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    Imprint:

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    'UsiingaStory-to Ieoch rcmmor

    Ph.D. and Richard Ph.D.will Iearn about:

    deductive and inductivegrammar instruction

    focus on form

    to

    . .

    CONCEPTUALORIIENTATION---_._ .._------_.In thiscultural stories as the of astruction. The model that will be

    rules.rather than as a mini-lesson

    raised as acommunicative tasks and

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    to grammar instruction often involveof the and grammarrules, In contrast, the model we propose in this

    focus on a well-chosen form of after theestablished in and1 1 1 this

    a , pas! tense ser VS. estar, aspenmarkers in Chinese) but rather focus that is relevantto understand the story and to express about the text, !nthis way, the is examined in smaller installments rather than in lists of decon-

    grammarthis form has been

    textualizecl rules and to these rules characteristic of many textbook grammarfor communication often findommitted to

    iT their curriculum and lessons.vt'he SFlLstress that system, grammar ..vocabuogy, and contributes 10 theaccuracy of communica-tion. Researchers agree that 011 aspects of the tJIi

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    need tor communication

    roleteacher's

    ansituations in which students

    the target and how to use grammar in mean-learners need to understand how grammar VI/Ui enable

    Deductive cllndInductiveresearchers agree on

    has a ofthat deductive and inductive

    agreetypes of grammar in-

    include the use of tasksforms

    organized view of grammar'J",'UJILc> to represent two dichotomous

    on how grammar is and learned. On the deducttue side of the dichotgrammar instruction that involves teacher of rules followed

    exercises intended to the new SlTucture,,,]['he ",",v,,",,,,',..pr,is that students learn the forms of thewill be able to selected communicative or

    learners havestructiori, Most textbooks still present grammar

    drills that are cast in shallow and artificial contexts unrelated to thereal communicative intentions of learners

    [0learners and are no!areteachers to observe that these artificial after the teacher's gram-matical is delivered often result in unmotivared and responses in

    no matter how much context is in the directions or how muchfor these results from a deductive

    that it invests the teacher with the for understand-

    218 a 10 Teach Grammar

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    \1Vlut is deductive grammar instruction?are its

    does it to some educators? \1\lbat

    is the inducttoe grammar'rerrell and

    ofargue that learners can

    sufficient from the teacher.follows its own natural internal anv ex-

    and not worth theinstructional time and effort of theteacher and. the students. If learners are to a sufficient amount of thatinterests them and is understandable 10induce 110\\1 the structures of the As the goes.Jea rners sIH)U ld beable to and on their 01NI1 :IS

    some learners doon the basis oflittle

    nOI attend to or "induce" thethisthe SIU

    instructional assistance Herron and Tomasellocannot guarantee that the learner will dis-

    cover the concepts ()II thai theinduced concepts willcorrect. In the research of Adair-Hauck was found that when learners were

    asked about their "discoveries" aboutconcept. Addi-

    some students failed pattern [11m the teacher pre ..sented even when the structure was embedded in a context and made salient

    the Even in the studies of enhancement, where thein . some way to CIn':I\V the individual learner's at-

    of successful outcomes arc inconsistent,can frustrate adolescent or adult marry of whom

    with to the rules dLH govern their nativeThese learners wan! 10 hasten the process

    their own native the rules that govern rhe new target

    Orientation 2119

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    contexts found inprovernents in the

    What are its

    in the individual rather than situated in the interactions betweenthem, A sociocultural to instruction 1) Indicates that is an

    and interactive process situated in cultural contexts, such as schools andand assisted the IDOS( notable

    views of grammara number of reasons that will be discussed later

    embedded in the use ofhold the 10 dramaticim-

    of grammar.F IGURE 1 A Dialogic Storv-Bosed Approach 10 Grammar Instruction

    INDUC1WE APPROACHTeachers provide explanationFor learners

    DEDUCTIVE APPROACHTeacher and learners collobo-role on and co-construct the

    explcnction.

