,Rubussp.,Amaranthussp.andVacciniumsp.
StratumVI
StratumVIwasencounteredonlyinunitslocatedwithinthedriplineoftheshelter.ItoverlaidStratumVandwasunderStratumVII.Themassive"NewRoofFall"(Fig.19)ontheeasternsideoftheshelteriscontemporarywiththebaseofStratumVI.Largerparticles(>4mm)makeupamajorityofthematrixwithsiltsandclays,composingtherestofthematrix.Thethicknessofthisunitrangesfrom60to140cm(23.6to55.1in).Noradiocarbondateswereobtainedfromthisstratumbecausethecharcoalsamplesfromthefeaturesweretoosmalltoprocess.However,itshoulddatebetweentheendingdateforStratumVof1665B.Pandtheearlydate(whichwillbecitedbelow)fromStratumVIIof1290B.P.Culturalfeaturesencounteredwereclassifiedasninefirepits/hearths,onefirefloorandtwoash/charcoallenses(Stuckenrathetal.,1982:79).
StratumVIISummary(F13)RadiocarbonDateRange DiagnosticArtifacts Cultural
Period1290B.P.+60years(A.D.660,uncorrected;SI-3026)and925B.P.+65years(A.D.1024,uncorrected;SI-2047).
Lithics(Fitzgibbons1982:102):3untypedCeramics(Johnson1982:146):23Watsonwaresherds
LateWoodland
StratumVISummary(F63,F129)RadiocarbonDateRange
DiagnosticArtifacts CulturalPeriod
None Lithic((Fitzgibbons1982:102):1LevannaTriangularpointCeramics:Nonefound
MiddletoLateWoodland
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CulturalmaterialsfromStratumVIwererathersparse,butwereassignedtothelateMiddletoearlyLateWoodlandperiods.Perishableartifactsincludedoneboneawltipandonebonebeadblank(Stile1982:138).FewfloralremainswererecoveredfromStratumVIthatcouldbeassignedtohumanuseattheshelter.
StratumV
StratumVwasencounteredinallexcavatedunitsandispresumedtobecontinuousacrossthesite.StratumVoverlaysStratumIVandisunderStratumVIinsidethedriplineandStratumVIIoutsidethedripline.Thematrixwasasandyloamthatrangedinthicknessfrom20to40cm(7.9to15.7in).CulturalfeaturesencounteredinStratumVincludedtwentyfirepits/hearths,onerefuse/storagepit,oneroastingpit,twofirefloors,sixash/charcoallensesandfourspecializedactivityareas(Stuckenrath,etal.1982:79).
CulturalremainswereassignedprimarilytotheEarlyWoodlandorMiddleWoodlandoccupationofthesite.Perishableartifactsrecoveredwereclassifiedasonesimpleplaitedbasketryfragment,onegroovedandroundedwoodentwig,onecompleteandtwofragmentaryboneawls,onepieceofamodifiedturtlecarapaceandonegroovedandsnappedpieceofbone(Stile1982:138).
WildfloralremainspredominateinthisstratumwithWalnut/Butternutthemostcommonnutshellrecoveredalongwithlesseramountsofhickoryandacorn.ThemostcommonseedremainswerefromRubussp.(blackberry)followedbyAmaranthussp.(amaranth)andChenopodiaceae(goosefoot)(Cushman1982:215-217).
StratumIV
StratumIVwaspresentinallunitsexcavatedandispresumedtobecontinuousacrossthesite.ItoverliesStratumIIIandisoverlainbyStratumV.Itvariesinthicknessfrom30to70cm(11.8to27.6in).
StratumVSummary(F14)RadiocarbonDateRange DiagnosticArtifacts Cultural
Period2155B.P.+65years(205B.C.,SI-2487)nearitsbaseto1665B.P.+65years(A.D.285,uncorrected;SI-3024)atthetopofthestratum
Lithics(Fitzgibbons1982:102):1AdenaOvateBase,1BenningtonCorner-Notched1ChesserNotchedCeramics(Johnson1982:146):5Watsonwaresherds,1Monongahelawaresherd
EarlyWoodlandandMiddleWoodland
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Matrixiscomposedofasandyloam.Therewerethirty-fivefirepits/hearths,ninerefuse/storagepits,threeroastingpits,thirteenfirefloors,fifteenash/charcoallensesandthreespecializedactivityareasfoundinStratumIV(Stuckenrath,et.al.1982:79).
