teaching, learning, and behavior managementmyresource.phoenix.edu/secure/resource/aed222r3/... ·...

Teaching, Learning, andBehavior Management

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REFLECT UPON

• What is the general educationcurriculum? What tools are used to adaptinstruction for students who have specialeducation needs?

• What are the major approaches toinstruction that teachers use to guidetheir systematic teaching?

• How can teachers develop systematic,proactive, and positive behaviormanagement systems in their schools andclassrooms?

• What practices allow for communicatinginstruction and behavior management ina positive and professional manner?

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Special Education for Today’s Teachers: An Introduction, by M ichael S. Rosenberg, David L. W estling, and Jam es M cLeskey.

Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.

If any one teacher has experienced it all, BobbyBiddle is that person. Currently teaching environ-mental science to seventh graders in FairfaxCounty, Virginia, Bobby has certification and de-grees in biology and special education. Since shegraduated from Duke University with a degree inzoology in 1969, Bobby has taught adolescents inpublic and private schools, adults in the military inneed of basic-skills remediation, and teachers inneed of professional staff development. Not sur-prisingly, Bobby is an award-winning teacher whohas been recognized several times as an educatorof the year.

Bobby is a “natural” teacher. Although shelacked significant training in teaching methodsduring her first years in the classroom, Bobby feltimmediately comfortable in her instructional roleand was able to motivate most of her students.Still, she quickly recognized the need for additionaltraining in instructional methods. After taking sev-eral education courses at the local community col-lege, Bobby was recruited into a funded specialeducation master’s program, an opportunity thatprovided her with a diversified repertoire of in-structional and behavior-management strategies.

This combined training and comfort in both sci-ence and special education made Bobby a teacherwho has great success making content-rich lessonsaccessible to a diverse range of learners.

Success in her own classroom teaching is notenough. In her current assignment at HerndonMiddle School, Bobby is an active participant in allaspects of school improvement and collaborativegovernance. She finds interacting with studentsand adults in the building rewarding and cravesopportunities for teachers to work together in pro-ductive projects. Bobby is an active member of herschool’s PAR committee (a positive behavior sup-port effort), which was instrumental in developingsupports for Herndon’s schoolwide behavior-management program. Bobby also recognizes theimportance of communicating with her studentsand enjoys chatting informally whenever possible.Opportunities to talk with students informally al-low her to build relationships with the middleschoolers, an important precondition for respect,motivation, and appropriate school behavior.

My Profession, My Story: Bobby Biddle

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To learn more aboutBobby Biddle—her

background, her views on learning and behavior

management—and to see her in action in her classroom, go to

the Ms. Biddle module on theDVD-ROM.

110 www.prenhall.com/rosenberg

On occasion, Bobby feels frustrated that things do not flow smoothly.For example, she is irritated by the few teachers and staff members whoare resistant to schoolwide initiatives (such as Herndon’s behavior pro-gram) and the lack of consistency among adults when doling out conse-quences for students who misbehave. A major challenge is trying toinspire those few students she is unable to reach. Not that she lacks de-sire or motivation; Bobby feels that there is just not enough time to do allthat a teacher needs to do. There are so many lab reports to grade, andmany students with special needs require supports, accommodations,and remediation. Still, Bobby’s greatest gifts—remaining positive andflexible—allow her to meet all challenges. She enjoys the variety that eachday brings as well as the promise of improving the lives of her students,one child at a time.

As we have highlighted in previous chapters, teachers of students with specialneeds assume diverse and important roles. However, a teacher’s major responsi-

bility—and, arguably, toughest challenge—is to deliver effective and efficient instruc-tion in a safe and orderly environment.Four overlapping elements must be in place tomeet this challenge successfully.First, teachers must know what to teach (i.e., the cur-riculum) and how to develop appropriate academic goals for the variety of learners intheir classrooms. Second, evidenced-based instructional delivery techniques—activi-ties and environmental conditions shown repeatedly to help students achieve—should be used to deliver the curriculum. Third, student behavior should be managedin a systematic, proactive, and positive fashion. Finally, instruction and behavior man-agement should be communicated with authenticity, civility, and respect. Do not un-derestimate the importance of these four areas: Research has demonstrated thatteacher quality contributes more to student outcomes than any other factor, includingclass size, class composition, or student background (Rivkin, Hanushek, & Kain, 2001;Sanders & Horn, 1998).

Teachers like Bobby Biddle recognize the dynamic relationships between teach-ing and behavior management. Although these issues are often talked about sepa-rately, she recognizes that they are highly interrelated. Specifically, Bobby recognizesthat her creative efforts to ensure that all students in her classroom learn critical aca-demic skills is one of the most important things she can do to prevent the occurrenceof problem behaviors. Correspondingly, she knows well that without the applicationof systematic and positive behavior management techniques, even the most interest-ing and supportive of her lessons runs the risk of failing to reach students.

WHAT TO TEACH: THE CURRICULUM AND STUDENTS WITH SPECIAL NEEDS

One of the most important decisions that educators and parents make involves whatstudents learn in school, or the curriculum. Defined broadly, curriculum is the con-tent taught in a school, school district, or state. As recently as 15 years ago, decisionsregarding curriculum were largely the responsibility of local school districts and, to alesser degree, local schools. Often, the textbooks ordered by the districts influencedthe curriculum, and teachers were quite involved in these decisions. To support andenrich the material included in textbooks, teachers selected material (e.g., a video onthe Revolutionary War for a history class or children’s books for elementary students

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111Chapter 5: Teaching, Learning, and Behavior Management

FAQ Sheet

TEACHING, LEARNING, AND BEHAVIOR MANAGEMENT

What iscurriculum,andhow is it adaptedfor students withspecial educationneeds?

Curriculum is the content taught in local schools. Toolsemployed to adapt curriculum include taxonomies, universaldesign for learning, planning pyramids, and instructionalaccommodations.

Whatevidenced-basedpracticesenhance thedelivery ofinstruction?

Effective teachers make use of evidenced-based practices inthe areas of• Instructional grouping• Presenting content• Providing opportunities for practice• Monitoring student progress• Using technology to support instruction

How do effectiveteachersapproach themanagement ofstudentbehavior?

Behavior management is best viewed in a culturally responsiveframework in which rules and procedures exist alongsidecommunity and family standards. The utility of speculating onthe etiology of misbehavior is questionable; it is more useful tounderstand the functions associated with a student’s actions.

What are themajorcomponents ofan effectivebehavior-managementplan?

Effective management plans consist of five key elements:• A mission statement• Rules, procedures, and supports• Consequences for appropriate and inappropriate behavior• Crisis procedures• Document presenting the management plan

who were learning to read) or developed material (e.g., games to assist children inlearning math facts or study materials for a chemistry text).

Today state governments are much more involved in deciding the curriculum andevidenced-based practices for local schools (i.e.,when each subject and specific skillswill be taught and how schools will be held accountable for ensuring that students

What strategieshelp incommunicatinginstruction andbehaviormanagement?

Strategies that contribute to effective communication include• Development of authentic relationships• Civility and respect• Conveying appropriate expectations• Cultural sensitivity• Maintaining credibility and dependability• Keeping things in perspective when problems occur

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Can You Help Me with These Students?

Mr. Payton, the principal of Southwood ElementarySchool, has long been curious about why students in Ms.Rivera’s class seem to routinely win third-grade spellingcontests. His curiosity was piqued when he recently re-ceived standardized test scores that revealed that Ms.Rivera’s students scored significantly higher than did stu-dents in other third-grade classes in spelling, vocabularydevelopment, and reading. Mr. Payton decided to explorewhy Ms. Rivera was so successful in teaching spelling toher students and why one of the other teachers, Ms.Chamblee, was less successful.

Mr. Payton discovered that Ms. Rivera applied many ofthe basic principles of curriculum planning and effectiveinstruction, which included

• Using instruction in other content areas to supportspelling

• Having different expectations for students: some ex-pected to learn the entire spelling list and others learn-ing a reduced number of spelling words

• Meeting with the parents of each student who was strug-gling to learn spelling words and providing them with in-formation on how to improve spelling, reading, andvocabulary development

In contrast,Mr.Payton observed that Ms.Chamblee didn’tset aside time for spelling but took a half hour a couple oftimes a week to drill students on spelling words. Moreover,

her instructional time allocated to spelling varied each weekand consisted almost entirely of drill and practice.Ms.Cham-blee did not make adaptations in curriculum for individualstudent needs, provided little structure for students as theylearned the spelling words, and included little variation inthe types of activities students engaged in as they preparedfor their weekly spelling test. While some of her studentslearned their spelling words using this approach, studentswho struggled to learn the content did not do well.

EXTEND AND APPLY• Can you think how Ms. Chamblee might improve her

spelling instruction? Discuss possibilities with a partneror in a small group.

