teaching english techniques ii portfolio 2014
DESCRIPTION
Universidad Mariano Galvez de Guatemala Portafolio de Tecnicas de Enseñanza Ingles II 2014TRANSCRIPT
Universidad Mariano Gálvez de GuatemalaEscuela de Idiomas
Teaching English Techniques II
Jaime Emmanuel Gómez Véliz5076-13-10967
Introduction
This portfolio is a recompilation of all the information, tasks, and comments
that during the class course Teaching English Techniques II, were the core
and principal themes discussed and learned according to the alignments and
contents of the course imparted in the University Mariano Galvez of
Guatemala.
A very notable change and worth of notice is the fact that the portfolio is
presented in a digital form, the reason for this change is the necessity of
applying the ICTs to our ever changing medium. In the same manner, we
intend to share with our peers this important tool that is very useful for our
profession as teachers.
Every bit of information that you may find included into this portfolio has
been gathered, researched and published under the sole desire learning and
educating those who are interested in this kind of information. All the
information included in this publication belong to the original authors,
including images and cited text.
INDEX
First Stage 1 Alignments and Content 2 Traditional Education 3 Innovation in Education 4 Lesson planning 5 Syllabus Design 6 Instructional Materials 7 Curriculum Project Work 8 Five Techniques on Innovative Teaching 9 Rubrics to Evaluate 21st. Century Students
10 Competencies Homework 11 Summary - Chapters 1,2,3 12 Mind-maps on Cooperative Learning 13 Research Strategies to Incorporate CL 14 Mind-map Summarizing Chapters 7 and 8
Second Stage
15 CNB Research Project 16 Summary on video "Connected"
Third Stage
17 Task and Project Work Presentation 18 Learning strategies vs Teaching strategies Presentation 19 Teaching Grammar Presentation 20 Teaching Speaking Presentation 21 Teaching Listening Presentation 22 Teaching Speaking Mind Maps 23 Mind-map on Listening Presentation 24 General comment about the Course 25 Conclusion 26 Annexes
1
COURSE CONTENT 2014
Code : 076433
COURSE DESCRIPTION
Teaching Techniques Course II is far more concerned about context-sensitive teaching than its predecessors. This course has different new ideas which makes it significantly different from previous course describing the practice of English Language teaching as it exists right now. Incorporates recent changes in the concerns of methodology, along with updated theories on teaching techniques. Chapters have been added on teaching vocabulary, discovery techniques, and learner training. It is full of practical suggestions and samples from actual teaching materials.
OBJECTIVES
1. Provide a comprehensive overview of the field of second and foreign language teaching, with a particular focus on issues related to the teaching of English.
2. Provide a source of teaching principles and classroom activities which teachers can refer to in their work. 3. Provide a source of readings and activities that can be used in TESOL teacher-education programs.
COMPETENCIES
The scope of a teacher's professional role and responsibilities for student assessment may be described in terms of the following activities. These activities imply that teachers need competence in student assessment and sufficient time and resources to complete them in a professional manner.
Domain 1 : The teacher knows the language.
uses the language for instruction at any proficiency level in speaking.
demonstrates comprehension of authentic texts of various authors through instruction.
uses the skills of listening, speaking, and writing in instruction to reinforce the four skills in students.
conducts class in the language at an appropriate level for all students.
uses the language to the maximum extent possible, providing comprehensible input and strategies to facilitate comprehension.
uses knowledge of the subsystems of the language, such as syntax (including grammar), lexicon, and phonology, to develop communication skills in students.
Domain 2: The teacher understands language pedagogy as it relates to the teaching of the student standards, the Essential Knowledge and Skills for Languages.
applies current research related to language learning pedagogy.
presents a clear rationale for pedagogical choices that address students' differences, diversity, and special needs.
selects, adapts, and creates materials and activities to support students' progress through Novice, Intermediate, and Advanced checkpoints.
2
Domain 3: The teacher has a thorough understanding of the culture(s) associated with the language and knows about the connections among the practices, products, and perspectives of the culture(s).
uses culturally appropriate materials (visuals, realia, oral and written texts);
embeds appropriate cultural contexts into language instruction;
conducts activities (discussions, role plays, presentations) that prompt an understanding of the culture(s) and of the impact this knowledge can have on the way students interact with members of another culture.
applies knowledge of the culture(s) being studied to help students recognize how the practices (patterns of behavior) and products (tangible and intangible things people create) reflect the perspectives (attitudes and values) of the culture(s).
Domain 4: The teacher understands the relationship between the practices and the perspectives of the culture(s) being studied.
integrates concepts of cultural practices into language instruction (e.g., everyday patterns of behavior that represent the knowledge of "what to do when and where" in the culture(s).
promotes an understanding of cultural practices and of the relationship between cultural practices and perspectives through activities in which students:
obtains information from visuals, realia, oral and written texts;
participates in age-appropriate cultural activities (games, songs, storytelling, dramatizations);
uses appropriate verbal and non-verbal behavior in common classroom interactions and in daily activities among peers and adults.
identifies and describes cultural practices as experienced in a dramatization or as viewed in a videotape;
finds information about how practices reveal perspectives (interviews, reading, etc.) Domain 5: The teacher understands the universality of stereotyping and is familiar with the stereotypes associated with the culture(s) being studied.
discusses the possible origins of specific stereotypes that cultures have about one another.
creates and shares activities which enhance knowledge of the culture(s) and reduce stereotyping. Domain 6: The teacher knows ways to access and use the language and its cultural resources beyond the school setting.
uses classroom and extra-classroom learning experiences and activities to practice using the language and culture in real-world situations.
creates opportunities to use the language beyond the school.
integrates technology (e.g., the Internet) into the curriculum to enable students to use the language in real-world contexts by connecting students to language users in other parts of the world.
METHODOLOGY The course is designed to give the student experience of participating in the course alongside a diverse group of beginning and expertise foreign language teachers. A rich, interactive experience is facilitated including multimedia content, footage of the actual strategies and techniques, videos of actual foreign language classrooms, self-correcting exercises, portfolios of sample activities, and interviews with beginning teachers.
3
Teaching Techniques II Program 2014
P.E.M.I. Maria Elena Alvarez
Date Content Feb. 01 Introduction and alignments for the semester.
Feb. 08 Approaches to teaching.
Feb. 15 Lesson Planning Part I
Feb. 20 Lesson Planning Part II
Mar. 01 Classroom Management
Mar. 08 Classroom Dynamics: Cooperative Learning
Mar. 15 Classroom Dynamics: Mixed Level Teaching
Mar. 22 Syllabus Design
Mar. 29 PARTIAL I EVALUATION
Apr. 05 Instructional Materials
Apr. 12 Project Work
Apr. 19 EASTER HOLIDAY
Apr. 26 PARTIAL II EVALUATION
May 03 Learning Strategies
May 10 MOTHER`s DAY
May 17 Teaching Grammar in Practice
May 24 Teaching Speaking in Practice
May 31 Teaching Listening in Practice
June 07 LAST DAY OF CLASS – Portfolio presentation
June 14 FINAL EVALUATION
Suggested Activities Lesson Discussion
Teacher`s Direct Instruction
Weekly Research (paraphrasing)
Presentations
Group Work
Evaluation Partial I 10%
Partial II 10%
Final Evaluation 30%
Activities 50%
Minimum zona 31%
Bibliography Methodology in Language Teaching ( An Anthology of Current Practices)
Edited by: Jack C. Richards and Willy A. Renandya ( mandatory - sold at UMG`s Bookstore )
The Practice of English Language Teaching Edited by: Jeremy Harmer – Pearson – 4
th. Edition (IGA)
Essential Teacher Knowledge ( Core concepts in English Language Teaching ) Edited by: Jeremy Harmer – Pearson – 2012 (IGA)
Internet as it is a Research-Based Programme
TEACHING STRATEGIES
AND METHODOLOGIES
FOR TEACHING &
LEARNING
I. TRADITIONAL
1 Lecturing
2. Discussion
3. Questioning
4. Using Audio-visual
PURPOSES OF
LECTURES
1. Efficient means of introducing learners to new topic
and sets the stage of learning
2. Stimulates learner’s interest
3. Helps to integrate and synthesize a large body of
knowledge
4. For clarification of difficult parts
5. To advance knowledge when textbooks are not
available
ADVANTAGES OF LECTURING
1. It is economical. Great deal of information –
shared.
2. Supplies and textbooks become true to life
„theater‟
3. Teacher serves as model students see a
„creative mind at work‟
4. Helps students develop their listening abilities.
DISADVANTAGES OF LECTURING
1. Puts learners in the PASSIVE ROLE of a sponge
2. Focuses on the TEACHING OF FACTS with little focus
on analytical thinking or transfer of learning results
in SURFACE learning
3. Does not meet student‟s individual learning needs
4. Student‟s have little attention time span
(15 minutes)
DISCUSSIONS
1. FORMAL DISCUSSIONS
Announced topic
Reading, watching movie – done in advance
2. INFORMAL DISCUSSIONS
Spontaneous
PURPOSES
and
ADVANTAGES
Learns problem
solving method
(groups)
Opportunity to
apply principles,
concepts and
theories
Clarifies
information and
concepts
Assists to
evaluate
beliefs/positions
(professional,
societal or
ethical issues)
Change in
attitudes and
values
Takes a lot
of time
One
person/few
participants
(monopolies)
Gathering of
uninformed
opinions
QUESTIONING
Can be a teaching
strategy
Ask questions higher
order thinking
FUNCTIONS OF QUESTIONS1. Places the learners in an active role
Simple recall
Helps students analyze concepts
Evaluate worth of ideas
Speculate “if”
2. Assesses baseline knowledge
retention
3. Helps review content – enlightens gray
areas
4. Motivates students Stimulates thinking & curiosity
5. Guides learner’s thought process
According to BARDEN
A. LOWER-ORDER QUESTIONS
Recall information, read or memorize
B. HIGHER-ORDER QUESTIONS
> Requires comprehension and critical thinking
HOW TO ENGAGE?Pair work – give ideas
USING VISUAL AIDS
• Can enhance teaching
• Can add interest to the classroom
ACTIVITY BASED TEACHING STRATEGIES
1. Cooperative learning
2. Simulations
3. Problem based learning
4. Self-learning modules
ROLE PLAYING
CASE STUDIES
PROBLEM BASED
SOLVING
DIFFERENCESPBL CASE STUDIES
> Conducted in small groups > Used by individuals/groups
> Students have little backgrounds knowledge of subject matter
> Students hve most of the background learning theory to apply to the case
> Cases are usually brief & presenting problems are ill-structures
> Cases are often long & detailed, and their problems are well-defined
COMPUTER-AIDED INSTRUCTION
COMPUTER-MANAGED INSTRUCTION
• Any system of record keeping
• Use of authoring systems –
pre-developed software packages that guide the educator´s process.
THE INTERNET
A mammoth complex of computer connections across continents,
connecting many millions of computers.
EMAIL (electronic) Greater collaboration between teachers vs.
students and between students vs. students Source of peer support Means to seek referrals, for consultation and for
post-discharge follow-up
EX. LIST SERVS – a group of people who have similar interests and want to share information and experience regarding their interest in a type of discussion groups
NEWS GROUPS
Discussions groups of people with same interest
Messages appear in general mailbox
Ex. – group discussing all kinds of issues.
Also used for online support groups
3. World Wide Web A collection of “documents” found on Web pages A place to find specialized knowledge and multimedia presentations
Criteria to choose WWW site1. Purpose – audience?2. Currency3. Credibility4. Content accuracy5. Design
Provides home-based support.
Tool for student management – part of information system
Provides student teaching
Supports mastery learning
> Maximizes time on task and helps develop overlearning (beyond mastery, responses becomes automatic)
> Provides instant feedback
> Develops cognitive residues (skills in researching skills in managing information)
> Promotes interactivity, institutional consistency, individualized instruction, time efficiency and cost-effectiveness (savings)
High-cost initial outlay for hardware and software
Negative effect personal and professional communication
21st Century Learning Design
UMG 2014
Teaching Techniques II
Learning Design Learning Goals
Deepen understanding of innovative teaching practices
Collaborate in analyzing and advancing our own
Learning Activities
Plan how to use this project for educator collaboration
in our schools
What does “innovative
teaching” mean to you?
20th Century 21st Century
Educator
Delivery of content and
information
Guiding students‟ creation of
knowledge-based products
Student
Content and information
consumption
Creation of knowledge-based
products
Change and The Learning Process
ITL Research
Innovative Teaching and Learning
A global research program that investigates how
schools and systems can encourage innovative teaching
practices and the impact innovative teaching practices
have on students’ learning.
ITL is the foundation for 21st Century Learning Design
Individuals with skills for life and work
today
Education System Change
School Leadership and Culture
Innovative Teaching Practices
2009-2012
Innovative Teaching
and Learning
Research
2012-future
From Research to
Practice(today’s work)
SKILLS FOR LIFE AND WORK TODAY
Knowledge building
Self-regulation & assessment
Collaboration
Skilled communication
Problem solving & innovation
Global awareness
ICT use
www.itlresearch.com
Innovative Teaching Practices
• Personalized
• Collaborative
• Knowledge construction
• Self-regulation
• Problem Solving
• 24/7 learning opportunities
• Global and cultural understanding
• Skilled communication
• By educators
• By students
• Basic usage vs. higher-level usage
Student Centered Pedagogies
Extending Learning
ICT Integration
Schools from over 46 countries using these
methods to build innovative teaching
capacity
What school factor do you
think is most associated with
innovative teaching practices
in schools?
Low frequency Medium frequency High frequency
Innovative Teaching Practices
What we learned
Collaboration about teaching among educators in a school
Strongly associated with Innovative Teaching Practices
What type of professional
development builds
innovative teaching
practices?
Practice a new teaching method
Conducted research
Planned or practiced using ICT in teaching
Reviewed and discussed student work
Observed a demonstration of a lesson
Developed or reviewed curriculum materials
Received or delivered one-on-one coaching or mentoring
Planned a lesson or a unit
Observed a demonstration of ICT use
Listened to a lecture
Professional Development and
innovative teaching practices
Learning Design: Project goals
Develop shared understanding of important 21st Century skills, and how learning activities can provide opportunities to build them
Use detailed definitions and rubrics as a collaborative framework to discuss and analyze learning activity designs
Explore the link between learning activity design and the work that students do
Learning Design: 21C Skills Framework
Rubric Key Question
CollaborationAre students required to share responsibility and make substantive decisions with other
people?
Knowledge construction Are students required to build knowledge? Is that knowledge interdisciplinary?
Use of ICT for learningDo students use ICT to support knowledge building? Is ICT necessary to that knowledge
building?
Self-regulation Is the learning activity long-term? Do students plan and assess their own work?
Skilled communicationDid the student produce extended communication? Was the communication well-developed
and organized around a thesis?
Real-world
problem-solving
and innovation
Does the learning activity require solving authentic, real-world problems? Are students‟
solutions implemented in the real world?
Learning Design: Let’s Do It
For each 21st Century skill, we will:
Learn and discuss common definitions and a rubric
Apply these ideas to sample learning activities – how strong
are the opportunities they give students to build this skill?
Use the rubric to strengthen a learning activity
Look at the relationship between learning activity design
and student work
What does
collaboration mean?
Collaboration
In today’s interconnected world, real project work often requires collaboration
across organizations (e.g. a collaboration between a pharmaceutical company
and a chemical engineering company to produce a new vaccine), or with
people in a different part of the world. This type of working requires strong
collaboration skills to work productively on a team and to integrate individual
expertise and ideas into a coherent solution.
Do your learning activities model this today?
The Learning Design Rubric:
This rubric examines whether students are working with others on the learning
activity, and the quality of that collaboration. (Research rubrics)
At higher levels of the rubric students share responsibility for their work, and the
learning activity is designed in a way that requires students to make substantive
decisions together. These features help students learn the important collaboration
skills of negotiation, conflict resolution, agreement on what must be
done, distribution of tasks, listening to the ideas of others and integration of ideas
into a coherent whole. The strongest learning activities are designed so that
student work is interdependent, requiring all students to contribute in order for
the team to succeed.
Knowledge
Construction….?
Info and ideas Solution
What is “knowledge work”?
Creating
• Social Programs
• Policies & Laws
• Web apps &
Software
• Strategies
• Design
Knowledge Construction
We often hear the term “knowledge.” More and more, people are
expected to not only be intelligent consumers of information, but also to
create information and ideas. Students are asked to do the same: to
evaluate, synthesize, analyze and interpret information. We have
overwhelming access to data so we must prepare students to be informed
consumers and smart producers who can integrate information from
multiple sources across multiple disciplines in order to further expand
their learning and make sense of the world.
Do your learning activities model this today?
The Learning Design Rubric:
Knowledge construction activities require students to generate ideas and
understandings that are new to them. Students can do this through
interpretation, analysis, synthesis or evaluation. In stronger
activities, knowledge construction is the main requirement of the learning
activity.
The strongest activities require students to apply the knowledge they
constructed in a different context, helping them to deepen their
understanding further, and to connect information and ideas from two or
more academic disciplines (for example, integrating learning from both
science and literature).
Knowledge Construction
Review example learning activities
Steps to Lesson Planning
Teaching Techniques II
What happens during a lesson?
The steps to lesson planning have stood
the test of time. Here is a brief description
of each.
Understanding these components will add
to your understanding of how to plan a
lesson.
Anticipatory Set
Opportunity for the minds of learners to
bring forward previous learning.
An effective set will focus the learners on
task, provide meaning and engage the
learners.
Anticipatory Set (focus)
Examples: Review main ideas of yesterday’s lesson which will be extended
today.
Give synonyms for words, when the objective is improvement of
creative writing.
A short activity or prompt that focuses the students' attention before
the actual lesson begins.
– demo
Used when students enter the room or in a transition.
– A hand-out given to students at the door
– review question written on the board
– "two problems" on the overhead are...
Objective Purpose
States what the student will be able to do and
why it is important.
– In behavioral terms
The vocabulary, skills, and concepts the teacher
will impart to the students
– the "stuff" the students need to know in order to be
successful.
An instructional objective is a picture of the
learners after instruction.
Objective Purpose
Examples:
The purpose of today's lesson, why the students
need to learn it, what they will be able to "do",
and how they will show learning as a result are
made clear by the teacher.
Given a decimal fraction, the learner will
demonstrate understanding of the decimal
fraction by writing an equivalent proper fraction.
Input
What you are going to teach.
Somehow students need to get some
information.
Two important questions to ask yourself.
– What information is needed?
– How will the information be delivered?
Input
Examples
Teacher Talks
– Notes
Videos
Books
Magazines
News Paper
Internet
Independent work
Small group work
Demonstrations
Modeling
Using visual techniques.
– Matching visual to the verbal.
Students need to see an accurate example of
the product or process being taught.
The teacher shows in graphic form or
demonstrates what the finished product looks
like.
– Shows students how to do a particular technique
– A picture is worth a thousand words
Modeling
Examples
Demonstrations
Examples in everyday life
Pictures or video
Guided Practice
Time should be provided in class for the
student to practice the concept or skill
while the teacher is present and can
monitor the students.
The teacher leads the students through
the steps necessary to perform the skill
using the tri-modal approach.
– hear/see/do.
Independent Practice
This is the time outside of class when the
student will work on the learning without
teacher assistance.
Students work on their own.
– Sometimes in class or not
Homework
Monitor and Adjust
Teacher needs to plan for some means to check the
understanding of individual students as well as the entire
class.
– Check for understanding
The teacher uses a variety of questioning strategies to
determine "Got it yet?" and to pace the lesson - move
forward?/back up?
– Sampling the class, oral quizzing
– Signaling private responses
Read student cues
– “Deer in the headlight eyes”
Direct Observation
Closure
A review or wrap-up of the lesson.
– "Tell me/show me what you have learned
today".
Students summarize the essential learning
that took place during the class.
Set up the anticipator set for the next day.
– Future directive
Lesson Design
When to use all the steps or
not to use all the steps
Lesson design is one way a teacher might plan a lesson.
Only the teacher can decide whether this is an appropriate plan for a particular lesson.
Prerequisites:
– Students have been diagnosed
– Can be formal, informal, intuitive
– A clear objective is in mind
– A task analysis has identified critical attributes of the learning
The following may be situations in which the
teacher might choose to use all the steps just
described.
New learning
Not familiar with students’ abilities,
background, or experience
Students who don’t catch on as readily as
most.
Learning is of the high thinking levels
Learning is at a high degree of difficulty
Remedial teaching
The following may be situations in which the
teacher might not choose to use all the steps just
described.
Review, maintenance, practice
Building on previous learning (transfer)
Students are operating at an independent level.
Students are using the inquiry method.
Previous student performance indicates not all
steps are needed.
Lesson is extended over more than one day
Competences are commonly assumed to represent more than
the levels of knowledge and skills and to account for the
effective application of available knowledge and skills in a
specific context.
It is assumed that ‘competence’ transcends the
levels of knowledge and skills to explain how
knowledge and skills are applied in an effective
way. They are easily identified with valued
capabilities, qualifications and expertise
Ideas about competence
The concept of ‘linguistic competence’
represents the cognitive structure and
rules that are necessary to produce
speech; in contrast, ‘linguistic
performance’ represents the way speech
actually functions in practice when it is
contaminated by external factors.
Competence ………..
Competence is a highly-valued qualification that accounts for the effective use of knowledge and skills in specific , usually complex, contexts: The mastery of relevant knowledge and skills alone is no guarantee of successful performances in complex environments; individuals should be able to select from their available knowledge and skills in such a way that efficient and effective behaviour occurs.
Competence: the need for
a distinct concept
From a theoretical perspective, competence is
conceived as a cognitive structure that facilitates
specified behaviours.
From an operational perspective, competences seem
to cover a broad range of higher-order skills and
behaviours that represent the ability to cope with
complex, unpredictable situations (includes
knowledge, skills, attitudes, metacognition and
strategic thinking, and intentional decision making.
The problem of competence standards
When competences are chosen as the ultimate
objectives of education, they should be described
in terms of well-expressed behaviours in well-
expressed situations. If someone is labelled as
‘competent’ , his or her performances meet a
standard.
COMPETENCE
Refers to one´s underlying knowledge of a system,
event or fact. It is the no observable ability to do
something, to perform something.
A cluster of related knowledge, skills and attitudes
that affects a major part of one`s job (a role of
responsibility) that correlates with performance on
the job, that can be measured against well-
accepted standards, and that can be improved via
training and development.
PERFORMANCE
Is the overtly observable and concrete
manifestation or realization of competence. It is
the actual doing of something.
In reference to language, competence is the
underlying knowledge of the system of a
language. Performance is actual production
( speaking, writing) or the comprehension
(listening, reading) of linguistic events.
COMPETENCY
The state or quality of being
properly or well qualified.
Competence Brainstorm
Competency models are highly useful in
ensuring that students are doing the right
things, clarifying and articulating what is
required for effective performance.
Being able to demonstrate that the
behaviours and skills you identify and
develop are proven.
Competence
KNOWLEDGE A SKILL B COMMITMENT C
KEY WORDS
OBSERVED BEHAVIOR
Discuss Memorizes Integrates Comprehends
Assures Proporcionates Formulates Comunicates
Plans Calculates Interprets Enjoys
Evaluates Programs Facilitates Express
Directs Supervises Develops Follows
Coordinates Designs Specifies Follows
Respects Shows interest Appreciates Increases
Participates Assigns Certifies Obtains
Controls Analyzes Informs Participates
Answers Distributes Consolidates Produces
Uses (information) Organizes Names Reads
Administrates Approves Interviews Registers
Establishes Authorizes Sends Revises
Transmits Amplifies Takes Revises
Listens Experiments Recognizes Shares
Faces Tells Paraphrases Tracks
Speaks Reviews Cooperates Undesrtands
Determines Installs Examines Verifies
Monitors Consults Identifies Writes
ACTIVE VERBS
EXAMPLES OF
COMPETENCES
Uses communication as a mean to express
thoughts, feelings and emotions in and out of
his/her school and family community.
Understands and studies the different cultures
using English as a second language.
Uses his/her English language knowledge to
improve his /her communication skills (oral and
written)
Examples of achievment
signs
•Names medieval social roles
•Describes life in a castle
•Identifies European imports and exports
•Tells about the journeys of Marco Polo
•Describes the Andes Mountains
•Explains hypotheses scientists have about ……………..
•Tells about cause and effect in a paragraph.
COMPETENCE: It is the ability to do something, to
perform something.
PERFORMANCE: It is the concrete manifestation or
realization of competence. It is the actual doing of something.
In reference to language, competence is the underlying knowledge of the system of a language.
Performance is actual production ( speaking, writing) or the comprehension (listening, reading) of linguistic events.
FORMAT1. Begins with a present tense action
verb.
2. Each action verb requires an object.
(Example: Identifies the prepositional pharses.)
(Verb followed by object)
3. Each competence is measurable.
4. Each competence is based on performance.
5. Includes systematic, critical, and creative processes.
6. Reinforces critical thinking and oral communication
FORMULA1. ACTION VERB (third person) +2. WHAT (OBJECT) +3. IN WHAT CONTEXT
(WHERE)+4. HOW (BY DOING WHAT
ACTIVITY OR PROJET)
EXAMPLES
Uses and applies communication as a mean to express
thoughts, feelings and emotions in and out of his/her school and family community when presenting an oral speech.
Action verbs: uses and applies
What or object: communication
Where or context: in and out of his-her school and community
How: when presenting an oral speech
Understands and studies the different cultures using English
as a second language in a variety of contexts when
creating a PowerPoint presentation about those cultures .
Action verbs: understands and studies
What or object: different cultures
Where or context: in a variety of contexts
How: when creating a PowerPoint presentation
Uses and produces his/her English language knowledge to
improve his /her communication skills in real
conversations when doing an interview to native speakers.
Action verbs: uses and produces
What or object: English language knowledge
Where or context: in real conversations
How: when doing an interview to native speakers.
COMPETENCES / ACTIVE VERBS LIST
Discuss Memorizes Integrates ComprehendsAssures Proporcionates Formulates ComunicatesPlans Calculates Interprets EnjoysEvaluates Programs Facilitates Express Directs Supervises Develops Follows Coordinates Designs Specifies Follows Respects Shows interest Appreciates IncreasesParticipates Assigns Certifies ObtainsControls Analyzes Informs ParticipatesAnswers Distributes Consolidates ProducesUses (information) Organizes Names ReadsAdministrates Approves Interviews RegistersEstablishes Authorizes Sends Revises Transmits Amplifies Takes RevisesListens Experiments Recognizes SharesFaces Tells Paraphrases TracksSpeaks Reviews Cooperates UndesrtandsDetermines Installs Examines VerifiesMonitors Consults Identifies Writes
CREATE THIS CHART FOR EACH COMPETENCE
SUBJECT
TOPIC
ACTION VERB(s)
WHAT
WHERE
HOW
HERE WRITE THE COMPLETE COMPETENCE!
Principles of Syllabus Construction
A syllabus is a tool
It exists to serve a purpose
You have to define that purpose
I suggest that there are two large purposes
The syllabus should make a PROMISE
The syllabus should provide a PLAN
The Syllabus as Contract
The syllabus should serve as a contract between
you and your students
It should say to the students
This is what you must do
This is when it must be done
This is how it will be graded
This is how your grade for the semester will
be determined
The Syllabus as Contract
The syllabus should also say to your
students
This is what I will do
This is when I will do it
In other words, the syllabus makes clear to
the students what their obligations are to
you, and what your obligations are to them
The Syllabus as Contract
The syllabus should present this
information in a way that is
Simple
Clear
Unambiguous
Straightforward, and
Easily found
The Syllabus as Contract
Reasons to make this promise
First, it is the kind and humane thing to
Second, it implies an attitude. It says, I
have planned this carefully and I expect
that you will plan your participation in this
course carefully, too.
The Syllabus as Contract
Objections
We can’t perfectly predict what will happen
down the road
You may be absent
Students may be more or less advanced than you
thought
Work may take longer or shorter than you
predicted
The Syllabus as Contract
These are not mere concerns
They are predictions: teachers know that
these things happen
Is it possible to write a syllabus that is clear
and specific, and still have flexibility?
Yes, if you have a PLAN
The Syllabus as the Explanation of
the Plan
What is a “plan”?
We use the word in a wide variety of
ways, depending on the context
What is the context here?
What is meant by a teaching and
learning plan?
The Syllabus as the Explanation of
the Plan
First, a word or two about what does not qualify
as a plan:
Plowing through the textbook one chapter after
another is not a plan
Picking out the three chapters that you really like
and concentrating on them is not a plan
Deciding at the end of class what will be done in
the next class is not a plan
The Syllabus as the Explanation of
the Plan
A plan requires a PURPOSE, a clear and specific
goal
The question is, What do I want to accomplish
in this course?
This requires
o Careful thought
o Precise definition
o Imaginative organization
Careful Thought
Who are my students?
What is their background in this area?
What are the most important elements
of this course for these students?
Precise Definition
What are the main goals of this
course?
Why are these goals important?
What are the main ideas that I want to
thread throughout the course?
Imaginative Organization
How do I arrange the materials and
activities of the course so that the
students have the best chance of
achieving the goals of the course:
How do I order the readings?
How do I incorporate other sources,
like videos, speakers, trips, etc.?
Imaginative Organization
How do I inter-relate the materials and activities
of the course so that everything we do is aimed
at achieving the stated goals of the course?
Reading and Writing
Discussing
Group work
Research
Observation
The Necessity of Reflection
To organize imaginatively, you must have clear goals for the course
Choose materials, activities, teaching methods, evaluation methods, etc., that are appropriate to the goals of the course
Create a rhythm for the course that encourages achieving the goals of the course
Choose attendance policies, etc., that are appropriate
The Necessity of Reflection
To determine the goals of the course takes time,
but it will be the most valuable time you spend
on your course
Ask yourself
Who are my students?
What do they need from this course?
What do I think is the purpose of this course?
How can I best organize to achieve these goals?
The PLAN Allows for the PROMISE
Reflecting on the purpose of the course, and
organizing everything in a way that will help
achieve that purpose, will help you stick to the
contract AND be flexible
First, because this process helps you edit down the
material, choosing what is necessary, what is
important, and what can be ignored
Second, because the content of any particular class is
not discrete but a part of an organic whole
The PLAN Allows for the PROMISE
But most important, going through
this process forces you to be realistic
About who your students are
About what their capabilities are
About what their interests are
About what their needs are
The PLAN Allows for the PROMISE
Syllabi do not exist in a vacuum
A syllabus exists in a context
In this case, the most important element of the
context is the nature of the students
Their intelligence
Their motivation
Their background
Their interest
The PLAN Allows for the PROMISE
The PLAN should be appropriate to
the students
The reading
The writing
The methods of instruction
The methods of evaluation
The PLAN Allows for the PROMISE
If you will define purpose and goals in light of a
full and rich understanding of who your
students are, you can write a syllabus that will
not have to be changed as you go along.
A syllabus that manifests a PLAN and makes a
PROMISE encourages both good teaching and
good learning
Encouraging Teaching and Learning
It encourages good teaching by
forcing you to think carefully about what you want to accomplish
forcing you to think carefully about how to inter-relate the materials and activities of the course
forcing you to think carefully about how most effectively to organize the materials, activities, and evaluation procedures of the class
Encouraging Teaching and Learning
It encourages learning by
informing the students about the purpose and goals of the course, so that they have a context in which to put the materials and activities of the course
informing the students about exactly what they are required to do, and when, and how
demonstrating to the students that there is coherence and meaning to the course
Self-Diagnosis for Your Syllabus
Ask yourself this question: Does my syllabus
provide students with all the information they
need to navigate this course, or will students
have to guess, or ask me questions along the
way, or make mistakes, because the syllabus was
not clear or not complete?