MostoftheculturalremainsfromStratumIVwereassignedtotheEarlyWoodlandPeriodPerishableartifactsrecoveredincludedsixfragmentsofsimpleplaitedbasketry,onewoodensnaretrigger,twocuttwigs,onewoodenring,onebeveledwoodedchip,onecompleteandonefragmentaryboneawl,onebonepunch,onebonesnaretrigger,oneutilizedantlertine,onebonefishhook,onefragmentofaboneflute,5piecesofmodifiedturtlecarapaces,onepieceofbonebeadstockandonebonebeamer(Stile1982:138).Themostnotablefloralremainsrecoveredfromthestratumweresquash(Cucurbitasp.)remainsassociatedwithradiocarbondatesof2820B.P.+75years(870B.C.,uncorrected;SI-1668)and2815B.P.+80years(865B.C.,uncorrected;SI-1665)andaspecimenofsixteenrowpopcorninassociationwithradiocarbondatesof2325B.P.+75years(375B.C.,uncorrected;SI-1634)and2290B.P.+90years(340B.C.,uncorrected;SI-2051;Cushman1982:216).Noneofthesecultivatedplantspecimensweredirectlydated.
StratumIII
StratumIIIwasfoundinallexcavatedunitsandispresumedtobecontinuousacrossthesite.Itvariesinthicknessfrom30to110cm(11.8to43.3in)andliesoverStratumIIbandbelowStratumIV.SiltandclayarethepredominantmatrixmaterialscomposingstratumIIIwithsomesandalsopresent.SixradiocarbondatesoncharcoalsamplesfromfeaturesinStratumIIIrangedinagefrom.Culturalfeaturesfoundinthestratumincludedtwenty-sixfirepits/hearths,tworefuse/storagepits,eightfirefloors,seventeenash/charcoallensesandonespecializedactivityarea(Stuckenrath,etal.,1982:79).
CulturalremainsfromStratumIIIwereassignedprimarilytotheTerminalArchaic/TransitionalorEarlyWoodlandperiods.Perishableartifactsrecoveredincludedonefragmentofsimpleplaitedbasketry,onecompleteandfivefragmentaryboneawls,twoutilizedantlertinesandoneflakedlongbone.The
StratumIVSummary(F16)RadiocarbonDateRange DiagnosticArtifacts CulturalPeriod3050B.P.+85years(1100B.C.,uncorrected;SI-2049)to2290B.P.+90years(340B.C.,uncorrected;SI-SI-2051)
Lithics(Fitzgibbons1982:102):2SteubenvilleStemmed-like,1BurnsvilleNotched,1AdenaOvateBase,1Jack'sReefCorner-NotchedCeramics(Johnson1982:146):44HalfMoonwaresherds,2Watsonwaresherds,1Monongahelawaresherd
EarlyWoodland
SummaryofStratumIII(F18)
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firstdomesticatedplantremainscamefromStratumIII.Specimensofsquash(Cucurbitasp.)wererecoveredfromthetopofthestratuminassociationwitharadiocarbondateof3065B.P.+80years(1115B.C.,uncorrected;SI-1664;Cushman1982:216).Thequantityofwildnuts,seedsandfruitpitsalsoincreasedinStratumIII(Cushman1982:215-217).
StratumII
StratumIIwascomposedofsandandsiltderivedlargelyfromtherockshelterwallsandcontainedsomelargerroofspalls.Itwascontinuousacrossthesiteandvariedinthicknessfrom40to130cm(15.7to51.2in).StratumIIliesdirectlyabovetheStratumI-IIinterfaceandbelowStratumIII.AmajorroofspallingepisodepermittedseparationofStratumIIintoalowerStratumIIaandupperStratumIIb.StratumIIaisinturnsubdividedintolower,middleanduppersectionsbasedonadditionalroofspallingepisodes.StratumIIbprimarilyrepresentstheupper46to50cmofStratumII.
Atotalofthirty-eightculturalfeatureswereidentifiedinStratumIIa.Theywereclassifiedastwenty-sixfirepits/hearths,fiverefuse/storagepits,oneroastingpit,onefirefloor,oneash/charcoallensandfourspecializedactivityareas(Stuckenrath,etal.1982:79).Therewereonehundredandtwenty-threechippedstoneartifactsrecoveredfromlowerandmiddleStratumIIaincludingoneunflutedlanceolatepointnamedtheMillerLanceolate(Figs.8-9),severalunhaftedbifaces(Fig.17),unifaces(includingtwo“MungaiKnives”,Fig.12rightmostartifactandFig.13),prismaticblades(Figs.15-16)andfragmentsofprismaticbladecores(Fig.14),utilizedflakesanddebitageflakes(Fig.18)(Fitzgibbons1982).