    1 1 ' " 1 1 oleForeign Lorl/

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    advice. students 1 1 deductivewhich does not situ are its use and fails to illustrate how the

    in a decontextualized academicexercise in lanzuaze, , : : ?

    H'words lake on theiruse ..

    and function when used in connection to eachand con-

    on form can be a

    take on and their uses become trans-parent. Once learners understand the of the whole text" wUI be better ableto focus on and understand the contribution of (he pans of the text to the of thewhole & 1997; Adair-Hauck & . Donato,

    1992; &1stresses connected discourse and encourages

    of the lesson.a lesson with a whole text. the teacher uses tile grammatical feature

    in a Widea of

    (ranlt'\vurk" for the He\Vattention is focused on the

    is also linadvance

    Orientation 221

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    the unoncanortime:

    of

    and tell storiesresearch in sociocultural has turned attention to the

    of collaborative interaction in several. academic In an effort to situate gram-discuss the of a

    how toand use of grammar.

    since it is natural

    hear. After these initial activities and interactions havelearners to understand the 'O f the

    has been achieved and inWhich elements of the make it

    A.Model for Dialoguing about FormL,anguag,e.Approach a Story~Based---',---'-__------,-------,-"''-------,',,-,,-----should

    gel mrnar instruction be'grammar instructionto mean instruction

    222 10 Teach Grammar

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    to to name a few, [H'U"HYforms function in texts. Thatnever enable learners to use the structure fornot whether a teacher should focus on

    wmbelow is a way for learners toincludes form and focus, This

    form from aanother

    is at the crux of 'what it means to know grammar.

    The PACE App ro a ch

    focus on fOD11in the context of illas the framework for a unit of

    In addition to the

    four sections presentform in the context

    a model for lessons withcultural texts, PACE (Donato &

    for'model should be

    The

    richand modes of communication, the PACEmodel also allows for I(~:lrncrs 10 (:011-

    of relevant and form in collaboration with the reacheras will beillustrated contrasts deductive

    can beof grammar and inductivestudents on their own.

    strucru reshear,

    P : PRESENTAT ION o f Mean in gfu l IonquoqeThis first step ofPACl~way. It can he anauthentic

    in :1I'IlVI11:llic

    are found to benized stories include actions and evenls thatsince the of these texts can be

    or TI'R

    ra lsentences

    'rile Pn.'senralionrhe larget forru in

    Orientotion 223

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    new elements of the targetof the teacher

    an entire class session, Ofon the story selected and theshould be

    the teacher presents the story which facilitatesof and students do not see the written

    A : A TT ENT IONT'his second PACE step focuses learners' attention

    the Presentation, In the Presentationaspects of the

    takes

    on. some aspect of the usedand students

    to move to :1in this

    be discussed.abouthea d

    then] progress inafter the class has understood the story and is

    the story.can be achieved in several ways. 'reachers can ask

    in a story. Over-sentences hum the Presen-

    circled or underlined,of this is to learners to focus attention on the target form without

    needless elaboration or wastedtime,The purpose of this step is CO ensure that learners are focused on the

    element chosen for which after the purpose ofthe PACE model. Recall Ih,1I research has shown that learners donor

    Adair-HaucklH)CeSS or attend 10 in w ays that \;ve expect (Herron &

    224 to Teach Grammar

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    not

    found thai when learnerswere pnes(;ntecltaken from the "Le lion et la souris"

    the new verb

    and included the wordssentences. After attention to the semanticwere able 10attend to the ~UI~f;"rl'"