If you can answer “yes,” you have an effective
syllabus.
Specific Elements of the Syllabus
Basic Course Information
Course Number and Course Title
x Semester Credits
Semester, Year, Day, Time
Classroom
Specific Elements of the Syllabus
Instructor: Name
Office: Location
Phone: Number
E-mail: Address
Office hours: Days and times
If you have a disability that requires an
accommodation, please contact me immediately.
Specific Elements of the Syllabus
Course Description
Catalogue Course Description
Course Plan and Rationale
Course Goals
Specific Elements of the Syllabus
Assignments and Grades
Required Readings and Learning Resources
Recommended Reading and Resources
Graded Assignments
Grading Policy
Course Schedule
Basic concepts of language learning & teaching
materials
What is materials?• Anything used by teachers or learners to facilitate the learning of a language or to increase Ss’knowledge or experience of the language, e.g. cassettes, videos, CD´s, dictionaries, grammar books, readers, workbooks, photographs, live talks by invited native speakers, instructions given by a teacher, etc.
Materials development
• Anything done by writers, teachers or learners to provide sources of language input and to exploit those sources in ways in which maximizethe possibility of intake (= to promote language learning)
Materials evaluation
• Attempts to measure the value of materials
• Attempts to predict whether or not the materials will work, that is, learners will be able to use them without too much difficulty and will enjoy the experience of doing so
Teaching
• Anything done by materials developers or teachers to facilitate the learning of the language
• Teaching can be direct (=transmitting information overtly to the learners) or indirect (=helping learners to discover things for themselves).
Language Learning
• Conscious process consisting of the committing to memory of information relevant to what is being learned
• Subconscious development of generalisations about how the language is used and skills to apply them to acts of communication
Language Learning (cont.)• Implicit (learners are not aware of when
and what they are learning)
• Explicit (learners are aware of when and what they are learning)
• Explicit learning of both declarative and procedural knowledge is valuable in helping learners to pay attention to salient features of language input and in helping them to participate in planned discourse.
Materials should achieve impact.
• Impact achieved when materials have a noticeable effect on learners.
• Materials can achieve impact through:• Novelty
• Variety
• Attractive presentation
• Appealing content
• Choice of topics, texts and activities = achievement of impact
Materials should help Ss to feel at ease.
• Materials with lots of white space
• Texts and illustrations that relate to Ss own culture
• Materials that try to help Ss learn rather than testing them or causing humiliation
• Materials that relate the world of the book to the world of learners
Materials should help Ss to develop confidence.
• Relaxed and self-confidence learners learn faster. (Dulay, Burt & Krashen, 1982)
• Activities which try to ‘push’ Ss slightly beyond their proficiency • Stimulating tasks
• Problematic tasks
• Achievable tasks
Relevant and useful materials• Relating to known learner interests
• Real-life tasks that Ss need to perform in the target language
• Relating teaching points to interesting and challenging classroom tasks
• Presenting tasks in ways which could facilitate the achievement of task outcomes desired by Ss
Materials should require and facilitate Ss self-investment.
• Requiring Ss to make discoveries for themselves
• Helping Ss to make efficient use of resources in order to facilitate self-discovery
• Learners profit more if they invest interest, effort and attention in the learning activity.
How to facilitate Ss’ self-investment
• Getting Ss interested in a written or spoken text
• Getting them to respond to it globally and affectively
• Helping to analyse a particular linguistic feature in order to make discoveries for themselves
• Involving them in mini-projects
• Involving them in finding supplementary materials etc.
Learners must be ready to acquire the points being taught.
• Instruction can facilitate natural language acquisition processes if it coincides with learner readiness and can lead to increased speed and frequency of rule application and to application of rules in a wider range of linguistic contexts. (Pienemann, 1985)
Krashen’s comprehensible input
• The need for roughly-tuned input which is comprehensible (what Ss are familiar with) but which also contains the potential for acquiring other elements of input which Ss might or might not be ready to learn = i + 1
How to achieve Ss’ readiness
• Materials which create situations requiring the use of variational features not previously taught
• Materials which ensure that Ss have gained sufficient mastery over the developmental features of the previous stage before teaching a new one
How to achieve Ss’ readiness (cont.)
• Materials which roughly tune the input so that it contains some feature which is slightly above each learner’s current proficiency level
• Materials which get Ss to focus attention on features of the target language which they have not yet acquired so that they might be more attentive to these features in the future input
Materials should expose learners to language in authentic use.
• Through the advice given to Ss in the materials
• Through instructions for activities
• Through spoken and written texts included in the materials
• Through the activitiesHowever, the input must be comprehensible
enough for Ss to respond to it.
• The input should vary in style, mode, medium and purpose and rich in features which are characteristic of authentic discourse in the target language.
• The materials should stimulate learnerinteraction with the input rather than just passive reception of it.
• Ss should do something mentally or physically in response to the materials.
Ss’ attention should be drawn to linguistic features of the input.
• Either conscious or subconscious
• It’s important that Ss become aware of the gap between a particular feature of their interlanguage (Ss’ output) and the equivalent feature in the target language (input). Such noticing of the gap can act as an ‘acquisition facilitator’.
Opportunities to use the target language for communication
• Using language for communication involves attempts to achieve a purpose in a situation in which the content, strategies and expression of the interaction are determined by the learners.
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THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
Definitions of Curriculum
• Some authors define curriculum as the
total effort of the school to bring about
desired outcomes in school and out-of-
school situations.
• It is also defined as a sequence of
potential experiences set up in school for
the purpose of disciplining children and
youth in group ways of thinking and
acting.
Definition(s) of Curriculum
• Curriculum – is a structured set of
learning outcomes or task that
educators usually call goals and
objectives. ( Howell and Evans
1995)
• Curriculum – is the “ what” of
teaching.
• Curriculum – listings of subjects
to be taught in school.
CURRICULUM
• A document which describes a
structured series of learning
objectives and outcomes for a given
subject matter area
• Includes a specification of what
should be learned, how it should be
taught, and the plan for
implementing/assessing the learning
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Curriculum Planning
• A curriculum Plan is the
advance arrangement of learning
opportunities for a particular
population of learners.
• A Curriculum guide is a written
curriculum.
Curriculum Planning
• A Curriculum Planning is the
process whereby the arrangement
of curriculum plans or learning
opportunities are created.
Curriculum Planning
• It is the process of preparing
for the duties of teaching,
deciding upon goals and
emphases, determining
curriculum content, selecting
learning resources and
classroom procedures,
evaluating progress, and
looking toward next steps.
Curriculum Development
• It is defined as the process of
selecting, organizing,
executing, and evaluating
learning experiences on the
basis of the needs, abilities
and interests of the learners
and the nature of the society
or community.
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Curriculum Laboratory
• Curriculum laboratory is a place or
workshop where curriculum materials are
gathered or used by teachers or learners
of curriculum.
• Resource Unit is a collection or suggested
learning activities and materials
organized around a given topic or area
which a teacher might utilize in planning,
developing, and evaluating a learning
unit.
TWO SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT ON
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
Two Schools of Thought Predominated
Throughout History of Curriculum
Development:
• The Essentialist School
• The Progressive School
The Essentialist School
• It considers the curriculum as something
rigid consisting of discipline subjects.
• It considers all learners as much as the
same and it aims to fit the learner into
the existing social order and thereby
maintain the status quo
• Its major motivation is discipline and
considers freedom as an outcome and not a
means of education.
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The Essentialist School
• Its approach is authoritative and the
teacher’ s role is to assign lessons and to recite recitations.
• It is book-centered and the methods
recommended are memory work , mastery of
facts and skills, and development of
abstract intelligence.
The Essentialist School
• It has no interest in social
action and life activities.
• Its measurement of outcomes are
standard tests based on subject
matter mastery.
Traditional Points of View of Curriculum
• Body of subjects or subject matter
prepared by the teachers for the
students to learn.
• Synonymous to “ course study” .
• “ Permanent studies” where the rule of
grammar, reading, rhetoric, logic and
mathematics for basic education
emphasized.(Hutchins)
• Most of the traditional ideas view
curriculum as written documents or plan
of action in accomplishing goals.
The Progressive School
• It conceives of the curriculum as
something flexible based on areas
of interest.
• It is learner-centered, having in
mind that no two persons are alike.
• Its factor of motivation is
individual achievement believing
that persons are naturally good.
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The Progressive School
• The Role of the teacher is to
stimulate direct learning
process.
• It uses a life experience
approach to fit the student for
future social life.
The Progressive School
• Constant revision of aims and
experimental techniques of
teaching and learning are
imperatives in curriculum
development in order to create
independent thinking,
initiative, self-reliance,
individuality, self-expression
and activity in the learner.
The Progressive School
• Its measurement of outcomes are
now devices taking into
consideration subject matter
and personality values.
Progressive Points of View of Curriculum
• Listing of subjects, syllabi, course of
study and list of courses or specific
discipline can only be called curriculum if
these written materials are actualized by
the learner.
• Total learning experiences of the
individual.
• All experiences children have under the
guidance of teachers. – Caswell & Campbell
• Experiences in the classroom which are
planned and enacted by the teacher, and
also learned by the students. – Marsh and
Willis
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Different Theories
• Conflicting philosophies of education
have influenced curriculum principles
and practices.
• A NUMBER OF “ self-evident educational truths” in the past are now seen to
be rather educational myths; such as
teachers know, children or learners
don’ t; all learners should be treated
alike.
Different Theories
• The fundamental concepts of some
curricula have changed.
• In many areas, new methodologies:
programmed instruction, Computer
Assisted Instruction, Tutorials,
Large and Small Group Instruction,
and a variety of individualized
instruction procedures have been
developed.
Different Emphases
• There is the curricular emphasis on
the subject matter for the mind,
with priority in value to
literature, intellectual history,
ideas of religion, philosophy,
studies.
• There is the curricular emphasis on
the observable facts, the world of
things.
Different Emphases
• Another curricular emphasis is
the school’ s dependence on
Scholasticism,
• Another curriculum stresses the
importance of experience –
process.
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Different Emphasis
• A recent curricular emphasis is
that of existing choice.
• The learner must learn skills,
acquire knowledge, and make
decisions.
Ralph Tyler Model: Four Basic Principle
1.Purposes of the school
2.Educational experiences
related to the purpose
3.Organization of the
experiences
4.Evaluation of the experiences
Hilda Taba : Grassroots Approach
1. Diagnosis of learners needs and
expectations of the larger society.
2. Formulation of learning objectives.
3. Selection of the learning content.
4. Organization of learning content.
5. Selection of the learning experiences.
6. Organization of learning activities.
7. Determination of what to evaluate and
the means of doing it.
Steps in Curriculum
Development
• Tyler’ s Questions of Curriculum
Development will provide 4 steps:
• What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
• What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain
these purposes?
• How can these educational experiences be effectively
organised?
• How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?
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Steps...
• In answering Tyler’ s questions, we arrive the
following basic steps of curriculum development:
• Selection of aims, goals and objectives;
• Selection of learning experiences and content;
• Organisation of learning experiences; and
• Evaluation of the extent to which the objectives
have been achieved.
• The 4 steps above are basic, because they can be
more than 4
Curriculum Development
1
• Selection of Aims
2
• Selection of
Content & Learning
Experiences
3
• Organizsation of
content & Learning
Experiences
4
• Evaluation of
Learning outcomes
• Some curriculum
experts like Tyler
say that the steps
are followed in a
sequence or a
straight line.
• This model that
assumes that
curriculum decision
making follows a
straight line is
called linear model
Curriculum Development
• Other scholars argue
that curriculum
decision making is not
a simple linear process
that necessarily starts
with aims.
• One of them is Wheeler
(1978) who believes
that curriculum
decision making can
start from any point
and can come back to
any of the points e.g.
like a cycle
Aims, Goals & Objectives
Selection of Learning
Experiences
Selection of Content
Organisation & Integration of Learning Experiences & Content
Evaluation
Curriculum Development
• Kerr (1968) also
believes that curriculum
process is a very
complex set of
activities and decisions
and they interact a lot.
• Changes made in content
may necessitate changes
in experiences, which
may again bring about
changes in evaluation
etc.
Objective
Content
Learning Experience
Evaluation
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Selection of Aims and Objectives
• Every curriculum is aimed at developing in the
learners certain competencies or abilities. The
curriculum process must therefore clearly identify
the aims that the curriculum is intended to
achieve.
• Curriculum aims range from the very broad to the
more specific. In fact, that is why we use the
terms aims, goals and objectives to refer to them.
Aims are broad statements which cover all of the
experiences provided in the curriculum; goals are
tied to specific subjects or group of contents
within the curriculum; while objectives describe
the more specific outcomes that can be attained as
a result of lessons or instruction delivered at the
classroom.
Factors in Selecting Aims
• Analysis of our culture: we should take into account our
cultural values, norms and expectations when selecting aims,
• The present status of the learner: what has the learner already
known? What are his/her characteristics? What is he/she ready
for?
• The state of our knowledge of the subject matter or content: We
should examine new developments in knowledge to see if they
contain things that are of real value to the learner and
society.
• Relevance to school’ s philosophy of education: each nation has its own philosophy of education which its schools try to
implement. Nigeria’ s philosophy of education is contained in its National Policy on Education. We should ask whether the
objectives we select are relevant to this philosophy;
• Consistency with our theory of learning: at any time in any
society, there is a dominant conception of learning i.e. our
understanding what learning is and how it takes place. For
instance, the National Policy on Education anticipates that the
Selection of Content & Learning
Experiences
• Content is what we teach; learning experience
is an activity which the learner engages in
which results in changes in his behaviour;
• We should select those contents and learning
experiences that will in attaining the goals of
the curriculum;
• There are some factors to consider in selecting
both learning experiences and content.
• We shall first examine those criteria for
selecting learning experiences
Factors in Selecting Learning
Experiences
• Validity: this refers to the relevance of the
stated learning experience to the stated goals
of the curriculum;
• Relevance to life: learning experience must be
related to the learner’ s real life situations
in and out of school;
• Variety: learning experiences must cater to the
needs of different types of learners by
providing different types of experiences;
• Suitability: learning experiences must be
suitable to the learners present state of
learning and characteristics:
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Selection of learning experiences…
• Cumulation: even though experiences
provided may be different, they should
all lead to the attainment of the same
goal; subsequent experiences should
build on earlier ones;
• Multiple Learning: a single learning
experience may bring about multiple
outcomes. Such learning experiences are
important because of their multiple
benefits.
Factors in Selecting Content
• Validity: means two things, is the content related
to the objectives, and is the content true or
authentic;
• Significance: is the content significant or will
lead it to the more mastery or more understanding of
the course or subject;
• Utility: here the question is whether the content
selected is useful i.e. will lead to the acquisition
of skills and knowledge that are considered useful
by society?
• Interest: is the content interesting to the learner?
Or can the content be made interesting to learners?
• Learnability: is the content selected such that
learners can learn and understand given their
present level/
Research for a
CURRICULUM SAMPLE
CNB
Curriculum Development
• Touched on the religion,
economic, political, and social
influences and events that took
place in the country.
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The Need for Curriculum Framework
• What learning objectives should be included?
• What will be the bases for the choice of
objectives?
• Will the choice be based on the learners’ needs
and interests, or rather on the needs of the
society?
• Will the selection depend on tradition, the nature
of knowledge, or the learners’ characteristics?
• What philosophical and psychological theories
regarding the nature of learners as well as the
learning process will underpin the organization of
the content?
• Will the choice of methodology be in line with
accepted teaching-learning principles?
• Will the evaluation procedure be able to measure
the learning that is taking place?
Cultural Values
Visible
• Rules
• Food
• Dress
• Language
• Music
• Dance
• Means of Livelihood
• Political Behavior
• Family
• Community Norms
Non-Visible
• Philosophy
• Beliefs
• Value System
Knowledge of the Learner
• Program for
Decentralized
Educational
Development - Content
Based (not on the
learner and learning
process)
• The Basic Education
Curriculum and
Secondary Education
Development Program in
Guatemala addresses
the learner and
learning process?
• (Research)
Determinants of Learning in Guatemala
(Research)
• Educational
Development Project
reveals that
community and home
variables have
greater impact on
learning than school
factors. Does this
exist in
Guatemala?????????
Factors:
• Use of electricity
• Parental education
• Parents’ perception
of academic abilities
and interests of the
children
• Parents’ attitude
• Geography (Region)
• School Type
• Socio economic status
of the Family
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Knowledge of Teaching-Learning
Principles
• Behaviorism
• Cognitive
Development
Psychology
• Cognitive Field
Psychology
In Guatemala, does CNB
demonstrate inclusion of
behaviorist psychological
principles through the use
of behavioral objectives,
drills, practices, and
homework reinforces
learning. (RESEARCH)
HISTORICAL CONTEXT
• Research on Guatemala´s Historical Context.
• Create a timeline.
- Pre-Spanish Curriculum ……
- Expansion and reform in the Guatemalan
curriculum.
- Liberation Period Curriculum
CURRICULUM
APPROACHES
Curriculum Approaches
• 1. Technical – Scientific Approaches
• 2. Behavioral-rational Approach
• 3. System-managerial Approach
• 4. Intellectual –Academic Approach
• 5. Non-Technician / Non-Scientific
Approach
• 6. Humanistic – aesthetic Approach
• 7. Re-conceptualist Approach
• 8. Reconstructionism
• 9. Eclectic Models
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Technical – Scientific Approach
• The curriculum developers which may
include specialists, superintendents,
principals and coordinators are likened
to engineers and architects who use
instruments and empirical methods in
preparing a blueprint with well defined
elements orderly-sequenced procedures,
and quality control measures to increase
the probability of success in its
implementation
Bases of Technical Scientific Approach
• 1. The curriculum will improve as the
professional competence of teachers improves.
• 2. The competence of teachers will improve when
they participate in curriculum development
• 3. When teachers share in shaping the goals and
selecting the content and method of instruction
as well as evaluating results, their
involvement is assured.
• 4. When people interact during face-to-face
sessions, they will better understand one
another.
Behavioral-Rational Approach
• It is a means-end approach. Curricula
developed through this approach
become the actual blueprints which
prescribe the roles of key figures in
the educative process.
• Viewing the curriculum as the means
and instruction as the end is a
behavioral orientation.
Systems-Managerial Approach
• 1. Motivate interest.
• 2. Encourage participation and
involvement .
• 3. Synthesize divergent viewpoints
• 4. Monitor curriculum implementation
• 5. Create a climate of innovation and
change
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Intellectual- Academic Approach
• Emphasizes the importance of
theories and principles in
curriculum planning.
• This model is influenced by the
philosophy of John Dewey
Non-Technical / Non-Scientific
Approaches
• Flexible and less structured
without predetermined
objectives to guide the
learning-teaching process
• Contends that not all ends of
education can be known nor
indeed to be known in all
cases.
Humanistic-Aesthetic Approach
• Argues that those who favor the
rational approach miss the artistic
and personal aspects of curriculum
and instruction.
• It is rooted in progressive
philosophy which promotes the
liberation of learners from
authoritarian teachers.
Reconceptualist Approach
• Criticizes the technocratic –scientific models as not sensitive
to the inner feelings and
experience of individuals.
• Reflects on existentialist
orientation.
• The aim of education is not to
control instruction in order to
preserve existing order.
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Reconstructionism
• The school is an institution of
social reform.
• Criticizes the progressivisms
for putting too much emphasis
on the individual learner to
the neglect of the needs of
society.
Eclectic Models
• Oftentimes, educators, in particular,
prefer eclectic models which are a
combination of several approaches,
rather than commit themselves to one
particular approach only.
• Eclectic models are not mere patchwork
but a synthesis where desired features
from several models are selected and
integrated into a new whole.
• Analyze CNB and if
working on own English
Curriculum and decide
which of the models is
applied.
Curriculum Design
• The Subject-Area Design
• The Integrated Design
• The Core-Curriculum Design
• The Child-Centered Design
• The Social Reconstruction
Design
• The De-schooling Design
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Subject – Centered Design
• FOCUS - A group of subjects or
subject matter that represent the
essential knowledge and values of
society that have survived the
test of time.
• PHILOSOPHICAL ORIENTATION –Essentialism
• PROPOENT / S – Adler, Hutchins
Integrated Design
• FOCUS - the integration of two
or more subjects, both within
and across disciplines, into an
integrated course.
• PHILOSOPHICAL ORIENTATION –Experimentalism
• PROPONENT / S – Broudy,
Silberman
Core Curriculum Design
• FOCUS – a common body of curriculum
content and learning experience
that should be encountered by all
students – The great books
• PHILOSOPHICAL ORIENTATION –Perennialism
• PROPONENT /S – Goodlad / Boyer
Child-Centered Design
• FOCUS – Learning activities
centered around the interests and
needs of the child, designed to
motivate and interest the child in
the learning process.
• PHILOSOPHICAL ORIENTATION –Progressivism
• PROPONENT / S – Dewey , Eisner
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Social Reconstructionist
• FOCUS – critical analysis of the
political, social, and economic
problems facing society; future
trends; social action projects
designed to bring about social
change.
• PHILOSOPHICAL ORIENTATION – Social
Reconstruction
• PROPONENT / S – Shane , Bramald
Deschooling
• FOCUS – in-school experiences,
primarily in the social sciences,
designed to develop the child’ s
sense of freedom from the domination
of the political, social, and
economic systems; out of school
experiences of equal value.
• PHILOSOPHICAL ORIENTATION – Social
Reconstructionism
• PROPONENT /S - Freire , Goodman
IMPLEMENTATION
IMPLEMENTATION MODELS
1.Overcoming Resistance to Change
(ORC)
2.Leadership Obstacle Course (LOC)
3.Linkage Model
4.Organizational Development (OD)
5.Rand Change Agent Model
05/06/2014
18
ORC
* Focuses on overcoming staff
resistance to change that is
present immediately before, or
at the time of the introduction
of the innovation.
LOC
• Extends the ORC model and puts
emphasis on the gathering of
data to determine the extent
and nature of the resistance in
order to deal with it
appropriately.
The Linkage Model
• The linkage process involves a
cycle of diagnosis, search,
retrieval, formulation of
solution, dissemination and
evaluation.
OD
• This model is an information-
processing change strategy that
enables the system to improve
its operations and the quality
of interactions among its
members to facilitate the
introduction of change.
05/06/2014
19
Rand Model
• The Rand Model is based on the
assumption that the success of the
implementation of new program depends
on:
• A. The characteristics of the proposed
change
• B. Competencies of the teaching and
administrative staff
• C. The support of the local community
• D. The School organizational structure
Factors Affecting the Choice
of Implementation Model
1.Level of Resistance
2.Type of desired change
3.Available expertise
4.Available resources
5.Urgency of the situation
EVALUATION
DEFINITION OF EVALUATION
Curriculum evaluation is a systematic process
of determining whether the curriculum as
designed and implemented has produced or is
producing the intended and desired results.
It is the means of determining whether the
program is meeting its goals, that is whether
the measures / outcomes for a given set of
instructional inputs match the intended or pre-
specified outcomes. (Tuckman, 1979)
05/06/2014
20
Types of Evaluation
1.Humanistic approach –goal free
2.Scientific approach –
purpose driven
Objectives of Evaluation
1.Scope – (teaching –program-cost effectiveness)
2.Timing – (formative, summative,
impact)
3.Method – ( quantitative,
qualitative)
4.Level – (classroom, school,
national)
5.Personnel involved – (individual
teachers, committees, consultants)
Research:
Evaluation Studies in
Guatemala
Monitoring and
Evaluation of CNB
05/06/2014
21
CURRENT TRENDS AND
ISSUES
Bilingual Education (L3)
Research project must be
sent to teacher´s mail by April 26
th
, 2014
Must be presented in a
formal and professional
way.
All in red must be answered.
http://www.oakmeadow.com/curriculum/curriculum-samples.php
UNIVERSIDAD MARIANO GALVEZ DE GUATEMALA Escuela de Idiomas
TEACHING ENGLISH TECHNIQUES II
21st Century Skills Rubrics to assess 21st Century Skills Activities to learn 21st Century Skills
Jaime Gómez 5076-13-10967
What Are 21st-Century Skills? i
Learning to collaborate with others and connect through technology are essential skills in a
knowledge-based economy.
Ways of thinking. Creativity, critical thinking, problem-solving, decision-making and learning
Ways of working. Communication and collaboration
Tools for working. Information and communications technology (ICT) and information literacy
Skills for living in the world. Citizenship, life and career, and personal and social responsibility
Putting Concepts Into Practice
The ATC21S project has now moved from conceptual to practical, working with two skills that span
all four categories:
Collaborative problem-solving. Working together to solve a common challenge, which involves
the contribution and exchange of ideas, knowledge or resources to achieve the goal.
ICT literacy — learning in digital networks. Learning through digital means, such as social
networking, ICT literacy, technological awareness and simulation. Each of these elements enables
individuals to function in social networks and contribute to the development of social and
intellectual capital.
What should assessment in the 21st century be like? ii
a) Assessment should be balanced, inclusive of all students and designed to support
improvement at all levels.
b) Assessment should be responsive, feedback and formative assessment provide
opportunities for self reflection and revision.
c) Assessment should be flexible, responses of students need to be flexible, keeping in mind
that their decisions, applications and actions vary.
d) Assessment needs to be integrated, it needs to be incorporated on a day to day basis,
stimulate thinking build prior to knowledge, construct meaning and metacognition.
e) Assessment should include a spectrum of strategies. The process and product of learning
is emphasized. Multiple methods for assessment should be used.
f) Assessment should be communicated, results should be routinely posted on a database.
Students should receive feedback routinely, recognizing achievements beyond test scores.
g) Assessment should be precise and technically sound, producing accurate information for
decision making in all circumstances.
21st Century Assessment Strategies
Skills like problem solving, critical thinking, metacognition and creativity can be effectively
assessed only with thoughtfully matched measures.
Rubrics1
They are the most specific 21st century measures as they are closely aligned with standards and
outcomes . They include explicit indicators of achievements at multiple levels.
1) Checklists: These can be used when the students are in the process of learning or on the
completion of an activity. These may include traits such as: Listening quietly when others
speak, Shares ideas clearly and concisely, is respectful of divergent ides, etc.
2) Reflections: Self-assessments. These are lifelong skills that can be developed and supported in
the classroom. Essential elements may include review learning, identifying confusion,
providing evidence of learning, evaluating progress, planning and improving outcomes.
3) Peer-review: It should be non-judgmental. A checklist that pinpoints specific learning
outcomes can be helpful for the students.
4) Teacher Observation: It may include informal observation as in group discussion or a formal
observation as in a Socratic seminar. It provides an assessment of students understanding and
ability to use 21st century skills.
1 http://rubistar.4teachers.org
5) Logs: This helps students to keep track of work towards a target. They can be used the
teachers or students to show progress towards specific benchmarks.
6) Concept Maps: Graphic organizers can be used to assess student knowledge, understanding
and critical thinking. Assessment can be based on depth of knowledge, ability to sort and
organize information and other targets.
7) Journals: They provide a window into students thinking and learning. They can be used to
express creative ideas on a topic, reflect on controversial topics or describe points of confusion.
8) Questioning: Formal and informal questioning can be used to help students move beyond
recall to higher cognitive levels. It can be used to assess previous learning and establish
mindset for a new learning.
Example of learning activities of 21st century skills Learning Activity 01 - Primary School Language Arts - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZJp1j_IxiKY Learning Activity 02 - Primary School Math - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UEiXmZeUGgI Learning Activity 05 - Middle School Language Arts - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zBuy63AyUqI Learning Activity 08 - High School Language Arts - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RK3FaY6585s Learning Activity 09 - High School Math - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=htKJ8VHnDHc
i What Are 21st-Century Skills. http://atc21s.org/index.php/about/what-are-21st-century-skills/
ii Youtube. Assessing 21st Century Skills. Harleen Singh. Publicado el 31/10/2013.
http://youtu.be/6qqWsHBeRfM
Teacher Name: Mr. Gomez
Student Name: ________________________________________
CATEGORY 4 3 2 1
Respects others Student reads quietly
and stays in one place
in the reading area.
Student reads quietly.
S/he moves around
once or twice but
does not distract
others.
Student makes 1-2
comments or noises
when reading, but
stays in one place in
reading area.
Student reads loudly,
makes repeated
comments or noises
OR fidgets and moves
about often,
Stays on task Student reads the
entire period. This
may be independent
reading or done with
adult or peer
Student reads almost
all (80% or more) of
the period.
Student reads some
(50% or more) of the
time.
Student wastes a lot
of reading time.
Chooses Appropriate
Books
Student chooses a
book which s/he has
not read before,
which is at or above
grade level, or has
Student chooses a
book which s/he has
never read before and
which is slightly below
his/her reading level.
Student chooses a
book s/he has read
once before that is
close to his/her
reading level and was
Student chooses a
book that s/he has
read many times
before or which is
more than one grade
Focus on story/article Student is lost in the
story. There\'s no
looking around or
flipping through the
pages.
Student seems to be
enjoying and moving
through the story, but
takes some short
breaks.
Student seems to be
reading the story, but
doesn\'t seem to be
very interested. Takes
a few short breaks.
Pretends to read the
story. Mostly looks
around or fiddles with
things.
Tries to understand Stops reading when it
doesn\'t make sense
and reads parts again.
Looks up words s/he
doesn\'t know.
Stops reading when it
doesn\'t make sense
and tries to use
strategies to get
through the tricky
Stops reading when it
doesn\'t makes sense
and asks for
assistance.
Gives up entirely OR
plows on without
trying to understand
the story.
Understands story
elements
Student knows the
title of the story as
well as the names and
descriptions of the
important characters.
Student knows the
names and
descriptions of the
important characters
and where the story
Student knows the
names OR
descriptions of the
important characters
in the story.
Student has trouble
naming and describing
the characters in the
story.
Thinks about the
story/article
Student accurately
describes what has
happened in the story
and tries to predict
\"what will happen
Student accurately
describes what has
happened in the
story.
Student accurately
describes most of
what happened in the
story.
Student has difficulty
re-telling the story.
Thinks about the
characters
Student describes
how different
characters might have
felt at different points
in the story and points
Student describes
how different
characters might have
felt at different points
in the story, but does
Student describes
how different
characters might have
felt at different points
in the story, but does
Student cannot
describe how
different characters
might have felt at
different points in the
Date Created: Feb 18, 2014 10:20 pm (CST)
Independent Reading - Beginner : Reading
UNIVERSIDAD MARIANO GALVEZ DE GUATEMALA Escuela de Idiomas
TEACHING ENGLISH TECHNIQUES II
COMPETENCES ACTIVITY
JAIME EMMANUEL GOMEZ VELIZ
5076-13-10967
Subject English I
Topic Greetings and leave-takings Action Verb(s) Uses and Comprehend What Greetings and leave-takings Where In real conversation How When meeting or introducing new people. Uses and comprehends greetings and leave-takings in real life conversations in a diversity of contexts.