LowerStratumIIa
RadiocarbonDateRange DiagnosticArtifacts CulturalPeriod3255B.P.+115years(1305B.C.,uncorrected;SI-1679)to2930B.P.+75years(980B.C.,uncorrected;SI-2066)
Lithics(Fitzgibbons1982:102)2BigSandy-like,2BrewertonSide-Notched,3BrewertonCorner-Notched,3BuffaloStemmed,1LehighBroad-like,3Merom-like,3Trimble-like,1AdenaOvateBase,1LevannaTriangular,1KosterCorner-Notched-likeCeramics(Johnson1982:146):5Half-Moonwaresherds1WatsonCord-Markedsherd
TerminalArchaic/TransitionalorEarlyWoodland
SummaryforStratumIIaLower(F46)
Page24of32FirstPeoples:ArchaeologyatMeadowcroftRockshelterTeacher’sGuidetoArchaeology
Theearliestculturalremains,Pre-ClovisPaleo-Indianmaterials,wererecoveredfromlowerStratumIIa.Aseriesoffiveradiocarbondateswereobtainedfromindisputableculturalfeatures
(i.e.,hearthsorfirefloorfeatures)foundinthestratumrangingfrom16,175B.P.+975years(14,225B.C.,uncorrected;SI-2354)to13,240B.P.+1010(11,290B.C.,uncorrected;SI-2065).A19,600B.P.datewasobtainedonapieceofbarkthatappearedtohavebeencutandwhichmighthavebeenpartofabarkbasket.Alternatively,itmayhavebeencharredbarkfromanancientforestfire.
TheMillerLanceolatepoint,oneMungaiKnifeandmostoftheotherchippedstonespecimenswererecoveredfromlowerStratumIIa.TheoldestbonetoolfromtheshelterwasfromlowerStratumIIaandisacutandcharredfragmentfromawhite-taileddeerantlerbase(Stile1982:137).Itwasrecoveredinafirepit/hearththatalsoprovidedaradiocarbonsampledatedto16,175B.P.+975years(14,225B.C.,uncorrected;SI-2354).AbipointwoodentoolwasrecoveredfromlowerStratumIIa(Stiles1982:35).Itresemblesaforeshaftforacompounddartorspearshaft.
FaunalremainswerenotwellrepresentedfromlowerStratumIIa.Onlyelevenbonefragmentswererecoveredfromtheselevels.Speciesidentifiedincludedwhite-taileddeer,easternchipmunk,southernflyingsquirrel,deermouse,passengerpigeon,toadandcolubridsnake(GuildayandParmalee1982:171).Thechipmunkandpossiblythedeermouseprobablyburroweddownintotheselevels.Allidentifiedspeciesareusuallyfoundintemperateclimatestoday.Floralremainsfromtheearliestlevelsaresparse,butgenerallyarerepresentativeoftemperateclimatespecies.WalnutandoakwoodcharcoalandwalnutnutshellswereidentifiedfromlowerStratumIIa(Cushman1982:214).
MiddleStratumIIa
AroofspallingepisodeseparateslowerStratumIIafromMiddleStratumIIa.MiddleStratumIIarepresentsadditionalPaleo-Indian(i.e.,Clovisandlater)levelsattheRockshelter.AsecondMungaiKnifeandtwograverswererecoveredfrommiddleStratumIIa.
UpperStratumIIa
RadiocarbonDatesinLowerStratumIIa
Diagnosticartifacts CulturalPeriod
16,175B.P.+975years(14,225B.C.,uncorrected;SI-2354)to13,240B.P.+1010(11,290B.C.,uncorrected;SI-2065).
1Millerlanceolate1MungaiKnife
Pre-ClovisPaleo-Indian
SummaryforStratumIIaMiddle(F46)Radiocarbondates Diagnostic
ArtifactsCulturalPeriod
12,800B.P.+870years(10,850B.C.,uncorrected;SI-2489)to11,300B.P.+700years(9350B.C.,uncorrected;SI-2491)
1Mungaiknife
Paleo-Indian(Clovisandlater)
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UpperStratumIIaisseparatedfrommiddleStratumIIabyaroofspallingepisode.ThelatterdatebelowwasfromafeaturefoundimmediatelybelowtherooffallepisodethatseparatesupperStratumIIafromStratumIIb.