• As you read and discuss the principles of curriculumplanning and effective instruction in the remainder ofthis chapter, reflect on which of these strategies youwould use to improve the spelling performance of Ms.Chamblee’s students. We will return to this topic andprovide a description of Ms. Rivera’s successful instruc-tion in spelling later in this chapter.

have mastered the curriculum). At present,48 states and the District of Columbia havedeveloped standards in core content areas that constitute the curriculum for localschools statewide (Skinner & Staresina, 2004). If you are thinking that teachers nowhave much less say about the curriculum,you are correct.However,keep in mind thatteachers are still involved in making decisions regarding materials and resources (e.g.,DVDs, books) that will be used to enrich the curriculum. Furthermore, teachers stillmake many decisions regarding adaptations and accommodations to the curriculumto address the needs of all students.

It is likely that wherever you choose to teach,a statewide curriculum and related ac-countability system will be in place,and most students with disabilities will be expectedto participate and make progress in this general education curriculum. Effective teach-ers recognize that students differ in their ability to learn, retain, and apply informationand that not all students will learn everything in the curriculum.Clearly, there are somecritical aspects of any content area (often defined by a given state’s curriculum or con-tent standards),which all students should learn to proficiency.However,there are otheraspects of the curriculum that only a smaller proportion of students will acquire.

How do effective teachers adapt curriculum? While certain content areas,such asspelling (see the example in “Can You Help Me with This Student?”), are relativelystraightforward, other areas of the curriculum present greater challenges. Indeed, you

Activity: Go to the Video Classroom section of theTeacher Prep website, click on Reading Methods andthen module 6: Writing. Watch video 1 and answerthe accompanying questions. Think about how thisteacher’s spelling instuction would enhance theinstruction that Ms. Rivera provides to her students.

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To see examples ofuniversal design in Ms.Biddle’s classroom, go to

the Ms. Biddle module on the DVD-ROM and click on clip 7: GraphicOrganizer and clip 9: UDL.


Cognitive Process DimensionRemembering—Recalling information (listing, naming)Understanding—Explaining ideas or concepts (summarizing, interpreting)Applying—Using information in another situation (implementing, carrying out)Analyzing—Breaking information into parts and exploring relationships (comparing, organizing)Evaluating—Justifying a decision or course of action (checking, critiquing)Creating—Generating new ideas or ways of viewing things (producing, inventing)

FIGURE 5.1

BLOOM’S TAXONOMY FOR TEACHING, LEARNING, AND ASSESSING (REVISED)

Source: Adapted from Anderson, L., & Krathwohl, D. (Eds) (2001) A taxonomy for learning,teaching, and assessing (p. 31). New York: Longman.

will find that effectively delivering instruction to a diverse range of students is a taskthat requires specific skills. Many teachers find four tools to be particularly usefulwhen adapting instruction: taxonomies for teaching, learning, and assessing;universaldesign for learning;planning pyramids for designing units and lessons;and techniquesfor adapting curriculum and instruction.

TAXONOMIES

A taxonomy is a framework used to organize information. Taxonomies help teachersorganize instruction into well-defined units, provide a meaningful sequence of in-structional activities, and signal when supplemental materials and activities are usedto reteach information. When planning instruction, teachers use taxonomies to (1)clarify their instructional goals; (2) determine the knowledge and cognitive levels ofthe material being taught; and (3) ensure consistency among goals, learning activities,practice, seatwork, homework, and assessment. The most commonly applied taxon-omy,Bloom’s taxonomy (see Figure 5.1), is useful in planning instruction for diverselearners. This taxonomy emphasizes that most information can be learned at differentconceptual levels, from simple (e.g., facts) to complex (e.g., evaluating information).Most important, Bloom’s taxonomy reminds teachers that, regardless of the topic, allstudents benefit from well-planned lessons.

UNIVERSAL DESIGN FOR LEARNING

Instructional materials that support or enrich the general education curriculum havetraditionally been designed with typical,or “average,”learners in mind.Still,with manystudents unable to make adequate progress using standard instructional materials, ed-ucators have begun exploring options for making the curriculum accessible to all stu-dents, including those with disabilities. One powerful method, universal design, isall around us, most noticeably in architecture and product development (Hitchcock,Meyer, Rose, & Jackson, 2002; Orkwis & McLane, 1998). For example, architects useuniversal design to build in accommodations to buildings from their initial designphases, including ramps for wheelchair users as an essential part of the building’s de-sign rather than as an awkward afterthought. Closed captioning was intended to ben-efit people who cannot hear the sound from a television because they are deaf orhearing-impaired.However,many others (e.g., those in noisy bars,health clubs,or bed-rooms when another person is sleeping) find closed captioning useful.

When applied to the development of curriculum, universal design builds in ac-commodations and makes differences among students an ordinary part of the schoolday (McLeskey & Waldron, 2000). In many instances, technology plays a critical role.For example, readability cannot be altered using traditional hard copies of textbooks,but digital versions allow many options for accommodating student reading levels

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(and other needs). Digital textbooks contain multiple representations (e.g., image,text, video) of content and can transform one medium to another (e.g., text-to-speechor speech-to-text) or modify the characteristics of a presentation (e.g., size and colorof text, loudness of the sound) (Hitchcock et al., 2002).

These modifications have the potential to benefit all students, particularly thosewhose primary language is not English, those who have difficulty maintaining atten-tion to materials for long periods of time, students who have reading difficulties,per-sons who lack the motor skills to write or type,or those with intellectual disabilities.Merely a decade ago, universal design for learning was the distant, far-fetched dream

of a few instructional technology experts.However, given the dramatic and awe-inspiring improvements in technology thathave occurred during the past decade, uni-versal design is a reality that will soon be amainstay of most curriculum materials.

PLANNING PYRAMIDS

Many teachers use grade-level textbooks thatalign with state content standards as their pri-mary planning tool for instruction. Thesetextbooks meet the majority of students’ in-structional needs in a relatively straightfor-ward fashion. However, instruction basedlargely on textbooks is often too difficult forstudents who do not read well, lack subject-specific knowledge of vocabulary, lack back-ground knowledge regarding the content, orhave disabilities that limit their access to thematerial (Schumm, 1999).

One way teachers can plan instruction to meet the diverse needs of all studentsin a classroom is by using planning pyramids (Schumm, 1999; Schumm, Vaughn, &Leavell,1994; Vaughn,Bos,& Schumm,2007).Built on the concept of “degrees of learn-ing,”planning pyramids help teachers analyze both the content and instructional prac-tices as they plan lessons or units of instruction. Similar to Bloom’s taxonomy, thefundamental idea is that while “all students are capable of learning, not all studentswill learn all the content covered”(Vaughn et al.,2007,p.190).Key concepts and skillsto be learned for the specific lesson are first identified and then categorized based onthree levels of learning:

1. Content all students will learn (the base of the pyramid)2. Content that most (but not all) students will learn (the middle of the pyramid)3. Content that a few students will learn (the top of the pyramid)

Figure 5.2 illustrates a sample middle school science pyramid lesson plan ad-dressing weathering and erosion. The base of the pyramid includes content importantfor all students to learn, such as the forces that change the earth’s crust. At the nextlevel is content that most but not all students will learn, including how humans causeweathering. Finally, the top of the pyramid includes content that only a few studentswill learn, including how the earth looked during the Ice Age. In addition to planningcontent, the unit planning form prompts decisions regarding materials and resources;instructional strategies and adaptations;and evaluation/products to meet the needs ofall students. Keep in mind that students are not slotted permanently into one part ofthe pyramid and that the amount of content a student will learn will vary over timeand across content and lessons.

Reflective Exercise #1What changes in current textbookswould be needed to address theneeds of all (or almost all)students? How might creatingtextbooks in a digital formataccommodate the varying readingand conceptual levels of students?

Technology plays a critical role inclassroom-based universal designaccommodations.

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UNIT PLANNING FORM Date: Class Period:Unit Title:

Materials/Resources:

Instructional Strategies/Adaptations:

Evaluation/Products:

Whatsomestudentswilllearn.

Whatmoststudentswilllearn.

WhatALLstudentsshouldlearn.

• How Earth looked during IceAge

• Disasters caused by suddenchanges

• Geographic examples of slowand fast changes

• Compare and contrastweathering and erosion

• How humans cause physicaland chemical weathering

• Basic types of rocks

• Basic components of Earth’ssurface

• Forces that change crustare weathering and erosion

Guest speaker on volcanoesVideo: erosion and weatheringRock samplesLibrary books — disasters, volcanoes, etc.Colored transparencies for lectures

Concept mapsCooperative learning groups to learn material in

textbookAudiotape of chapterStudy buddies to prepare for quizzes and tests

Weekly quizUnit testLearning logs (daily record of “What I learned”)Vocabulary flash

Sept. 1 – 30 1:30 – 2:30Weathering and Erosion

FIGURE 5.2

THE PLANNING PYRAMID UNIT PLANNING FORM

Source: Vaughn, S., Bos, C., & Schumm, J. (2007). Teaching students who are exceptional,diverse, and at-risk in the general education classroom (4th ed.), p. 218. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

ADAPTING CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION

To facilitate student participation in the general education curriculum, teachers canchoose among nine types of instructional adaptations (see Table 5.1). The most fre-quently used tend to be the more obvious—adaptations in size (e.g.,the number of itemsthat a student is expected to complete) and time (e.g., time allocated for completing atask).However,creative teachers consider variable ways to (1) adjust the difficulty levelof lessons, (2) structure how students participate and provide responses, (3) providesupport,and (4) recognize an individual student’s success in large-group lessons. As youreview the nine types of adaptations,keep in mind that some are intended for use withall students. Others are intended for students who may not learn the same content asothers but who may learn adapted or alternative content (Cole et al., 2000).