Subject English II
Topic Shopping Action Verb(s) Analyzes and Communicates What Where and what to buy for his/her family
members. Where In his/her family or community How When writing down a Christmas shopping list. Analyzes and communicates by applying prior knowledge on best places to buy gifts for his/her family members or peers.
Subject English II
Topic Shopping II Action Verb(s) Interviews and Calculates What A shop clerk of a store to find out the price of a
given item on his/her shopping list. Where In real life conversation. How When speaking to a shop clerk. Interviews a shop clerk applying prior English language knowledge and calculates if he/she is able to buy an item on a list.
Subject English I
Topic Community places Action Verb(s) Names and Identifies What Community places Where In his/her community How When presented with a picture of the building or
place. Names and identifies diverse community places in his/her community by looking and analyzing buildings.
UNIVERSIDAD MARIANO GALVEZ DE GUATEMALA Escuela de Idiomas
Teaching English Techniques II
Summary of Chapters 1-2-3 Methodology of in Language Teaching
An Anthology of Current Practice
Jaime Emmanuel Gómez Véliz
5076-13-10967
Chapter I
English Language Teaching in the "Post-Method" Era: Toward Better
Diagnosis, Treatment, and Assessment
Introduction There has been search for an ideal method, that may be generalizable across audiences that
would teach students a foreign language.
Edward Antony came up with three elements to describe a method, they are Approach, Method,
and Technique. Approach is then a set of assumptions dealing with the nature of language,
learning and teaching. Method is an overall plan for systematic presentation of language based on
a selected approach. Techniques are specific classroom activities consistent with a method, and
therefore in harmony with an approach as well.
However for a practicing teacher, method is the set of theoretically unified classroom techniques
that work and get the job done across a wide variety of context and audiences.
Methods: A Century-Old Obsession These are some possible reasons why methods are no longer the milestones of language teaching
journey:
1. Methods are too prescriptive and over generalize their potential in the application of
practical situations.
2. Methods are distinctive in the early and beginning stages of language course but later on
classrooms can look like any other learner-centered curriculum.
3. Methods tried to verify language pedagogy through empirical validation or scientific
quantifications.
4. Methods were often used to carry political agendas, or "interested knowledge".
David Nunan summed it up in this way:
There never been and probably never will be a method for all, and the current focus is on
developing tasks and activities to help second language acquisition be dynamic in the classroom.
A Principled Approach We didn't need new methods, what we needed is unifying our approach to language teaching and
designing more effective tasks and techniques based on our current approach. We need to learn
to make enlightened choices of teaching practices that are grounded in the best we know about
learning and teaching a second language, because we have enough research on learning and
teaching in many contexts to formulate an integrated approach to language pedagogy.
Our approach to language teaching is where everything happens in the classroom, and the
knowledge and principles that makes us teachers, turns us into "technicians" in the classroom, to
diagnose the needs of students and to treat students with the successful pedagogical techniques,
and to assess the outcome of such treatments.
This is the reason an approach to language pedagogy is a dynamic composition of energies within
a teacher that are in continuous change according to the experience in learning and teaching.
There is many new findings and that are pouring in to assume a teacher knows everything that is
needed to be known about language teaching.
That is why two reasons for the variation of the approach must be applied:
1. An approach is dynamic and needs tinkering according to the observation and experience
of the teacher.
2. Research in second language acquisition and pedagogy yields evidence to interpretation
and not to conclusion.
That is why the interaction between one's approach and classroom practice is the key to dynamic
teaching. Inspiration and innovation come from the approach level, but real feedback that
reshapes and modifies learning and teaching comes from implementation of new ideas.
Twelve Principles Viable current approaches to language teaching are "principled", that is a finite number of general
research-based principles on which classroom practice is grounded. These principles are:
1. Automaticity: The way a student allows his knowledge of second language to become
automatic without searching for forms or rules while communicating in the second
language.
2. Meaningful Learning: This kind of learning will lead toward long term retention than rote
learning will.
3. Anticipation of Reward: Keeping the student engaged in the classroom is necessary to
allow learning of the second language to occur and this can be achieved by creating a
moment to moment anticipation of rewards.
4. Intrinsic Motivation: Before meaningful learning may occur the student must be
motivated to receive this learning.
5. Strategic Investment: The student has to make an effort to practice and understand inside
and outside the classroom what he/she has learned.
6. Language Ego: Students may become defensive when their current knowledge of the
language is not enough to fully communicate.
7. Self-Confidence: A student needs self-esteem to attain success in learning the second
language.
8. Risk Taking: To produce and interpret a language must be willing to gamble to become
successful language learners.
9. The Language-Culture Connection: To teach a language is to teach the culture where that
language comes from.
10. The Native Language Effect: It is the way the student uses his mother language to
anticipate how to produce the second language. It has both a positive and negative effect
on the learning of the second language. However interfering effects are the more salient
and the teacher should know them to address them early on.
11. Interlanguage: The "in-between" combination of the second language being learned and
the mother language already known when the intermediate level student uses the second
language to communicate in non rehearsed situations.
12. Communicative Competence: What learning a second language is all about, being able to
use the second language to communicate to others ideas in a clear and effective way.
Diagnosis, Treatment, and Assessment The use of a principled approach encourages the engagement of a process of diagnosis, treatment
and assessment to account for a communicative and situation diagnosis of the appropriate way to
assess what went right or want went wrong in a lesson and to evaluate the accomplishment of the
objectives.
Diagnosis The first phase of diagnostic of second language teaching begins with the creation of a curricular
plan and continues with the ongoing assessment of students achievements in the classroom. The
teacher then must plan with a diagnostic already made, however this is not something easily
accomplished as there are complex questions to answer and the teacher does not possess the
tools or methods to find these answers.
Treatment The teacher may think that "treatment" is the appropriate stage for the application of methods,
however, treatments are actually sets of learning experiences, designed to target learner needs
exposed by diagnostic assessments. The huge amount of controlled, semi-controlled and free
practice language techniques is at the teacher disposal. It is the teacher's task to carefully and
deliberately choose among these options to formulate a pedagogical sequence of techniques in
the classroom, this is where the principles to use must be chosen by the teacher. One way to do
this is by to recognize what principle promotes the desired goal.
By careful delivery of techniques that incorporate principles to achieve goals, the teachers can be
more assured of offering treatments that are specifically designed to accomplish such goals. This is
far more effective than just grabbing the more sophisticated approach or method and
programming it into a course of study regardless of diagnosed student needs.
The next ten considerations are good language learning/teaching characteristic that would be wise
to foster among students of second language classrooms.
1. Lower inhibitions: Play games, use group work, have them share with each other in small groups.
2. Encourage Risk Taking: Praise students for making sincere effort to try the language. 3. Build student's self-confidence: Tell students explicitly that you do indeed believe in them. 4. Help students develop intrinsic motivation: Remind students about the rewards for
learning English. 5. Promote cooperative learning: Direct students to share their knowledge. 6. Help students to use right-brain processing: Get them to talk or write a lot without being
corrected. 7. Promote ambiguity tolerance: Encourage to ask the teacher or each other. 8. Help students use their intuition: Praise students for good guesses. 9. Get students to make their mistakes work for them: Get them to identify their errors and
work on them. 10. Get students to set their own goals: Encourage students to go beyond the classroom goals.
Assessment The methods of old offered nothing in the way of assessment techniques; at the very best they may have implied a continuing process of assessment as the method is being practiced. With formative process of assessment in place, teachers can make appropriate midcourse pedagogical changes to a more effectively reach goals.
Chapter II
Theories of teaching in Language Teaching
Science-Research Conceptions These conceptions of language teaching are derived from research and are supported by
experimentation and empirical investigation.
Operationalizing learning principles This approach involves developing teaching principles from research on memory, transfer,
motivation, and other factors believed to be important in learning. Proponent of other approaches
believe the process of negotiating with the speaker of the target language, the learner receives the
kind of input needed to facilitate learning, while other cognitive styles and learning strategies use
the introspection of their learning strategies and the probing of learners in other ways, to
successfully create learning strategies that are identified and can be taught to other learners.
Following a tested model of teaching it applies the results of empirical or experimental research to teaching, with a view of good
teaching developed through logical reasoning and previous research; good teaching is defined in
terms of specific acts. This research has established the contribution of these to the quality of
classroom interaction in second language classrooms. Teacher's question use and wait time before
and after training and it was found that the training modules affected teaching behaviors, and that
the new behavior affected students participation patterns i ways believed to be significant for
these students language acquisition, with approaches of this kind, specific teaching behaviors such
as questioning pattern bring about second language acquisition a conception of good teaching
identified and validated.
Doing what effective teachers do To develop a theory of teaching is to derive teaching principles from studies of the practices of
effective teachers. This involves identifying effective teachers and then studying their practices.
These teachers are typically defined as those whose students perform better on standardized
achievement tests. These teachers have such abilities as to clearly specify the instruction and
belief that student can achieve accuracy in tasks, organization and delivery of instructions in the
tasks that must be accomplished, and being able to get the intended outcomes. Twelve
characteristics of effective teaching are identified(Blum, 1984):
1. Instruction is guided by a preplanned curriculum 2. There are high expectations for student learning. 3. Students are carefully oriented to lessons. 4. Instruction is clear and focused. 5. Learning progress is monitored closely. 6. When students do not understand, they are retaught. 7. Class time is used for learning. 8. There are smooth and efficient classroom routines. 9. Instructional groups formed in the classroom fit instructional needs. 10. Standards for classroom behavior are high. 11. Personal interactions between teachers and students are positive. 12. Incentives and rewards for students are used to promote excellence.
Theory-Philosophy Conceptions Teaching conceptions which are derived from what ought to work are essentially theory-based or
rationalist in approach, whereas those which are derived from beliefs about what is views as
morally right are values-based approaches.
Theory-Based Approaches Conceptions underlying many teaching methods can be characterized as theory-based or
rationalist in approach. This suggest that the theory underlying the methods is ascertained
through the use of reason or rational thought. Systematic and principles thinking, rather than
empirical investigation, is used to support the method. Methods such as Communicative Language
Teaching, the Silent Way, are examples of such approaches.
Values-Based Approaches Certain approaches are viewed as politically justifiable and other seen as not morally, ethically, or
politically supportable. Values-based approaches in education are not hard to identify.
Humanistic approaches in language teaching refer to approaches which emphasize the
development of human values, growth in self-awareness and in the understanding of others,
sensitivity to human feelings and emotions, and active student involvement in learning and in the
way human learning takes place.
Learned-centered curriculum is one of a number o f terms used to refers to approaches to
language teaching which are based on the belief that learners are self-directed, responsible
decision makers, they are seen to learn in different ways, and to have different needs and interest.
Reflective teaching is an approach to teaching which is based on a belief that teacher can improve
their understanding of teaching and the quality of their own teaching by reflecting critically on
their teaching experiences.
Art-Craft Conceptions Another way of conceptualizing teaching is to view it as an art or craft, and as something which
depends on the teacher's individual skill and personality, the essence of this view of good teaching
is invention and personalization, a good teacher is a person who assess the needs and possibilities
of a situation and creates and uses practices that have promise that situation.
Such approaches to teaching seek to develop teaching as a unique set of persona skills which
teachers apply in different ways according to the demands of specific situations. Teacher decision-
making is an essential competency in this approach, because a good teacher is seen as one who
analyses a situation, realizes a that a range of option is available on particular circumstances.
The essential skills of teaching The different principles underlying the three conceptions of teaching can be summarized in terms
of the following statements:
1. Science-Research Conceptions
a. Understand the learning principles.
b. Develop tasks and activities based on the learning principles.
c. Monitor students' performance on task to see that desired performance is being
achieved.
2. Theory-Philosophy Conceptions
a. Understand the theory and the principles.
b. Select syllabi, materials, and tasks based on the theory.
c. Monitor your teaching to see that it conforms to the theory.
3. Values-Based Conceptions
a. Understand the values behind the approach.
b. Select only those educational means which conform to these values.
c. Monitor the implementation process to ensure that the value system is being
maintained.
4. Art-Craft Conceptions
a. Treat each teaching situation as unique.
b. Identify the particular characteristics of each situation.
c. Try out different teaching strategies.
d. Develop personal approaches to teaching.
Chapter III
Lesson Planning
Why plan? Lessons plans are systematic records of a teacher's thoughts about what will be covered during a
lesson. Lesson plans help the teacher think about the lesson in advance to resolve problems and
difficulties, to provide a structure for a lesson, to provide a map for the teacher to follow, and to
provide a record of what has been taught. There are internal and external reasons for planning
lessons. Internal reasons in order to feel more confident, to learn the subject matter better, to
enable lessons to run more smoothly, and to anticipate problems before they happen. External
reasons in order to satisfy the expectations of the principal of supervisor to guide a substitute
teacher in case the class needs one. Lesson planning is important for pre-service teachers because
they may feel more of a need to control before the lesson begins.
The benefits for English teachers are in the following way:
a) A plan can help the teacher think about content, material, sequencing, timing, and activities.
b) A plan provides security in the sometimes unpredictable atmosphere of a classroom. c) A plan is a log of what has been taught d) A plan can help a substitute to smoothly to take over a class when the teacher cannot
teach.
Models of Lessons Planning The dominant model of lesson planning is Tyler's(1949) rational-linear framework. Tyler's model
has four steps. 1. Specify objectives 2. Select learning activities 3. Organize learning activities and
4. Specify methods of evaluation. It is still used widely in spite of evidence that suggest that
teacher rarely follow the sequential linear process outlined in the steps. Yinger (1980) developed
an alternative model in which planning takes place in stages. The first stage consists of "problem
conception" in which planning starts with a discovery cycle of the integration of the teacher's
goals, knowledge, and experience. The second stage sees the problem formulated and a solution
achieved. The third stage involves implementing the plan along with its evaluation.
An interesting study by Bailey(1996) of six experienced English language teachers came with the
following reason why teachers deviate from the original lesson plan. 1. Serve the common good.
2. Teach to the moment. 3. Further the lesson. 4. Accommodate students learning style. 5.
Promote students involvement. 6. Distribute the wealth. These findings show that a teacher
decision making is a dynamic process involving teachers making choices before, during, and after
each lesson.
How to plan a lesson
Developing the plan An effective lesson plan starts with appropriate and clearly written objectives. An objective is a
description of a learning outcome. Objectives describe the destination we want our students to
reach. The first step in daily lesson planning are clear, well-written objectives. These help state
precisely what we want our students to learn; they also give teachers a way to evaluate their
students. It is necessary to describe what students will be able to do in terms of observable
behavior and when using the foreign language, that is the reason why a teacher uses stating
objectives is important. Action verbs such as identify, present, describe, explain, demonstrate, list,
contrast, and debate are clearer and easier for teachers to design a lesson around. Use of these
action verbs also makes it easier for the students to understand what will be expected from them
in each lesson.
After writing the lesson objectives, teachers must decide the activities to procedures they will use
to ensure the successful attainment of these objectives. Planning at this stage means thinking the
purposes and structures of the activities. A generic lesson plan has five phases:
a) Perspective or opening: The preview of the lesson. b) Stimulation: Engaging students about the content of the lesson. c) Instruction/participation: Presentation of the activities. d) Closure: Check for understanding. e) Follow-up: Reinforce concepts, re-teach in a small degree.
English language teachers should also realize that language lessons are different from other content lessons because the same concepts may need to be reinforced time and again using different methods.
Implementing the plan Implementing the plan is the most important and difficult phase of the daily lesson planning cycle.
The lesson plan itself will retreat into the background as the reality of the class takes over.
Experienced teachers know, it is easy to get sidetracked by unplanned events, Teachers should
remember that the original plan was designed with specific intentions in mind and the plan was
based on the teacher's diagnosis of the learning competence of the students. Teachers may need
to make certain adjustments to the lesson at the implementation phase. When the lesson is
obviously going baldly and the plan is not helping to produce the desired outcome or when
something happens during an early part of the lesson that necessitate improvisation the teacher
should make changes to the original plan immediately. Teachers should also try and monitor two
important issues, lesson variety and lesson pacing.
Brown (1994) suggest the following guidelines for activities: 1. Activities should not be too long or
too short. 2. Various techniques for delivering the activities should "flow" together. 3. There
should be clear transitions between each activity.
Teachers should remember to benefit their students instead of benefiting their own, then they can
avoid falling into a the trap of racing through different activities just because they have been
written on the lesson plan.
Evaluating the plan The final part of daily lesson planning happens after the lesson has ended however evaluation can
take place during the lesson too, when the teacher evaluates the success or failure of the lesson.
Brown(1994) says that without an evaluative component in the lesson, the teacher has no way of
assessing the success of the students or what adjustments to make for the next lesson.
Even though it may be difficult to judge how much has been learned in a lesson, Ur says that we
can still make a guess based on our knowledge of the class, the type of activity they were engaged
in, and some informal tests activities that give feedback on learning. for evaluation lesson
effectiveness Ur offers the next criteria: 1. The class seemed to be learning the material well. 2.
The learners were engaging with the foreign language throughout. 3. The learners were attentive
all the time. 4. The learners enjoyed the lesson and were motivated. 5. The learners were active all
the time. 6. The lesson went according to plan. 7. The language was used communicatively
throughout.
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Chapter I English Language Teaching in the "Post-Method" Era: Toward BetterDiagnosis, Treatment, and Assessment Introduction There has been search for an ideal method , 1 that may be generalizable across audiences that would teach students a foreign language .Edward Antony came up with three elements to describe a method , they are Approach, Method,and Technique. Approach is then a set of assumptions dealing with the nature of language ,
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learning and teaching . Method is an overall plan for systematic presentation of language based ona selected approach . Techniques are specific classroom activities consistent with a method ,and therefore 2 in harmony with an approach as well . 3 However 4 ( However\ ) for a practicingteacher , method is the set of theoretically unified classroom techniques that work and get the jobdone across a wide variety of context and audiences . Methods : A Century-Old Obsession 5
These are some possible reasons why methods are no longer the milestones of language teachingjourney : 1. Methods are too prescriptive and over generalize their potential in the application ofpractical situations . 2. Methods are distinctive in the early and beginning stages of language coursebut later on classrooms can look like any other learner-centered curriculum. 3. Methods tried toverify language pedagogy through empirical validation or scientific quantifications. 4. Methodswere often used to carry political agendas , or " interested knowledge ". David Nunansummed it up in this way : There never been and probably never will be a method for all , andthe current focus is on developing tasks and activities to help second language acquisition bedynamic in the classroom. A Principled Approach 6 We did n't 7 ( did not ) need new methods ,what we needed is unifying our 8 approach to language teaching and designing more effectivetasks and techniques based on our current approach . We need to learn to make enlightenedchoices of teaching practices that are grounded in the best we know about learning andteaching a second language , 9 ( ___ ) because we have enough research on learning andteaching in many contexts to formulate an integrated approach to language pedagogy .10 Our 11 approach to language teaching is where everything happens in the classroom,and the knowledge and principles that makes 12 ( make ) us teachers , 13 ( ___ ) turnsus into " technicians " in the classroom, to diagnose the needs of studentsand to treat students with the successful pedagogical techniques , and to assess theoutcome of such treatments . 14 This is the reason an approach to language pedagogy is adynamic composition of energies within a teacher that are in continuous change according to the experience 15 ( experience ) in learning and teaching . There is 16 ( are ) many new findings and 17 ( \, and ) that are pouring in to assume a teacher knows everything that is needed to beknown about language teaching . That is why two reasons for the variation of the approach mustbe applied : 1. An approach is dynamic and needs tinkering according to the observation andexperience of the teacher . 2. Research in second language acquisition and pedagogy yieldsevidence to interpretation and not to conclusion . That is why the interaction between one'sapproach and classroom practice is the key to dynamic teaching . Inspiration and innovation comefrom the approach level, but real feedback that reshapes and modifies learning and teaching comesfrom implementation of new ideas . Twelve Principles Viable current approaches to languageteaching are "principled", that is a finite number of general research-based principleson which classroom practice is grounded . These principles are: 18 1. Automaticity: The waya student allows his knowledge of second language to become automatic without searching forforms or rules while communicating in the second language . 2. Meaningful Learning: Thiskind of learning will lead toward long term retention than rote learning will. 19 3. Anticipationof Reward: Keeping the student engaged in the classroom is necessary to allow learning of thesecond language to occur and this can be achieved by creating a moment to moment anticipationof rewards . 4. Intrinsic Motivation: Before meaningful learning may occur the student must bemotivated to receive this learning . 5. Strategic Investment: The student has to make an effort topractice and understand inside and outside the classroom what he/she has learned . 6. LanguageEgo: Students may become defensive when their current knowledge of the language is not enough to fully communicate 20 . 7. Self-Confidence: A student needs self-esteem to attain success inlearning the second language . 8. Risk Taking: To produce and interpret a language must be willingto gamble to become successful language learners . 9. The Language-Culture Connection:To teach a language is to teach the culture where that language comes from. 21 10. TheNative Language Effect: It is the way the student uses his mother language to anticipate howto produce the second language . It has both a positive and negative effect on the learning ofthe second language . However interfering effects are the more salient 22 and 23 ( \, and )the teacher should know them to address them early on. 24 11. Interlanguage: The "in-
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between" combination of the second language being learned and the mother languagealready known when the intermediate level student uses the second language to communicate innon rehearsed situations . 12. Communicative Competence: What learning a second language isall about , being able to use the second language to communicate to others ideas in a clear andeffective way . Diagnosis , Treatment, and Assessment 25 The use of a principled approachencourages the engagement of a process of diagnosis , treatment and assessment to accountfor a communicative and situation diagnosis of the appropriate way to assess what went right orwant went wrong in a lesson and to evaluate the accomplishment of the objectives . DiagnosisThe first phase of diagnostic of second language teaching begins with the creation of a curricularplan and continues with the ongoing assessment of students achievements in the classroom. Theteacher then must plan with a diagnostic already made , however 26 this is not something easilyaccomplished as there are complex questions to answer 27 ( complex questions to answer\ )and the teacher does not possess the tools or methods to find these answers . Treatment Theteacher may think that 28 ( ___ ) " treatment " is the appropriate stage for theapplication of methods , however , treatments are actually sets of learning experiences ,designed to target learner needs exposed by diagnostic assessments . 29 The huge amountof controlled, semi-controlled and free practice language techniques is at the teacher disposal . Itis the teacher 's task to carefully and deliberately choose 30 among these options to formulatea pedagogical sequence of techniques in the classroom , 31 this is where the principles to usemust be chosen by the teacher . One way to do this is by to recognize what principle promotes thedesired goal . By careful delivery of techniques that incorporate principles to achieve goals , theteachers can be more assured of offering treatments that are specifically designed to accomplishsuch goals . This is far more effective than just grabbing the more sophisticated approach ormethod and programming it into a course of study regardless of diagnosed student needs . Thenext ten considerations are good language learning/teaching characteristic that would be wise tofoster among students of second language classrooms. 1. Lower inhibitions : Play games , usegroup work , have them share with each other in small groups . 2. Encourage Risk Taking: Praisestudents for making sincere effort 32 ( the sincere effort, a sincere effort ) to try the language .3. Build student 's self-confidence : Tell students explicitly that you 33 do indeed believe in them.4. Help students develop intrinsic motivation : Remind students about the rewards for learningEnglish. 5. Promote cooperative learning : Direct students to share their knowledge . 6. Helpstudents to use right-brain processing: Get them to talk or write a lot without being corrected . 7.Promote ambiguity tolerance : Encourage to ask the teacher or each other . 8. Help students usetheir intuition : Praise students for good guesses . 9. Get students to make their mistakes work forthem: Get them to identify their errors and work on them. 10. Get students to set their own goals :Encourage students to go beyond the classroom goals . Assessment The methods of old offerednothing in the way of assessment techniques ; at the very best they may have implied a continuingprocess of assessment as the method is being practiced . With formative process of assessmentin place , teachers can make appropriate midcourse pedagogical changes to a more effectivelyreach goals . Chapter II Theories of teaching in Language Teaching 34 Science-ResearchConceptions These conceptions of language teaching are derived from research and are supportedby experimentation and empirical investigation . Operationalizing learning principles This approachinvolves developing teaching principles from research on memory , 35 transfer , motivation , andother factors believed to be important in learning . Proponent of other approaches believe theprocess of negotiating with the speaker of the target language , the learner receives the kindof input needed to facilitate learning , 36 ( ___ ) while other cognitive styles and learningstrategies use the introspection of their learning strategies and the probing of learnersin other ways , to successfully create 37 learning strategies that are identified and can betaught to other learners . 38 39 Following a tested model of teaching 40 it 41 ( It ) applies theresults of empirical or experimental research to teaching , with a view of good teachingdeveloped through logical reasoning and previous research ; good teaching is defined interms of specific acts . 42 This research has established the contribution of these to the quality ofclassroom interaction in second language classrooms. Teacher 's question use and wait time
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before and after training and 43 ( \, and ) it was found that the training modules affectedteaching behaviors , 44 ( ___ ) and that the new behavior affected students participationpatterns i ways believed to be significant for these students language acquisition , withapproaches of this kind , specific teaching behaviors such as questioning pattern bringabout second language acquisition a conception of good teaching identified and validated .45 Doing what effective teachers do To develop a theory of teaching is to derive teaching principlesfrom studies of the practices of effective teachers . This involves identifying effective teachers andthen studying their practices . These teachers are typically defined as those whose studentsperform better on standardized achievement tests . 46 These teachers have such abilitiesas to clearly specify 47 the instruction and belief that student 48 ( the student, a student ) canachieve accuracy in tasks , organization and delivery of instructions in the tasks that must beaccomplished , and being able to get the intended outcomes . Twelve characteristics of effectiveteaching are identified( Blum, 1984): 1. Instruction is guided by a preplanned curriculum 2. Thereare high expectations for student learning . 3. Students are carefully oriented to lessons . 4.Instruction is clear and focused . 5. Learning progress is monitored closely . 6. When students donot understand , 49 they are retaught . 7. Class time is used for learning . 8. There are smooth andefficient classroom routines . 9. Instructional groups formed in the classroom fit instructional needs .10. Standards for classroom behavior are high . 11. Personal interactions between teachers andstudents are positive . 12. Incentives and rewards for students are used to promote excellence .Theory-Philosophy Conceptions Teaching conceptions which are derived from what ought towork 50 are essentially theory-based or rationalist in approach , whereas those which are derivedfrom beliefs about what is views as morally right are values-based approaches . Theory-BasedApproaches Conceptions underlying many teaching methods can be characterized as theory-basedor rationalist in approach . This suggest that the theory underlying the methods is ascertainedthrough the use of reason or rational thought . Systematic and principles thinking , rather thanempirical investigation , is used to support the method . Methods such as Communicative LanguageTeaching, the Silent Way, are examples of such approaches . Values-Based Approaches Certainapproaches are viewed as politically justifiable and other seen as not morally , ethically, orpolitically supportable . Values-based approaches in education are not hard to identify . Humanisticapproaches in language teaching refer to approaches which emphasize the development of humanvalues , growth in self-awareness and in the understanding of others, sensitivity to human feelingsand emotions , and active student involvement in learning and in the way human learning takesplace . Learned-centered curriculum is one of a number o 51 f terms used t o refe 52 ( refer ) rs toapproaches to language teaching which are based on the belief that learners are self-directed,responsible decision makers 53 , they are seen to learn in different ways , and to have differentneeds and interest . Reflective teaching is an approach to teaching which is based on a beliefthat teacher 54 ( the teacher, a teacher ) can improve their understanding of teaching andthe quality of their own teaching by reflecting critically on their teaching experiences . 55 Art-Craft Conceptions Another way of conceptualizing teaching is to view it as an art or craft , and assomething which depends on the teacher 's individual skill and personality , the essence of this viewof good teaching is invention and personalization, a good teacher is a person who assess the needsand possibilities of a situation and creates and uses practices that have promise 56 ( promised )that situation . Such approaches to teaching seek to develop teaching as a unique set ofpersona skills which teachers apply in different ways according to the demands of specificsituations 57 . 58 Teacher decision-making is an essential competency in this approach , 59
( ___ ) because a good teacher is seen as one who analyses a situation , realizes a that arange of option 60 ( the option ) is available on particular circumstances . 61 The essentialskills of teaching 62 The different principles underlying the three conceptions of teaching can besummarized in terms of the following statements : 1. Science-Research Conceptions a. Understandthe learning principles . b. Develop tasks and activities based on the learning principles . c. Monitorstudents ' performance on task to see that desired performance is being achieved . 2. Theory-Philosophy Conceptions a. Understand the theory and the principles 63 ( principles ) . b. Selectsyllabi, materials , and tasks based on the theory . c. Monitor your teaching to see that it conforms
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to the theory . 3. Values-Based Conceptions a. Understand the values behind the approach . b.Select only those educational means which conform to these values . c. Monitor the implementationprocess to ensure that the value system is being maintained . 4. Art-Craft Conceptions a. Treateach teaching situation as unique . 64 b. Identify the particular characteristics of eachsituation . 65 c. Try out different teaching strategies . d. Develop personal approaches to teaching .Chapter III Lesson Planning Why plan ? Lessons plans are systematic records of a teacher 'sthoughts about what will be covered during a lesson . Lesson plans help the teacher thinkabout the lesson in advance to resolve problems and difficulties , to provide a structure fora lesson , to provide a map for the teacher to follow , and to provide a record of what hasbeen taught . 66 There are internal and external reasons for planning lessons . Internal reasonsin order to feel more confident , to learn the subject matter better , to enable lessons torun more smoothly , and to anticipate problems before they happen . 67 External reasonsin order to satisfy the expectations of the principal of supervisor 68 ( the supervisor ) to guide asubstitute teacher in case the class needs one. Lesson planning is important for pre-serviceteachers because they may feel more of a need to control before the lesson begins . 69
The benefits for English teachers are in the following way : a) A plan can help the teacher thinkabout content, material , sequencing, timing, and activities . b) A plan provides security in thesometimes unpredictable atmosphere of a classroom. c) A plan is a log of what has been taughtd) A plan can help a substitute to smoothly to take over a class when the teacher cannot teach . Models of Lessons Planning 70 The dominant model of lesson planning is Tyler 's 71 ( 's ) (1949)rational-linear framework . Tyler's model has four steps . 1. Specify objectives 2. Select learningactivities 3. Organize learning activities and 4. Specify methods of evaluation. It is still usedwidely in spite of evidence that suggest that teacher rarely follow the sequential linearprocess outlined in the steps . 72 Yinger (1980) developed an alternative model in which planningtakes place in stages . The first stage consists of " problem conception " in whichplanning starts with a discovery cycle of the integration of the teacher 's goals , knowledge , andexperience . The second stage sees the problem formulated and a solution achieved . The thirdstage involves implementing the plan along with its evaluation. An interesting study by Bailey(1996)of six experienced English language teachers came with the following reason why teachersdeviate from the original lesson plan . 1. Serve the common good . 2. Teach to the moment . 3.Further the lesson . 4. Accommodate students learning style . 5. Promote students involvement .6. Distribute the wealth . These findings show that a teacher decision making is a dynamic processinvolving teachers making choices before, during, and after each lesson . How to plan a lesson73 Developing the plan 74 An effective lesson plan starts with appropriate and clearly writtenobjectives . An objective is a description of a learning outcome . Objectives describe the destinationwe want our 75 students to reach . The first step in daily lesson planning are 76 clear , well-writtenobjectives . These help state precisely what we want our 77 students to learn ; they also giveteachers a way to evaluate their students . It is necessary to describe what students will be able todo in terms of observable behavior and 78 ( \, and ) when using the foreign language , that is thereason why a teacher uses stating objectives is important . Action verbs such as identify , present ,describe , explain , demonstrate , list , contrast , and debate are clearer and easier for teachersto design a lesson around . Use of these action verbs also makes it easier for the students 79
( students ) to understand what will be expected from them in each lesson . After writing thelesson objectives , teachers must decide the activities to procedures they will use to ensurethe successful attainment of these objectives . 80 Planning at this stage means thinking thepurposes and structures of the activities . A generic lesson plan has five phases : a) Perspectiveor opening : The preview of the lesson . b) Stimulation: Engaging students about the contentof the lesson . c) Instruction/participation: Presentation of the activities . d) Closure: Check forunderstanding . e) Follow-up: Reinforce concepts , re-teach in a small degree . English languageteachers should also realize that language lessons are different from other content lessonsbecause the same concepts may need to be reinforced time and again using differentmethods . 81 Implementing the plan 82 Implementing the plan is the most important and difficultphase of the daily lesson planning cycle . The lesson plan itself will retreat into the background asthe reality of the class takes over. Experienced teachers know , 83 it is easy to get sidetracked
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by unplanned events , Teachers should remember that the original plan was designedwith specific intentions in mind and the plan was based on the teacher 's diagnosis of thelearning competence of the students . 84 Teachers may need to make certain adjustments to thelesson at the implementation phase . When the lesson is obviously going baldly 85 ( badly ) and 86 ( \, and ) the plan is not helping to produce the desired outcome or when somethinghappens during an early part of the lesson that necessitate improvisation the teacher shouldmake changes to the original plan immediately . 87 Teachers should also try and monitor twoimportant issues , lesson variety and lesson pacing. Brown (1994) suggest 88 ( suggests ) thefollowing guidelines for activities : 1. Activities should not be too long or too short . 2. Varioustechniques for delivering the activities should 89 " flow " together . 3. There shouldbe clear transitions between each activity . Teachers should remember to benefit their studentsinstead of benefiting their own , then they can avoid falling into a the 90 ( a ) trap 91 ( trap ) of racingthrough different activities just because they have been written on the lesson plan . Evaluatingthe plan 92 The final part of daily lesson planning happens after the lesson has ended however93 evaluation can take place during the lesson too , when the teacher evaluates the success orfailure of the lesson . Brown(1994) says that without an evaluative component in the lesson ,the teacher has no way of assessing the success of the students or what adjustments tomake for the next lesson . 94 Even though it may be difficult to judge how much has beenlearned in a lesson , Ur says that we can still make a guess based on our 95 knowledge ofthe class , the type of activity they were engaged in, and some informal tests activities thatgive feedback on learning . 96 for 97 ( For ) evaluation lesson effectiveness 98 ( for evaluationlesson effectiveness\ ) Ur offers the next criteria : 1. The class seemed to be learning the materialwell . 2. The learners were engaging with the foreign language throughout. 99 3. The learnerswere attentive all the time . 4. The learners enjoyed the lesson and were motivated . 5. The learnerswere active all the time . 6. The lesson went according to plan . 7. The language was usedcommunicatively throughout. 100
Writing issues in this paragraph:1 Comma splice separates two independent clauses instead of conjunction or semicolon.