    !>J'UlUl,LU out that learners might showteachers are in the ZPD of the

    teritive to where their students' is headed and not lessonas determined andoutcomes for the les-son, teachers should allow for the may be setstudents when their about the emerges. whether atten-tion was drawn to a structure and what structures students express interest inunderstanding more about, the teacher can determine aspects of the that werenot transparent and need clarification. In summary; the Attention thatattention between teacher and student needs to be established in order forto occur. Joint attention to features of the can be estab-Iished and directly means, such as textwith enhancements or

    in the ZPD of theis headed and not

    ,vill be attentive 10 where their:IS determined by the

    teacher,

    C: CO-CONSTRUCT -Explanation as ConversationLearners and teachers should be co..constructors elf grammar leal ex Co..construction involves collaborative talk between the reacher and t.he students to reflecton, and create about the Conn, and functionof the new structure in This occursafter focus of attention on tiletarget form is achieved. AI. this step, the teacher assists learners inof the target structure and enables them to contrast the structure withknow, 'fhis

    is co-constructedteacher questions thatare

    tools in the hands of teachersto meet the emergen: of theirsuch as, "\Vh:lItwords do you heal' or sec

    mean?", "\Xihat pattern do you sec in this grou pn the text. and what couldof words?" and "How do certain wordshelp learners draw from the

    learners discover

    ConceptuulOrientation 225,

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    226

    that learnersmay noton the basis of the teacher's alone. Just as in conversa-

    lion in one individual does not another in a of ques-tions, What is obvious to the teacher is often. a mystery to the novice. A co-constructed

    is as for the teacher as it is for the that lis, teachersneed to assess the abilities of their learners and assist them and

    when necessary, Teachers can be conversationfor the students the process of assistance and

    in the sameorder in everyinstructional circumstance. to learner contributions

    this teachers can assess 110\\1 much help is needed to attain thelearners will the to reflect on on their O'lNrI and some

    back to

    &However, if thewould be determined on

    discussed and the level of the class-then the use of the[;.liIgel and useful As students progress, the teacher should beattentive to and observational abilities and determine if theco-construction can take in the target

    In summary, a conversation. about grammar involves both teacher and students indiscussion about the form focused upon in the Attention step of the PACElesson. The purpose of the conversation is neither to engage in a didacticof the form the teacher nor the students [0discoverthe

    area textbook gramnlar rule isteachers need 10 1l10VC studenrs to understand how grammar functions inwritten texts, such as so that understand certain choiceswere made over others and how lise grammar for their own communicativepurposes,

    to Teach Grammar

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    10

    clear,

    nstruded Grammar lessonThe teacher has French folktale of a curious who asks

    ~ll.all'UU"C:1parts Is the mountain stronger 'thanreviews the contents of the story, ,I

    st()I''j\,.f!/!1Hj!

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    2.28

    Activities

    way at athe "whole.'

    into service the learners in 3 newthe teacher never loses of

    of }'ACE learners with. theways while at theo use their new grammar skill in creative and

    -;

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    back into(ion

    communicative and activities.

    the lesson the "whole"

    fiGURE 7.2 A Story-Based Approach to LOIlg!uage lnstruction dnd Focus on Form

    2

    1 i--'lresentation

    ----""""."~---.-------------.-----"-----------~~----".~.----~--""3Source: Froru "PACE: A model to focus on form. R Donato and II .. i\clair-tlauck. Pa pcrI,angtl;Jges.[he annual me-eting of the American Council on rhe Te:lching of

    , ) 1 ' Bonnie Adair-Hauck.

    Orientation 229

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    of

    and solve

    FIG UR !E 1.3 Teaching of Grammar: A S to ry -Bo se d PACE App ro ac h vs.Trod ir ionc l ApproochstORYBASEID PACE .APP'IROACHI TRADITIONAL APPROACH

    skills and len-movmq to procedural skills

    1. Sequencing of tasks Irom simple wo

    2. Instrudional interoction between Teacher

    3 .

    2. litlle teacher/learner intercction: teocher-directed explanation

    3. explonotion of ,grammar4. compe-

    tence [cpproximotions encouraged).4. learner must mosier each

    going to next (competence beforeperformance].--------+---~----

    6. longuage ond questions must beSUitably turned 10 a 01 which perfor-mance assistance.