RemainsfromupperStratumIIarepresenttheEarlyArchaicoccupationsoftheshelter,basedprimarilyontheradiocarbondates.Nodiagnosticpointswererecoveredfromthisunit.However,non-diagnosticlithicremainswereassociatedwiththesehearths,andanearlyMiddleArchaicpointstyle,aKanawhaStemmedpoint,wasfoundinalevelabovethesefeatures.Thus,assignationofupperStratumIIaremainsandfeaturestotheEarlyArchaicPeriodissupportedbytheirlocationbelow
diagnosticearlyMiddleArchaiclithics.
StratumIIb
StratumIIbisfoundaboveupperStratumIIaacrosstheentiresite.Twelveradiocarbondatesweretakenforthislevel.TheremainsfromStratumIIbareassignedtotheMiddleandLateArchaic.Sixfirepits/hearths,threerefuse/storagepits,sixfirefloors,eightash/charcoallensesandtwospecializedactivityareaswerefoundinStratumIIb(Stuckenrath,etal,1982:79).Perishableartifactsrecoveredincludedthreepiecesofsimpleplaitedbasketry,onepointedwoodentwig,onecompleteandonetipofboneawlsandoneboneweavingimplement(Stile1982:138).Hickory,walnut/butternutandoaknutshellwererecoveredfromfeaturesandlevelsinStratumIIbalongwithseedsfromAmaranthussp.,Chenopodiumsp.,Polygonaceae,Prunussp.,Rubussp.andVacciniumsp.(Cushman1982:215-217).FaunalremainswererecoveredfromStratumIIbandalllaterstrata,butquantificationbystratumremainstobecompleted.Allspeciesidentifiedfromthepost-Paleo-Indianlevelswerefromspeciesfoundinorrecentlyextirpatedfromthearea(GuildayandParmalee1982).
SummaryforStratumIIaUpper(F46)RadiocarbonDates Diagnostic
ArtifactsCulturalPeriod
9075B.P.+115years(7125B.C.,uncorrected;SI-2061)to8010B.P.+110years(6060B.C.,uncorrected;SI-2064)
Nonefound EarlyArchaic
SummaryofStratumIIb(F46)RadiocarbonDateRange
DiagnosticArtifacts CulturalPeriod
6670B.P.+140years(4720B.C.,uncorrected;SI-2055)nearitsbaseto3210B.P.+95years(1260B.C.,uncorrected;SI-1681)atthetopofthestratum
Lithic(Fitzgibbons1982:102):1KanawhaStemmed,1Kirkserrated-like,1MorrowMountain-like,1HansfordNotched-like,1BrewertonCornerNotched-like,2BuffaloStemmed,1SteubenvilleStemmed-like,1Merom-like
MiddleandLateArchaic
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StratumI-IIinterface
StratumIisseparatedfromStratumIIbyaveneeroffinebluesiltyclaysedimentsderivedfromthebedrockshalecombinedwithroofspallfragments.Interfacedepositswerefoundinunitsinsideandoutsideofthedriplineandareassumedtobecontinuousacrossthesite.Noculturalremainshavebeenfoundininterfacedeposits.
RadiocarbonDatesforStratumI-IIInterface(F85)31,400B.P.+1200years(29,450B.C.,uncorrected;OxA-363)30,900B.P.+1100years(28,950B.C.,uncorrected;OxA-364)30,710B.P.+1140years(28.760B.C.,uncorrected;SI-1687)21,380B.P.+800years(19,430B.C.,uncorrected;SI-2121)
StratumI(F99)
StratumIistheloweststratumattheshelterandwasfoundatthebaseofalimitednumberofunitsthatwereexcavatedtothatdepth(roughly16feetbelowthe1973surface).ArchaeologistspresumedthatStratumIiscontinuousacrossthesitebasedonthelimitedexcavationstothatdepth.Itiscomposedofaweatheredblue-grayshale.NoculturalmaterialswererecoveredfromStratumI.
Conclusion
ExcavationsatMeadowcroftRockshelterendedafter1979.Approximatelythree-quartersoftheareaunderthedriplineandone-thirdoftheareaimmediatelyoutsidethedripline(Fig.19)wereexcavatedoverthatperiodoftime(however,noteveryinteriorunitwasexcavatedtothebaseoftheshelter).Itwasdecidedin1979thattheremainingdepositsshouldbepreservedforfutureworkwhennewermethodologiesandtechnologiesmightyieldsignificantnewdata.Since1979,onlymaintenanceworkcleaningupafewslumpsandareaswerewaterleakageoccurredunderthewoodenshelterhasbeenconductedatMeadowcroftRockshelter.ThereremainsignificantdepositsofallelevendefinedstrataatMeadowcroftRockshelterthatcouldbeexcavatedusingnewermethodologiesandtechniquestoaddressnewresearchquestionsandextractinformationanddatanotrecoveredbyexcavationsconductedduringthe1970s.