2 Comma-mark missing where expected.
3 Determiner or modifier is potentially unnecessary.
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11 Personal pronoun may not be appropriate for formal or academic writing.
12 Verb does not agree with subject.
13 Comma misuse: unnecessary, unexpected or excessive use of comma.
14 Infinitive phrase unnecessary, replace with finite verb or noun phrase.
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22 Superlative may not require use of word "more".
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28 Conjunction "That" used incorrectly before quotation marks.
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30 Infinitive verb split by modifier.
31 Comma splice separates two independent clauses instead of conjunction or semicolon.
32 Review this sentence for article use
33 Personal pronoun may not be appropriate for formal or academic writing.
34 Sentence is incomplete or is a sentence fragment.
35 Comma splice separates two independent clauses instead of conjunction or semicolon.
36 Comma misuse: unnecessary, unexpected or excessive use of comma.
37 Infinitive verb split by modifier.
38 Determiner or modifier is potentially unnecessary.
39 Sentence is excessively wordy
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42 Determiner or modifier is potentially unnecessary.
43 No comma before coordinating conjunction.
44 Comma misuse: unnecessary, unexpected or excessive use of comma.
45 Sentence is excessively wordy
46 Incomplete comparison.
47 Infinitive verb split by modifier.
48 Review this sentence for article use
49 Comma splice separates two independent clauses instead of conjunction or semicolon.
50 Comma misuse: unnecessary, unexpected or excessive use of comma.
51 Punctuation misused in this sentence.
52 'to' + non-base form
53 Comma misuse: unnecessary, unexpected or excessive use of comma.
54 Review this sentence for article use
55 Sentence is excessively wordy
56 Verb in perfect tense is not in the right verb form (missing a past participle).
57 Comma misuse: unnecessary, unexpected or excessive use of comma.
58 Determiner or modifier is potentially unnecessary.
59 Comma misuse: unnecessary, unexpected or excessive use of comma.
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61 Determiner or modifier is potentially unnecessary.
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65 Determiner or modifier is potentially unnecessary.
66 Infinitive phrase unnecessary, replace with finite verb or noun phrase.
67 Infinitive phrase unnecessary, replace with finite verb or noun phrase.
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68 Review this sentence for article use
69 Incomplete comparison.
70 Sentence is incomplete or is a sentence fragment.
71 Spelling
72 Comma-mark missing where expected.
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75 Personal pronoun may not be appropriate for formal or academic writing.
76 Noun and Verb Number Agreement
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78 No comma before coordinating conjunction.
79 Review this sentence for article use
80 Dependent phrase may not properly modify subject in main clause of this sentence.
81 Sentence is excessively wordy
82 Sentence is incomplete or is a sentence fragment.
83 Comma splice separates two independent clauses instead of conjunction or semicolon.
84 Determiner or modifier is potentially unnecessary.
85 Commonly confused words
86 No comma before coordinating conjunction.
87 Sentence is excessively wordy
88 Noun and Verb Number Agreement
89 Review your work for missing verbs.
90 Two consecutive articles, e.g. 'the a'
91 Review this sentence for article use
92 Sentence is incomplete or is a sentence fragment.
93 Comma-mark missing where expected.
94 Comma-mark missing where expected.
95 Personal pronoun may not be appropriate for formal or academic writing.
96 Determiner or modifier is potentially unnecessary.
97 Review this sentence for capital letters.
98 Comma-mark missing where expected.
99 Preposition is placed at the end of sentence.
100 Preposition is placed at the end of sentence.
UNIVERSIDAD MARIANO GALVEZ DE GUATEMALA Escuela de Idiomas
TEACHING ENGLISH TECHNIQUES II
COOPERATIVE LEARNING STRUCTURES COOPERATIVE LEARNING TECHNIQUES
STRATEGIES TO INCORPORATE COOPERATIVE LEARNING IN CLASSROOMS
Jaime Gómez 5076-13-10967
Kagan Structures
There are over 150 Kagan Structures. Structures have different functions. Some are designed to
produce master of high consensus content, others to produce thinking skills, and yet others foster
communication skills. A few favorite Kagan Structures are described in the table: Sample Kagan
Structures.
Advantages of Kagan Structures for English Language Learners.
Techniques on Cooperative Learning
1. Group Discussion: This is the simplest of all cooperative learning structures. At various times
during a presentation, ask the participants to discuss the topic with someone sitting near them.
It's a two step process . . talk it over and share your ideas.
2. J i g s a w : This structure can be used in a variety of ways for mastery, concept development,
discussion and whole group projects. The simplest form, Within Team Jigsaw, has three basic
steps. a. Each participant from a team works alone, mastering a bit of information. b. Participants
do a round robin within teams to share their knowledge with teammates. c. There is an
assessment of all students on all material.
3. Guess-the-Fib: This can be played either within teams or within the class. When played within
teams, participants try to fool their teammates; when played within the class, teams try to fool
other teams. The idea is simple. In Guess-the Fib students state two rather unbelievable facts
and one believable fib. They announce all three as facts, and it is the job of the teammates, or
other teams to guess which one is the fib. Finger responses can be used with Guess-the Fib.
Students simply hold up one, two, or three fingers, depending on which statement they believe is
the fib.
4. Inside-Outside Circle: Participants stand in two concentric circles, with the inside circle facing
out and the outside circle facing in. They make a quarter right turn. The facilitator tells them how
many to rotate, they face a partner and share information, such as name, where born, favorite
book. Inside-Outside Circle is an excellent activity for sharing information in pairs. It is a nice
closing activity to share one highlight and one thing they will do as a result of the workshop.
5. Spend-A-Buck: When students must reach a decision quickly, Spend-A-Buck can be used. Each
student is given four quarters to spend any way they wish on the choice alternatives. Each student
must spend his/her quarters on more than one item. The team then tallies the results to
determine the team decision. Spend-A-Buck, unlike voting, does not produce clear winners and
losers. To make the decision even less polarized, have the teams spend ten dimes. With this
version each member is obliged to spend something on at least three items.
Strategies to Incorporate Cooperative Learning in classroom
Cooperative learning is more than merely having students sit together, helping the others do their
work. Directing students who finish their work early to assist others isn't a form of cooperative
learning either. Neither is assigning a group of students to "work together" UNLESS you assure
that all will contribute their fair share to the product.
A true cooperative learning experience requires that a number of criteria be met. They are: a) Division of labor among students in the group b) Face-to-face interaction between students c) Assignment of specific roles and duties to students d) Group processing of a task e) Positive interdependence in which students all need to do their assigned duties in order
for the task to be completed f) Individual accountability for completing one's own assigned duties g) The development of social skills as a result of cooperative interaction h) Provision of group rewards by the teacher
The introduction of "learning teams" into the classroom is an effective method for increasing the
number of students willing to make an effort to learn in school. The teams usually work together
on long-term assignments, although sometimes students remain together in duos, triads or
quadrants for the entire day. In these groups, each individual is responsible for assuring that the
other team members learn the assigned material. Those who understand the lesson/material are
responsible for teaching it to the others. Groups progress to a new unit of study when all
members of the group have mastered the lesson.
Group members are also responsible for the behavior of all members. If a team member displays
inappropriate behavior, it is the duty of fellow members to remind that student to `check'
him/herself. The members attempt to refocus the misbehaving student by offering help and
suggestions.
Initially, temporary grouping can help students to grasp the concept of long-term learning teams,
and practice responsibilities while the teacher sharpens his/her skills and receives feedback from
the students regarding how to improve assignments.
Steps for setting up group learning experiences 1. Develop a positive classroom environment. Devise ways for students to become acquainted
early in the year. Have them work on a mural, newsletter, play or other project. Model and
encourage polite, respectful behavior toward others. Reward students for such social skills as
helping others, giving and accepting praise, compromise, etc.
2. Previous to organizing collaborative groups and assigning academic tasks, develop a cooperative
climate in the classroom. This can be accomplished by engaging students in fun team-building
activities in which they support each other in a team effort to achieve non-academic or easily
achieved academic goals. These activities might take the form of non-competitive, active games
such as those described in the books like the one titled Play Fair.
3. Consider upcoming academic tasks and determine the number of students who will be assigned
to each group. The size of the group will depend on the students' ability to interact well with
others. Two to six students usually comprise a group.
4. Decide how long the groups will work together. It may range from one task, to one curriculum
unit, to one semester, to a whole year. Most often the teacher will vary the composition of groups
every month or two so that each student has a chance to work with a large number of classmates
during the term or year.
5. Determine the academic and behavioral/interpersonal objectives for the task.
6. Plan the arrangement of the room for the upcoming group-oriented tasks. Arrange group
seating so that students will be close enough to each other to share materials and ideas. Be sure
to leave yourself a clear access lane to each group.
7. Prepare materials for distribution to the group. Indicate on the materials that students are to
work together. Avoid work activities that don't really encourage (or require) students to actively
collaborate in a group. When student are working on independent tasks, simply clustered at
tables, a revision is necessary.
8. Determine roles for group members. In addition to cooperating and "brainstorming" with
others, each group member should be assigned a duty to perform during the project. For
example, the positions of "starter" (first person to use the materials; supervises any assembly of
materials), "encourager/taskmaster" (motivates others to work their hardest and contribute to the
discussion), "reader" ( responsible for seeing that all members begin with the same information
and understand the nature of the task; reads print instructions and reviews record sheets aloud to
the group), "praiser" (reinforces the responses of others), "researcher/getter" (locates and obtains
needed materials and information; returns materials after use; in charge of inventory),
"summarizer/reporter" (periodically explains what has occurred and later presents group findings
to the entire class), "recorder" (writes down all important data, decisions, contributions,
accomplishments, etc.; writes results on the board when sharing with the entire class),
"understanding coach" (makes sure that everyone understands what has occurred to this point),
and "checker" (assures that all have completed their task and looks for errors in data, writing, etc.)
might be appropriate to the assignment. The teacher may have to explain and
demonstrate/practice these roles previous to and during projects. Our junior scholars need to
know what the roles actually look and feel like in order to play each role well, and re-direct their
teammates when necessary in order to ensure productive performance.
9. Explain what will occur. Explain the rules which include; contributing to the team effort;
listening to teammates; helping other team members; and asking the teacher for help only if it is a
question of everyone in the group. Previous to this, you should have devised a way to eliminate
groans and complaints from high achievers and socially popular students who may not approve of
the composition of their group. Arrange students into teams at tables or where desks have been
pushed together.
10. Present and clearly explain the assignment that will probably take several class periods to
complete. (e.g.. Make a collage of items that start with the letter "M"; Plan and act out a play
demonstrating how Thomas Jefferson might react if he were to be brought through time to see
the United States as it exists today; Using an unabridged dictionary, make a list of words which
can't be rhymed with other words etc.) Emphasize that positive interaction and cooperation will
result in a group reward, and that meeting a set standard of performance beyond expectations
will result in bonus points. Perhaps those points can be awarded frequently during the activity to
motivate further cooperation.
11. Avoid the temptation to "lead" the groups. Your role has changed from transmitter of
knowledge to mediator of thinking. Praising and encouraging the less academically skilled team
members is still indicated however.
12. Monitor and assist as needed. Move among the groups to assure that they are actively
engaged in their roles and following designated procedures (unless free-form creativity is desired).
Do not answer student questions unless the group members are unable to resolve the issue by
themselves. Intervene as necessary to promote positive interdependence among group
members. Frequently reinforce positive group interaction.
13. Evaluate each group's performance/product. Grades might be assigned based upon the
average performance of the group (thus promoting positive interdependence) or the effort/quality
of performance of individual members in the execution of their duties. In many cases, each group
decides how it will demonstrate what has been learned. Each group's work is judged on its own
merit rather than in comparison with the outcomes of other groups. If inter-group competition is
involved, perhaps the winning and most improved teams will receive a prize. Recognition might
also be given to groups that were the quietest, quickest, neatest, most creative, etc.
14. Have the learning groups assess how well they worked together and discuss how they can
improve their functioning and performance.
E-GRAPHY
http://www.behavioradvisor.com/CoopLearning.html
http://www.kaganonline.com/free_articles/dr_spencer_kagan/279/Kagan-Structures-for-English-
Language-Learners
http://www.mainesupportnetwork.org - Q:\workshops\Singapore\November 2005\Singapore -
Handout - Cooperative Learning - Structures.doc
Role of materials in the language
classroom
Helpful
•Decision best made by someone else.
•Published Materials are better.
•Negotiation: Roles - Teaching activities.
•Accountability: Shows who are the stakeholders.
•Orientation: Focuses on standards
Debilitating
•Each group is unique and needs cannot be met by materials designed for other groups.
•It reduces the teacher's role.
•Cultural differences.
•Fail to present proper and realistic language.
•Fail to contextualize language activities.
Effective Teaching Material
•Functional and contextualized.
•Learner engaged in use of language.
•Realistic and use of authentic language.
•Includes A/V component.
•Fosters learners autonomy.
•Felixible materials for contextual differences.
•Engages learners affectively and cognitively.
Dora Leal 5076-13-12459
Jaime Gómez 5076-13-10967
Curriculum Project 1
UNIVERSIDAD MARIANO GALVEZ DE GUATEMALA
Escuela de Idiomas
ENGLISH TEACHING TECHNIQUES II
CURRICULUM PROJECT
Jaime Emmanuel Gómez Véliz - 5076-13-10967
Curriculum Project 2
Table of Contents
Curriculum Development......................................6
Selection of Content & Learning Experiences.................7
CURRICULUM SAMPLE CNB - Bachillerato en computación.........9
Comunicación y Lenguaje L3 (Inglés Técnico) 4 .............9
Description .............................................9
Components .............................................11
The need for curriculum framework..........................26
What learning objectives should be included?...............27
What will be the bases for the choice of objectives?.......27
Will the choice be based on the learners' needs and
interests, or rather on the needs of the society?..........27
Will the selection depend on tradition, the nature of
knowledge, or the learners’ characteristics?...............28
What philosophical and psychological theories regarding the
nature of learners as well as the learning process will
underpin the organization of the content?..................28
Will the choice of methodology be in line with accepted
teaching-learning principles?..............................29
Will the evaluation procedure be able to measure the learning
that is taking place?......................................30
Curriculum Project 3
Cultural Values............................................31
Visible ..................................................31
Rules ..................................................31
Food ...................................................31
Dress ..................................................31
Language ...............................................32
Music ..................................................32
Dance ..................................................32
Means of Livelihood ....................................33
Political Behavior .....................................33
Family .................................................33
Non-Visible ..............................................34
Philosophy .............................................34
Beliefs ................................................34
Value System ...........................................34
The Basic Education Curriculum and Secondary Education
Development Program in Guatemala addresses the learner and
learning process?..........................................35
Determinants of Learning in Guatemala......................36
In Guatemala, does CNB demonstrate inclusion of behaviorist
psychological principles through the use of behavioral
Curriculum Project 4
objectives, drills, practices, and homework reinforces
learning?..................................................38
John Dewey.................................................38
Synopsis .................................................39
Early Life ...............................................39
Teaching Career ..........................................40
Philosophy ...............................................41
Education Reform .........................................42
Writing ..................................................43
Evaluation Studies in Guatemala............................44
Evaluation as tool for administration: ...................44
Evaluation as an object of psychometric analysis: ........44
Evaluation as a source of pedagogical information: .......45
Monitoring and Evaluation of CNB...........................45
Current trends and issues..................................48
Effective Planning of Curriculum .........................48
Changes Brought About By Science and Technology ..........48
Reflection of National and Universal Culture in the
Curriculum ...............................................48
Empowerment and Continuous Professional Development of
Teachers .................................................49
Curriculum Project 5
Staff development of Curriculists ........................49
Emphasis on Learner Needs and Development Levels .........50
Effective Implementation of the Curriculum design ........51
Monitoring and Evaluation of Curriculum Implementation ...51
Establishment of Evaluation Procedures and Needs .........52
Bilingual Education (L3)...................................52
References and Bibliografy.................................57
Curriculum Project 6
Curriculum Development
There is a need in our schools to achieve basic education
through the means of systematically teaching basic knowledge
and stress work and discipline. The knowledge that we must
teach should consist of facts, concepts and skills that
students should master through different techniques and
activities.
Knowledge is more than a product to be mastered, it is
actually a relevant part of the curriculum. Students interact
with the world around them and they need to be able to
interpret it. The aim of a curriculum is to help any student
to interpret the world they live in. The greater challenge is
to help humanity through education in achieving a just and
compassionate society.
A curriculum should focus on the human being, and each
student has to establish meaning for their lives of the
knowledge taught to them. A well structured curriculum will
help a student to understand and interpret knowledge.
There is an ongoing interaction between teachers and learners
that is addressed in the curriculum. This interaction does
not only stays with the teacher and student. Another
interaction occurs between learners and learners and between
the curriculum content and the learner. The proper planning
Curriculum Project 7
of these interactions allow the focus of teaching to be more
about meaning through learning than that of just transmitting
knowledge, concepts and skills from the teacher to the
student.
One important fact to take into account about curriculum
development is that human nature and human learning are
complex subjects. Curriculum are documents that are guides
and the real weight sits upon the shoulders of the teachers
that need to use their professional judgment to determine
what is the best course of action to take for any particular
reason.
Curriculum development is then the ongoing dynamic and
constantly changing way to plan learning experiences in a
learning environment, this helps promote cultural
reproduction in a structured way, together with independent
thinking in the context of various social responsibilities.
It is a systematic process that should be carried on
continually by the educational organization to which we
belong.
Selection of Content & Learning Experiences
To assist assessment and evaluation in a student centered
curriculum clear criteria for content helps us in the
selection of materials and learning activities.
Comment [M1]: You need to
cite as: Some parts of your document match the text from http://www.emtlife.com/showthread.php?t=14330
Curriculum Project 8
Learners must be trained into setting their own objectives,
in this way students will have a realistic idea of what they
can achieve. If they are capable of achieving different goals
then learning becomes the process that they will use to
achieve such goals.
Students can recognize their role as learners with the proper
content because they gain sensitivity to the concepts and
notions learned. Self evaluation becomes the tool to use when
content is something that the students finds a necessity to
learn. The activities carried on in class focus real life
needs and develop competences that can gradually be increased
by further guiding the student into deepening the knowledge
in the content.
As for learning experience the curriculum has to engage
students into learning while doing something new. This is
achieved through different activities that must include:
Instructor-lead teaching, interactions with the instructor
and students, reading, visiting online websites, answering
quiz like material, working on tasks and assignments, etc.
A well designed learning experience has characteristics that
must be fulfilled: Activities that engage and optimize
learning in time and effectiveness, blended learning
activities that include a good mix of online activities
Curriculum Project 9
together with teacher interaction and student to student
interaction.
An effective learning experience is that in which at the end
of such experience the student demonstrates a high level of
knowledge retention of the essential knowledge together with
the ability to apply this new knowledge to future problems,
this later is confirmed when the student can use this new
knowledge and skills in real-world problems.
CURRICULUM SAMPLE CNB - Bachillerato en computación.
Comunicación y Lenguaje L3 (Inglés Técnico) 4
Description
Students realize that learning a foreign language could be
easy if they engage in meaningful activities requiring the
use of the language and its components. Throughout each
task, learning English should be fun, so students may get an
authentic, contextualized and interesting learning process.
The language practice and skill development activities have
been designed to involve students in all aspects of the
contents, making them active participants in the learning
process. The learning process is centered on the learners to
encourage them to express their own realities in English,
especially to interpret manuals, directions and any other
Curriculum Project 10
materials needed to implement in the field of their
specialty, therefore it is of utmost importance to help them
maintain a high level of motivation. Therefore; a
Communicative approach to teaching and assessment develops
communicative competence in students the ability to use the
language system appropriately in any circumstances, it
comprises:
Listening: Make sure that students know exactly what they are
expected to listen for: grammatical cues, particularly
vocabulary items, specific information, overall meaning.
Before they begin be sure to give them an opportunity to ask
any question about the drill.
Speaking: Make sure your students understand what they are
saying. This means that you may need to preview vocabulary,
grammar, or context cues. Give students a chance to discover
and correct their own errors.
Reading: This is a very important part of communication in a
new language. Through reading, students receive language
input in the form of vocabulary and grammar thus acquired
when they speak, listen and write.
Writing: Model and help students identify key elements used
in writing sentences and paragraphs. Make sure that students
Curriculum Project 11
include these key elements when they write their own
sentences and paragraphs.
Components
Interpersonal Communication: Students' speech production
improves in both quantity and quality. Students speak and/or
write in longer phrases and complete sentences and they use a
wide range of general and technical vocabulary. Besides,
learners speak and write in connected and unified paragraphs
about most situations.
Interpretive Communication: Students communicate with
gestures and actions. They build receptive vocabulary and
refine their listening skills. During this phase, called the
“silent period," students try to make sense of what they
hear, but they do not engage in language production. Even
though they do not speak, language acquisition has begun.
Presentational Communication: Students speak and/or write
using yes/no answers, one or two words, lists of words, or
short phrases. They continue to expand their receptive
vocabulary. Students engage in conversations and produce
connected narratives orally and in writing.
Competency Performance
indicator
Contents
Comment [M2]: For further works if necessary to include
like the CNB English Program
just write the link. No need to copy everything.
Curriculum Project 12
Interpersonal
Communication
1. Engages in
conversations and
exchanges
information and
opinions orally and
in writing.
1.1 Offers and
responds to
greetings,
compliments,
invitations,
introductions, and
farewells.
1.1.1. Using
standard greetings,
farewells, and
expressions of
courtesy orally and
in writing.
1.1.2. Introducing
one self.
1.1.3. Taking one’s
leave: good byes.
1.1.4. Greeting
people.
1.1.5. Apologizing.
1.2 Identifies
appropriate
language for
informational
purposes
1.2.1. Using basic
words and short
learned phrases
during interactions
orally and in
writing.
1.2.2. Reviewing
parts of speech:
pronoun, verb,
noun, adjective,
Curriculum Project 13
adverb, article.
1.2.3. Giving
command
instructions.
1.2.4. Giving basic
personal
information.
1.2.5. Using
cardinal numbers
and colors.
1.3 Responds
appropriately to
common personal
information
questions
1.3.1. Asking and
answer questions
about feelings
using learned
material orally and
in writing.
1.3.2. Identifying
possessions
1.3.3. Asking for
information with
yes/no questions.
1.3.4. Asking and
giving directions.
Curriculum Project 14
1.3.5. Talking
about ongoing
activities.
1.4 Responds
appropriately to
classroom commands
1.4.1. Speaking
about daily and
leisure activities
and personal
interest.
1.4.2. Making
suggestions.
1.4.3. Expressing
opinions in class.
1.4.4. Talking
about favorite
sports.
1.4.5. Giving
warnings.
Interpretive
Communication
2. Understands and
interprets the
written and spoken
2.1
Compares/contrast
languages and
customs
2.1.1.
Comprehension of
words, phrases, and
sentences from
simple oral and
written texts .
Curriculum Project 15
language on a
variety of topics
in the target
language.
2.1.2. Describing
physical
characteristics or
people, animals and
things.
2.1.3. Listening
for details in
short readings.
2.1.4. Comparing
cultures.
2.2 Identifies and
use linguistic
elements of English
that do not
translate literally
and compares them
to their Spanish
equivalents.
2.2.1.
Demonstrating
understanding of
oral and written
questions.
2.2.2. Recognizing
similarities and
differences in the
ways languages are
written.
2.2.3. Using the
days and the months
in context
Curriculum Project 16
2.2.4. Using stem-
changing verbs:
past, present
tense.
2.3 Reads and
follows directions
from printed
materials and maps.
2.3.1. Following
oral and written
directions,
commands, and
requests.
2.3.2. Describing
places: buildings,
services.
2.3.3. Expressing
lack of knowledge
of something.
2.3.4. Using
prepositions of
locations and means
of transportation.
2.4 Locates
information for
leisure activities
(in oral or written
2.4.1. Talking
about recreational
activities,
offering
Curriculum Project 17
form). suggestions and
advice.
2.4.2.
Conversations about
daily and leisure
activities and
personal interests:
favorite sports,
movies and music.
2.4.3. Telling
where objects are
2.4.4. Asking for
identifications of
things and
expressing
enthusiasm.
2.5 Interprets
phrases presented
with accompanying
gestures,
intonation, and
other visual or
auditory cues.
2.5.1 Exchanging
information about
personal history
and lifestyle.
2.5.2 Discussing
the meaning of new
terms.
Curriculum Project 18
2.5.3 Putting tasks
in logical order.
2.5.4 Talking about
oneself and one’s
experience.
Presentational
Communication
3. Presents
information,
concepts, and ideas
to an audience of
listeners or
readers.
3.1. Expresses
actions in
different tenses
3.1.1. Generating
ideas using
brainstorming and
creative
imagination.
3.1.2. Reviewing
parts of speech:
reflexive verbs,
reflexive commands,
past, present and
future progressive
tense in context.
3.1.3. Describing
experiences: one’s
age and birthday.
3.1.4. Describing
Curriculum Project 19
daily activities
and routines.
3.2. Expresses
humor through
verbal and
nonverbal means
3.2.1. Interpreting
oral expressions
through role
playing and body
movements: body
parts.
3.2.2. Expressing
likes and dislikes.
3.2.3. Describing
an embarrassing
situation.
3.2.4. Describing
daily activities
and routines.
3.3. Dramatizes
songs, simple
skits, or poetry
dealing with
familiar topics.
3.3.1. Performing
short speech and
popular songs.
3.3.2.
Participating in
role-play simple
skits.
Curriculum Project 20
3.3.3. Expressing
agreement or
disagreement.
3.3.4. Identifying
main characters
from short stories.
4. Applies in his/
her relationships
with others his
understanding of
cultural practices
others than his/
her own.
4.1. Recognizes and
uses gestures,
manners, behaviors,
greetings, and
idiomatic
expressions of the
language.
4.1.1. Recognizing
and use gestures,
manners, behaviors,
greetings, and
idiomatic
expressions.
4.1.2. Using
pictures to predict
the language of
situation.
4.1.3. Using body
language to infer
meaning: past tense
of irregular verbs
including changes
in spelling.
4.2. Compares 4.2.1. Identifying
Curriculum Project 21
products and
services advertised
in the Spanish-
English language.
symbols and signs
on advertisement
and written
materials.
4.2.2. Asking and
offering
merchandise:
market, and
supermarket
products.
4.2.3. Asking and
giving information
about price:
interrogative and
imperative
commands.
4.3. Uses digital
resources to locate
information
including his/her
own.
4.3.1. Identifies
the fine print in
ads, comparing
products and making
polite requests.
4.3.2. Using
Curriculum Project 22
dictionary and
finding the meaning
of words.
4.3.3. Using charts
and graphics to
record information.
4.4. Explores
practices and
perspectives of
contemporary life
in the target
cultures through
print, non-print,
electronic
materials, and
cultural artifacts.
4.4.1.
Demonstrating an
awareness of the
different target
countries and their
capitals by
locating them on a
map or globe and
identifying their
major geographical
features.
4.4.2. Skimming
articles for
general meaning.
4.4.3. Making
inference about the
meaning.
Curriculum Project 23
4.4.4. Applying
technology to task.
4.4.5. Making
comparison,
including
differentiation,
sorting and
classifying items.
4.5. Identifies
cultural products,
practices, and
perspectives that
lead to
generalizations
4.5.1.
Participating in
activities and
celebrations and
discussing their
impact on the
culture.
4.5.2. Giving
information about
one’s country.
4.5.3. Learning and
discussing patterns
of behavior or
interaction among
the target
Curriculum Project 24
cultures.
5. Uses correctly
the basic technical
vocabulary with
application in
software and
hardware
5.1 Creates
technical texts in
English, according
to the translation
key words.
5.1.1 Compilation
of Technical basic
vocabulary in
computation.
5.1.2 Construction
the glossary with
specific
vocabulary:
software, hardware,
word processor,
operating system,
database, and
others.
5.1.3 Translation
oral and written of
sentences with
English technical
in computation.
5.2 Implements the
functions of word
processing with the
use of technical
5.2.1 Identifying
technical
vocabulary of
functions word
Curriculum Project 25
vocabulary in
English.
processing.