DELIVERING INSTRUCTION

Until this point, we have focused on what students are taught; we now address howstudents are taught effectively. In general, the majority of students, approximately 50to 80%, seem to easily learn required content in their general education classrooms.The remaining students do not learn this content easily as they move from one gradelevel to the next. These students may or may not be identified as having a disability.Nonetheless, they share a struggle to learn academic content and to pass state-mandated accountability tests. These students require teachers, like Bobby Biddle,who recognize that there are alternative approaches to teaching and use evidenced-based techniques and methods for systematically teaching well-defined content.

Reflective Exercise #2How can you justify the fairness ofusing adaptations for somestudents and not others? Howcould you determine whichadaptations are best for individualstudents?

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TABLE 5.1

NINE TYPES OF ADAPTATIONS

Adaptation Definition Example

Input The instructional strategies Use of videos, computer programs, used to facilitate field trips, and visual aids to support student learning active learning

Output The ways learners can Students write a song, tell a story, demonstrate understanding design a poster or brochure, perform and knowledge an experiment

Size The length or portion of an Reduce the length of report to be assignment, demonstration, written or spoken, reduce the number or performance learners are of references needed, reduce the number expected to complete of problems to be solved

Time The flexible time needed Individualize a timeline for project for student learning completion, allow more time for test

taking

Difficulty The varied skill levels, Provide calculators, tier the assignment conceptual levels, and so that the outcome is the same but processes involved in with varying degrees of concreteness learning and complexity

Level of support The amount of assistance Students work in cooperative groups to the learner or with peer buddies, mentors, cross-age

tutors, or paraeducators

Degree of The extent to which the In a student-written, -directed, and participation learner is actively involved -acted play, a student may play a part

in the tasks that has more physical action ratherthan has numerous lines to memorize

Modified goals The adapted outcome In a written language activity, a student expectations within the may focus more on writing some letters context of a general and copying words rather than composingeducation curriculum whole sentences or paragraphs

Substitute Significantly differentiated In a foreign language class, a student curriculum instruction and materials may develop a play or script that uses

to meet a learner’s both authentic language and cultural identified goals knowledge of a designated time period

rather than reading paragraphs ordirections

Source: Adapted from Cole et al., (2000). Adapting curriculum and instruction in inclusive classrooms: Ateachers’ desk reference (2nd ed., p. 39). Bloomington, IN: Indiana Institute on Disability and Community.

APPROACHES TO TEACHING

Since the passage of the first IDEA in 1975,special education has been dominated by oneapproach to instruction:a behavioral approach. The behavioral approach emphasizes ex-plicitly identifying content or objectives and systematically teaching this content to stu-dents. This approach has been the foundation for numerous instructional practices thathave been effective for students with disabilities. Arguably the most common behavioral

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Reflective Exercise #3Think back to your days as anelementary and secondarystudent. What content were youtaught using a behavioralapproach? A cognitive approach?Which of these approaches weremost effective for you?

method,Direct Instruction (DI) has explicit guidelines as to what a teacher does to be-gin a lesson, present information during the lesson, guide student practice after instruc-tion, correct student work and provide feedback, plan and carry out student seatwork,and follow up the lesson (Carnine, Silbert, Kame’enui, & Tarver, 2003; Rosenshine &Stevens,1986).Chapter 8 contains detailed information regarding Direct Instruction.

The behavioral approach to instruction is most effective when teaching studentsfundamental types of information (e.g., basic skills such as vocabulary or math facts).However, it not always sufficient to meet many of the higher-order needs of studentswith learning problems or disabilities. In such cases a cognitive approach to instructionis necessary. Cognitive approaches view students as active, strategic learners who areable to solve problems when provided with appropriate supports and accommodations.Specific teaching methods within this approach are not as explicitly structured as thosefound within the behavioral approach. However, common instructional techniques in-clude (1) comparing and contrasting,(2) concept formation and exemplar selection,(3)informed guessing,and (4) development of specific problem-solving sequences.

Keep in mind that these approaches to teaching are not mutually exclusive. Ef-fective instruction is often a blend of techniques and methods. A widely applied ex-ample of a successful combination of the cognitive and behavioral approaches is thestrategies intervention model (SIM), conceptualized and developed at the Uni-versity of Kansas Center for Learning. The cognitive component of the model focuseson the teaching of learning strategies—techniques, rules, and generalizations thatguide students in the acquisition, integration, storage,and retrieval of curriculum con-tent (Rogan, 2000). Behavioral principles are used to directly teach the strategiesthrough an explicit instructional sequence. Specifically, using a structured series oflearning activities, targeted strategies are described, modeled, rehearsed, practiced,and, if successful, generalized to other areas of instructional content (Deshler & Schu-maker, 2006). We have an in-depth discussion on SIM in Chapter 6.

SYSTEMATIC TEACHING

How do effective teachers deliver instruction? What do teachers need to know to de-liver instruction to diverse and sometimes challenging groups of students? We focuson five elements of effective teaching: grouping for instruction, presenting content,providing opportunities for practice, monitoring student progress, and using technol-ogy to support instruction.

Grouping for InstructionHow were you grouped for instruction during your years in school? You may rememberinstances of small-group work and working in collaborative teams. However, it is morelikely you will recall a teacher at the front of the room providing instruction to all studentsin your class. There are advantages to this type of large-group instruction: Information isquickly and efficiently conveyed to a large number of students, and many students learnthis information and can respond correctly to questions on a test when asked about thecontent.Still,there are many students who cannot learn academic content in whole groupsand require some instruction that uses alternative grouping arrangements. We focus onthree alternative grouping strategies that are designed to allow teachers to provide morefocused instruction to students who struggle when faced with whole-class instruction.

Ability grouping allows teachers to focus on students’ common learning char-acteristics and instructional needs. When used judiciously, this type of instructionalarrangement can be highly effective, allowing struggling learners to benefit from theintensive and targeted instruction they need to make adequate academic progress.Un-fortunately, the overuse of ability grouping can be detrimental academically and so-cially, with low-performing students spending most of their school day separated,and eventually alienated, from high-achieving peers (Freeman & Alkin, 2000; Good& Brophy, 2003; Oakes, 1992; Reutzel, 2003; Salend & Duhaney, 1999).

Mixed ability grouping is an approach in which small groups of students (usuallythree to six) work in cooperative groups to learn and to ensure that others on their teamlearn as well (Slavin, 1995). Validated by years of research (e.g., Good & Brophy, 2003;

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To see how Bobby Biddleuses cooperative grouping

in her classroom, go tothe Ms. Biddle module on the

DVD-ROM and click on clip 8:Cooperative Groups.


Johnson, Johnson, & Holubec, 1993; Slavin, 1995), cooperative learning groups varywidely in type yet share some common beneficial characteristics (Putnam, 1998):

• Positive interdependence. The accomplishment of the group goal depends onheterogeneous, diverse group members working together and each individualattaining his or her goal.

• Individual accountability. All students are held individually accountable fortheir own learning as well as for their contributions to the group.

• Cooperative skills. Students practice social and cooperative skills that arecommonly used in group activities, such as sharing materials, turn taking,helping one another, and encouraging others.

• Student reflection and goal setting. At the end of a cooperative activity, studentsevaluate how the group functioned and whether the group’s goals were met.

Individual tutoring is generally recognized as the optimal instructional method formeeting the needs of students who are struggling academically (Pinnell, Lyons, De-Ford, Bryk, & Seltzer, 1994; Slavin et al., 1994; Spear-Swerling & Sternberg, 1996;Vaughn, Gersten, & Chard, 2000) Of course, the drawback to this method is that it isvery labor-intensive and expensive. To reduce costs,some schools have rearranged theschool day to allow teachers to provide tutoring just before or after school. Othershave trained tutors (e.g.,parent volunteers, teacher education students from local uni-versities) to work with students during or after school hours.

Peer-tutoring programs, widely used and cost-effective, often focus on after-school tutoring in subject areas for middle or high school students or tutoring in ba-sic skills areas (e.g., reading and math) for elementary students. These programs usesame-age peers or cross-age arrangements, typically older students tutoring youngerstudents. Interestingly, well-designed tutoring programs result in improved educa-tional outcomes for both the tutor and the tutee who is struggling to learn academiccontent (Elbaum, Vaughn, Hughes, & Moody, 1999; Fuchs, Fuchs, & Burish, 2000;Mathes, Howard, Babyak, & Allen, 2000; Vaughn et al., 2000).