Stratigraphyisoneofthemostimportanttoolsarchaeologistshaveforunderstandingsiteuseandchangeovertimeforanyexcavation.AtMeadowcroftRockshelter,thegreatdepthandintactnatureofthesiteprovidedcrucialevidenceaboutchangeovertime.EachstratumrepresentsatimewhenthatlayerwasthesurfaceundertheRockshelter.Whenpeoplewouldvisitthesite,theywouldcreateactivityareas(features)andleaveobjectsbehind.Stratigraphyhelpsarchaeologistsmakesenseofhowthesite’susechangedovertime,includingthereasonsforwhypeoplevisited,whattheyatethere,thesizeofgroupsvisiting,andeventhetimeofyeartheyvisited.
Page27of32FirstPeoples:ArchaeologyatMeadowcroftRockshelterTeacher’sGuidetoArchaeology
Alltheinformationgatheredduringtheexcavationseachyearwerepackedupandreturnedtothelabafterthefieldseason.Archaeologistsspentthenextseveralmonths(andinsomecasesyears)analyzingtheinformationandverifyingtheirinitialhypothesesbeforedeterminingtheculturalsignificance,andsubsequentlytheinterpretation,ofthesite.
Page28of32FirstPeoples:ArchaeologyatMeadowcroftRockshelterTeacher’sGuidetoArchaeology
Tables
StratigraphicProfileofMeadowcroftRockshelterStrata Tag Varying
ThicknessDepositionMode Deposition
ForcesDepositionRate
XI f3,f8 12-15cm Sheetwash 925yearsX f25 1-5cm Siltyclay SheetwashIX f9 5-15cm Siltyclay SheetwashVIII f12 .5-5cm Largeparticles,
sandSheetwash
VII f13 20-40cm Sandyloam Sheetwash,Spalling
365years
VI f63,f129
60-140cm Siltyclay Spalling,Sheetwash
375years
V f14 20-40cm Sandyloam Sheetwash,Attrition
625years
IV f16 30-70cm Sandyloam Sheetwash,Attrition
760years
III f18 30-110cm Siltyclay Attrition,Sheetwash,Spalls
200years
IIb f46 40-130cm SandandSilt AttritionandHighSpall
4,700years
IIaupper F46 Sandandsilt AttritionandHighSpall 13,000years
IIamiddle f46 Sandandsilt AttritionandHighSpall
IIalower f46 Sandandsilt AttritionandHighSpall
I/II f85 Finebluesilt Quietwater *1 F99 bedrock Birminghamshale
(300MillionYearsOld)
swamp *
Page29of32FirstPeoples:ArchaeologyatMeadowcroftRockshelterTeacher’sGuidetoArchaeology
ReportingTimeatMeadowcroftRockshelterStratum tag Carbon14 UncorrectedcalendarDates CulturalPeriodXI F3,f8 175YBP AD1775±50 Contact(1550-1750
AD)X F25 LatePrehistoric
IX F9 685YBP AD1265±80 LatePrehistoric
VIII F12 630YBP AD1320±100 LatePrehistoric
VII F13 1290YBP AD1025±65–AD660±60 LateWoodlandVI F63,
f129 Late/Middle
WoodlandV F14 2155YBP AD285±65–205±65BC Early/Middle
WoodlandIV F16 3050YBP 340±90BC-1100±85BC EarlyWoodlandIII F18 3255YBP 980±75BC-1305±115BC Terminal/Early
WoodlandIIb F46(0
cm–46/50cmdepth)
6670YBP 1260±95BC–4720±140BC MiddleArchaic
IIaupper F46 8011-10950YBP 6060±110BC-9350±700BC EarlyArchaicIIamiddle F46 10950-12951YBP 9350±700BC-10850±870BC PaleoIIalower F46 13240-19601YBP 11290±1010BC-17650±2400BC PaleoI/II F85 21380-30711YBP 19430±800BC-28760±1140BC MiddleWisconsinan1 31401 29450 MiddleWisconsinan
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Page31of32FirstPeoples:ArchaeologyatMeadowcroftRockshelterTeacher’sGuidetoArchaeology
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