5.2.2 Translate
manuals in English
with functions for
the design of
texts.
5.2.3 Discussing
the meaning of new
terms in
informatics.
5.3 Expresses
orally and in
writing ideas and
concepts to design
slides, images,
animation effects
and other.
5.3.1 Creation
texts in English
related with design
slides, images,
animation effect.
5.3.2 Applying the
technical
vocabulary to guide
the work.
5.3.3 Talk about
the passwords of
security offering
suggestions and
Curriculum Project 26
advice.
5.4 Applies English
technical in the
design formats for
documents.
5.4.1 Localization
specific
information in
manuals of English.
5.4.2 Translation
from English to
Spanish and vice
versa in the design
of text formats.
5.4.3 Following
oral and written
instructions in the
development of
projects.
The need for curriculum framework
A curriculum framework is obtained in a process that finds
the best content of learning within a system, using an
established set of organizing principles. The primary purpose
of a Curriculum Framework is to make visible the skills,
knowledge, and behaviors that students need to fulfill real
life situations. The use of a competency based approach helps
Curriculum Project 27
practitioners and learners clarify the connections between
real life tasks, learning, and community contexts.
What learning objectives should be included?
Those that describe what a student will be able to do as a
result of learning. They should be: Active, that is those
that describe what students should be able to do at the end
of the session, course, or degree program. Aligned, that is
they should be aligned with the rest of the curriculum, this
means a learning session outcome will contribute to the
achievement of the course outcome. Achievable, they describe
what a student needs to be able to do in order to pass a
course. Assessed, there is many ways to assess objectives but
they should be able to be assessed otherwise it is not
possible to know if there was a learning outcome.
What will be the bases for the choice of objectives?
It depends on the curriculum objective. The main objectives
of the curriculum should provide the information about what
skills or knowledge will be necessary for the competition of
the course or degree.
Will the choice be based on the learners' needs and
interests, or rather on the needs of the society?
It is based on the learners' needs.
Curriculum Project 28
Will the selection depend on tradition, the nature of
knowledge, or the learners’ characteristics?
It will depend on the nature of knowledge.
What philosophical and psychological theories regarding the
nature of learners as well as the learning process will
underpin the organization of the content?
The philosophical theories that are most underpinned into
curriculum development are
Idealism: The doctrine of idealism suggests that matter is an
illusion and that reality is that which exists mentally
Realism: Realists consider Education a matter of reality
rather than speculation. Application, The paramount
responsibility of the teacher, then, is to impart to learners
the knowledge about the world they live in.
Pragmatism: It gives importance to change, processes and
relativity, as it suggests that the value of an idea lies in
its actual consequences. The actual consequences are related
to those aims that focus on practical aspects in teaching and
learning.
Existentialism: This doctrine emphasizes that there are no
values outside human beings, and thus, suggests that human
Curriculum Project 29
beings should have the freedom to make choices and then be
responsible for the consequences of those choices.
The psychological theories that are most underpinned into
curriculum development are
Behaviorism: Behaviorist theories which deal with various
aspects of stimulus-response and reinforcement scheme.
Cognitivism: Cognitive theories which view the learner in
relationship with the total environment.
Phenomenology: Which emphasizes the affective domain of
learning.
Will the choice of methodology be in line with accepted
teaching-learning principles?
The choice of methodology should be inline with the teaching-
learning principles, however no matter what choice of
methodology is accepted the principles should comply with the
following list:
Opportunity to learn: Learning experiences should enable
students to observe and practice the actual processes,
products, skills and values that are expected of them.
Connection and challenge: Learning experiences should connect
with students’ existing knowledge, skills and values while
Curriculum Project 30
extending and challenging their current ways of thinking and
acting.
Action and reflection: Learning experiences should encourage
both action and reflection on the part of the student.
Motivation and purpose: Learning experiences should be
motivating and their purpose clear to the student.
Inclusivity and difference: Learning experiences should
respect and accommodate differences between learners.
Independence and collaboration: Learning experiences should
encourage students to learn both independently and from and
with others.
Supportive environment: The school and classroom setting
should be safe and conducive to effective learning.
Will the evaluation procedure be able to measure the learning
that is taking place?
Information about student learning is gathered for this
purpose, using a variety of assessment strategies depending
on the case. Student assessment are a way to facilitate the
teaching/learning process (formative assessment), diagnose
areas of a student’s learning strengths and weaknesses, and
make decisions about a student’s progress (summative
Curriculum Project 31
assessment). Student evaluation occurs when a teacher uses
the results of assessment and other relevant information to
make a decision about the quality, value or worth of a
student’s response during the learning process or a student’s
overall performance for placement and reporting purposes.
Cultural Values
Visible
Rules
Develops values, attitudes and behaviors that strengthen the
ethical sense of life, through the expression of solidarity,
equal distribution of responsibilities and obligations
together with the welfare and growth of the family and its
members.
Food
Education for the proper consumption should facilitate the
students in the knowledge and exercise of their rights and
obligations as consumers. So that a capability to relate to
the products and services they should utilize to prefer
natural products for their nutrition.
Dress
A personal value that gives sense to life of each human being
by allowing them to develop the needed capabilities to
Curriculum Project 32
express themselves through clothing, or to express their
cultural background through wearing clothes that carry a deep
cultural meaning.
Language
It allows students to respect life, personal items, rights
and security of themselves by allowing norms and rules that
express liberty of expression but with responsibility,
honesty and practice of equity and justice to achieve proper
communication goals without harming their peers.
Music
It develops expressive and interpretative abilities that will
facilitate the mutual trust among the participants under the
inspiration of sound that will guide them to a more human
development.
Dance
It will develop a corporal conscience, the knowledge of the
principles of movement, the exploration of space, the dynamic
of movement and personal interrelations, with the purpose of
achieving the creation and composition of esthetical
productions that will be shared with the public and peers.
Curriculum Project 33
Means of Livelihood
It develops the being and its faculties to achieve personal
satisfaction and proper social development through having
competent performance in economical production in the
student's community.
Political Behavior
This value helps and promotes students' participation in the
construction of a progressive, solidarity and just society.
Family
This value focuses the responsibilities and functions of an
effective communication among the family with the purpose to
strengthen family values, family stability, family attitudes,
and behaviors related to the economic areas of family life.
Community Norms
It develops harmonic lifestyle with the social and natural
environment by the use of understanding of personal, family
and social reality.
Curriculum Project 34
Non-Visible
Philosophy
The purpose of education is to bring personal, social and
civic values together with spiritual, cultural and ecological
philosophies into the base of the development of the
different currents of thinking and behavior that are focused
upon the social diversity, human rights, and peace culture.
Beliefs
It helps students respect life, to have responsibilities,
honesty, perseverance and to practice justice. Goals take
into consideration if they will hurt others by completing
them and to help their peers into achieving their own goals.
Value System
Personal values are capabilities, qualities, and conceptions
or ideas that give sense to life for each human being and
allows them to develop competences that are necessary for
their proper satisfactory function in society. (MINEDUC,
2007)
Curriculum Project 35
The Basic Education Curriculum and Secondary Education
Development Program in Guatemala addresses the learner and
learning process?
The Basic Education Curriculum addresses the learner and
learning process in the following ways:
It takes into account the mother language as a mean to learn
and as object of study(CNB, page 36).
Systematizes the knowledge according to the basic needs,
characteristics, ethnical components, cultural and linguistic
needs of the region to promote significative learning
situations that are relevant and coherent to the reality of
the student's community. (CNB, page 37)
Establishment of feedback mechanisms, methodologies of
teaching - learning of different languages and critical
materials for the creation of educational resources that
promote the pertinent application of the curriculum in the
region. (CNB, page 37)
The curriculum provides the teachers and educative centers
the guidelines to plan different curricular activities that
give sense to activities that are related to the learner and
learning processes that allow establishment of long, middle
Curriculum Project 36
and short term planning that answer to different expectations
of the country's need.(CNB, page 41)
Determinants of Learning in Guatemala
Educational Development Project reveals that community and
home variables have greater impact on learning than school
factors. Does this exist in Guatemala?
According to the study "Mas y mejor educación en
Guatemala(2008 - 2021)" there are some very important
determinants of Learning in Guatemala, these are listed next:
Context
Students
Teachers
Community
Parents
Educational
administrators
Macro Competences
Axis Areas
Competences
Achievment indicators
Contents:
Declaratives
Procedures
Attitudes
Investigation-Planning
Activities
Methodology
Resources
Classroom Ecology
Assessment
Curriculum Project 37
a) Students characteristics: Age has a great impact in
learning. In some grades(lower) greater age has an
improved learning, while middle grades show little to
negative improvement in age difference(over age
students). Sex has little to no impact upon learning.
b) Home characteristics: Education level of the parents
cause a positive improvement in learning. Number of
people living at home cause a negative impact upon
learning. Home resources also show a positive
improvement in learning.
c) Teacher characteristics: Experience measured in years
show a great deal of difference. A single extra year of
experience in teaching the same grade shows a great
difference in learning among students of that grade.
d) School characteristics: School environment showed that a
critical number(greater than common classroom
recommendation) of students lowers the learning among
students. Potable water ready at the point of service is
also a very important need for a good school
environment, schools that lacked this service showed
lowered learning curve.
According to the results published on this study my answer
would be that in our country leaning can be further improved
by improving the teacher knowledge and school environment.
Curriculum Project 38
Because there is little to no control upon home variables to
change them, so teachers should focus on changing themselves
and school environment to help students learn. (MINEDUC,
2007)
In Guatemala, does CNB demonstrate inclusion of behaviorist
psychological principles through the use of behavioral
objectives, drills, practices, and homework reinforces
learning?
By reading on the selected and suggested activities there is
actually more inclusion of cooperative learning techniques,
collaborative learning, task and project work, and meaningful
learning. However the only place where behaviorist principles
are applied are on the physical education activities.
John Dewey
Academic, Educator, Philosopher (1859–1952)
Educator John Dewey originated the experimentalism
philosophy. A proponent of social change and education
reform, he founded The New School for Social Research.
QUOTES
“If I were asked to name the most needed of all reforms in
the spirit of education I should say: 'Cease conceiving of
Curriculum Project 39
education as mere preparation for later life, and make of it
the full meaning of the present life.'”
—John Dewey
Synopsis
John Dewey was born October 20, 1859, in Burlington, Vermont.
He taught at universities from 1884 to 1930. An academic
philosopher and proponent of educational reform, in 1894
Dewey started an experimental elementary school. In 1919 he
cofounded The New School for Social Research. Dewey published
over 1,000 pieces of writings during his lifetime. He died
June 1, 1952, in New York, New York.
Early Life
John Dewey was born on October 20, 1859, to Archibald Dewey
and Lucina Artemisia Rich in Burlington, Vermont. He was the
third of the couple’s four sons, one of whom died as an
infant. Dewey’s mother, the daughter of a wealthy farmer, was
a devout Calvinist. His father, a merchant, left his grocery
business to become a Union Army soldier in the Civil War.
John Dewey’s father was known to share his passion for
British literature with his offspring. After the war,
Archibald became the proprietor of a successful tobacco shop,
affording the family a comfortable life and financial
stability.
Curriculum Project 40
Growing up, John Dewey attended Burlington public schools,
excelling as a student. When he was just 15 years old, he
enrolled at the University of Vermont, where he particularly
enjoyed studying philosophy under the tutelage of H.A.P.
Torrey. Four years later, Dewey graduated from the University
of Vermont second in his class.
Teaching Career
The autumn after Dewey graduated, his cousin landed him a
teaching job at a seminary in Oil City, Pennsylvania. Two
years later, Dewey lost the position when his cousin resigned
as principal of the seminary.
After being laid off, Dewey went back to Vermont and started
teaching at a private school in Vermont. During his free
time, he read philosophical treatises and discussed them with
his former teacher, Torrey. As his fascination with the topic
grew, Dewey decided to take a break from teaching in order to
study philosophy and psychology at Johns Hopkins. George
Sylvester Morris and G. Stanley Hall were among the teachers
there who influenced Dewey most.
Upon receiving his doctorate from Johns Hopkins in 1884,
Dewey was hired as an assistant professor at the University
of Michigan. At Michigan he met Harriet Alice Chipman, and
Curriculum Project 41
the two married in 1886. Over the course of their marriage,
they would give birth to six children and adopt one child.
In 1888 Dewey and his family left Michigan for the University
of Minnesota, where he was a professor of philosophy.
However, within a year, they chose to return to the
University of Michigan, where Dewey taught for the next five
years.
By 1894 Dewey was made head of the philosophy department at
the University of Chicago. He remained at the University of
Chicago until 1904, also serving as director of its School of
Education for two years.
Dewey left Chicago in 1904 to join the Ivy League, becoming a
professor of philosophy at Columbia University while working
at Teachers College on the side.
In 1930, Dewey left Columbia and retired from his teaching
career with the title of professor emeritus. His wife,
Harriet, had died three years earlier.
Philosophy
Dewey’s philosophical treatises were at first inspired by his
reading of philosopher and psychologist William James’
writing. Dewey’s philosophy, known as experimentalism, or
instrumentalism, largely centered on human experience.
Curriculum Project 42
Rejecting the more rigid ideas of Transcendentalism to which
Dewey had been exposed in academia, it viewed ideas as tools
for experimenting, with the goal of improving the human
experience.
Dewey’s philosophy also claimed than man behaved out of habit
and that change often led to unexpected outcomes. As man
struggled to understand the results of change, he was forced
to think creatively in order to resume control of his
shifting environment. For Dewey, thought was the means
through which man came to understand and connect with the
world around him. A universal education was the key to
teaching people how to abandon their habits and think
creatively.
Education Reform
John Dewey was a strong proponent for progressive educational
reform. He believed that education should be based on the
principle of learning through doing.
In 1894 Dewey and his wife Harriet started their own
experimental primary school, the University Elementary
School, at the University of Chicago. His goal was to test
his educational theories, but Dewey resigned when the
university president fired Harriet.
Curriculum Project 43
In 1919, John Dewey, along with his colleagues Charles Beard,
Thorstein Veblen, James Harvey Robinson and Wesley Clair
Mitchell, founded The New School for Social Research. The New
School is a progressive, experimental school that emphasizes
the free exchange of intellectual ideas in the arts and
social sciences.
During the 1920s, Dewey lectured on educational reform at
schools all over the world. He was particularly impressed by
experiments in the Russian educational system and shared what
he learned with his colleagues when he returned to the
States: that education should focus mainly on students’
interactions with the present. Dewey did not, however,
dismiss the value of also learning about the past.
In the 1930s, after he retired from teaching, Dewey became an
active member of numerous educational organizations,
including the New York Teachers Guild and the International
League for Academic Freedom.
Writing
Dewey wrote his first two books, Psychology (1887) and
Leibniz’s New Essays Concerning the Human Understanding
(1888), when he was working at the University of Michigan.
Over the course of his lifetime, Dewey published more than
1,000 works, including essays, articles and books. His
Curriculum Project 44
writing covered a broad range of topics: psychology,
philosophy, educational theory, culture, religion and
politics. Through his articles in The New Republic, he
established himself as one of the most highly regarded social
commentators of his day. Dewey continued to write
prolifically up until his death. (biography.com, 2014)
Evaluation Studies in Guatemala
The evaluation study "Evaluación Educativa Estandarizada en
Guatemala: Un camino recorrido, un camino por recorrer." in
the discussion section describes the next results:
Evaluation as tool for administration:
The principal concern in our educative system as a whole lays
in the educative norms and institutions that must generate
the necessary processes to warrant educative quality.
Evaluation is then a main component to secure quality. This
sort of view makes communication a mean to secure the
principal actors closest to the schools(parents, teachers,
principals, etc) to take autonomy of the necessary means to
solve their services.
Evaluation as an object of psychometric analysis:
From this point of view the main concern is to secure that
evaluation as a valid tool that produces information that is
rigid and solid. Through this perspective arguments are
Curriculum Project 45
valued according to the information that is produced and the
conclusions that can be achieved, but they are not detailed
mechanisms to relate such results with the practices inside
the classroom. This information may be useful to answer
questions about the administration system and the people who
design the educative policy.
Evaluation as a source of pedagogical information:
The arguments that are generated with this vision are based
upon the what to do inside the classroom. There is great
interest to connect the evaluation with what the teachers and
students are doing. Discussions tend to concentrate upon the
analysis of the classroom or school instead of the educative
system as a whole. (MINEDUC, 2013)
Monitoring and Evaluation of CNB
There is a law called "Learning Evaluation Rules" it is a
ministry of education law number 1171-2010. In this rule set
the monitoring and evaluation of the national base curriculum
is described.
Chapter one:
Article one: Definition of learning evaluation. It is the
pedagogical process, systematic, instrumental, analytic and
reflexive, that allows interpretation of the obtained
Curriculum Project 46
information about an achievement level reached by the
students, in the expected competencies, with the intention of
forming valued judgment and decision taking to better the
process of teaching and learning.
Article 2. Objective of learning evaluation. The objective of
learning evaluation is essentially formative in the process
and summative in the product, because it has to:
a) Motivate learning.
b) Stimulate in an equivalent way the capacities of the
student and teacher.
c) Determine the level of achievement in the learning, in a
qualitative or quantitative manner, and the integral
development of the person.
d) Promote self-reflection of the different factors that
intervene in the educative process, about the
achievement level obtained.
e) Better the process of teaching-learning, in function of
the obtained results.
f) Determine promotion and certification of the students of
the different grades and levels.
g) Facilitate the decision making in the teaching -
learning process.
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h) Define the individual performance, institutional
performance, and educative system performance, to better
the level of education quality.
i) Establish an effective process of teaching-learning,
among the educational system. (MINEDUC, 2010)
Learning
Evaluation
Functions
Diagnostic
Formative
Summative
Caracteristics
Holistic
Participative
Flexible
Formative
Interpretative
Technical
Cientific
Organization
Internal
Evaluation
Committee
External
DIGEDUCA
Curriculum Project 48
Current trends and issues
Effective Planning of Curriculum
Planning, a complex task, is the most important aspect of
curriculum development. In this early stage, educators should
collaborate with parents, community members, and students. In
fact, all stakeholders need to share their expertise in
creating a curriculum based on high standards for student
learning.
Changes Brought About By Science and Technology
Moving towards global competitiveness, the Philippines should
re-conceptualize the policies and strategies of ICT in
education towards life-long learning, and should continue to
strengthen technology transfer in Science, Math and English.
Also, there has to be a reflection of researches and advances
in knowledge in curriculum development.
Reflection of National and Universal Culture in the
Curriculum
The need to understand different cultures is an emergent
issue in today's education and societies as relationships
among countries become more intertwined. This then calls for
a curriculum that creates international awareness,
understanding of various cultures, and learning of different
Curriculum Project 49
opinions and values which can be made feasible through the
incorporation of technology into the curriculum.
Empowerment and Continuous Professional Development of
Teachers
This can be done through the promotion of professional
development activities like reflective thinking, action
research, and journal writing when confronted with problems
in the classroom; exposure of teachers to the current trends
in teacher education; involvement of teachers in the
decision–making process particularly in curriculum change and
in planning the curriculum; training effective trainers (at
pre-service and in-service levels) who will train teachers;
raising the awareness of candidate and actual teachers on the
importance of professional development activities.
Staff development of Curriculists
The different parties involved in the development of the
curriculum must undergo in-service training. They should be
made fully aware of their role and responsibility in the
curriculum development. They have to work together to develop
a well-rounded curriculum, which includes the learning of
different cultures inasmuch as today’s learners will need to
cope with cross-cultural matters and grow into sensible
adults who are fair and just to the global society
Curriculum Project 50
Emphasis on Learner Needs and Development Levels
Researches show that the design of the Philippine curriculum
appears to be overcrowded. Learners are faced with seven
subject areas every day. When combined with the learning
competencies required for each grade/year level, this has
proven to be excessive. As a result, science and mathematics
content cannot be completed in one school year. This further
leads to, a backlog and a carry-over of the previous year’s
content and competencies to the following school year , which
eventually adversely affects the teaching/learning process.
In addition to this, the scope and sequencing of education
(from elementary to secondary level) have also been
identified as design defects where there are content and
skills gaps as well as overlaps and duplications. The overlap
and duplication further aggravate the curriculum overload,
and the gaps contribute to the production of half-baked
elementary school graduates who are not entirely ready for
secondary school, and of high school graduates who are half –
baked for college education. Moreover, national examinations
are focused on only five subject areas: English, Filipino,
science, mathematics and social studies. Very few concepts
are included from the other subject areas.
Curriculum Project 51
Effective Implementation of the Curriculum design
There has been massive training of schoolteachers and
orientation of school heads and supervisors for the
nationwide implementation of the curriculum; however, the
training programme was not sustained at the regional and
division levels; thus the poor school implementation . There
was also lack of instructional materials like students’
textbooks, and teachers’ manuals, science and vocational
subject facilities, equipment/apparatus and supplementary
teaching/learning materials, and computer laboratories. Too
large classes , teacher availability (for the specialized
secondary subject areas) and quality of instructional
supervision further hindered curriculum implementation.
Monitoring and Evaluation of Curriculum Implementation
The monitoring and evaluation of curriculum implementation is
not effectively done due to the great number of elementary
schools .On the other hand, the secondary schools are rarely
visited because supervisors are unable to provide technical
assistance on specialized subject matter. At the regional
level , supervisors are subject specialists, while those at
the division level are mostly generalists.
Curriculum Project 52
Establishment of Evaluation Procedures and Needs
Qualified evaluators who are capable of using multiple
techniques in assessing the process of evaluation and the
learners are needed. This will determine the success of the
evaluation procedures used. (Development, 2011)
Bilingual Education (L3)
Bilingual competence is defined as “the ability to use the
target languages effectively and appropriately for authentic
personal, educational, social, and/or work-related purposes”.
The criterion for defining significant portions of the
academic curriculum is “at least 50% of the prescribed non-
language-related curriculum of studies for one or more
years”. The generic definition of bilingual education that
has been adopted here includes programs for students who come
to school speaking a majority societal language (e.g.,
English in Canada, or Japanese in Japan) as well as programs
for students who come to school speaking a minority language
(e.g., Spanish in the U.S., or Hungarian in Slovakia). The
first type of bilingual education is often referred to as
“immersion” after the Canadian French immersion programs
(Lambert & Tucker, 1972; see Johnson & Swain, 1997, for a
detailed discussion of core features of prototypical
immersion). The second type of bilingual education can be
Curriculum Project 53
found in regions of the world where there are large numbers
of immigrants (e.g., U.S.A., Holland) or speakers of
indigenous languages (e.g., New Zealand, Peru). Since the
combined literature on both forms of bilingual education is
extensive and the issues surrounding each are complex and
often very different.
Multilingual forms of education have been implemented in
communities where more than two languages are used or useful.
For example, Scandanavian countries often teach three or more
languages in school so that students are able to communicate
in other Scandanavian languages and in a world language, such
as German or English. Parents in the Basque Country see
trilingual education as important in order to foster
competence in (a) Basque, the indigenous language, which is
at-risk, (b) Spanish, the language of broader communication
in Spain, and (c) English, a language of economic and
scientific communication worldwide (Cenoz, 1998). There is a
number of ways in which a third language can be added to the
school curriculum (see Cenoz & Genesee, 1998, for examples).
In some cases, trilingual education consists of instruction
in academic subjects through two languages along with
instruction in a third language as a separate subject -- for
example, for daily 30 to 60 minute sessions. In these cases,
the third language is not used to teach academic subjects.
Curriculum Project 54
In the Basque Country, for example, Spanish and Basque are
taught as subjects and are also used for academic instruction
during the elementary grades; English, the third language, is
taught as a subject beginning in kindergarten, when the
students are 4 years of age (Cenoz, 1998; see Egger &
Lardschneider-McLean, 2001, for an example from Italy).
English is not used to teach academic subjects at the
elementary school level in Basque schools, although there are
plans to teach academic subjects through the medium of
English at the secondary level. In other cases, all three
languages may be used as media of academic instruction, as in
prototypical bilingual education programs. For example, in a
trilingual program in Montreal, English-speaking students are
taught different academic subjects through the medium of
French and Hebrew in kindergarten to grade 4; English is
introduced as a third language in grade 4 and is used to
teach both English language arts and some academic subjects
(Genesee, 1998). The European Schools in Luxembourg are
trilingual in French, German and Luxembourgish (Hoffman,
1998; Housen, 2002). Luxembourgish is both taught as a
subject and used as a medium of academic instruction from the
pre-school years onward. German is introduced as a subject
in grade 1 and later used as a medium of academic
instruction. Similarly, French is introduced initially as a
Curriculum Project 55
subject in grade 2 and subsequently used as a medium of
instruction. There is considerable programmatic and
pedagogical variation among multilingual programs as might be
expected from the distinct and complex socio-cultural-
political circumstances of the communities in which they are
situated. A review such as this cannot begin to do justice to
the actual complexities of such programs (see Cenoz &
Genesee, 1998, for more detailed descriptions of trilingual
programs). Trilingual education raises a number of
interesting and important issues -- some are the same as
those that have been addressed in the preceding review of
bilingual education: How effective are they? Are they
effective for students with diverse learner characteristics?
Other issues that are particular to trilingual education
arise: What is the developmental relationship among the
languages? Does the sequencing of languages for literacy or
academic instruction matter? What are the limits to
acquisition of three languages when there is no or little
support for the non-native languages outside school?
Unfortunately, there is scant empirical evidence to answer
these questions and the extant evidence is highly variable in
nature. Programs for which reports have been published
appear to be working satisfactorily. Evidence of
effectiveness of the Basque and Canadian trilingual programs
Curriculum Project 56
comes from assessments of student performance on standardized
and school-based tests and includes comparisons with the
performance of students in non-trilingual schools in the same
communities. Reports of the effectiveness of the European
Schools are based on participants’ impressions and on the
success that program graduates have in gaining admission to
tertiary level education (see Cenoz, 1998; Genesee, 1998; and
Hoffmann, 1998, and Housen, 2002, for more details). None of
the published cases report evidence of interference or
impediments to language development as a result of exposure
to three languages during the course of elementary education,
the level of schooling for such programs. To the contrary,
Cenoz and Valencia (1994) provide some evidence that
bilingualism favors the acquisition of a third language (see
also Bild & Swain, 1989; Swain, Lapkin, Rowen, & Hart, 1991,
for specific studies and Cenoz & Genesee, 1998, and Cenoz,
Hufeisen & Jessner, 2001, for reviews). The same caveats
that apply to the interpretation of evaluations of bilingual
education apply here; namely, there is a bias to report
successful programs and self-selection factors are operating.
The evidence to date concerning trilingual education is
encouraging; but we currently lack detailed understanding of
the effectiveness of these programs. (Genese, 2006)
Curriculum Project 57
References and Bibliografy
biography.com. (2014). John Dewey Biography. Bio. ,
http://www.biography.com/people/john-dewey-
9273497#awesm=~oCjVlK3gQfc9q9.
Development, C. I. (2011). EDCS 101. Phillipines:
http://licadna2011.blogspot.com/2011/10/reflection-8-current-
issues-and-trends.html.
Genese, F. (2006). Handbook of Bilingualism. Ottawa, Canada:
McGill University.
MINEDUC. (2007). Curriculum Nacional Base del Ciclo Basico de
Nivel Medio. Guatemala: DIGEBI/DIGEACADE.
MINEDUC. (2013). Evaluación Educativa Estandarizada en
Guatemala: Un camino recorrido, un camino por recorrer.
Guatemala: DIGEDUCA.
MINEDUC. (2007). Más y Mejor educación en GuateMala (2008 -
2021) ¿cuánto nos cuesta? Guatemala: ICEFI.
MINEDUC. (2010). Reglamento de Evaluacion. Guatemala:
DIGEDUCA.
Curriculum Project 58
Jaime: Some aspects of your investigation are missing. Very
interesting and good research made. Although, conclusion is
missing. Don´t forget that you must always cite any
information taken from other resources.
Connected: An Autoblogography About Love, Death & Technology
Connections that exists among nature are far more integrated into our life than we can
understand. Technology gives us a way to understand how everything is connected and
interdependent from one to the other. Technology has turned into the tool of choice of human
beings to keep their human bonds connected at all times. These connections however are not
dependant of technology, because before technology existed human being and nature already had
a connection among themselves that kept them working together.
Family is the first place where our connections as human beings are established. These
connections do not last for a few weeks or days, they last for a life time, and because of their
length they are integral part of what make our character. Just as technology can help keep our
bonds and connections at all time, anywhere we may be and in different of ways. It has also been
one of the principal causes of destruction of these bonds, as technology has been the tool used by
human beings to create weapons that have caused death and sorrow to the world.
The film maker gives a clear point of how technology helped her to keep connected to her dad
who has been diagnosed with cancer. She used technology, not as a mean to cure cancer, but as a
mean to grow closer to her dad, by filming him, by interviewing him, and by recording hours long
of his dialogues. The same way her dad used technology, writing a book, to help his connection
with the world to remain even after he had passed away.
Many times technology also helped the father of the film maker to extend his life cycle, however
the inevitable death would come sooner or later, this was a known fact for both daughter and
father, who knowing this actually helped their relationship, because they treasured every moment
together, thinking that it would be the last. At some point, it can be argued that if they didn't knew
this fact, the documentary would have never been recorded. And their relationship would never
grown the way it did. The knowledge that technology bring us, it can be sorrowful and something
we didn't want to know, as many people do not want to know their date of death or if they are
dying. But the knowledge must be used appropriately the way this person used it, she used this
knowledge to record and grow closer to her father, even though it hurt her, it was something that
now she is glad she did.
The documentary fulfilled the task of showing the viewers the great amount of technology to our
disposal, so broad and many that it would not fit into a single film, but also helped the viewer
realize that this knowledge has existed for the longest, and even though the film maker wanted to
make a point about the left and right side of the brain and how we should change which side we
should use, to me the documentary was about loving those who are around you, and using
technology and communications for the right reason, not as a trap to keep us from enjoying those
connections we have with those who live around us.
DAVID CARDONA
ARELY MIRANDA
FREDY SALAZAR
MONICA SANTIZO
TASK AND PROJECT WORK
CLASSROOM PRESENTATION
TASK-BASED TEACHING
Task-based language learning has its origins in communicative
language teaching, and is a subcategory of it. Educators
adopted task-based language learning for a variety of reasons.
Some moved to task-based syllabi in an attempt to make
language in the classroom truly communicative, rather than the
pseudo-communication that results from classroom activities
with no direct connection to real-life situations. Others, like
Prabhu in the Bangalore Project, thought that tasks were a way
of tapping into learners' natural mechanisms for second-
language acquisition, and weren't concerned with real-life
communication per se.
Definition of a Task
1. A task involves a primary focus on (pragmatic) meaning.
2. A task has some kind of ‘gap’ (Prabhu identified the three
main types as information gap, reasoning gap, and opinion
gap).
3. The participants choose the linguistic resources needed to
complete the task.
4. A task has a clearly defined, non-linguistic outcome.
Outline
Pre-taskIn the pre-task, the teacher will give
instructions of what will be expected of the
students in the task phase. The instructors may
also present a model of the task by either doing
it themselves or by presenting picture, audio,
or video demonstrating the task.