Presenting ContentThe effective presentation of new content typically begins with an overview, oradvance organizer, of the activities students will do and how they fit contextually

with previous and future lessons and units.Once this initial review is completed, instruc-tion on new content begins with an explicitdemonstration of target concepts, facts, skills,or principles. Lecturing is a primary way ofpresenting information in content classes.However, effective teachers often introducedemonstrations from students and frequentlycheck for student understanding by providingopportunities to respond (e.g., unison and in-dividual responding). To engage students dur-ing instruction, it is critical that teachersquestion students in ways that match the spe-cific goals of the lesson for the individual stu-dent (Rosenberg,O’Shea,& O’Shea,2006).Forexample, depending on the goal of the lessonfor the student, questions range from factualknowledge and comprehension to higher-order demands such as application, analysis,integration, and evaluation of information.Equally important is how teachers provide

feedback to students.Effective teachers typically respond to students’correct answerswith statements that paraphrase or elaborate on the content. When responses are in-correct, teachers provide additional cues and corrective feedback.

Well-designed peer tutoringactivities result in improvedoutcomes for those who both giveand receive assistance.

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Opportunities for PracticeGuided practice is characterized by closely supervised activities in which the teacheruses prompts, cues, and feedback to shape fluent student performance. However, asstudents begin to acquire the content of a lesson, teachers begin to fade their level ofprompts and focus on fast,accurate,and fluent responding.Keep in mind that, in manylessons,the shift from presenting content to guided practice is often indistinguishable;the most important factor is that students have numerous opportunities to practicethe content of the lesson.Examples of effective guided practice activities include uni-son responding (groups of students responding to a single request simultaneously),having several students solving a problem on the board,and having groups of studentsworking together cooperatively to illustrate a specific concept or operation (Rosen-berg et al., 2006).

Independent practice follows success with guided practice,when students areready to work toward greater fluency through activities such as seatwork and home-work. Although independent practice can be addressed through instructional gamesand cooperative learning activities, seatwork is the most frequently used form of in-dependent practice;students spend as much as 70% of their day in such activities.Con-sequently, it is essential that independent seatwork be prepared in effective ways.According to Gaffney (1987), successful teachers

• Develop and assign independent seatwork activities that are age-appropriate,attractive,organized,and directly related to the goals and objectives of their lessons

• Preface seatwork with instructions that are clear and succinct• Design seatwork with multiple stimulus and response formats• Ensure that the activities can be completed with a high degree of success and

that provisions are made for students to check the accuracy of their responses

Once students demonstrate proficiency with specific concepts and operations,in-dependent practice activities can be given as homework assignments. Like seatwork,homework is most helpful when teachers adhere to certain guidelines (Cooper,2001;Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2001). However, when assigning homework, keep inmind that for younger students homework is a method to foster positive attitudes to-ward school and to develop desirable work habits; for older students the main goal isto provide additional practice opportunities to reinforce skills acquired in class. Con-sequently, homework should not be used to punish students or to replace school-based instruction (see Figure 5.3).

1. The amount of homework should differ based on the student's grade level. Grades 1–3: three or four assignments per week, lasting 10–30 minutes each Grades 4–6: three or four assignments per week, lasting 40–60 minutes eachMiddle school: four or five assignments per week, lasting 70–90 minutes each High school: four or five assignments per week, lasting 100–120 minutes each

2. Homework for students with disabilities should be similar to homework completed by others. 3. The purpose of homework should be clear to students and their parents:

Practice information already learnedElaborate on information already learnedPrepare to learn new information

4. Homework should be work that the student can complete independently and include bothmandatory and voluntary assignments.

5. The role of the parent in homework is to create a positive home environment for complet-ing homework.

6. Feedback should be provided for all homework that is completed.

FIGURE 5.3

HOMEWORK: GUIDELINES FOR TEACHERS TO ENSURE EFFECTIVE PRACTICE

Source: Adapted from Cooper, 2001; Cooper & Nye, 1994; Marzano et al., 2001.

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Monitoring Student PerformanceWhen teachers monitor student academicprogress and make changes in instructionbased on this progress (or lack of progress),student academic achievement improves(Deno, 2003; Fuchs, 2004). Teachers monitortheir students by directly observing them per-forming academically (e.g., reading orally,completing math problems, conducting a sci-ence experiment), administering quizzes andexams, and analyzing independent assign-ments and homework. Teachers also receivesummative, long-term feedback from stan-dardized tests. Unfortunately, many teachersdo not have readily available information tomonitor the effectiveness of instruction on adaily or weekly basis,data needed to make de-cisions about changes in instruction (e.g.,reteaching a basic skill or concept).

A system of classroom assessment called Curriculum-Based Measurement(CBM) can help address this shortcoming (Deno, 1985, 2003; Fuchs, 2004). CBM is asimple,easy-to-use approach for assessing student progress in academic content areasover time.Compared to other procedures that monitor student progress,CBM has thefollowing advantages (Deno, 2003; Fuchs, 2004):

• It allows teachers to select skills measured based on the curriculum beingtaught.

• It is quick and efficient, taking 1–3 minutes.• It is used to plan student instruction (e.g., identifying specific skill deficits to

reteach).• It compares the progress of students as needed.

A number of studies have demonstrated the value of CBM. Since teachers assessstudent performance as students are acquiring skills, instructional methods can bemodified to facilitate better academic achievement (Overton, 2006).

USING TECHNOLOGY TO SUPPORT INSTRUCTION

Technology continues to greatly influence the way instruction is delivered at all lev-els of education. Two types of technology are commonly used in educational setting:instructional technology and assistive technology. Instructional technology (IT) ishardware- and software-designed to enhance teaching and learning in your currentcourses (Edyburn, 2000). IT is so pervasive (applications of Blackboard, PowerPointpresentations,etc.), that some teachers view it as distracting,overwhelming,and a “so-lution in search of a problem.” To avoid such a situation,teachers should evaluate eachpiece of hardware or software, keeping the following questions in mind (Edyburn,2000; Higgins, Boone, & Williams, 2000):

1. Is the IT easy to use and based on the principles of effective teaching?2. Has research been conducted to support the effectiveness of the instructional

technology?3. Does the IT address the objectives that guide your instruction and address the

needs of students at different skill levels?4. Is the IT accessible for students with different types of disabilities (e.g.,cognitive,

sensory, physical)?

Assistive technology (AT) refers to “any item, piece of equipment, or productsystem, whether acquired commercially off the shelf, modified, or customized, that isused to increase,maintain,or improve the functional capabilities of a child with a dis-

Child doing homework at home:Rather than punish students orreplace instruction, homeworkshould be used to foster desirablework habits and reinforce skills.

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ability”(IDEA,2004,Sec.620[1]).Recall that IDEA requires that assistive technology beconsidered when planning IEPs for students with disabilities. AT devices used to en-hance the performance of students with disabilities include communication boardsfor persons with limited mobility and devices that translate written words into tactilesymbols for persons who read braille (Edyburn,2002; Westling & Fox,2005).(Featureson how technology is applied to the education of students with specific disabilitiesappear in later chapters.)

MANAGING STUDENT BEHAVIOR

If interesting, well-planned, evidenced-based lessons are to reach students, they mustbe complemented by efficient and positive strategies for managing student behavior.Consider the following scenario illustrating the importance of classroom manage-ment. You are teaching a very interesting lesson on the characteristics of American so-ciety that contributed to the birth of rap and hip-hop music. You observe that most ofthe 10th graders are engaged in the lesson. Why not? You spent more than 3 hourspreparing the lesson,carefully selecting a series of recordings by musicians who haveinfluenced generations of adolescents.Moreover,you have tied the music to a timelineof significant historical events ranging from civil rights marches to demonstrationsagainst the persistent poverty in urban centers such as Los Angeles and Detroit. Mostof the students are truly motivated by the lesson. Still, as he has for several weeks,Sammy Tisch has refused to settle down and attend to the lesson. Even when hechooses to participate in the discussion, he does so in a most inappropriate fashion.He tries to upstage his classmates by ridiculing their opinions, acting like the classclown, and denigrating aspects of your teaching. Although he has no definitive opin-ions of his own,Sammy disrupts the flow of class by frequently talking out of turn andusing suggestive and sometimes profane language.Even more significant,he has yet tohand in an acceptable assignment.

In one form or another, situations like thisone occur in classrooms.Consequently, teachers’level of anxiety and concern about behaviormanagement, particularly if they are beginningteachers, is quite high. In polls of teacher atti-tudes toward the public schools, 65% of theteachers responding indicated that the lack ofdiscipline is a very or fairly serious problem intheir local school. In a national survey of publicschool teachers, 41% noted that student misbe-havior interfered with their teaching and thatthey had to interrupt instruction an average of10.33 times per week (Langdon, 1999; NCES,2002). This need not be the case: Along withteaching students to understand curriculum,teachers can minimize classroom disruptions bymanaging and directing the complex interrela-tionships among structure,expectations,and stu-dent behaviors.