    7. lesson functional signin-conce qrcnnmotlcol structure beforemechonicol take place.

    6. few questions-mainliy rhetoricol

    7. The hmctioncl siqnihconce of 00point oflen does not emerge01 lesson.

    Source: From "PACE, i\ focus on H. Donato and B. Adair-Hauck. 1994. p. 20.,H the annual meeting of the American Council on the of

    Lmgu:rges. Used Bonnie Adair-Hauck.

    230 to Teach Grcrnrnor

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    activities facilitate and retention on the pan of learn-the extension activities encourage Ieamers ro

    and function while in context.It should be mentioned that activities is

    you with on how to andactivities into your classroom. See the View and Reflect section of'

    the Teacher's Handbook Web site for a video of" lesson that has featl.lres of the PACE

    How does a lead to

    Suggestions for Selectinq, Preparing, Designing, and Deliveringa Story-Based lonquoqe Lesson

    a PACE lesson will enable the teacher [0transform the classroom into amediated environment where the teacher and learners co-construct of "texts"

    of the lesson. In particular, we suggestinto your lesson

    activities enables the teacher 10 create a meathe home or out-of-school environment. This

    classrooms areand with each other to make

    arb programs valuelibraries, book

    where humanA l .

    contexts,tasks,

    Selecting an Appm'opr:ia:l:e Text. One of rhe first steps in :. 1 s ics,1'01'learners and your irlslTuc!ional purposes, Textthe rna n y texts 111:AI exist, their contents, :HK! theirrather than " is : 111 excellent way 10

    1. Do you like the text and find it2. you selected! Is it an storylearners? Does thewith issues,

    s[OI"'/ inciteand themes that reflect theor reflection?

    3. Does the story lend itself toOrientotion 231i

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    232

    ,-"JlJJ-",,U"JU" to academic content?of the target culture thai you win

    or reasonable and fair of theaccessible or

    to the learners' current stage ofthe one that can beactivities?

    9. the structure on which you willsome of the areas of the S.FIE'he story lend itself to

    stories in your targetmaterials marketed

    remember that an authentic story is one writtenCor: purposes other than1: 0 tell an

    a member of the targetthe writer'smotivationor illustrate amoral or

    sites and second materialfe r texts t J K I t . do not follow the above criteria" For some stories are translations

    illustrations and cultural references that have nor been modified to match thecultures of the into which the story has been translated, of these storieswould never be read by members of the target culture. the ofSOfTIe material and \X/eb sites is to sellstory various cultures.

    An authentic story ofcharacteristics:

    ,. a theme characters with

    cultures, Forthat embedded the story of Redi3tre) to French II high school students,

    knownmany differenta PACE lesson

    Hood to teach tile past tense withthe students were familiar with this well-

    demonstrated that it was ain French and 10

    than a traditionalto learn

    differs from the American version, As[food has :.1 different from the story

    the French versionheard. as children.

    Preparing and Delivering Stor'ies.dents listen 10 stories, the of their

    needs to be a social event. \Xihen stu-different when

    7 Using a 10 TeachGrammar

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    audience doesn't know your second "'1"3",' . ' ' ' ' ,~Lfacialfrom your dress rehearsal.The types ofwill

    to engage the listeners into theof

    sofor

    make sure thai theeffective stories can be told in 5-10mnnutes), [I' you have a

    favorite story that is but divide the step of the PACE les-son into two and introduce the second part of the story on

    know 11o","to engage the audiencesuch ,IS hand motions

    that learners hole! up when the characteretitions of lines from the story, or silent dramatizationsofparts of the story ;IS iltold Visual aids will also hold learners' artcurlon and ,'!SSisl in

    at least 10-12 illustrations thai the main char-10 create th e illustratfons andthe illustrations on the chalk