TaskDuring the task phase, the students perform the task, typically in small groups, although this is dependent on the type of activity. And unless the teacher plays a particular role in the task, then the teacher's role is typically limited to one of an observer or counsellor—thus the reason for it being a more student-centered methodology.
ReviewSince learners have created tangible
linguistic products, e.g. text, montage,
presentation, audio or video recording,
classmates should review each other's
work and offer constructive feedback.
Types of task
Information Gap TaskAn information-gap activity involves a transfer of given information from one person to another –
or from one form to another, or from one place to another – and generally calls for the decoding
or encoding of information from or into language. One example is pair work in which each
member of the pair has a part of the total information (for example an incomplete picture) and
attempts to convey it verbally to the other. Another example is completing a tabular
representation with information available in a given piece of text. The activity often involves
selection of relevant information as well, and learners may have to meet criteria of completeness
and correctness in making the transfer.
Reasoning Gap TaskA reasoning-gap activity involves deriving some new information from given
information through processes of inference, deduction, practical reasoning, or a
perception of relationships or patterns. One example is working out a teacher’s
timetable on the basis of given class timetables. Another is deciding what course of
action is best (for example cheapest or quickest) for a given purpose and within
given constraints. The activity necessarily involves comprehending and conveying
information, as in information-gap activity, but the information to be conveyed is
not identical with that initially comprehended. There is a piece of reasoning which
connects the two.
Opinion Gap TaskAn opinion-gap activity involves identifying and articulating a personal
preference, feeling, or attitude in response to a given situation. One example
is story completion; another is taking part in the discussion of a social issue.
The activity may involve using factual information and formulating arguments
to justify one’s opinion, but there is no objective procedure for demonstrating
outcomes as right or wrong, and no reason to expect the same outcome from
different individuals or on different occasions.
An Example Of Task-Based Learning FrameworkAccording to J. Willis (1996), a task means a goal-oriented activity with a clear purpose. Doing a communication
task involves achieving an outcome, creating a final product that can be appreciated by other people. Some
examples include compiling a list of reasons, features, or things that need doing under particular circumstances;
comparing two pictures and/or texts to find the differences; and solving a problem or designing a brochure.
Tasks can be used as the central component of a three part framework: "pre-task," "task cycle," and "language
focus." These components have been carefully designed to create four optimum conditions for language
acquisition, and thus provide rich learning opportunities to suit different types of learners.
The following framework outlines the roles of the teacher and learners during a task-based learning (TBL)
lesson.
Pre-TaskIntroduction to topic and task
Task Cycle
Task Planning Report
Language Focus Analysis and
Practice
How learning happens Learners get exposure at the pre-task stage, and a chance to recall things they know. The task cycle gives them speaking and
writing exposure with opportunities for students to learn from each other.
The task cycle also gives students opportunities to use whatever language they have, both in private (where mistakes,
hesitations, and approximate renderings do not matter so long as the meaning is clear) and in public (where there is a built-
in desire to strive for accuracy of form and meaning, so as not to lose face).
Motivation (short term) is provided mainly by the need to achieve the objectives of the task and to report back on it.
Success in doing this can increase longer term motivation. Motivation to listen to fluent speakers doing the task is strong
too, because in attempting the task, learners will notice gaps in their own language, and will listen carefully to hear how
fluent speakers express themselves.
A focus on form is beneficial in two phases in the framework. The planning stage between the private task and the public
report promotes close attention to language form. As learners strive for accuracy, they try to organise their reports clearly
and check words and patterns they are not sure of. In the final component, language analysis activities also provide a focus
on form through consciousness-raising processes. Learners notice and reflect on language features, recycle the task
language, go back over the text or recording and investigate new items, and practise pronouncing useful phrases.
Implication on teaching grammar
Language Analysis ActivitiesPeople have often been under the impression that task-based learning means "forget the
grammar." This would not be a wise move.
The aim of analysis activities is to encourage learners to investigate language for themselves,
and to form and test their own hypotheses about how language works. In the task-based
cycle, the language data comes from the texts or transcripts of recordings used in the task
cycle, or from samples of language they have read or heard in earlier lessons. Having already
processed these texts and recordings for meaning, students will get far more out of their
study of language form.
Analysis activities can be followed by quick bursts of oral or written practice, or dictionary
reference work (see Willis & Willis, 1996 for specific ideas). Finally, students need time to
note down useful words, phrases, and patterns into a language notebook. Regular revision of
these will help vocabulary acquisition.
EXAMPLE: Integrating grammar using a task-based model of instruction
Topic: How does upbringing affect attitudes?
Step 1
The teacher introduces the theme by telling a short anecdote about her school days, which
demonstrates, for example, the relaxed approach to the dress-code operating in her school. She
uses this story to check the meaning of easygoing and its opposite, strict.
Step 2
The teacher invites one or two learners to recount related
experiences. She suggests that many people react against a strict
upbringing by adopting very easygoing attitudes as parents, and
vice versa. Since there is some argument about this, she suggests
that the class conduct a survey, in which they canvass each other
to see if there is any correlation between previous experience and
present attitudes. She organizes the class into pairs to prepare
questions, which they write down.
Step 3
The teacher organizes the pairs of
students into groups of four, and asks
them to try out their questions on each
other, and to make a mental note of the
answers. She monitors the interactions,
noting down examples of student
productions that could be improved, but
she doesn't correct them at this point.
Step 4
The teacher asks the class to listen to a
recording of some fluent English speakers
chatting on the same theme. The conversation
includes various examples of the language of
coercion. The teacher asks some general gist
questions about the conversation - for example,
which of the speakers had a strict upbringing,
which had an easygoing one? She then hands
out a transcript of the recording, and replays
the tape while they read.
Step 5
Students then study the transcript with a view to finding language that might be useful in the survey task, particularly language related to the notions of being strict and easygoing. They list these in two columns: adjectives and verbs. Students work in pairs on this task, and then the teacher elicits ideas on to the board.
Step 6
The students then return to their survey
task - but are first given a chance to
redraft and refine their questions in
pairs. They are then paired off with
different students than the ones they
were talking to earlier (in Step 3).
Step 7
The teacher then asks students, working
in their original pairs, to prepare a report
on their findings, with a view to
answering the question: How does
upbringing affect attitudes? Individual
students are asked to present their
report to the class. A general discussion
ensues.
CONCLUSIONIt is clear that content-based projects strengthen EFL students’ academic skills. The fact that students
choose the topic themselves and decide the way they want to give the presentation makes them
interested and engaged in the process. A “fun” element is added to the class. It is recommended that
students do such projects at an early stage of their university life; they could work as a springboard for
many tasks that students have to complete, including working on minor and major projects, giving
individual and joint presentations, as well as engaging in discussions and debates. Students who take
part in content-based projects are apt to function well in many other aspects of university life that
include communicative and critical thinking skills.
TBL offers a change from the grammar practice routines through which many learners have previously
failed to learn to communicate. It encourages learners to experiment with whatever English they can
recall, to try things out without fear of failure and public correction, and to take active control of their
own learning, both in and outside class.
For the teacher, the framework offers security and control. While it may be true that TBL is an adventure,
it can be undertaken within the safety of an imaginatively designed playground.
PROJECT WORK
What is a project? It is a display of task outcome, collaborative interaction. It
involves planning, execution, constant evaluation, reflection,
end product, demonstration. It is done inside a classroom and
the participating group size does not matter and it does not
affect outcomes or learning procedures either. Projects to be
successful should integrate four skills, with differentiation and
accommodating to the varied ability levels and interests.
This presentation introduces content-based projects as one way that can help students enhance their
language skills, and do so in an engaging manner.
The topic of Content-Based Instruction (CBI) and project work has become increasingly important in recent
years. Content-based projects are believed to help learners develop both language skills and better
knowledge of the world according to Fredricka Stoller, associate professor at Northern Arizona University.
Projects, Stoller adds, make classrooms "vibrant learning environments that require active student
involvement, stimulate higher-level thinking skills, and give students responsibility for their own learning" and
that in CBI "language proficiency is achieved by shifting the focus of instruction from the learning of language
per se to the learning of language through the study of subject matter."
The four language skills are integrated when students engage in content-based activities. Students read
material, understand, interpret and evaluate it; they give oral responses to reading and lecture materials.
Based on the listening and reading activities, students are required to synthesize information from different
sources as preparation for writing. This approach exposes students to different study skills, which helps
them with their future academic life.
The main reason why many teachers use content-based instruction is the fact that it
makes students' learning "authentic", providing opportunities for them to use English
appropriately in the disciplines they will probably encounter during their life at the
university. In addition, the reading, and the other, steps involved in the process will make
him a better critical thinker, better able to make more sound decisions, which will be of
great benefit when it comes to decision making when the student has graduated and
joined the work force.
Projects can motivate teens. They can even out abilities and grades, they work well with
CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning), have more impact and more success,
are effective and meaningful.
Stoller reviewed the literature on the different forms of project work, and concluded that
there are particular features that characterize project work. These features include that
they
focus on content rather than language.
are student-centered,
are cooperative and not competitive,
integrate the 4 skills,
are product and process oriented,
help students to be attentive to both fluency and
accuracy
attend to the process even though it has a final
product
have the teacher offer support and give guidelines
during the whole process
develop participation and collaboration
promote meaningful students’ engagement with
language
require active students involvement
stimulate higher-level thinking skills
give student responsibility for their own learning
distance teachers’ role from teacher-dominant instruction
move Teachers toward creating a student community of inquiry involving authentic communication,
cooperative learning, collaboration and problem solving
demand adapting and creativity from teachers and students.
use information from varied sources.
can be carried out in different period of time, either a short period of time or extended over a few
weeks
can be adapted and used in almost all levels, for different ages and abilities
can be integrated to reinforce important pedagogical issues
work on real life issues since they are linked with students’ interest about real world concerns and
issues or significance
have a final product that can be shared with any person from the community or outside
can simulate real word situations
can be adapted by any kind of issue
Last but not least project work hast
the potential to motivate,
stimulate, empower, and challenge.
Projects, in general, usually result
in building student confidence, self-
esteem, and autonomy as well as
improvement of students' language
skills, content learning skills, and
cognitive abilities.
Ideas that support project work
It is student-centred and not syllabus centred.
It is co-operative rather than competitive.
It is skill based not structure based.
It allows people to learn from other people within the
group.
It caters for interdisciplinary, since being a topic
related activity it allows for all kinds of contacts with
other subjects.
It is connected with reality.
It allows students “to learn through doing” and to
learn how to learn, since they have to plan their own
work and draw from their own personal skills.
Characteristics of Project Work
A decalogue of characteristics has been developed that can clearly summarize the potential of this approach to language
teaching and learning. Project work must be...
1. Interesting: the topic, the teacher’s approach and attitude.
2. Productive: the final goal is a product of some way or other.
3. Active: Students do = Students learn. It is also interactive and student centred. The students are an essential
ingredient in the Project Work recipe.
4. Coherent: For the students and for the school. It must be internally coherent and levelled with the students’
knowledge.
5. Integrative: Of the four linguistic skills, also communication skills, information skills, group skills, individual skills and
procedural skills for learning and autonomy.
6. Obtainable: It must be oriented to success, but still be a challenge to maintain students’ spirits high.
7. Authentic: in language, in context and interaction.
8. Useful: For the student, for the teacher and for the school. Most final products can be used as stepping stones for
future projects.
9. Motivating: It has to be a challenge and get students involved.
10. Flexible: Adaptable, it must allow for evaluation and modification in progress.
STAGESThere are three main stages to project work: Planning, doing and evaluating.
Planning1. Creation of a context in which everybody feels well and not a competitive atmosphere. Teachers have to be
good at “selling the idea” to students.
2. Negotiation of rules and course of action (e.g. Agree that most of the interaction has to be in English).
3. Training of students. It is useful that the students have had some practice in classroom language, sentence
order, how to use a dictionary, how to use a reference grammar book, brainstorming, brain mapping, decision
taking, letter writing, giving short talks,writing questionnaires, conducting an interview and note taking, to
mention a few aspects that are worth training.
4. Be open to students suggestions and allow a maximum of freedom.
DoingProject Work has to be done inside and outside the
classroom, but this aspect depends on the actual plan
devised by students. We suggest the following steps:
a. Selection of topic
b. Group discussion
c. Plan: checklist of things to be done.
d. Timetable
e. Materials: list of materials that will be needed
f. Distribution of work
g. Do project
h. Plan presentation
i. Presentation to the class.
EvaluatingSelf-evaluation: Students, together with their products hand in comments about the
process: How they have felt, problems they have had and solutions they have given,
and also about result what they have learnt. They can also devise and fill in their own
self-evaluation sheets. Look for mistakes, correct them and comment on them: Why
they made them, etc.
Peer evaluation: Colleagues study products from fellow students and hand in
comments, marks, ranking lists, etc. according to preferences. Mistake hunting can be
an interesting and rewarding activity.
Teacher evaluation: the teacher analyses strategies and problems, gathers, categorises
and values different comments and prepares feedback for the class. S/he also analyses
general mistakes and prepares likely remedial work for the future.
If diaries (both teacher’s and students’) have been used, they can be studied at this
stage and conclusions discussed.
Benefits to studentsThere are six important benefits to students.
1. Contact with reality: Projects provide contacts with real world subject matter which require students to apply and
adapt what they already know. ( But it can also deal with imaginary and creative topics).
2. Projects are participatory activities: Students involvement in making choices and decisions tends to increase their
motivation and interest.
3. Projects cater for all abilities within a class: It enables and encourages students of different abilities to work co-
operatively on tasks of equal importance. Those who are relatively weak with regard to their formal linguistic
achievement may be able to use other talents which are as valuable to the success of the projects the writing of good
English or the understanding of complete texts,etc.
a. Most projects include some of the following non-linguistic tasks:
b. Design (leaflets, posters, displays)
c. Illustration (Photographs, cartoons, graphs)
d. Organization (of people, materials, tasks and time)
e. Equipment (video, cameras, cassette records, PCs)
4. Projects re-integrate language: language is usually separated into discrete items for teaching purposes; a project
provides language learnt in this way with a natural context which puts things back into place.
5. Projects establish a context which balances the need for fluency and accuracy.
6. Projects are a break with routine: and allow students to relax.
What students do they create tools: Devise, use and evaluate
Grids, questionnaires, charts, etc.
they handle information: Compare, sort,
analyse, transfer and summarize it.
they improve their socialisation skills: People
skills, Individual Skills, Participation in
different kinds of interaction.
they do a lot of language work: Practice all
four skills in the process. They talk, read,
listen and write.
What teachers do they prepare students for working independently in groups
they prepare a resource bank and handle timing of projects.
they identify and provide information needed or help
students find it on their own.
they identify and provide language needed or help students
find it on their own.
they define roles.
they provide and train students in skills for dealing with
information, generating ideas, presentations, etc.
they listen before they give advice.
they are supportive and never destructive respecting
students’ work and initiatives.
they develop their capacity for being flexible and able to re-
conduct projects.
they participate in the evaluation process.
How to carry out project workIn the beginning, students are introduced to content-based projects. They are given an assignment sheet stating what is
expected of them. The teacher goes over the sheet with them, explaining each task, and setting deadlines for each of the
tasks to be completed. The projects could be in the form of a DVD, a video or a power point presentation.
Students are given one week to decide on a topic and show it to the teacher for approval. They are encouraged to
think of more than one topic to decide on one in consultation with the teacher. The reason is, first, to avoid having
overlapping topics within the class, and second, to avoid presenting sensitive topics that might possibly offend other
members of the group.
When their topics have been approved, students are given two weeks to read about the topic; they are encouraged
to search the net, read three articles relevant to their topic, and decide on one to submit to the teacher the day they give
their presentations. During the two weeks, students are also required to interview at least ten people, asking them their
research question. Students report their interviewees' responses, and attempt an interpretation of these responses, in
light of the context where the data has been collected, the respondents' age group and their background about the topic
they are interviewed on.
Following that, the students develop a presentation that they share with their classmates in five
minutes during class time. Most students opt to do a power point presentation; innovative students
attempt a DVD or a video presentation. A student's presentation is usually followed with a discussion
and/or questions, which allows the students to learn more about the topic. Students are encouraged
to use the new information in their compositions, if the idea is related to the given topic and they can
support their content with the point(s) made in their colleague's presentation. The main steps
involved in conducting content-based projects as described in this paper can be summarized as
follows:
Step 1: Choosing a topic for the project
Step 2: Deciding on a research question
Step 3: Gathering information (internet search, interviews …)
Step 4: Analyzing the information
Step 5: Giving a presentation and submitting a report
PROJECT STAGES DEVELOPMENTThe 8-step sequence model proposed by Sheppard and
Stoller (1995) was fine-tuned in a 10-step sequence,
once you have your goals in mind this is the way you can
carry it out in a classroom.
STEP 1. STUDENTS AGREE ON A THEME FOR THE
PROJECT.
You can make reference to previous readings,
videos, discussions, and classroom activities.
Brainstorm.
It is a stage of discussion and negotiation.
STEP 2. DETERMINE THE FINAL OUTCOME.
Nature of the project.
Objectives.
Means to finalize the project: Final product.
STEP 3. STRUCTURE THE PROJECT.
Structure the Body of the project. Students
should consider:
What information is needed to complete the
project?
How can the information be obtained?
How the information, once gathered, be
compiled and analyzed?
What role does each student play in the evolution
of the project? Who does what?
What time line will students follow to get from the
starting point to the end point?
STEP 4. PREPARE THE STUDENTS FOR THE LANGUAGE
DEMANDS FOR GATHERING INFORMATION.
Practice the language, skills and strategies needed
to gather information.
Teacher can plan language instructions activities to
prepare students in how to gather information in a good
way and how to use the resources in order to get
information.( e.g. How to look for books at
the library, how to do questions).
Teacher help students devise a grid for organized data
collection.
STEP 5 GATHER INFORMATION
Students collect information and organized.
Teacher also brought in relevant information such
readings, videos, dictocomps and teacher-generated
lectures.
STEP 6 PREPARE STUDENTS FOR THE LANGUAGE
DEMANDS OF STEP 7.
Do different activities to prepare students to
organized and synthesize information.
Introduce students to graphic
representations like grids
and charts that might highlight relationships amon
g ideas.
STEP 7. COMPILE AND ANALYZE INFORMATION.
Using strategies developed in Step 6 students
compile and analyze information to identify data.
STEP 8. PREPARE STUDENTS FOR THE LANGUAGE
DEMANDS OF STEP 9.
Teacher can bring in language improvement activities to
help students succeed with the presentations of
the finals products.
Practicing skills needed in
the final product and receiving feed back.
Editing and revising writing.
STEP 9. PRESENT FINAL PRODUCT.
Present the final outcome of the project.
STEP 10.EVALUATE THE PROJECT.
Students realize how much they have learned and
the teacher benefits from the students’
insights for future classroom projects.
Students must reflect on the experience and
the final step:
The language they mastered to complete the
project.
The content they learned about the
targeted theme.
The step they follow to complete the
project.
The effectiveness of the final project.
How they must proceed differently the next
time
What suggestions they have for
future project work endeavors.
Skills Developed through Content-based ProjectsThere are several positive traits that have been noticed to develop in students over a
given semester. First, they become more self-confident, having to work individually on a
single project. Some of them indicate that working on these projects and giving
presentations on their own gives them better confidence to meet the more challenging
demands of other courses they take. The reason they are asked to work on the project
individually is the tendency of some of them, as reported by a few students when content-
based projects were tried the first time, to do less work than their peers, if they opted to
do the project in pairs. They also develop a sense of autonomy, since they have to work
out the topic, the question to be asked, the people they will interview, the way to present
their findings, and reach conclusions.
Problems with ImplementationThere are four main points that can be rather restrictive when it comes to effective implementation of
content-based projects in an academic setting. The first problem is dealing with sensitive issues. A second
problem would be uncooperative students. In almost every group there is one student who does not want to work
on a project, or is too shy to present in front of his/her classmates, or does not meet the deadlines in submitting
an assignment. The third situation is other students, knowing that these projects are not part of the course
requirements, resist the idea and decide not to do a project at all. Luckily, those are few. The fourth, and last,
problem concerns students' reactions to each other's work. More specifically, some students could try to ridicule
the way their colleagues speak English, while others could give negative comments on the content of a given
presentation. This would create a negative atmosphere in the classroom. Therefore, before starting the
presentations, students are advised to give their colleagues constructive feedback, since the ultimate goal is for
them to learn from each other, not to find fault with each other's work. Constructive feedback is given in the form
of a three-item feedback sheet, indicating what they liked most about the presentation, what they did not like, and
what suggestions they can give to improve the presentation. Students are given oral instructions about how to
give effective feedback. The feedback sheets are anonymous and given directly to the presenter after the
presentation, without the teacher seeing them. This method saves class time, makes students comfortable giving
feedback, and saves the presenter the embarrassment of the teacher seeing any negative feedback. At the end of
the presentations of a given class session (usually three), the teacher gives general feedback following the three-
step feedback forms, but orally.
Alternative project suggestionsBased on the above description of the implementation of content-based projects in an EFL academic context, it is
highly recommended that instructors teaching different levels, in different EFL contexts, use projects in their
classrooms, even when technology is not available. Depending on the course learning outcomes, the students' age and
proficiency level, teachers can gear the projects to suit their students. One way is to use the content of the course book
itself to generate ideas for a suitable project. Another way is to have students work in pairs or small groups, as long as
each student has clear instructions as to the tasks that need to be accomplished. Internet searches can help students
find interesting content to develop into a project, but they are not the only way. Newspaper and magazine articles are a
very good source; talk shows, family members, acquaintances and friends are other sources which can be an excellent
motivator for students to complete a project. Students can watch different kinds of talk shows that tackle various
topics, whether social, political, or ones related to gender, before they decide on a particular area to investigate. They
can then develop their content through reading, interviewing others and talking to more experienced individuals.
Another way teachers may follow is to invite a guest speaker who is knowledgeable in a particular area to give a
presentation on a relevant topic. This can help students find more information about the topic, which could be
developed later into a project.
PROJECT STRUCTURES:In terms of project structure, there are three
kinds of projects :
Structured projects: defined and organized by
teachers.
Unstructured projects: defined and organized,
largely, by students.
Semi-structured projects: defined and organized
by teachers and students.
In terms of types of projects, these are some examples:
Research projects: library research
Text projects: any kind of source like books,
magazines, web pages, videos, but not people.
Correspondence projects: communications with others
using mail or emails.
Survey projects.
Interview projects: having a guest in or outside the
classroom.
According to how the information is presented, the projects
can be:
Production project: creation of bulletin board
displays, videos, radio programs, posters sessions, written
reports, photo essays, letters, handbooks, brochures
menus, oral presentation, travel itineraries, and so forth
Performance project: debates, oral
presentations, theatrical performances, food fairs or
fashion shows.
Organizational projects: club, conversation table,
conversation- partner program.
A Short List of possible Projects to
start with Class survey on pets
Students Heroes
Teacher age chart
My ideal Room / neighbourhood/ house/city/planet,
etc.
Our favourite recipe
The songs we like
Pollution in the area
Tourist Guide
Classroom magazine
Radio Program
Create an advertisement for the television
Teaching strategy
Purpose or determined action plan
used by the teacher for a specific
content, this plan includes: structure,
desire learner behavior, an outline
and goals of instruction.
Learning strategy
specific action taken by the learner
to make learning easier, faster, more
enjoyable, more self-directed, more
effective, and more transferable to new situations
LEARNING STRATEGIES
When students use strategies,
cooperative skill performance is
close to 100 percent.There are no intrinsically
“good” strategies because
people need to discover
their own.
STRATEGIES
Students use Learning Strategies to help themunderstand information and solve problems.
Students who do not know or use good learningstrategies often learn passively and ultimately fail inschool.
Learning Strategy instruction focuses on makingstudents more active learners by teaching them howto learn and how to use what they have learned to besuccessful.
Direct
Memory
Cognitive
Compensation
Indirect
Metacognitive
Affective
Social
Memory strategiesMemory strategies are based on simple
principles like laying things out in order,
making association, and reviewing.
These principles are employed when a
learner faces challenge of vocabulary
learning.
The use of memory strategies are most
frequently applied in the beginning
process of language learning.
Relating concepts
When a new concept is introduced, learners associate that to something they now or they arefamiliarized with ; for example a new Word is related to something they own, know, want or have experienced.mischievous= a politician,
Mr. burnsI have traveled a lot.= experience (my last trip to Europe)
Conspicuouslullabyfar-fetcheddiversion
Making sentences
Learners make their own sentences to memorize and internalize new grammar concepts or/and vocabulary.e.g.Run Errands.I have to run some errands next Saturday.
Used to.I used to live in a small town.
MightShe might need some help.
words
Cabbage
Cart
Shelf
Customs office
Verbs simple past
Saw
Dealt
Felt
Bought
practice
Make 3 different sentences using thewords from the boxes below.
Mental pictures
Learners visualize the new word/concept rather than memorize it’s meaning or function. Flashcards and posters are used in this process.http://www.languageguide.org/english/vocabulary/money/
Practice mental pictures
Work in pairs,look at the pictures and describe them to your partner, make a mental image based on the descriptions.
Rhyming
learners use of rhymes to memorize new concepts and vocabulary. Clothing vocabulary: jacket,shoes,dress,shrit,skirt,tie,suit,jeans.
For a party I wear a tie jacket-racketAnd kiss my mom good bye. Suit-footI have new shoes jeans-beansBut I stained them with juice Skirt-flirtMary’s wearing a dress, But her hair is a mess.
Rhyming time
Make a little poem/rap rhyming thefollowing words:
Food and drinksTomato-cabbage-sugar-beef-chicken-apple-cream-cheese-breadSoda-coffee-tea-water-wine
Performing/acting out
When learning a new word or concept learners perform or act out the action or word in order to record the new information in their brain.e.gYawn-sneeze-scratch-tip toe-skip-march-spin
Simon says
In pairs:
Make a list of 10 action verbs.
Play simon says with another group.
Cognitive strategies
The target language is manipulated or
transformed by repeating, analyzing or
summarizing. The four sets in this group are:
Practicing, Receiving and Sending Messages,
Analyzing and Reasoning, and Creating Structure
for Input and Output.
Practicing is the most important in this group
which can be achieved by repeating, working
with sounds and writing, and using patterns.
Problem-solve
MAKE A TABLE
Question: You save $3 on Monday, each day after that you save twice as much as you saved the day before if thispattern continues, how much wouldyou save on Friday?
CAN YOU SOLVE THE PROBLEM?
How can you solve the problem
ANSWER:
YOU SAVE $48 ON FRIDAY
Monday--------3
tuesday--------6
wednesday----12
Thursday------24
Friday----------48
Imitation and contrast
When learners imitate native speakers’ accent in order to practice pronunciation of new words and phrases in Videos, movies, songs and TV shows.
Practicing with homonymsLearners practice with homonyms and build word webs with the different meanings for a word depending on its context.e.gBear (animal) and bear (carry)porter (a weak beer) and porter (a man who carries luggage)lean (thin) and lean (rest against)lap (to drink with tongue) and lap (a circuit)plane (a tool) and plane (a tree)plain (ordinary looking) and plain (flat country)
Practice
In pairs find a different meaning for thewords listed below.
skip miss pluck type train fluke bow quail fair lie
Lead blue
checkskip (to jump) and skip (to miss out)miss (unmarried woman) and miss (to overlook)pluck (to remove feathers) and pluck (bravery)type (to write via keyboard) and type (a sort)train (a loco and trucks) and train (to teach)fluke (a stroke of luck Fluke ( the fins on a whales tail)bow (bend forward) bow (front of a ship)quail (cower) quail (bird)fair (appearance) fair (reasonable)lie (horizontal position) lie (falsehood or untruth expressed as truth)lead (metal) Lead (start off in front)blue (the color) blue (the feeling of sadness)
Learning cognates
two words that have a common origin are cognates. Most often, cognates are words in two languages that have a common etymology and thus are similar or identical. For example, the English "kiosk" and the Spanish quiosco are cognates because they both come from the Turkish kosk.
Industry-industriaBycicle-bicicleta
Fragile-fragil
Practice
In pairs make a list of 10 cognates.
For more cognates:
http://www.esdict.com/English-Spanish-Cognates.html#.UGEzqLIf41M
Compensation strategies
Learners use compensation strategies for comprehension of the target language when they have insufficient knowledge of the target language. These strategies make up for the deficiency in grammar and vocabulary. When learners do not know new words and expressions, they guess the meaning.
A learner brings own life experience to interpret data by guessing. Students brings own life experience to interpret data by guessing.Compensation strategies are also used in production when grammatical knowledge is incomplete.
Guessing meaning by contextThe ability to guess meaning from context is a useful skill to practice and try to improve.The things which will help you work out the meaning of an unfamiliar word are:
a) the meaning of the text which surrounds it;b) the way the word is formed;c) your own background knowledge of the subject.
Guessing is useful only when you can interpret/understand the surrounding text. If you think you have exhausted the contextual information available to guess at the word, LOOK IT UP IN A DICTIONARY.
Practice1) The tiger's roar could be heard in villages far away.What does roar probably mean?
A) food a tiger eats B) a tiger's dream C) a tiger's ear D) a sound a tiger makes
2) The thought of eating a rat is abhorrent to most people.What does abhorrent probably mean?
A) fun, lively B) horrible, repugnant C) delicious, tasty D) sweet, sugary
3) You can trust the salesmen at that store because they always conduct business in an aboveboard manner.What does aboveboard probably mean?
A) honestly, openly B) sneaky, dishonest C) horrible, repugnant D) strange, unusual
4) Petra has so many friends because she is a gregarious person.What does gregarious probably mean?
A) introverted, self-contained B) shy, quiet C) friendly, outgoing D) rude, hostile
Anticipating dialogue
Learners watch a video clip , movie or listen to a dialogue and predict the response or what the person will say in order to practice comprehension, cohesion and fluency.
Metacognitive strategies
These go beyond the cognitive mechanism and give learners to coordinate their learning. This helps them to plan language learning in an efficient way.When new vocabulary, rules, and writing system confuse the learner, these strategies become vital for successful language learning.
Three sets of strategies belong to this group and they are: Centering Your Learning, Arranging and Planning
Your Learning, and Evaluating Your Learning.
Centering learning: give a focus to the learner so that the attention could be directed toward certain language activities or skills.
Arranging and planning learning: help learners to organize so they may get maximum benefit from their energy and effort.
Evaluating learning: helps learners with problems like monitoring errors and evaluation of progress.
Here some examples:Learners:• Try to speak english all the time.• Listen and pay attention everytime someone
speaks English.• Plan specific time to practice English• Look for new reading material• Set specific goals
http://rubistar.4teachers.org/
Affective estrategies
The affective factors like emotion, attitude, motivation, and values influence learning in an important way.Three sets of strategies are included in this group:
• Lowering Your Anxiety, Banish boredom,read and write moreplan to succeed
• Encouraging Yourself • Taking Your Emotional Temperature.
Social estrategies
These are very important in learning a language because language is used in communication and communication occurs between people. Three sets of strategies are included in this group: Asking QuestionsCooperating with othersEmpathizing with Others.
Learners can apply the strategy of cooperating with others by doing something together in thelanguage they are learning.
Here some Examples.:Chat rooms,movie clubs,reading club,Participating in forums, debate contest, creating a blog, social newworks among others.