Fortunately, most school and classroom mis-behavior is related to a few well-defined factors,including inattention to task, crowd control is-sues during transitions, getting work accom-plished in a timely fashion,and students trying tobe cool by testing the limits (Jones & Jones,2004; Kottler, 2002). Common misbehaviors in-clude tardiness,disrespect,being unprepared, talking,calling out, and mild, infrequentvarieties of verbal and physical acting out. Many of these behaviors can be prevented

Reflective Exercise #4Discipline and behavior-management issues tend to elicitconsiderable anxiety amongbeginning teachers. Think of ateacher you have observed whomanaged the classroom in a calm,positive, and effective manner. Doyou have dispositions that willhelp you manage student behaviorin your classroom?

Behavior management is a majoranxiety-producing concern formany beginning teachers.

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through proactive structuring of the school and classroom environment;those that arenot prevented typically stop when they are brought to the attention of teachers, ad-ministrators, and/or parents. However, some students go beyond these mild forms ofchallenging behavior and repeatedly disrupt the flow of school and classroom events,respond defiantly when asked to participate appropriately in activities, and hurt oth-ers both physically and emotionally when frustrated. The number of such studentsand the frequency of their behaviors often vary according to the levels of structureand consistency in the school and individual classrooms. Keep in mind, however, thateven in the most positive and structured schools and classrooms there will be studentswho, for any number of reasons, pose challenges because of their behavior.

Just as they plan and provide academic supports for instruction,teachers like BobbyBiddle take an active role in ensuring that student behavior is managed in a systematic,proactive, and positive fashion. When we use the term systematic, we mean that disci-

Site Visit:Effective Practices in ActionEFFICACY OF SYSTEMATIC,

COMPREHENSIVE, SCHOOLWIDE BEHAVIOR-MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS

The implementation of systematic, comprehensive behavior-management systems is a prime exam-ple of an evidence-based intervention that is a suggested practice for our nation’s schools and class-rooms. In fact, both Early Warning, Timely Response: A Guide to Safe Schools (Dwyer, Osher, &Warger, 1998) and Safeguarding Our Children: An Action Guide (Dwyer & Osher, 2000), two feder-ally funded guides for violence prevention in schools, strongly recommend that schools build a sup-portive schoolwide foundation to meet the behavioral needs of all students. This is due in large partto the positive outcomes reported by program developers in large numbers of project schools. Threeof the more prominent schoolwide positive behavior support (PBS) models are Effective BehavioralSupports (Lewis & Sugai, 1999), PAR (Rosenberg & Jackman, 2003), and Unified Discipline (White etal., 2001). Data from more than 500 schools nationwide (Sugai & Horner, 2002) indicate that the ap-plication of PBS decreases the frequency of office referral between 40 and 60% as well as improvesthe quality of the referrals seen by administrators. Moreover, as the climate of the school improves,teachers spend more time teaching and students experience corresponding academic gains. The ef-fects of the intervention maintain for 5 to 7 years in those settings where validated practices areadopted. Office referrals in more than 25 PAR program (Rosenberg & Jackman, 2000) schools de-creased from 3 to 77%. In one middle school, tracked for a 4-year period, suspensions fell from 285 to5; and climate measures reflected increases in staff morale, instructional time, and quality of collabo-rative relationships among teachers, administrators, and parents. Comparing the effects of the Effec-tive Behavior Support Program in seven elementary schools over 2 years with the remaining 28schools in a school district, Nelson, Martella, and Marchand-Martella (2002) found that the interven-tion schools experienced declines in suspensions,emergency removals,and office referrals while theother schools had increases in these areas. Moreover, academic achievement was superior in the in-tervention schools, and those students who required targeted or specialized treatments improved onmeasures of social competence. Finally, the teachers in the intervention schools were supportive ofthe initiative and believed that the program was easy to apply and beneficial to students. Clearly, nomatter what the program is called, comprehensive schoolwide approaches to behavior managementare a viable means of creating positive learning environments for all students.

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pline and behavior-management activities are interrelated actions within the complexand complicated ecosystems of schools and classrooms. There is no easily accessed bagof tricks for managing schools and classrooms; effective discipline and behavior man-agement require logical, logistical, and careful thinking in a comprehensive fashion.

Being proactive refers to specific actions taken to prevent or minimize the fre-quency or intensity of problem behaviors. Proactive measures can be as simple as or-ganizing high-traffic areas of the classroom to minimize disruptions or as sophisticatedas developing and prompting specific procedures to maintain order in the lunchroomor during recess.

Finally, when we talk of being positive, we are addressing the attitude that ac-companies discipline and behavior-management activities. Rather than emphasizingthe punitive side of a classroom discipline,having a positive behavior-management sys-tem allows the teacher to encourage appropriate student behavior by providing ex-plicit standards, supports to assist students in meeting those standards, andrecognition for doing what is expected.

THE THREE TIERS OF SYSTEMATIC BEHAVIOR MANAGEMENT

The first step in developing a systematic, proactive, and positive behavior-management system in your school and classroom is recognizing the three tiers of be-havior management (Lewis & Sugai, 1999; Rosenberg & Jackman, 2003; Walker et al.,1996). The first level, inclusive proactive management activities (see Figure 5.4), fo-cuses on enhancing preventive and protective factors in a way that encourages stu-dents to meet behavioral expectations. At this inclusive or universal level, the learningenvironment is organized by developing a statement of purpose, rules, procedures,and consequences for appropriate and inappropriate behavior. Moreover, parent andfamily involvement, crisis procedures, and the physical environment are structured inways that promote student success. By having a consistent set of rules, expectations,procedures, and consequences, consistency in the application of discipline proce-dures is increased, and the frequency of students requiring more intensive interven-tions is reduced.

Even with the best plan and activities for this first inclusive level of behavior man-agement, there will be students who cannot or will not respond with appropriate be-havior. Students with chronic and sustained levels of problem behaviors will requiremore intensive and targeted interventions and support. Typically, these targeted sec-ondary interventions require specialized academic enhancements and accommoda-tions as well as individually tailored behavior-change initiatives, including social skillsinstruction, self-monitoring, and the teaching of appropriate replacement behaviors.Interventions at the third tier of the model are most appropriate for students whosebehaviors are severely involved, frequently antisocial, and very difficult to change.Teachers are not alone with these students:Collaborative wraparound,interagency co-operation is at the core of these interventions, and a major goal of educators is con-necting students and their families with the appropriate community-based socialservice agencies (Walker et al., 1996).

INCLUSIVE BEHAVIOR MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

Three factors are at the core of effective inclusive management practices: (1) the de-sign of the physical environment, (2) the quality of classroom organization and in-struction, and (3) the elements of the tangible management plan.

Design of Physical EnvironmentWhere we place student desks,how we organize frequently used materials,and wherewe designate free-time zones all impact student behavior. Moreover, the relationshipbetween the physical environment and student responses is especially pronouncedfor students with disabilities since they typically require additional structure in all as-pects of their education.Guides, strategies, and checklists (e.g., Algozinne, Ysseldyke,& Elliot, 1998; Evertson et al., 2005; Paine, Radicci, Rosellini, Deutchman, & Darch,

Reflective Exercise #5Why is it important to beginsystematic behavior managementefforts at the primary or universallevel? Why not start with intensiveinterventions that address the needsof students who are acting out?

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1983; Rosenberg et al., 2006) have been developed that focus on specific areas in-cluding (1) arranging public and private space; (2) ensuring easy line of vision; (3) ac-cess, care, and storage of materials; and (4) aesthetics.Table 5.2 contains strategies forarranging the classroom to facilitate appropriate behavior.

Organization and Effective InstructionWhen a teacher is well organized, there is little chance that seemingly trivial matterscan escalate into time-consuming classroom-management challenges. Consider howthis sample of key teacher-based organizers—transition cues, routines and proce-dures, and coordination of resources—can minimize misbehavior. Transitions, the un-avoidable by-products of busy classrooms,tend to cause disruptions because students,required to switch locations and activities, are not engaged in a specific task. Orga-nized teachers facilitate efficient transitions by directly teaching students how to tran-sition: (1) breaking the transition down into specific steps or components, (2)modeling appropriate ways of moving step-by-step through the transition, (3) assert-ing control in various transition activities, and (4) using a range of group and individ-ual cues to signal transitions (Rosenberg et al., 2006).