    the story alive for the learners.to use puppets, pnJmpls :.IScostumes 1 1 ) 1 "(0 learners underst.uid the story These

    and interrnediare-levcl Ci.:.ISSCS, '1'0 be

    Fina successfulcourage the audience to concentr:lle ami follow the eventsinclude contact, racial gestures, hand 11101[OnS,

    one wav for one character and anotherthe lone OllCSvoice

    and sound effects and silent pauses whenlearners' attention 8: Rietz,

    Orientotion 233

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    the teacher may need to tell the storyof the story, the teacher may want to use aor the un-"n,_'Oir

    third pass of therr"""'lrnc>,- can retell the story the illustrarions.

    the teacher may want W make smaller versions of the visuals and have stu-dents work in or to recreate the and retell the story, As stories areteacher should increase the level of student verbal or nonverbal

    the teacher the "1 Have: \;>(7110as" game withgame that can be

    constructed from any story and can be as ::I::I final teacher constructs a number of concern-

    the events, and final outcome of the story. Each studentreceives a and one answer to a differentThe learner who has the starred card reads the first for "Le lion et Iafirst is "Where does the story take The leameranswer reads it and then the next the Iearnersshould be able to and

    Extensdon Actiivities. Creative extension activities are critical becauseallow learners to use the new feature from the story in

    where in thetivities also encourage learners to collaborate and cooperate in

    these activities may be fortoand oral and written 1'1,","'

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    a discussionDiscussion the lion?"

    moves learners fromwhas in the story to it

    Finally, the teacher may want to

    intertextual see Appendix 7. il lteachers might wonder how learners with limited L2 resourceswill be able toin some of the more

    and intertextual activitiestap into learners'these activities learners lise their

    and withactivi-

    , some learners feel comfort-other learners seek assistance from. the teacher or

    peer, and other learners feel more comfortable resource such :IS(Adair-Hauck, Tl1(:' teacher creates a that assists nd supports k;lrnersin activities that would. be unable to do alone or unassisted.

    instruction"Therefore theIt must be aimed nor so much < It the ripe, but at the functions"

    To illustrate this point. one teacher who I.Lses aencourages her learners to in L2 discourse

    checks and clarification requests, To do so, she decorates her roruuwithlaminated discourse such s'i!

    saisi ~:(/';''C'ol}llnenl dit-on __ enthat in this way she :Is.sisuncc I.U

    ,It the same time, decorates her classroom with the "curriculurn." Aer',c 'X ';Idh()i.~, 20(0)L's standards-based assessment resea rch (Glisan,

    has revealed thatmany learners are not aware of and cannot discourse compensa-non in turn. deters their on standards-basedtasks. Therefore, we need to these discourse I'adlitalors and u)lnpcns:!I ion S[I'

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    learners in the

    Learnerstakes causeoverhead or teD

    with longer stretches of discourse ..Another strategy that encourages learners t.o pay' attention to accuracy is to show

    or intermediatelevel students a oralinterview in which studentsyears This interview could be one that had been done at the end

    the year as surnmative assessment. Before the the teacher coulddiscuss the ACl7''L for novice,and advanced level may have to be conducted in LI,

    on the level of the learners. Students could then the functions thatcould the structures that theinterviewee needs to work on. in orderAnother idea is to show an actual OPT (to the extent that one may be

    and have learners discuss with their teacher the interviewee is at a pro-level and which accuracy structures the interviewee needs to work on in order

    1. 0 receive a the class can discuss what functions ortasks the interviewee was able to carry out the interview: In this way, the teacher

    the of the functions and structures embedded in the"Grammar and usage cannot

    if students see no real need for it and if teachers cannot themto see the need"

    Moving, to Independent Proctice

    group activities orlearners to function

    the reacher may ask learners 10 create a different [0the story.236 )' 01 to Teach Grammar

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    oryounger learners in the