Conclusion
Language learning strategies, facilitate thelearning of the target language by thelanguage learner. Since the factors like age,gender, personality, motivation, self-concept, life-experience, learning style,anxiety, etc. affect the way in whichlanguage learners learn the target language,strategies help them understand, learn, orremember new information.
To be consider a competent user of
language, one needs to know not
only the rules of grammar, but also
how rules are used in real
communication.
How much grammar does one need in order
to be able to communicate comfortably in a
second or foreign language?
Some people claim that grammar is not very
important as long as you can get your
message across in the language you are
studying. Do you agree with this statement?
What has been your experience in learning
the grammar of a second language?
How do you decide which grammar
points to present fisrt, second, and
so on?
Is grammar best taught in isolation
or in context?
How do you correct your students’
grammar mistakes? Give at least three
different techniques you usually employ
in your teaching.
Because it’s there.
It’s tidy.
It’s testable.
Grammar as a security blanket.
It made me who I am.
You have to teach the hole system.
Power
Comprehensibility
Acceptaility
successful language learning depends
on immersing students in tasks that
require them to negotiate meaning and
engage in naturalistic and meaningful
communication .
FROM GRAMMAR-FOCUSED TO TASK-FOCUSED
INSTRUCTION
The differences between traditional
grammar-focused activities and
communicative tasks are as follows:
• Grammar-focused activities
• Reflect typical classroom use of language.
• Focus on the formation of correct
examples
• Monitored speech style
• Do not require authentic communication
• Communicative tasks
• Reflect natural language use.
• Colloquial speech style
• Require improving, repair and
reorganization.
• Allow students to select
language they use.
• Task work is seen as a part of
linguistic and communicative
competence development.
SECOND THOUGHTS ABOUT TASK WORK
The researcher found that negotiation for meaning is not a
strategy that language learners are influenced to employ
when they encounter gaps in their understanding. Accurate
grammar use is not necessary in such a grammar-gap task.
These strategies provide an effective incentive to make best
use of language that already have but it doesn’t encourage
them to focus on form.
GRAMMAR IN RELATION TO SECOND
LANGUAGE ACQUISITION PROCESSES
• Input: language sources used to initiated the
language learning process.
At the input stage, an attempt may be made to
focus learners’ attention on particular features of
inputs.
• Intake: subset of the input that is comprehended
and attended to in some way. Those items are
needed to meet certain criteria such as
complexity(appropriate level of difficulty),
saliency(be noticed or attended to), frequency(be
experienced frequently) and need(fulfill a
communicative need).
• Acquisition: the learner incorporate a new learning
item into his or her developing system or inter
language.
• Noticing the difference between forms they are
using and target like forms.
• Discovering rules of target language
• Make those into long-term memory
• Access: learner’s ability to utilize the inter
language system during communication which
includes making use of the developing system to
create output.
• Output: observed result.
In the output you should practice in an oral way such
as role play.
Addresing Grammar within Task
Work
• Exposure to language at an appropiate level of difficulty.
• Engagement in meaning-focused interaction in the language.
• Opportunities for learners to notice or attendto linguistic form while using the language.
• Opportunities to expand the languageresources learners make use of over time.
Addresing Accuracy Prior to the
Task
• By pre-teaching certain linguistic forms thatcan be used while completing a task.
• By reducing the cognitive complexity of thetask.
• By giving time to plan the task.
Addresing Accuracy During the
Task
• Participation
• Procedures
• 1. Preparatory activity designed to provideschemata, vocabulary and language.
• 2. Dialogue listening task, to model shorterversion of target task.
• 3. Dialogue practice task, to provide furtherclarification of task.
• 4. First practice, using role-play cues.
• 5. Follow-up listening
• 6. Second role-play practice
• Resouces
• Order
• Product
Addresing Accuracy After the
Task
• Public Performance
• Repeat Performance
Does practice work?
• There are strong empirical and theoricalgrounds to doubt the efficacy of practice. Itmay have limited psycholinguistic validity.
• Practice is directed at the acqusition of implicit knowledge of a grammar structure.
• The results of both types of research are notencouraging for supporters of practice.
• A number of empirical students haveinvestigated whether practice contributes toL2 acquisition.
• These studies are of two kinds: those thatseek to relate the amount of practice achievedbye individual learners with general increasein proficiency and those that have examinedwhether practicing specific linguistic structureresults in its acquisition.
Consciousness-raising:
• It is unlikely to result in inmediate acquisition.
• More likely it will have a delayed effect. It can be deductive and inductive.
• There are some limitations for example itcannot be used for young learners, (those wholike to learn by doing rather than studying.)
• Facilitates the acquisition of the grammaticalknowledge needed for communication.
• The acquisition of implicit knowledge involvesthree processes.
• Noticing
• Comparing
• Integrating
Stage that consists of aseries of exercises, whoseaim is to cause the learnersto absorb the structure.
Practice:
• Rigidly controlled activities.
Mechanical Practice
• Encourage learners to relate form to meaningby using real-life situations.
Contextualised practice
• Information gap activities which requirelearners to engage in authenticcommunication.
Communicative practice
Practice
Characteristics
Isolate a specific
grammaticalfeature.
Produce sentencescontainingthe target feature.
Repetition of the target feature.
Sucessoriented.
Learnersreceive
feedback ontheir
performance.
It is the attempt to equip thelearner with an understandingof a specific grammaticalfeature.
Consciousness-Raising:
Consciousness-Raising Activities
Deductive
• Learner is suppliedwith a rule which isthen used to carry outsome task.
Inductive
• Learner is provided withdata and asked toconstruct an explicit rule todescribe the grammaticalfeature.
Conciousness-Raising
characteristics
Isolateslinguisticfeatures
Data orexplicit rule is
provided tothe learner to
explain thefeature
Learners are expected to
utiliseintellectual
effort.
Clarification isin the form of further data
description orexplanation.
Learners may berequired to
articulate therule describing
the grammaticalstructure.
Purpose of CR in the teaching
of grammar
To direct learners’ attention to
grammar featuresthey might not
notice on their own.
To help learnersmake form/meaning
connections.
To help learners acquire conscious knowledge which they can use to understand input and
monitor their own output .
To make learners more autonomous by developing their
analytical ability.
CR activity #1
CR activity #2
Conversational Discourse
The benchmark of successful language acquisition is almost always the demonstration o fan ability to accomplish pragmatic goals through Interactive discourse with other speakers of the language.
Teaching Pronunciation
Because the overwhelming majority of adult learners will never acquire an accent-free command of a foreign language, should a language program that emphasizes whole language, meaningful contexts, and automaticity of production focus on these tiny phonological details of language? The answer is yes.
Accuracy and Fluency
In spoken language the question we face as teachers is: How shall we prioritize the two clearly important speaker goals of accurate (clear, articulate, grammatically and phonologically correct) language and fluent (flowing, natural) language?
It’s now very clear that fluency and accuracy are both important goals to pursue in CLT (Communicative Language Teaching) and/or TBLT (Task-Based Language Teaching). While fluency may in many communicative language courses be an initial goal in language teaching, accuracy is achieved to some extent by allowing students to focus on the elements of phonology, grammar, and discourse in their spoken output. Fluency is probably best achieved by allowing the “stream” of speech to “flow”.
Affective Factors
One of the major obstacles learners have to overcome in learning to speak is the anxiety generated over the risks of blurting things out that are wrong, stupid, or incomprehensible. Because of the language ego that informs others that “you are what you speak”, learners are
reluctant to be judged by hearers. Our job as teachers is to provide the kind of warm, embracing climate that encourages students to speak, however halting or broken their attempts may be.
The Interaction Effect
The greatest difficulty that learners encounter in attempts to speak is not the multiplicity of sounds, words, phrases, and discourse forms that characterize any language, but rather the interactive nature of most communication. Conversations are collaborative as participants engage in a process of negotiation of meaning. So, for the learner, the matter of what to say is often eclipsed by conventions of how to say things, when to speak, and other discourse constraints.
Questions about
Intelligibility
A now outdated model of English language teaching assumed that intelligibility should be gauged by whether nonnative speakers are intelligible to native speakers. Materials, technology, and teacher education programs are being challenged to grapple with the issue if intelligibility, and to adopt new standards of “correctness” and new attitudes toward “accent” in order to meet current global realities.
The Growth of Spoken Corpora
The intelligibility issue is now being described as a rapid growth of readily available corpora of spoken language –one of the key developments in research on teaching oral production. As the size and scope of corpora expand, so our understanding of what people really say is informed by empirical evidence. Of special interest to teachers of English worldwide is the wider range of language varieties that are now available through such projects as the International Corpus of English, which contains data from the spoken Englishes of Hong Kong, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Nigeria, the Caribbean, and others.
Genres of Spoken Language
Research on spoken language has recently attended to a specification of differences among various genres of oral interaction, and how to teach those variations. What is judged to be acceptable and/or correct varies by contexts, or genres, such as small talk, discussion, and narrative, among others. As research more accurately describes the constraints of such genres on spoken language, we will be better able to pinpoint models of appropriateness for students’ specific purposes in learning English.
In beginning through intermediate levels of proficiency, most of the efforts of the students in oral production come in the form of conversation, or dialogue. As you plan and implement techniques in your interactive classroom, make sure your students can deal with both interpersonal and transactional with whom they are quite familiar.
Clustering
Fluent speech is phrasal, not word-by-word. Learners can organize their output both cognitively and physically through such clustering.
Redundancy
The speaker has and opportunity to make meaning clearer through the redundancy of language. Learners can capitalize on this feature of spoken language.
Reduced Forms
Contractions, elisions, reduced vowels, etc., all form special problems in teaching spoken English. Students who don’t learn colloquial
contractions can sometimes develop a stilted, bookish quality of speaking that in turn stigmatizes them.
Performance Variables
One of the advantages of spoken language is that the process of thinking as you speak allows you to manifest a certain number of performance hesitations, pauses, backtracking, and corrections. Learners can actually be taught how to pause and hesitate. For example, in English our “thinking time” is not silent; we insert certain “fillers”
such as uh, um, well, you know, I mean, like, etc. one of the most salient differences between native and nonnative speakers of a language is in their hesitation phenomena.
Colloquial Language
Make sure your students are reasonably well acquainted with the words, idioms, and phrases of colloquial language and that they get practice in producing these forms.
Rate of Delivery
Another salient characteristic of fluency is rate of delivery. One of your tasks in teaching spoken English is to help learners achieve an acceptable speed along with other attributes of fluency.
Stress, Rhythm, and Intonation
This is the most important characteristic of English pronunciation. The stress-timed rhythm of spoken English and its intonation patterns convey important messages.
Interaction
Learning to produce waves of language in a vacuum –without interlocutors- would rob
speaking skill of its richest component: the creativity of conversational negotiation.
Microskills
1. Produce chunks of language of different lengths.
2. Orally produce differences among the English phonemes and allophonic variants.
3. Produce English stress patterns, words in stressed and unstressed positions, rhythmic structure, and intonational contours.
4. Produce reduced forms of words and phrases.
5. Use an adequate number of lexical units in order to accomplish pragmatic purposes.
6. Produce fluent speech at different rates of delivery.
7. Monitor your own oral production and use various strategic devices (pauses, fillers, self-corrections, backtracking) to enhance the clarity of the message.
8. Use grammatical word classes, systems, word order, patterns, rules, and elliptical forms.
9. Produce speech in natural constituents in appropriate phrases, pause groups, breath groups, and sentences.
10. Express a particular meaning in different grammatical forms.
Macroskills
Use cohesive devices in spoken discourse.
Accomplish appropriately communicative functions according to situations, participants, and goals.
Use appropriate registers, implicature, pragmatic conventions, and other sociolinguistic features in face-to-face conversations.
Convey links and connections between events and communicate such relations as main idea, supporting idea, new information, given information, generalization, and exemplification.
Use facial features, kinesics, body language, and other nonverbal cues along with verbal language to convey meanings.
Develop and use a battery of speaking strategies, such as emphasizing key words, rephrasing, providing a context for interpreting the meaning of words, appealing for help, and accurately assessing how well your interlocutor is understanding you.
Imitative
A very limited portion of classroom speaking time may legitimately be spent generating “human tape recorder” speech. Imitation of
this kind is carried out not for the purpose of meaningful interaction, but for focusing on some particular element of language form.
Intensive
Intensive speaking goes one step beyond imitative to include any speaking performance that is designed to practice some phonological or grammatical aspect of language. Intensive speaking can be self-initiated, or it can even form part of some pair work activity, where learners are “going over” certain forms of
language.
Responsive
A good deal of student speech in the classroom is responsive: short replies to teacher or student-initiated questions or comments. These replies are usually sufficient and do not extend into dialogues.
Transactional (dialogue)
Transactional language, carried out for the purpose of conveying or exchanging specific information, is an extended form of responsive language. Conversations, for example, may have more of a negotiative nature to them than does responsive speech.
Interpersonal (dialogue)
These conversations are a little trickier for learners because they can involve some or all of the following factors:
• A casual register
• Colloquial language
• Emotionally charged language
• Slang
• Ellipsis
• Sarcasm
• A covert “agenda”
Extensive (monologue)
Finally, students at intermediate to advanced levels are called on to give extended monologues in the form of oral reports, summaries, r perhaps short speeches. Here the register is more formal and deliberative. These monologues can be planned or impromptu.
Focus on both fluency and accuracy, depending on your objective.
Provide intrinsically motivating techniques.
Encourage the use of authentic language in meaningful contexts.
Provide appropriate feedback and correction.
Capitalize on the natural link between speaking and listening.
Give students opportunities to initiate oral communication.
Encourage the development of speaking strategies.
Indirect approach: In which learners are more or less set loose to engage in interaction. Implies that one does not actually teach conversation, but rather that students acquire conversational competence, peripherally, by engaging in meaningful tasks.
Direct approach: involves planning a conversation program around the specific microskills, strategies, and processes that are involved in fluent conversation. Explicitly calls students’ attention to conversational rules, conventions, and strategies.
Sample tasks teaching various aspects of
conversation an oral grammar practice technique
• Conversation – indirect (strategy consciousness-raising)
• Conversation – direct (gambits)
• Conversation – transactional (ordering from a catalog)
• Meaningful oral grammar practice (modal auxiliary would)
• Individual practice (oral dialogue journals)
Current approaches to pronunciation contrast starkly with the early approaches. Rather than attempting only to build a learner’s articulatory
competence from the bottom up, and simply as the mastery of a list of phonemes and allophones, a top-down approach is now taken in which the most relevant features of pronunciation-stress, rhythm, and intonation are given high priority. Instead of teaching only the role of articulation within words, or at best, phrases, we teach its role in a whole stream of discourse.
Factors that affects learners’ pronunciationAll six of these factors suggest that any learner who really wants to can learn to pronounce English clearly and comprehensibly.
1. Native language: it is the most influential factor affecting a learner’s pronunciation. If you are familiar with the sound system of a learner’s native language, you will be better able to diagnose student difficulties.
2. Age: generally speaking, children under the age of puberty stand an excellent chance of “sounding like a native” if they have continued exposure in authentic
contexts. Beyond the age of puberty, while adults will almost surely maintain a “foreign accent”.
3. Exposure: one can actually live in a foreign country for some time but not take advantage of being “with the people”
4. Innate phonetic ability: it is often referred to as having an “ear” for language, some people manifest a
phonetic coding ability that others do not.
5. Identity and language ego: another influence is one’s attitude toward speakers of the target language and the extent to which the language ego identifies with those speakers. Learners need to be reminded of the importance of positive attitudes toward the people who speak the language, but more important, students need to become aware of the second identity that may be emerging within them.
6. Motivation and concern for good pronunciation: some learners are not particularly concerned about their pronunciation, while others are. If that motivation and concern are high, then the necessary effort will be expended in pursuit of goals.
Item types and tasks for Assessing Speaking
1. Imitative speaking tasks:
Minimal pair repetition
Word/phrase repetition
Sentence repetition
2. Intensive speaking tasks:
Directed response
Read-aloud (for either pronunciation or fluency)
Oral sentence completion
Oral cloze procedure
Dialogue completion
Directed response
Picture-cued elicitation of a grammatical item
Translation of a word, phrase, or sentence or two
3. Responsive speaking tasks:
Picture-cued elicitation of response or description
Map-cued elicitation of directions
Question and answer
Question elicitation
Elicitation of instructions
Paraphrasing
4. Interactive speaking tasks
Oral interviews
Role plays
Discussions and conversations
Games
5. Extensive speaking tasks:
Oral presentations
Picture-cued (storytelling)
Retelling a story or news event
Translation of an extended text
Evaluating and scoring speaking tasks
First you need to be clear in specifying the level of language you are targeting. One or more of at least six possible criteria may be your target:
Pronunciation
Fluency
Vocabulary
Grammar
Discourse features (cohesion, sociolinguistic appropriateness, etc.)
Task (accomplishing the objective of the task)
Grammatical Competence
In order to convey meaning, EFL learners must have the knowledge of words and sentences. That is, they must understand how words are segmented into various sounds, and how sentences are stressed in particular ways.
Discourse Competence
In addition to grammatical competence, EFL learners must develop discourse competence, which is concerned with intersententialrelationship. Whether formal or informal, the rules of cohesion and coherence apply, which aid in holding the communication together in a meaningful way.
Sociolinguistic Competence
Learners must have competence, which involves knowing what is expected socially, and culturally by users of the target language, that is, learners must acquire the rules and norms governing the appropriate timing and realization of speech acts.
Strategic Competence
Strategic competence, which is “the way
learners manipulate language in order to meet communicative goals” is perhaps the most
important of all the communicative competence elements. It refers to the ability to know when and how to take the floor, how to keep a conversation going, how to terminate the conversation, and how to clear up communication breakdown as well as comprehension problems.
Developing Learner Autonomy
Underpinning the rationale for a learner-centered approach to the development of discussion skills is the need to encourage students to become increasingly independent and self- directed in their learning.
Selection of Topics for Discussion
Free choice of topic may well be of particular importance in monolingual classrooms, in which the common cultural background of the learners might limit the range of topics of potential interest; it may also determine the degree of convergence students adopt to target-language phonological and lexico-grammatical norms.
Using Minimal Responses
One way to encourage learners to begin toparticipate is to help them build up a stock ofminimal responses that they can use in different types of exchanges. Minimal responses are predictable, often idiomatic phrases thatconversation participants use to indicateunderstanding, agreement, doubt, and otherresponses to what another speaker is saying.
Recognizing Scripts
Some communication situations are associated with a predictable set of spoken exchanges -- a script. Greetings, apologies, compliments, invitations, andother functions that are influenced by social andcultural norms often follow patterns or scripts.
Instructors can help students develop speaking abilityby making them aware of the scripts for differentsituations so that they can predict what they will hearand what they will need to say in response. Throughinteractive activities, instructors can give studentspractice in managing and varying the language thatdifferent scripts contain.
Using Language to Talk About Language
By encouraging students to use clarificationphrases in class when misunderstanding occurs, and by responding positively when they do, instructors can create an authentic practiceenvironment within the classroom itself. As they develop control of various clarificationstrategies, students will gain confidence in their ability to manage the variouscommunication situations that they may encounter outside the classroom.
Conclusion
After taking a look at the teaching speaking process in a second language we come to the realization that it is not an easy task.
Through the analysis made in this presentation we noticed the fact that there are many hurdles to be overcome in order to succeed in our task as teachers taking our students to a level where they can master the language with proficiency.
These tools given here are intended to make teachers proficient in their teaching.
Developing pronunciation, fluency, stress, and intonation and so on accurately in our student’s lives will provide them with effective ways to communicate effectively when speaking in a second language with speakers of such a language.
Najelu dasun ono igajagi yojaKopi hanjanui yeoyureul aneunpumgyeok inneun yeojaBami om ya shimjangibdeugeowojineun yeojaGeureon banjeon inneun yeoja
Top Down and Botton Up Listening
Top Down
It focuses on macro-features of discourse such as the speaker's purpose and the discourse topic.
Botton Up
Identify sounds or lexical items according to their linguistic function.
Use phonological cues to distinguish between positive and negative sentences or statements and
Reciprocal Listening Non-reciprocal listening
Movies
https://www.ted.com/
www.esl-lab.com
www.listenaminute.com
Listening Practice
To involve our students in the listening practice we can:
Give students a degree of choice
Let them bring something of themselves to the task
Let students to bring their background knowledge and experiences to the classroom
Give the students the opportunity to develop a reflective attitude
RAISING STUDENTS AWARENESS OF THE
FEATURES OF REAL-WORLD LISTENING INPUT
Somebody told me you once didsome busking. Is that right?
http://www.voki.com/php/viewmessage/?chsm=3eeb6e3253ef1e3fd7c7631cbf674414&mId=2238150
Written text
I went busking once in Hong Kong during the summer holidays. However, I am not sure whether itwas while I was still at universityor after I had just left.
FEATURES OF REAL-WORLD LISTENING
INPUT
THE USE OF TIME-CREATING DEVICES
THE USE OF FACILITATION
DEVICES
THE USE OF COMPENSATION
DEVICES
TIME CREATING DEVICES
• Pause fillers: «um», «urh», «eh»
• Transitions: Likewise, Similarly, however, on the contrary, in addition
• Repetitions: internal summary
• Repair conversions (reformulations)
• Cut-offs (false starts)
THE USE OF FALICITATION DEVICES
• Use of less complexstructures
• Ellipses: «yes, I did»
• Use of fixed and conventionalphrases
«you know»«I mean»«well»
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8GfbZpT9WwA
THE USE OF COMPENSATION DEVICES
Redundancy in natural speech doesallow the listener some processingtime.• Repetition• Reformulation• rephrasing
FEATURES OF REAL-WORLD
LISTENING INPUT
THE USE OF TIME- CREATING
DEVICES
«um», «urh», «eh»
THE USE OF FACILITATION
DEVICES
You know, I mean, well
THE USE OF COMPENSATION
DEVICES
Repetition, reformulation, rephrasing
AWARENESS-RAISING EXERCISES
• Spoken text / written text
• Students write semi-scripted simulatedauthentic speeches
Brief notes or flow chartsRole-play situationPlay stracts of students talkStudents identify pause fillers, repetition
THE CHANGING FACE OF LISTENING
Presenting grammar
Presented dialogues about structures (only type of listening practice most learners received).
Effort was place for learners to speak.
In order to follow a conversation, we have to understand what is being said.
Late 1960s
Pre-listening:
Pre-teaching of all important new vocabulary in the passage
Listening
Extensive listening
Intensive listening
Post-listening
Analysis of the language in the text.
Listen and repeat: teacher pauses the tape, learners repeat words
PRE-LISTENING
CRITICAL WORDS
Pre-teaching has been discontinued.
Key words = Absolutely indispensable.
PRE-LISTENING ACTIVITIES
Brainstorming
Vocabulary
Reviewing areas of grammar
Discussing the topic
LISTENING
THE INTENSIVE/EXTENSIVE DISTINCTION
Recording is to be played twice
Normalization
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qz658-9ZOCc
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ua7nyAaf3pE
PRESET QUESTIONS
W: This coffee is really terrible.M: I couldn't agree more.N: What does the man mean?
(A) He would like more coffee.(B) He thinks the woman should complain.(C) He also dislikes the coffee.(D) He thinks the coffee is acceptable.
LISTENING TASKS
Labelling, selecting, drawing and form filling.
Real Life
Reliable way of checking understanding.
Individual responses
AUTHENTIC MATERIALS
Naturalness of language
Real-life listening experience
STRATEGIC LISTENING
Listening to a foreign language is a strategic activity.
Guess in order to connect:
Cautious students
Risk takers.
Post-Listening
How well the students have understood what
they listened to.
The listen and repeat phase
Has been dropped as well,
on the argument that it
is tantamount to parroting.
The post-listening stage comprises all the exercises which are
done after listening to the text.
Post-listening activities allow the learners to ‘reflect’
on the language from the passage.
Activities for Post-Listening
Answering multiple-choice or true/false questions to show comprehension of
messages.
Summarizing
Debates
Interviews
Discussions
Listen and Fill in the Blanks
Work:http://saberingles.com.ar/listening/218.html
http://www.tolearnenglish.com/exercises/exercise-english-2/exercise-english-1936.php
Teachers need to prepare learners
psychologically for the listening activity.
Bibliography
http://www.ets.org/toefl/pbt/prepare/sample_questions/listening_comprehension_practice_section1
Oral Communication
Skills in Pedagogical
Research
Conversational Discourse
•Interactive discourse with other speakers
Teaching Pronunciation
•Focus on phonological details of language.
Accuracy and Fluency
•Prioritize the important goals of accurate and fluent language.
Affective Factors
•Provide a kind, warm, embracing climate that encourages students to speak.
The Interaction Effect
•What to say, how to say, when to speak, and discourse restraints.
Questions about Intelligibility
•Language should be understandable to native speakers.
The Growth of Spoken Corpora
•The size and scope of corpora expand our understanding of what is informed by empirical evidence.
Genres of Spoken Language
• inpoint models of appropriateness for students’ specific purposes in learning English.
What makes speaking difficult
Types of Spoken Language
•Clustering
•Fluent speech is phrasal
•Redundancy
•Meaning is clearer through redundancy.
•Reduced Forms
•Contractions, elisions, reduced vowels, etc.
•Performance Variables
•Salient feature between native and nonnative speaker.
•Colloquial Language
•Words, idioms, and phrases of colloquial language.
•Rate of Delivery
•Help learners achieve an acceptable speed.
•Stress, Rhythm, and Intonation
•The most important characteristic of English pronunciation.
•Interaction
•Creativity of conversational negotiation.
•As you plan and implement techniques in your interactive classroom, make sure your students can deal with both interpersonal and transactional with whom they are quite familiar.
Microskills
Produce chunks of language of different
lengths.
Use an adequate number of lexical units in order to accomplish
pragmatic purposes.
Produce fluent speech at different rates of delivery.
Produce speech in natural constituents in appropriate
phrases, pause groups, breath groups, and sentences
Orally produce differences among the English phonemes and allophonic variants.
Produce English stress patterns, words in stressed and unstressed positions, rhythmic structure, and
intonational contours.
Monitor your own oral production and use various strategic devices
Express a particular meaning in different grammatical forms.
Produce reduced forms of words and phrases.
Use grammatical word classes, systems, word order, patterns,
rules, and elliptical forms.
Macroskills
Use cohesive devices in spoken discourse.
Accomplish appropriately communicative functions.
Use appropriatesociolinguistic features in conversations.
Convey links and connections between events and relations.
Use nonverbal cues along with verbal language to convey
meanings.
Develop and use a battery of speaking strategies
Types of Classroom Speaking
Performance
Imitative
•Human tape recorder.
Intensive
•Phonological or grammatical aspect of language.
Responsive
•Short replies to teacher or student-initiated questions or comments.
Transactional (dialogue)
•Conveying or exchanging specific information
Interpersonal (dialogue)
•A casual register, Colloquial language, Emotionally charged language, Slang, Ellipsis, Sarcasm and covert “agenda”
Extensive (monologue)
•These monologues can be planned or impromptu.
•Focus on both fluency and accuracy, depending on your objective.
•Provide intrinsically motivating techniques.
•Encourage the use of authentic language in meaningful contexts.
•Provide appropriate feedback and correction.
•Capitalize on the natural link between speaking and listening.
•Give students opportunities to initiate oral communication.
•Encourage the development of speaking strategies.
Principles for Teaching Speaking Skills
• Indirect approach: In which learners are more or less set loose to engage in interaction.
•Direct approach: involves planning a conversation program around the specific microskills, strategies, and processes that are involved in fluent conversation.
Teaching Conversation
•Native language: it is the most influential factor affecting a learner’s pronunciation.
•Age: children under the age of puberty stand an excellent chance of “sounding like a native” if they have continued exposure in authentic contexts.
•Exposure: one can actually live in a foreign country for some time but not take advantage of being “with the people”.
• Innate phonetic ability: it is often referred to as having an “ear” for language.
• Identity and language ego: students need to become aware of the second identity that may be emerging within them.
•Motivation and concern for good pronunciation: some learners are not particularly concerned about their pronunciation, while others are.
Teaching Pronunciation
Assessing Speaking in the Classroom
Item types and tasks for Assessing Speaking
Extensive speaking tasks
Oral presentations
Picture-cued (storytelling)
Retelling a story or news event
Translation of an extended text
Interactive speaking tasks
Oral interviews
Role plays
Discussions and conversations
Games
Responsive speaking tasks
Picture-cued elicitation of response or
description
Map-cued elicitation of directions
Question and answer
Question elicitation
Elicitation of instructions
Paraphrasing
Intensive speaking tasks
Directed response
Read-aloud (for either pronunciation or
fluency)
Oral sentence completion
Oral close procedure
Dialogue completion
Directed response
Picture-cued elicitation of a grammatical item
Translation of a word, phrase, or sentence or
two
Imitative speaking tasks
Minimal pair repetition
Word/phrase repetition
Sentence repetition
Evaluating and scoring speaking tasks
Pronunciation
Fluency
Vocabulary
Grammar
Discourse features
Task
Components Underlying Speaking Effectiveness
Grammatical Competence
•Understand how words are segmented into various sounds, and how sentences are stressed in particular ways.
Discourse Competence
•Rules of cohesion and coherence apply, which aid in holding the communication together in a meaningful way
Sociolinguistic Competence
•Learners must acquire the rules and norms governing the appropriate timing and realization of speech acts.
Strategic Competence
•The way learners manipulate language in order to meet communicative goals
Strategies for Developing
Speaking Skills
Developing Learner Autonomy
•The need to encourage students to become increasingly independent and self- directed in their learning.
Selection of Topics for Discussion
•The common cultural background of the learners might limit the range of topics of potential interest
Developing Discussion Skills in the ESL Classroom
Using Minimal Responses
•Build up a stock of minimalresponses that they can use in different types of exchanges.
Recognizing Scripts
•Some communication situationsare associated with a predictableset of spoken exchanges.
Using Language to Talk About Language
•Encourage students to use clarification phrases in class whenmisunderstanding occurs, and by responding positively when theydo.
General comment about the Course
The different techniques used within the classroom to teach English are constantly
being reformed and upgraded. The more traditional methods of learning English
accomplished their purpose but were not as effective as today's methods are.
These new techniques have opened a very ample door to help students learn
English, however these students may have different learning styles and so a
different focus to the classroom must be taken by the teacher, so that the students
may learn the language.
From a pedagogical point of view the teacher must know the group of students and
according to this group he must choose from the syllabus to the instruction
materials, all this has been learned on this course, also taking into account the
importance of course planning and the focus of competence based learning. All this
has been applied to the learning of the four core skills, reading, writing, speaking
and listening.
One of the most interesting aspects of the course is that has broaden our previous
acquired knowledge via the pedagogy and English teaching techniques I, this goes
hand in hand with the understanding of meaningful learning and how we must use
this to help our own students learn the language. By creating a meaningful
communication environment through the focus of the communication
competences that our students must learn, the course has brought the insight
needed to apply the knowledge we acquired on those previous courses.
Cooperative learning and different structures such as Kagan's structures are one of
the most important techniques that we need to learn to apply, because we have
learned that by allowing our students to use the language to communicate in real
life situations is one of the best ways to learn the language.}
There are many more techniques and ways to teach English and this course has
taught us to use technology in innovative ways, and also when the lack of
technology is evident we also have learned how to use the techniques through
different task and project based learning so that technology may or may not be
critical for the task to be accomplished. Now it falls on the teacher to research and
learn more techniques to teach English.