Routines and procedures help teachers orchestrate everyday tasks and activi-ties with efficiency and effectiveness. When taught,prompted,and reinforced,explicit

Inclusive ProactiveManagement Activities

• Positive and Negative Consequences • Comprehensive Management Plan

• Parent and Family Involvement • Rules, Policies, and Procedures

• Academic Adaptations • Crisis Management

Targeted Interventions

• Academic Accommodations • Curriculum Adaptations

• Social Skills Instruction • Behavior Contracts

• Conflict Resolution • Peer Mediation

Multiagency Interventions

• Mental Health Services • Family Preservation

• Social Work • Medical

AdditionalSpecialization

andTraining for

ServiceProviders

AdditionalSupport

Available toStudents

FIGURE 5.4

INCLUSIVE SUPPORT MODEL

Source: Adapted from Nelson, 1996; Rosenberg & Jackman, 1997; and Walker et al., 1996.Reprinted with permission of PRO-ED, Inc.

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TABLE 5.2

ARRANGING THE CLASSROOM TO MINIMIZE PROBLEM BEHAVIORS

Areas Strategies and Actions

Arranging • Provide areas for group work, individual work, and free activity time.public and • Limit exposure to potential distracters such as windows, free-time area, private space and displays, particularly for those with attention-deficit issues.

• Keep high-traffic areas free of unnecessary congestion by locatingcommonly visited stations (e.g., pencil sharpener, lavatory pass,assignment in-box) in separate areas of the classroom.

• Use furniture, bookcases, and dividers to facilitate flow of studentmovement.

• Have a fixed yet flexible seating arrangement for students and make surethat low-ability students are close to the action.

• Open spaces with no clear purpose should be avoided.

Ensuring easy • Ensure that students can see key elements of instruction (e.g., the lines of vision teacher, aide, chalkboard).

• Arrange the classroom to keep all areas of the room in full view.

Access, care, • Allow for easy access to supplies and materials to facilitate transitions and storage between and among activities.of materials • Keep frequently used materials within easy reach by making use of

learning centers, activity stations, or other similarly designated areas.

Aesthetics • Post content-appropriate bulletin board displays.• Provide ample opportunities to showcase student work.• When possible ensure that lighting is appropriate and that the room is

not uncomfortably hot or cold.• Highlight a policy of room care by regularly scheduling opportunities for

students to keep the room neat and clean.• Allow students to make part of the room their own; designate specific

areas of the room for students to share their hobbies and interests.

Source: Adapted from Evertson et al., 1984; Paine et al., 1983; and Rosenberg et al., 2006.

Effective teachers have routines and procedures that guide students through classroom activities,processes, and transitions.

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guides for morning arrival, dismissal, going to the lavatory, and entering the cafeteriadecrease minor disruptive behaviors. As with transitions, specific steps for routinesand procedures guide students through the often complicated processes associatedwith completing a task. Moreover, supports such as self-monitoring sheets and peer-buddy systems help those students who have difficulty following established proce-dures (see Figure 5.5).

When we speak of coordinating resources to prevent the occurrence of misbe-havior,we are referring to several organizational,up-front procedures that increase theopportunities for disruption-free instruction. Two of these resources help during par-ticularly stressful times: (1) keeping a list, complete with names and phone numbers,of the school and community resources available to assist you when faced with diffi-cult behavior-management situations; and (2) preparing a substitute-teacher packetthat includes building-policy information, behavior-management plans, daily lessonplans, alternative activities, specific student information,and classroom procedural in-formation (Platt, 1987).

A major prerequisite to the success of any systematic approach to behavior man-agement is that motivating, effective instruction is occurring on a consistent basis.Some students, such as Sammy Tisch, who encounter repeated frustration with aca-demic content and how it is presented, may find it more acceptable to act out ratherthan “act dumb.” For understandable developmental reasons, it is much easier for un-successful learners to tell peers that they are goofing on a teacher rather than ex-plaining that they are clueless about how to respond to the content presented. Sowhat does this mean in terms of a teacher’s behavior-management system? Clearly, acatalog of specific instructional accommodations, supports, and content enhance-ments, like the ones presented in the first part of this chapter, are part of a manage-ment toolkit. Those students who are able to access and interact with the instructional

Cafeteria ProceduresCARE ABOUT FOOD & ENJOY lunch!• Join the END of ONE line, ONE time.• Sit in your assigned area.• Respect each other's space, feelings, and property.• Use appropriate language and tone.• Dispose of waste correctly when you're finished eating. (Remember to recycle your alu-

minum cans in the bins!)• Remain silent during dismissal.• Follow hallway procedures when returning to class.

Morning Arrival Procedures• Go directly to your locker.• Take all supplies needed for your morning classes.• Put hats and other personal items in your locker.• If you eat breakfast in school, report directly to the cafeteria.• Report directly to homeroom by the warning bell.• Upon arrival to homeroom, complete your morning log.• Listen quietly to morning announcements.

Arrival to and Dismissal from Class Procedures• Be seated when bell rings and begin working on warmup.• After completing warmup, wait quietly for teacher to begin.• The teacher directs preparation for dismissal.• When given the signal, clean up your workspace and pack your book bag.• When bell rings, wait for teacher to dismiss the class.• Walk safely, quickly, and quietly to your next class.

FIGURE 5.5

SAMPLE PROCEDURES FOR AVOIDING DISRUPTIVE EVENTS

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content being presented are less likely to act up because they will be able to “actsmart” and receive the internal satisfaction that accompanies a task well done. More-over, with an emphasis on instruction, classroom management is directed at the mod-ification of educational factors that directly influence academic productivity,sustaining the role of teachers as specialists in learning responsible for promoting ac-ademic gains in the classroom (Witt, VanDerHeyden, & Gilbertson, 2004).

Elements of the Tangible Management PlanWhat should be included in a comprehensive behavior-management plan, and howshould these elements be presented to students,their family members,and our related-service colleagues? Five core elements contribute to successful plans: (1) mission orstatement of purpose; (2) explicit rules, procedures, and supports; (3) consequencesfor appropriate and inappropriate behavior; (4) a crisis-management plan; and (5) adocument that describes the plan (Curwin & Mendler,1988;Lewis & Sugai,1999;Nel-son, 1996; Rosenberg & Jackman, 2003; Walker, Colvin, & Ramsey, 1995).

Mission or Statement of Purpose. When we speak of a mission or statement of pur-pose, we are referring to a brief declaration that asserts an approach to teaching andlearning with a particular emphasis on expected school and classroom behavior. Thestatement should have a positive focus and reflect a respect for the dignity of all studentsand a commitment to helping students perform to their highest level (White,1996).

Explicit Rules, Procedures, and Supports. Explicit rules and procedures allow us tocommunicate behavioral standards and expectations to all in the school or classroomcommunity.Rules define what is and is not acceptable behavior;procedures delineatethe specific steps required for the successful completion of a task, activity, or opera-tion. We cannot overstate the importance of well-articulated rules and procedures,particularly for students with disabilities who need supports. Well-defined, succinctrules and procedures promote positive behavior, and teachers who make use of themare regarded as effective classroom managers (Smith & Rivera, 1995).

Teachers have found the following general guidelines useful for developing rulesand procedures (Curwin & Mendler, 1988; Evertson et al., 1984; Paine et al., 1983;Rosenberg et al., 2006; Walker et al., 1995).

• Identify behaviors expected of students. Use action-based terminology to definebehaviors necessary for success in your school and classroom.

• Limit the number of rules and keep the language positive and jargon-free.Typically four to six jargon-free rules are enough to cover the range of typicallydesired behaviors.

• Generate a menu of procedural events. Conduct a task analysis and developstep-by-step, student-based actions for successful completion of daily events(lavatory, cafeteria, entry to class, dismissal).

• Have a solid rationale for each of your rules and procedures. Relate the need foreach rule and procedure back to the mission or statement of purpose,highlighting how following the rules and procedures promotes success.

• Involve students in the development and teaching of rules and procedures. Letstudents illustrate positive and negative examples of rule and procedurecompliance.

• Keep rules posted in several visible areas. Displays of rules and procedures arepowerful cues for desired behavior and often prompt students to exhibitpositive behaviors with limited teacher direction.

• Teach, practice, reteach, and practice again. Rules and procedures need to betaught just like content material in the curriculum. Teachers should modelinstances of rule compliance and the performance of specific procedures.

• Provide supports for those students who have difficulty meeting expectations.Rather than changing expectations for those students who have difficulty withrule and procedural compliance, provide positive behavioral supports, proactiveadjustments, or accommodations that increase the probability that students willhave success.

Reflective Exercise #6How can a mission statement setthe tone for high expectations in aschool or classroom? What valuesand beliefs would you wish toconvey in a mission or statementof purpose to the students in yourclassroom?

Reflective Exercise #7Identify student behaviors youbelieve are essential for success inyour classroom. How would youdevelop these expectations into aset of positive rules andprocedures?

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TABLE 5.3

SURFACE MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES

Technique How It Works

Planned ignoring Similar to the behavioral technique of extinction, planned ignoring isthe conscious attempt not to feed into the student’s need forimmediate gratification. This technique works best for minorbehaviors that will fade away if not reinforced.