    Voices o,f tbe Learners

    years of age. At the end of thewhen

    of the learners answeredand "no. Learners'

    activities?" werewiththen I knew what it was.' Another

    activities because had 11if you have to do with thewords are onethis comment a affective climate: "[ liked the fact thatinto the story and it makes it more fun. I think I learn better when I

    better

    T !E !ACH AN iD REF lE 'C 'T .. . . . . . . .. . . . . '" . . . . . '. . . . . . . . . .. .. " . . .' . . . . . . '. ' ..NCIJE__ II EPISO!DIE ONE

    Examining Grommoilr Presentations in lextbo,o!ksACTFl/NCATE 3.0. Understanding language Acquisition and Creotinq 0 Class-room; 3.!b..Developinq lnstructioncl Proctices Relied Outcomes and I..earner

    4,.(. Seleding and Materials.Apply Theories and Research of

    Their ESOL Students' 3.0. Planning for3.b. Monagling and hnplementinq Stcndords-

    Based ESLand Content Instruct ion: and 3..c..Using Resources in !EStand ContentAcquisition and toStandards-Based ESt an d ContentInstruction.

    Examine 01 leosttwo textbooks in the longuoge. Decide whether Ihe useTo do so, answer the followingdeductive or inductiveForeach textbook:

    10 gmmmar

    1. Does the textbook of+er some form of grommo!icaladvocate a deductive or inductive approach 10 'grommar

    2. When is the teacher supposed 10 focus the learners' attention on lorm or onstructures-e ot the 0 0 1 the the middle, the or not at alii?

    J " the role Is the leornera passive listeneresizer? Is the Ileamer

    leach and ReFlecl 237

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    NC, t ,TE __ iI

    such os asking end giving direcfOf things. (Tum to the chapter that Focuses;Q

    .) How does the relote langiuage function toto mechanical practice before communicative practice?

    chapter 10 see if the leorners are exposed 10 meaningful,course. I f so, stories, poems, songs, videotapes, or drama? And

    the middle, or the end of the chapter?6, . In your opinion, how well does the integrate P l meaning-theideas of message conveyed; (2 ) form-the various linquistic and

    and PI function-Ihe way 10 carry out a particular task by exploitinggrammaticol slrucfuresf

    7. linyour estirneflon, is one portlculor dimension-meaning, form, ormore thenthe others? IIso, which one? Can you offer an explanation ofsian might be emphasized otthe expense or the others?

    EPISODETWODesigning (]I S to q , lB a ls ed PACE l es so n

    2 . .b. Demonstrating Understanding of Literary and Cultural Texis and Trodi-tlons: 3.0, Understanding Language Acquisition and Creating a Supportive Classroom;3,b, Developingl lnstructionol Practices 1 1 1 , 0 1 ReHectLanguage Oulcomes and learner4.b.lnlegraling Stcnderds i r t Instruction; 4.c. Selecfinq and Designing lnstructioncl Maleriails.

    Lb. Candidates Understand and Apply Theories and Research of Langua;geAcquisition end Development to Support Their ESOL Students' Learning; 3.a. PlionningStandards-Based ESt and Content Instruction: 3.b. Managing and Ilmplementing Stondords-Based ESt and Content Instruction; end 3,.c Using Resources EHeciively ill ESt and Contentlnsrruction.

    You ore now going 1'0 design 01 lesson that10 grammar instruction. you need to identijy a

    a story-based languoge op-linquistic function-for

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    NClJ'E__1

    1.

    2.

    3.

    meaning or4. Discuss how you will use "multiple

    activities, scenarios, or otherlearners' Remember thol at thisporlici potory,

    5. Write a short description ot how you will the learners' attention on Whathints or questions CHe you going to ask? How do you plan 10 co-construct the

    6. 01 lecst three extension cctivities thaiUse the extension octivities in Appendix 7.11, includingthe Teacher's Handbook Web site aslor the [eorners to use identified structures. lin doinq 50, the leorners will (1",,,,,,1,,1'1,luller ol the function o f the grammatical structures.