Conclusion
Education is changing to a more innovative and student centered process.
Teacher's are now challenged to include the use of technology in their
classroom and also are responsible to teach students how to use this
technology to their advantage in both language learning and knowledge
acquiring.
Lesson planning is the most vital part of a teachers class. Without it the
teacher cannot expect to have anything accomplished, it is an art that must
be perfected throughout the years, improved and accommodated to the ever
changing face of education. It must be based upon competencies that must
be explicit to the objective of each lesson that is taught.
Curriculum and Syllabus are concepts that have broaden the understanding
that English teaching should be carefully planned according to the context
where it will be taught, taking into consideration the students and the
environment, but also knowing that the base curriculum given by the
ministry of education it is only the starting point.
There are many way to integrate cooperative learning into our classroom.
But more important is the fact that the 21st century skills include teamwork
and collaboration as means to learn, we as teachers have to include it into
our classes to help students develop these important skills.
Tasks and Projects are the current trend to help students develop core skills
of communication, because the task will not be performed unless
communication among the group exists, however teachers must be able to
form groups of students into which these communication skills can be
developed properly.
The course has proposed many techniques to teach English, but the most
important part is that knowing the technique is not enough to help the
student learn English. The teacher is the integral part of the process of
learning, that must engage the student to learn the language using the
different methods discussed during the course.
UNIVERSIDAD MARIANO GALVEZ
FACULTAD DE HUMANIDADES ESCUELA DE IDIOMAS
Lesson Plan 2014
Instructor
Date
Course Title
Grade
Unit
Specific Topic
Competence
Rationale
Lesson Content
INSTRUCTIONAL PROCEDURES
a. Warm-Up b. Teaching Procedures Presentation: Controlled Practice: Semi Controlled Practice: Free Practice: C. Closure: D. Feedback: E. Student Participation: F. Homework:
TIME
EVALUATION PROCEDURES
Formative/ Summative Check:
Material And Aids:
UNIVERSIDAD MARIANO GALVEZ FACULTAD DE HUMANIDADES ESCUELA DE IDIOMAS
LESSON PLAN 2014 This is not the format I sent you. U´s logo is in black Suggest you follow the format I
gave you with the steps. Too many activities, time is short and it should be meaningful.
INSTRUCTOR Jaime Gómez
DATE March 14, 2014
INSTITUTION COLEGIO "TECNOLOGICO DIGITAL COMERCIAL"
GRADE: 11th Grade
COURSE CONTENT Science
SPECIFIC TOPIC Petroleum: Derived products, Beneficial uses and Harmful effects on the environment.
PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVE (Competence) Identifies and discusses petroleum based products benefits and harmful effects on the environment and human body by presenting it orally speech and when creating a poster about the information gathered on the audio-visual material presented at class. In a diversity of contexts.
RATIONALE: (importance) Students need to understand what products are created with petroleum and what are the consequences of its use. Also they need to understand the benefits that it use has brought to humanity.
LESSON CONTENT This lesson explores some of the different forms petroleum takes on as a component or ingredient in various manufactured products, some of the human health and environmental concerns associated with the use and disposal of these particular products, and ways to minimize the harmful effects of petroleum and petroleum-derived products on the environment.
INSTRUCTIONAL PROCEDURES
a. Warm-up activity: Anagram. The teacher writes the next Anagram "Cats Lip" of the word plastic on the whiteboard. Students write down on a small piece of paper what they think the anagram is. b. Teaching procedures Presentation: a) Engage: Students are told to form groups of 4 and they should write down on a piece of paper what they think petroleum is and what products are derived from it. You must indicate which is Guided Practice, Semi-Guided, Free Practice b) Study: Teacher presents Ss the video "How petroleum exploration and refining process." (Ss must take notes of important facts for later use.) Is this the semi-guided practice? c) Activate: Students discuss among their group peers about what petroleum is and how it is harvested. ( Ss must write down their conclusions and share them with the class.) d) Engage: T asks the groups to write down on a piece of paper what everyday life items they
TIME 4 min. 5 min. 10 min. 5 min. 5 min.
believe are made from petroleum. e) Study: Teacher presents Ss the video " Everyday Petroleum-based Products" f) Activate: Students are asked to check if the items they wrote down appeared in the video they just saw. Students are asked to write down what items they didn't knew were made from petroleum. (Students share with the class what they thought the items were made from.) g) Engage: Students are asked to discuss among peers what items they saw on the last video are thrown to the trash and when. They should also comment if these items decompose after a certain time. After discussing among peers the spokesman (different one from before) should express what the group discussed. h) Engage: Students discuss among their group peers and write down a definition for pollution. The spokesman of each group reads out loud the definition the group came up with. i) Study: Teacher presents Ss the video "Marine Plastic Pollution (NatGeo)" (Ss should write down the most important facts about the video.) j) Activate: Students discuss the facts that are new to them about pollution from plastic. Ss write down that information for later use. k) Study: Teacher presents Ss the video "Does Plastic Bottles Kill?" j) Activate: Students create a mind map in a poster with all the information they gathered from the different sources. Students give an oral speech to their peers about the information they understood sharing the mind map. k) Closure: Students write a simple multiple choice quiz with about 5 questions about what they learned during the lesson. This activity is not closure. I would call it free practice. EVALUATION PROCEDURES:
10 min. 5 min.
5 min.
5 min.
12 min.
5 min.
5 min.
10 min. 4 min.
a. Formative check: Observation, discussion, graphic organizer, and practice presentation.
b. Summative check:
c. OTHER:
MATERIAL AND AIDS : Bond paper blank poster per student group. Black, red and blue markers for each student. Laptop, speakers, and projector. Videos downloaded in a USB thumb drive. How petroleum exploration and refining process http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8W8SW98-sXQ Everyday Petroleum-based Products http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vb665wY0Uu4
Marine Plastic Pollution (NatGeo) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gsXiEy2kbGM Does Plastic Bottles Kill? http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E8resAkwk1o
UNIVERSIDAD MARIANO GALVEZ
FACULTAD DE HUMANIDADES ESCUELA DE IDIOMAS
Lesson Plan 2014
Instructor JAIME EMMANUEL GOMEZ VELIZ Always use lowercase letters except the firsta one. Take note for the next items.
Date April 2, 2014.
Course Title English I
Grade 11th Grade
Unit TWO
Specific Topic Linking Verbs
Competence Identifies and uses linking verbs accurately in any form of meaningful communication by when understanding how these verbs connect the subject to predicate in sentences.
Rationale The Ss needs to Nowadays it is important to understand that verbs show action and also work as function words that link the subject with the predicate, this knowledge which will help the student people be proficient when writing or speaking the target language.
Lesson Content Linking verbs don't show action like ordinary verbs. They rather link or connect the subject to a subject complement. The complement which contains additional information describes and identifies the subject. Try to use less words to specify lesson content. The less the better.
INSTRUCTIONAL PROCEDURES
a. Warm-Up How many sounds can you hear? Students sit in silence for two minutes and write down every sound that they hear. They compare their lists with their neighbors before seeing who has the longest list.
b. Teaching Procedures 1. Presentation:
1. Ss form groups of 4. The teacher presents a picture of a person buying groceries. The T asks each group to write down 5 sentences related to the picture. Each group is asked to identify the subject, verb and complement of the sentences they just wrote. Each group presents to their peers their sentences by reading them out loud and identifying subject, verb and complement.
2. The teacher explains the difference between an action verb and a linking verb, and how to identify them. The teacher presents the students the video "Linking Verbs Song".
2. Controlled Practice: The teacher hands over a worksheet with 10 sentences. Students are asked to identify if the
TIME 5 min. 7 min. 8 min 5 min.
verb is an action verb or linking verb.
3. Semi Controlled Practice: T presents a picture of someone dancing. Ss are asked to write down 5 sentences related to the picture shown in which the verb used is a linking verb. The teacher goes around each group checking how each group is working until all have finished. Ss share their sentences with their peers by reading them out loud and identifying subject, verb and complement.
4. Free Practice:
Each group is asked to present once again the 5 sentences about the man buying groceries to their peers, by writing them down on the whiteboard. They must explain their peers why the verb used in the sentence is an action verb or linking verb.
C. Closure: Hangman: Teacher challenges the students to play hangman. The group that guesses the word will be the ones starting the activities next day.
D. Feedback: E. Student Participation: ????? F. Homework:
10 min. 5 min. 5 min.
EVALUATION PROCEDURES
Formative/ Summative Check: Formative: Observations, practice presentations, and discussion. Summative: Written product, and oral product .
Material And Aids: Laptop, speakers, and projector. What tool will you use to check your summative evaluation? USB thumb drive with video and pictures to be presented. 20 copies of the worksheet. Linking Verbs Song (Linking Verbs by Melissa) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i1IJWvHZcOU
UNIVERSIDAD MARIANO GALVEZ
FACULTAD DE HUMANIDADES ESCUELA DE IDIOMAS
Teaching Techniques II Lesson Plan 2014
INSTRUCTOR Jaime Emmanuel Gómez Véliz
DATE April 9, 2014.
COURSE TITLE Literature
GRADE 12th Grade
UNIT Two
SPECIFIC TOPIC Drama - Shakespeare's Secret
COMPETENCE Recognizes and uses drama as a tool to enact historical events in the classroom and in a variety of contexts when acting out a play or drama.
RATIONALE Nowadays it is important to use drama as a tool that will help people understand history and help society change the current problems we face, this understanding cannot be achieved unless people are able to experience to some degree the same situations the original actors lived through.
LESSON CONTENT Drama can be the perfect vehicle for integrating reading with other areas of the curriculum. In particular, acting out historical stories in the classroom can bring history to life in powerful and exciting ways.
INSTRUCTIONAL PROCEDURES
a. Warm-up Students should be able to identify the name of an animal or bird written on the card and imitate a typical movement or sound made by that animal or bird so that others can identify the animal and form groups. The teacher chooses animals or birds those whose actions or sounds can be easily imitated. Using this warm up Ss form groups of four and remain together for the rest of the class. What does this activity have to do with your presentation or topic?
b. Teaching procedures Presentation:
Teacher asks groups to write down what they believe a drama is and what it consists of. Each group shares with their peers what they wrote down. Ss are presented with the following video. Introduction to Drama. Teacher explains more in detail what a drama is and what are its parts.
Controlled practice: Each group is given one small excerpt to read of a historical national event. The signing of the peace treaty of the Guatemalan internal conflict. The teachers asks them to write down the cast of characters in the story and what scenery the historical event has. The teacher checks the students answers by having them read them out loud to the classroom and adds any missing information.
Semi controlled practice: Each group of students are asked to write down the possible dialogue for each of the members of the cast of characters. The teacher checks the dialogue goes according to the character. The dialogue should not be longer than 5 lines.
TIME 5 min. 5 min 8 min. 5 min
Free practice: Each group presents their improvised drama "The signing of the peace treaty of the Guatemalan internal conflict."
c. Closure: Anagram: students are challenged to figure out the next interesting anagram. Teacher writes only the left part of the anagram, and asks the students to play with the letters till they find the solution. Dirty room = Dormitory Sorry to say, but your activities have nothing to do with Sheakspeare.
d. Feedback: e. Formative/ Summative check:
Formative: Observations and discussion. Summative: Written product , and oral product.
f. Student Participation: Ss give their opinion about how acting out a play of the historical event helped them understand the main players feelings in the story.
g. Homework:
15 min 3 min. 4 min.
EVALUATION PROCEDURES Summative: Written product , and oral product. Formative: Observations and discussion.
MATERIAL AND AIDS Laptop, speakers, and projector. Rubrics to check summative written and oral production. USB thumb drive with video to be presented. 5 copies of the historical event. Introduction to Drama http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ds9kcpb37hQ
UNIVERSIDAD MARIANO GALVEZ
FACULTAD DE HUMANIDADES ESCUELA DE IDIOMAS
Teaching Techniques II Lesson Plan 2014
INSTRUCTOR Jaime Emmanuel Gómez Véliz
DATE April 9, 2014.
COURSE TITLE Literature
GRADE 12th Grade
UNIT Two
SPECIFIC TOPIC Shakespeare's Secret
COMPETENCE Understands and interprets facts of a known character who? when presenting oral speech and a PowerPoint presentation.
RATIONALE Reading and critical thinking should are two important skills that people should develop and know how to use in their daily life, specifically when analyzing information that needs to be verified by facts.
LESSON CONTENT Students will learn how to interpret information related to historical events and how to share these findings with their peers.
INSTRUCTIONAL PROCEDURES
a. Warm-up Students gather in groups of four. The students are asked to answer the next question and write it down on a piece of paper. What would you do if someone confuses you for someone in a public place? Students share their answers with the classroom.
b. Teaching procedures Presentation:
Teacher asks students to comment about the book assignment: "Shakespeare's Secret" Teacher shows a power point presentation where the main plot and other details are explained.
Controlled practice: Students watch the video: Shakespeare. Students write down the main ideas about the video for later use. Students watch the video: The Shakespeare Conspiracy Students write down the main ideas about the video for later use.
Semi controlled practice: Students create a power point presentation using the information gathered from the videos. The theme of the presentation is "William Shakespeare vs Edgar de Vere". They can search on the internet to further add into the information they gathered. The presentation should not be greater than 6 slides. Teacher helps students check the validity of their resources.
TIME 4 min. 5 min 7min. 7 min
.
Free practice: Students present the information and give their opinion about what they found to their peers through oral speech and using the presentation as a visual aid.
c. Closure: Anagram: students are challenged to figure out the next interesting anagram. Teacher writes only the left part of the anagram, and asks the students to play with the letters till they find the solution. Dirty room = Dormitory
d. Feedback: e. Formative/ Summative check:
Formative: Observations and discussion. Summative: Written product , and oral product.
f. Student Participation: Ss give their opinion about the activity and what they enjoyed about it the most.
g. Homework:
15 min. 3 min. 4 min.
EVALUATION PROCEDURES Summative: Written product , and oral product. Formative: Observations and discussion.
MATERIAL AND AIDS Laptop, speakers, and projector. 5 laptops, each group is given a laptop with WiFi capabilities. Rubrics to check summative written and oral production. USB thumb drive with video and presentation to be shown. Presentation http://www.slideshare.net/hamdo/shakespeares-secret Shakespeare http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L9t11BsE0yk The Shakespeare Conspiracy http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=946tLlFPsQs
Teacher Name: Mr. Gomez
Student Name: ________________________________________
CATEGORY 4 3 2 1
Respects others Student reads quietly
and stays in one place
in the reading area.
Student reads quietly.
S/he moves around
once or twice but
does not distract
others.
Student makes 1-2
comments or noises
when reading, but
stays in one place in
reading area.
Student reads loudly,
makes repeated
comments or noises
OR fidgets and moves
about often,
Stays on task Student reads the
entire period. This
may be independent
reading or done with
adult or peer
Student reads almost
all (80% or more) of
the period.
Student reads some
(50% or more) of the
time.
Student wastes a lot
of reading time.
Chooses Appropriate
Books
Student chooses a
book which s/he has
not read before,
which is at or above
grade level, or has
Student chooses a
book which s/he has
never read before and
which is slightly below
his/her reading level.
Student chooses a
book s/he has read
once before that is
close to his/her
reading level and was
Student chooses a
book that s/he has
read many times
before or which is
more than one grade
Focus on story/article Student is lost in the
story. There\'s no
looking around or
flipping through the
pages.
Student seems to be
enjoying and moving
through the story, but
takes some short
breaks.
Student seems to be
reading the story, but
doesn\'t seem to be
very interested. Takes
a few short breaks.
Pretends to read the
story. Mostly looks
around or fiddles with
things.
Tries to understand Stops reading when it
doesn\'t make sense
and reads parts again.
Looks up words s/he
doesn\'t know.
Stops reading when it
doesn\'t make sense
and tries to use
strategies to get
through the tricky
Stops reading when it
doesn\'t makes sense
and asks for
assistance.
Gives up entirely OR
plows on without
trying to understand
the story.
Understands story
elements
Student knows the
title of the story as
well as the names and
descriptions of the
important characters.
Student knows the
names and
descriptions of the
important characters
and where the story
Student knows the
names OR
descriptions of the
important characters
in the story.
Student has trouble
naming and describing
the characters in the
story.
Thinks about the
story/article
Student accurately
describes what has
happened in the story
and tries to predict
\"what will happen
Student accurately
describes what has
happened in the
story.
Student accurately
describes most of
what happened in the
story.
Student has difficulty
re-telling the story.
Thinks about the
characters
Student describes
how different
characters might have
felt at different points
in the story and points
Student describes
how different
characters might have
felt at different points
in the story, but does
Student describes
how different
characters might have
felt at different points
in the story, but does
Student cannot
describe how
different characters
might have felt at
different points in the
Date Created: Feb 18, 2014 10:20 pm (CST)
Independent Reading - Beginner : Reading
APA Paper Format
There are many things that have to be formatted correctly for an APA paper. Here are some of the rules for the basic format of each page of your paper. To see how to do this formatting in Microsoft Word, click on the "MS Word Instructions" link at the end of each point.
Use 8 ½” x 11” paper. Type your paper in Microsoft Word (MS Word) or a similar program, and print your paper one sided. [APA manual 5.01, p. 284]
Use 12-point font. [APA manual 5.02, p. 285] MS Word Instructions
Use a typeface like Times New Roman or Courier New. [APA manual 5.02, p. 285] MS Word Instructions
Double-space the entire paper. This means that the computer will skip every other line, which makes it easier for your teacher to read and write in comments. [APA manual 5.03, p. 286] MS Word Instructions
Use 1” margins on all sides (top, bottom, left and right). [APA manual 5.04, p. 286] MS Word Instructions
Number all pages in your paper (including title page), beginning with 1, in the upper right-hand corner. [APA manual 5.06, p. 288] MS Word Instructions
Insert a header with the first two or three words of your paper title. Align it right. This will show up at the top right-hand side of every page. [APA manual 5.06, p. 288]MS Word Instructions
Use the headings that your instructor asks for. Headings name the sections of your paper. You will probably use a heading for the title of your paper, the abstract if you have one, and the reference page. Headings should be centered, and the first letter of each major word (not prepositions or articles, such as the, a, by, for) and the first letter of the first word (including prepositions or articles) should be capitalized. If there is a colon (:), capitalize the first letter of the word following it, even if it is not a major word. [APA manual 3.29-3.32, p.111-115; and 5.10, p. 289-290]
Examples:
Nursing for the Ages: Caring for the Elderly and Children
Wisdom Teeth: The Safe Way
If you have a second level of headings (for sub-sections in your paper), they should be italicized and aligned left with the same capitalization as regular headings.
Examples:
Nursing for the Ages: Caring for the Elderly and Children
The Elderly
Children
The order of the sections of your paper should be as follows: [APA manual 5.05, p. 287]
Title page (numbered page 1)
The body of your paper (starting with page 2)
References (starts on a new page after the end of the body of your paper Here is an example of what your APA paper should look like.
Reference Citations in Text
In APA style, in-text citations are placed within sentences and paragraphs so that it is clear what information is being quoted or paraphrased and whose information is being cited.
Examples:
Works by a single author
The last name of the author and the year of publication are inserted in the text at the appropriate point. from theory on bounded rationality (Simon, 1945) If the name of the author or the date appear as part of the narrative, cite only missing information in parentheses.
Simon (1945) posited that
Works by multiple authors
When a work has two authors, always cite both names every time the reference occurs in the text. In parenthetical material join the names with an ampersand (&).
as has been shown (Leiter & Maslach, 1998)
In the narrative text, join the names with the word "and."
as Leiter and Maslach (1998) demonstrated
When a work has three, four, or five authors, cite all authors the first time the reference occurs.
Kahneman, Knetsch, and Thaler (1991) found
In all subsequent citations per paragraph, include only the surname of the first author followed by "et al." (Latin for "and others") and the year of publication.
Kahneman et al. (1991) found
Works by associations, corporations, government agencies, etc.
The names of groups that serve as authors (corporate authors) are usually written out each time they appear in a text reference.
(National Institute of Mental Health [NIMH], 2007)
When appropriate, the names of some corporate authors are spelled out in the first reference and abbreviated in all subsequent citations. The general rule for abbreviating in this manner is to supply enough information in the text citation for a reader to locate its source in the Reference List without difficulty.
(NIMH, 2007)
Works with no author
When a work has no author, use the first two or three words of the work's title (omitting any initial articles) as your text reference, capitalizing each word. Place the title in quotation marks if it refers to an article, chapter of a book, or Web page. Italicize the title if it refers to a book, periodical, brochure, or report.
on climate change ("Climate and Weather," 1997)
Guide to Agricultural Meteorological Practices (1981)
Anonymous authors should be listed as such followed by a comma and the date.
on climate change (Anonymous, 2008)
Specific parts of a source
To cite a specific part of a source (always necessary for quotations), include the page, chapter, etc. (with
appropriate abbreviations) in the in-text citation.
(Stigter & Das, 1981, p. 96)
De Waal (1996) overstated the case when he asserted that "we seem to be reaching ... from the hands of
philosophers" (p. 218).
If page numbers are not included in electronic sources (such as Web-based journals), provide the paragraph number preceded by the abbreviation "para." or the heading and following paragraph.
(Mönnich & Spiering, 2008, para. 9)
Reference List
References cited in the text of a research paper must appear in a Reference List or bibliography. This list
provides the information necessary to identify and retrieve each source.
Order: Entries should be arranged in alphabetical order by authors' last names. Sources without authors
are arranged alphabetically by title within the same list.
Authors: Write out the last name and initials for all authors of a particular work. Use an ampersand (&)
instead of the word "and" when listing multiple authors of a single work. e.g. Smith, J. D., & Jones, M.
Titles: Capitalize only the first word of a title or subtitle, and any proper names that are part of a title.
Pagination: Use the abbreviation p. or pp. to designate page numbers of articles from periodicals that
do not use volume numbers, especially newspapers. These abbreviations are also used to designate
pages in encyclopedia articles and chapters from edited books.
Indentation*: The first line of the entry is flush with the left margin, and all subsequent lines are
indented (5 to 7 spaces) to form a "hanging indent".
Underlining vs. Italics*: It is appropriate to use italics instead of underlining for titles of books and
journals.
Two additional pieces of information should be included for works accessed online.
Internet Address**: A stable Internet address should be included and should direct the reader as close
as possible to the actual work. If the work has a digital object identifier (DOI), use this. If there is no DOI
or similar handle, use a stable URL. If the URL is not stable, as is often the case with online newspapers
and some subscription-based databases, use the home page of the site you retrieved the work from.
Date: If the work is a finalized version published and dated, as in the case of a journal article, the date
within the main body of the citation is enough. However, if the work is not dated and/or is subject to
change, as in the case of an online encyclopedia article, include the date that you retrieved the
information.
* The APA has special formatting standards for the use of indentation and italics in manuscripts or
papers that will be typeset or submitted for official publication. For more detailed information on these
publication standards, refer to the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, or
consult with your instructors or editors to determine their style preferences.
** See the APA Style Guide to Electronic References for information on how to format URLs that take up
more than one line.
Examples:
Articles in journals, magazines, and newspapers
References to periodical articles must include the following elements: author(s), date of publication,
article title, journal title, volume number, issue number (if applicable), and page numbers.
Journal article, one author, accessed online
Ku, G. (2008). Learning to de-escalate: The effects of regret in escalation of commitment. Organizational
Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 105(2), 221-232. doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2007.08.002
Journal article, two authors, accessed online
Sanchez, D., & King-Toler, E. (2007). Addressing disparities consultation and outreach strategies for university
settings.Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 59(4), 286-295. doi:10.1037/1065-
9293.59.4.286
Journal article, more than two authors, accessed online
Van Vugt, M., Hogan, R., & Kaiser, R. B. (2008). Leadership, followership, and evolution: Some lessons from
the past.American Psychologist, 63(3), 182-196. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.63.3.182
Article from an Internet-only journal
Hirtle, P. B. (2008, July-August). Copyright renewal, copyright restoration, and the difficulty of determining
copyright status. D-Lib Magazine, 14(7/8). doi:10.1045/july2008-hirtle
Journal article from a subscription database (no DOI)
Colvin, G. (2008, July 21). Information worth billions. Fortune,158(2), 73-79. Retrieved from Business Source
Complete, EBSCO. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com
Magazine article, in print
Kluger, J. (2008, January 28). Why we love. Time, 171(4), 54-60.
Newspaper article, no author, in print
As prices surge, Thailand pitches OPEC-style rice cartel. (2008, May 5). The Wall Street Journal, p. A9.
Newspaper article, multiple authors, discontinuous pages, in print
Delaney, K. J., Karnitschnig, M., & Guth, R. A. (2008, May 5). Microsoft ends pursuit of Yahoo, reassesses its
online options.The Wall Street Journal, pp. A1, A12.
Books
References to an entire book must include the following elements: author(s) or editor(s), date of
publication, title, place of publication, and the name of the publisher.
No Author or editor, in print
Merriam-Webster's collegiate dictionary (11th ed.). (2003). Springfield, MA: Merriam- Webster.
One author, in print
Kidder, T. (1981). The soul of a new machine. Boston, MA: Little, Brown & Company.
Two authors, in print
Frank, R. H., & Bernanke, B. (2007). Principles of macro-economics (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.
Corporate author, author as publisher, accessed online
Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2000). Tasmanian year book 2000(No. 1301.6). Canberra, Australian Capital
Territory: Author. Retrieved
fromhttp://www.ausstats.abs.gov.au/ausstats/subscriber.nsf/0/CA2568710006989...$File/13016_2000.
Edited book
Gibbs, J. T., & Huang, L. N. (Eds.). (2001). Children of color: Psychological interventions with culturally diverse
youth. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Dissertations
References for dissertations should include the following elements: author, date of publication, title, and institution (if you accessed the manuscript copy from the university collections). If there is a UMI number or a database accession number, include it at the end of the citation.
Dissertation, accessed online
Young, R. F. (2007). Crossing boundaries in urban ecology: Pathways to sustainable cities (Doctoral
dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses database. (UMI No. 327681)
Essays or chapters in edited books
References to an essay or chapter in an edited book must include the following elements: essay or chapter authors, date of publication, essay or chapter title, book editor(s), book title, essay or chapter page numbers, place of publication, and the name of the publisher.
One author
Labajo, J. (2003). Body and voice: The construction of gender in flamenco. In T. Magrini (Ed.), Music and
gender: perspectives from the Mediterranean (pp. 67-86). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Two editors
Hammond, K. R., & Adelman, L. (1986). Science, values, and human judgment. In H. R. Arkes & K. R. Hammond
(Eds.), Judgement and decision making: An interdisciplinary reader (pp. 127-143). Cambridge, England:
Cambridge University Press.
Encyclopedias or dictionaries and entries in an encyclopedia
References for encyclopedias must include the following elements: author(s) or editor(s), date of publication, title, place of publication, and the name of the publisher. For sources accessed online, include the retrieval date as the entry may be edited over time.
Encyclopedia set or dictionary
Sadie, S., & Tyrrell, J. (Eds.). (2002). The new Grove dictionary of music and musicians (2nd ed., Vols. 1-29).
New York, NY: Grove.
Article from an online encyclopedia
Containerization. (2008). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved May 6, 2008, from http://search.eb.com
Encyclopedia article
Kinni, T. B. (2004). Disney, Walt (1901-1966): Founder of the Walt Disney Company. In Encyclopedia of
Leadership (Vol. 1, pp. 345-349). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Research reports and papers
References to a report must include the following elements: author(s), date of publication, title, place of publication, and name of publisher. If the issuing organization assigned a number (e.g., report number, contract number, or monograph number) to the report, give that number in parentheses immediately after the title. If it was accessed online, include the URL.
Government report, accessed online
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2005). Medicaid drug price comparisons: Average
manufacturer price to published prices (OIG publication No. OEI-05-05- 00240). Washington, DC: Author.
Retrieved from http://www.oig.hhs.gov/oei/reports/oei-05-05-00240.pdf
Government reports, GPO publisher, accessed online
Congressional Budget Office. (2008). Effects of gasoline prices on driving behavior and vehicle markets: A CBO
study (CBO Publication No. 2883). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Retrieved from
http://www.cbo.gov/ftpdocs/88xx/doc8893/01-14-GasolinePrices.pdf
Technical and/or research reports, accessed online
Deming, D., & Dynarski, S. (2008). The lengthening of childhood(NBER Working Paper 14124). Cambridge, MA:
National Bureau of Economic Research. Retrieved July 21, 2008, from
http://www.nber.org/papers/w14124
Document available on university program or department site
Victor, N. M. (2008). Gazprom: Gas giant under strain. Retrieved from Stanford University, Program on Energy
and Sustainable Development Web site:
http://pesd.stanford.edu/publications/gazprom_gas_giant_under_strain/
Audio-visual media
References to audio-visual media must include the following elements: name and function of the primary contributors (e.g., producer, director), date, title, the medium in brackets, location or place of production, and name of the distributor. If the medium is indicated as part of the retrieval ID, brackets are not needed.
Videocassette/DVD
Achbar, M. (Director/Producer), Abbott, J. (Director), Bakan, J. (Writer), & Simpson, B. (Producer) (2004). The
corporation[DVD]. Canada: Big Picture Media Corporation.
Audio recording
Nhat Hanh, T. (Speaker). (1998). Mindful living: a collection of teachings on love, mindfulness, and
meditation [Cassette Recording]. Boulder, CO: Sounds True Audio.
Motion picture
Gilbert, B. (Producer), & Higgins, C. (Screenwriter/Director). (1980). Nine to five [Motion Picture]. United
States: Twentieth Century Fox.
Television broadcast
Anderson, R., & Morgan, C. (Producers). (2008, June 20). 60 Minutes [Television broadcast]. Washington, DC:
CBS News.
Television show from a series
Whedon, J. (Director/Writer). (1999, December 14). Hush [Television series episode]. In Whedon, J., Berman,
G., Gallin, S., Kuzui, F., & Kuzui, K. (Executive Producers), Buffy the Vampire Slayer. Burbank, CA: Warner
Bros..
Music recording
Jackson, M. (1982). Beat it. On Thriller [CD]. New York, NY: Sony Music.
Undated Web site content, blogs, and data
For content that does not easily fit into categories such as journal papers, books, and reports, keep in mind the goal of a citation is to give the reader a clear path to the source material. For electronic and online materials, include stable URL or database name. Include the author, title, and date published when available. For undated materials, include the date the resource was accessed.
Blog entry
Arrington, M. (2008, August 5). The viral video guy gets $1 million in funding. Message posted to
http://www.techcrunch.com
Professional Web site
National Renewable Energy Laboratory. (2008). Biofuels. Retrieved May 6, 2008, from
http://www.nrel.gov/learning/re_biofuels.html
Data set from a database
Bloomberg L.P. (2008). Return on capital for Hewitt Packard 12/31/90 to 09/30/08. Retrieved Dec. 3, 2008,
from Bloomberg database.
Central Statistics Office of the Republic of Botswana. (2008).Gross domestic product per capita 06/01/1994 to
06/01/2008[statistics]. Available from CEIC Data database
Entire Web site When citing an entire Web site (and not a specific document on that site), no Reference List entry is required if the address for the site is cited in the text of your paper.
Witchcraft In Europe and America is a site that presents the full text of many essential works in the literature
of witchcraft and demonology (http://www.witchcraft.psmedia.com/).
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