Signal interference Signal interference is the use of nonverbal gestures, eye contact,noises, and body postures that communicate to students that theirbehavior is not appropriate.

Proximity control Proximity control is when the adult uses close presence to deterbehaviors of concern.

Interest boosting Interest boosting is a direct intervention used to reenergize astudent’s flagging interest by demonstrating genuine interest in theassignment. Interest can be heightened by noting the challengingnature of the activity or indicating personal interest in the content.

Tension This involves the diplomatic use of humor, often the self-deprecating decontamination type, to reduce a tense or anxiety-filled situation. When in doubt through humor of the value of the humorous comment to be made, don’t make it.

Antiseptic bouncing Antiseptic bouncing is a technique used to safely remove a studentfrom a potentially serious behavioral event in a nonpunitive fashion(e.g., delivering a message, washing up). Care should be taken not touse antiseptic bouncing so often as to allow students to realize that,by acting up, they can get out of ongoing activities.

Surface Management and Consequences. A systematic approach to behavior is builton the foundation that students choose to either comply or not comply with the statedexpectations.Not surprisingly,how we respond to their choices has an enormous im-pact on the quantity and quality of future student behavior. Typically, teacher re-sponses to student behavior fall into three major categories: surface managementtechniques, consequences for rule and procedure compliance, and consequences fornoncompliance.

When we speak of surface management techniques, we are referring to arange of measures for dealing with minor instances of misbehavior quickly,efficiently,and, for the most part, with little disruption of ongoing instruction. Although thenames for these techniques may seem novel and unusual, in action they will seem rec-ognizable. As you review several of the surface management techniques presented inTable 5.3, consider which of the techniques would work best for common disruptivebehaviors.

Consequences are planned, teacher-based actions that follow students’behaviors,both appropriate and inappropriate (Curwin & Mendler, 1999). Therefore, conse-quences are not used exclusively as punishment for rule infractions; effective conse-quences also allow for recognition of students when they follow rules andprocedures. Keep in mind that effective consequences are functional, meaning thatthey should result in changes in student behavior.Unfortunately, some consequences,particularly those that address student misbehavior, are applied out of anger and frus-tration, with little thought for their impact on student behavior.

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To see Bobby Biddlediscuss the comprehensivebehavior management

plan in place at her school, go tothe Ms. Biddle module on theDVD-ROM and click on clip 3:Behavior Mgmt.


Why is it important to look at the impact of consequences on the frequency andintensity of student behavior? Consider the common situation of sending studentsto the office for one of any number of possible rule infractions. Although it may bedifficult to fully grasp,some students may feel better off with a trip to the office thanhaving to complete assignments in class. Consider what goes on while they are inthe office. While waiting to see the assistant principal in charge of discipline, theyget to observe the administrative activities and events as well as interact with themany people who come and go. Moreover, if they can time it correctly, they mighteven be able to meet friends and fool around even more in the bustling office! Howdoes all of this relate to consequences? In brief, if office referrals are not plannedcorrectly, it is possible they can actually increase instances of negative behaviorrather than decrease them.

One more cautionary note regarding consequences: When delivering conse-quences it is essential to maintain an educative rather than vindictive disposition.Sometimes events in the classroom anger and frustrate teachers. Instead of presentingconsequences in a dispassionate, thoughtful manner, they are delivered in a vengeful,almost menacing fashion.Rather than looking to alter student misbehavior,a teacher’simmediate reaction may be to get back at the student. These situations can be mini-mized by sustaining a professional manner, attending to feelings regularly, and recog-nizing that it is part of your responsibility to keep frustration and resentment in check(Curwin & Mendler, 1999).

Many teachers choose to recognize appropriate behavior with tangible yet natu-ral recognitions such as certificates, notes home, phone calls home, free time, andhomework passes. Students can also be recognized by having the honor of being thefirst to go for lunch, helping the teacher grade papers, tutoring younger students, andserving as a messenger for the librarian. In other cases teachers can use a series ofnovel techniques to recognize the entire class based on the behavior of all of its mem-bers. For example, “gotta have it” cards (see Figure 5.6), mystery motivators, and lot-tery systems allow teachers to respond to positive behavior in a strong, intermittentfashion. Still, when selecting positive consequences, you should exercise caution andchoose recognitions that are age-appropriate, correspond to students’ levels of func-tioning, and do not inadvertently deprive students of their basic rights (Rhode et al.,1998).For example,no student should have to earn access to lunch, the lavatory,or, insome cases, field trips that are provided to all students.

To decrease the frequency and intensity of problem behaviors, effective teachersdevelop a hierarchy of negative consequences. Consider the following negative-consequence hierarchy developed collectively by the teachers of Stratford Landing El-ementary School in Fairfax, Virginia:

• Level 1. Surface management techniques• Level 2. Class reminders/restate rules/praise those complying• Level 3. Verbal reminder specific to individual student• Level 4. Take-a-break within classroom (allow student to have quiet time and

rejoin group when ready; work missed is to be made up)• Level 5. Teacher-directed time-out (student is to make up all missed work

during portion of recess or free time)• Level 6. Reflection time in class or in buddy teacher’s room (student is to [1]

complete an age- or grade-level-appropriate reflection sheet, [2] have a privateconference with teacher, and [3] complete a back-to-class activity that focuseson work missed when out of class; parent will be contacted after a secondreflection-time consequence during each marking period)

• Level 7. Administrative/office referral (student is to bring referral sheet and anyprevious reflection forms to office; parent is to be contacted, and action plan forchange in behavior is generated)

• Note. Some inappropriate behaviors (e.g., fighting, bullying, bringing contrabandto school) will result in immediate referral to the office and possible suspensionfrom school.

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FIGURE 5.6

GOTTA HAVE IT CARD

Source: Adapted from Deer Park Middle School. (1998) PAR manual.

Don’t mistake the presence of a hierarchy as a requirement that every step beused every time a student acts out. The hierarchy is a guide for teachers and allows fora graduated response to behavior.

Crisis Management. The most frightening part of a crisis situation is that the student in-volved appears to have little or no control over his or her behavior.Consequently,surfacemanagement techniques and consequences have little or no effect. When a crisis occurs,the teacher’s initial task is to help get the student through the crisis in a safe,nonthreat-ening,and nonpunitive fashion and maintain the safety of others. When dealing with thecrisis, you should not exceed your level of expertise. Note that crisis intervention is dif-ferent from crisis management in that it requires a series of actions from counselors,psy-chologists, and certified crisis personnel. Nonetheless, all teachers should know how tomanage a crisis situation. The ideal course of action is for each school to develop a crisisresponse team of four or five people trained in both verbal intervention techniques andsafe, nonaversive methods of physical restraint (Johns & Carr, 1995). However, you maybe in a school without a proper functioning team. When required to manage crisis situa-tions,do the following (Albert,2003; Johns & Carr,1995; Jones & Jones,2004):

• Remain calm and send someone for assistance.• Guard against body language and punitive, confrontational verbalizations that

can escalate the situation.• Be aware of the safety needs of other students.• Have a plan for reentry after the crisis.

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Promoting Access to the Plan. Once a comprehensive behavior-management plan isconceptualized, you will want to disseminate it to students, their families, administra-tors, and related-service providers. Some schoolwide teams and individual teacherscreate full-sized manuals that articulate rather completely the major components (mis-sion statement, rules, procedures, consequences) of the management plan. Othershave developed user-friendly brochures that highlight the major components of theplan. Figure 5.7 provides an example of a brochure produced by the teachers ofWilliam Halley Elementary School as part of their participation in the PAR project atJohns Hopkins University (Rosenberg & Jackman, 2003).

TARGETED AND WRAPAROUND INTERVENTIONS

All schools have students who do not respond to even the most well-designed inclu-sive management plans. In fact, inclusive comprehensive management plans are ef-fective for approximately 85% of students and are not designed to significantlyimprove the behavior of students who exhibit extreme, frequent, and persistent pat-terns of problem behavior (Taylor-Greene et al., 1997). To address the needs of thesestudents, teachers and school personnel use targeted interventions and wraparoundinterventions. Targeted interventions are powerful, school-based actions directedtoward the chronic,repetitive,and pervasive problem behaviors of individual students(Walker et al.,1995). These interventions are typically dynamic,simultaneously strength-ening appropriate behavior as they weaken the presenting challenging behaviors.

Halley School RulesSTARS

SucceedStay on task. Try your bestand put forth your best ef-fort. Be prepared for class.

ThinkThink safety first. Think ofhow others feel. Think ofyourself. Think before youact.

AttitudeFollow directions the firsttime they are given. Useappropriate language andtone. Be on time. Build up,no put-downs.

RespectRespect each other’s space,feelings, and property. Showrespect for adults. Respectyourself. Take responsibilityfor your own actions.

SoarSet goals. Go beyond expec-tations. Reach for the stars.