    10 the selected context (Note:7.1.12 to 7,,1 15 on

    I EP ISO iDE THR,EED evellop in g a !P AC Elesson f,orthe PostSec,ondaryACTfVNCATE z.s. ofditions: 3.0. Understcndinq and3 b . Developing lns truct ionol Practices thot ReHee!

    4,b. Integrating! Stondcrds in Instruction; 4,c.Materials,

    aOutcomes end Learner

    T ESO l/N CATE : l .b. lonquoqe and 3.G, Planning lorBased ESL and Contentlnstruction: 3 .b . Managing end lrnplernentinq Stcndords-Bosed ESLGild Content and 3.c. in ESt and Content Instruction.

    If you are to 01 thetosk is designed 10 engage you in fo r 01doss that is working! toward advanced level Iuncfions. You find iii toread abou t discourse on pages 278-279 in Chapler 8 before you begin thistask. Design your lessonaccording 10 the

    but b e. Select a new form that you woulld like tois one thai is useful in advanced-leve!1

    and conditional lorcohesive devices suchas and connector wordsbond, Deciidehow th e grammatical form will b e used in Glevei function.

    on Ihe otherodvanced-

    Tench ond Retied 239

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    nc,

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    mio

    Guide your discussion of the preceding! scenarios with !the folilowing questions:ineoch scenoric,

    T O Iheforms in scenario?meaning" and use in each scenario?

    1. Idenlify the "expert" and Ihe2. How does the expert draw3. Doesthe teocher draw the learners'

    If yes, how?4. How does the role of the leacherinSc:enariio I differ from thai of the leacher in Scenario II?S. Which scenario illustrates assistance, sCC1lFfolding,nd development through the

    ZPD? Cile specific examples eachIrom the scenario.6. Describe the role 0 1 interadionondcollaboralion in each of these scenarios.7. Whal do you think would be theresullof student leorninq in each of these scenarios?8. How mighl studentsreact as learllecsengoged in each 01 these scenarios?To p,repare fOr eless discussiion:1. Imagine thor you are a studentparlicipalingin the french conversation presented earlier

    in this chopter on pp. 227-228. Write an enlry in your [ournol all whet youlearned in Scenario I.

    2. Imagine thot you ore a student in the ltolicn class in Scenario II. Write a journalreflecting on what you loomed in Ihal scenorio.3. Using these F w O scenarios as exomples, write a brief comparing a trodifioncldeductive approach 10 leaching grammar and an approach thct is based uponexplanation and collaboration of 'teacherond leorners,

    RE f ERENCESAdair-Hauck. B. "4 descrfptil.I,e,DfPJa(g.;;i.\ ian-

    l?ua,~,c:~ Sernin.u presented at Millersville UniversitySumrm-: F'!.'{)gt"arnin Frunch Millersville, Pl,,,

    Adair Hauck,pbn~lti., ().11S within

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    guagt:' Teachers Consortium, Princeton. NJD. (19')1). Tht' disc",;,i

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    Karpov, Vygotsky's of scientificconcepts: Its role for contemporary educaucn.. In. A,Kozulin, B. Gindis, V, S. Ageyev, ,,* S. Nt MillerV)Jgotsk ,y - 's educational in (:U,ltU1Y:Tl ton'fe.xt(pp. 65~82), Cambridge. UK: Cambridge UniversitvPress.

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    grasshoppers, the I(activities might includeon the board of everything learners know about o",,,,hnn'pers: theW activities might. include the creation of a listquestions students have about grasshoppers, (e.g.long grasshoppers Iive?"); and the L activities mightdude a videotaped presentation of a skit studentsabout the life of grasshopper3. Thanks to Dr. Bonnie Adair-Hauck for thefor this activit>'.

    244 Using! a