Positive BehaviorRecognition

• Smiles• Stickers• Happy Notes• Star Bookmarks• Character awards• Specialist awards• Bus awards• Cafeteria awards• Happy phone call home• Special privileges• Lunch with an adult• Special treats• Tokens• Games or activities• Each teacher has devel-

oped a specific plan to re-ward positive behavior inhis/her classroom. Be sureto ask your teacher aboutthe reward program inyour child’s classroom.

Hierarchy of Consequences

• Non-Verbal Cues• General Classroom Re-

minders• Student Specific Warning• Time-out in Classroom• Time-out in Another Class-

room• Parent Contact• After-School Detention• Guidance Referral• Office Referral*• CT Button*

* Parents may be notified atany level depending on theseverity of the situation orproblem.

* Some inappropriate stu-dent behavior may warrantimmediate use of more se-vere consequences.

FIGURE 5.7

HALLEY BROCHURE

Source: Adapted from Willam Halley Elementary School. (2001) Brochure.

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To see Bobby Biddle andher principal discuss the

concepts of caring andbuilding relationships, go to the

Ms. Biddle module on the DVD-ROM and click on clip 2:Responsibility for Learning and

clip 6: Relationships.


Wrap-around interventions are even more intensive, typically requiring the struc-tured,coordinated,and integrated efforts of a team of professionals (Eber,Sugai,Smith,& Scott, 2002). How are targeted and wraparound interventions designed? The mostdirect method is to complete a three-stage process that includes (1) conducting func-tional behavioral assessments (FBA), (2) developing behavior intervention plans(BIPs), and (3) evaluating the effectiveness of intervention. Specific applications ofthese processes are illustrated throughout the categorical chapters of this text,and de-tails on conducting an FBA appear in Chapter 7.

When developing interventions to address the needs of students who exhibit ex-treme problem behavior, remember that you are not alone. Typically, a team of spe-cialists from human service backgrounds will be convened to develop acomprehensive intervention. Within any number of schools there are administrators,behavior specialists, counselors, social workers, psychologists, and behavior-supportteams that implement specialized programs of outreach and intervention. For exam-ple, it is not unusual for counseling and guidance personnel to deliver family-supportinterventions or for school psychologists to have social-skills training groups andshort-term individual therapy sessions for high-need students.Outside the school, stu-dents can be “wrapped around” by services from physicians, mental health serviceproviders,family-preservation personnel,and state protective-service officers, juvenilejustice personnel, and even law-enforcement officers.

Keep in mind that services should be grounded in values that emphasize familyempowerment,cultural competence,flexibility,and the strengths of the child and fam-ily. As a teacher involved in this team process, you must embrace families as full part-ners in the intervention process and stay involved with the range of service providersboth within and outside the school system.(Descriptions of wraparound programs forstudents with emotional and behavioral disorders are detailed in Chapter 7.)

COMMUNICATING INSTRUCTION AND BEHAVIOR MANAGEMENT

Arguably, the most important consideration in teaching and managing student behavioris the manner in which teachers interact with students and colleagues. In many cases, itis not just what teachers say but the manner in which they communicate. To be pro-ductive instructional leaders, teachers need to be models of appropriate behavior andto communicate goals, requests, and intentions directly and efficiently. Most important,to be effective, teachers must convey to their students that they truly care about them.

DEVELOPING AUTHENTIC RELATIONSHIPSMr. Andrew Del Priori, known as Mr. Del to both students and adults at thelocal middle school, teaches one of the most difficult math classes, Intro-duction to Algebra,to students with a wide range of abilities.He has the rep-utation of having high expectations for all students and for being a strict butfair evaluator. His students report that he runs a tight, structured classroomin which instructional time is valued with ferocity.Mr.Del is one of the mostpopular teachers in the school. Students congregate in his room before andafter school, and many consult with him when facing confusing situationsin their academic and personal lives. What is it about Mr.Del that makes himso attractive to students? Why do they confide in him when faced withproblems? Students who know Mr.Del trust him and believe he cares aboutthem as both developing young people and advanced math students.Mr.Delprojects openness and concern and appears to really enjoy interacting withstudents (even the ones considered challenging).

How does a teacher begin to develop authentic relationships with students? First,you should realize that relationship building is more evolution than revolution. Rela-tionships with students take time to develop and are influenced by the many briefcontacts and interactions that you have with students every day. Small investments of

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teacher energy such as greeting students at the start of the day, expressing apprecia-tion for their efforts, recognizing special talents, taking an interest in aspects of theiractivities and personal lives, and predicting success in assignments will enhance thedevelopment of productive relationships (Koenig, 2000). As exchanges accumulate,students assess teacher credibility, seeing if what they do corresponds with what issaid.Second,authentic relationships are based on listening to students rather than justreacting to them. As observed by Postman and Weingartner (1969) in their classic textTeaching As a Subversive Activity, listening is the only way to learn what studentsview as relevant and the one true way to validate if what they say deserves attention,even if it is not always on target. Finally, developing children and adolescents oftenchoose to express themselves through a variety of creative ways, including dress,speech, demeanor, and belief systems. Relationships grow when teachers accept stu-dents for who they are,encourage them to maintain their individuality, and make con-tinued attempts to understand the world from their point of view.

CIVILITY AND RESPECT

Effective teachers demonstrate civility and respect in interactions with students andexhibit genuine concern for their individual welfare. When we speak of civility, wemean being cognizant that all our actions have consequences for others and antici-pating what those consequences may be (Forni, 2002). By respect we are referring toone’s basic human right to be acknowledged and treated with dignity. Teachers modelcivility and respect by engaging in many of the behaviors that maximize effective in-terpersonal communication, including (1) a vocal tone that conveys patience and un-derstanding and uses a minimum of judgmental language; (2) focused active listeningwith accompanying eye contact; and (3) regular private interactions that convey a de-sire to know students and their individual opinions and concerns (Kauffman Mostert,Trent, & Hallahan, 2002; Rosenberg et al., 2006).

It is important to treat students with respect even when you are frustrated by theiracademic performance or disappointed by their behaviors. Although this is often dif-ficult,you should emphasize that their problematic behaviors are the focus of disap-proval, not the students themselves. Keep in mind that up to 90% of what wecommunicate is transmitted in ways other than the actual words we use. Nonverbalcommunication, facial gestures and body language, and the rate, pitch, and volume ofspeech often reflect values and acceptance of students. Although unintended,actionsas simple as diverting one’s eyes, stepping back, looking at one’s watch, or speakingquickly send negative signals to students seeking our approval.

CREDIBILITY, DEPENDABILITY, AND ASSERTIVENESS

Credibility with students develops when (1) verbal behavior—what teachers say—coincides consistently with what they actually do and (2) when students perceive thattheir teachers are prepared and doing all they can to meet responsibilities in the class-room (Rosenberg et al.,2006).Credibility will not develop if teachers break their ownrules and standards (e.g., socializing with other teachers during “sacred” reading in-struction time), choose not to follow inconvenient schoolwide procedures, or are in-consistent in enforcement of a behavior-management plan. Finally, it is important thatwe realize that conveying authority need not involve threat, intimidation, or intru-siveness. In fact, confrontational styles of communication do little to promote credi-bility and dependability. Strong leaders convey their authority with tact, subtlety,diplomacy, and even humor. Consider these interpersonal communication guidelines(Curwin & Mendler, 1999; Westling & Koorland, 1988):

• Use positive, calm, controlled, and defined statements when requesting studentattention and compliance.

• Be confident, self-assured, and consistent; speak without hostility whendelivering consequences.

• Be firm, use a soft voice, and avoid arguing with students.

Reflective Exercise #8Think of a situation when anotherperson’s nonverbal communicationappeared in sharp contrast to thewords being expressed. How didthis situation make you feel? Whatwere your thoughts regarding thehonesty and integrity of thatindividual?

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• Let students know that their concerns will be addressed in a timely, caring, andconstructive manner.

• Don’t embarrass a student in front of peers.

BEING PROFESSIONAL: KEEP THINGS IN PERSPECTIVE

Even with the best of plans and communication strategies,events are going to happenthat are frustrating, unfair, and sometimes infuriating. Things will not always go asplanned; and like all aspects of life, there will be individuals, both students and col-leagues, who appear disillusioned and manipulative. In fact, some of your most chal-lenging situations associated with teaching and behavior management may be peopleand events peripheral to student misbehavior.For example, teachers may have heateddisagreements with colleagues regarding the correct way to meet the academic needsof a student,administrators may fail to support disciplinary actions adequately,and par-ents may fight well-intentioned efforts to improve a student’s academic performanceor turn a pattern of inappropriate behavior around.

What can you do to respond in a professional manner? First, be patient, keepthings in perspective, and be aware of the big picture. Schools are microcosms of so-ciety, and events do not always go as planned or desired. Don’t take it personally. Sec-ond, remain diplomatic and consider the perspective of the individual causing thedisagreement or even the function of that person’s actions. For example, think aboutthe frustrations experienced by the parent of a student who is repeatedly in troubleat school or the pressures on an administrator who must sort through multiple sourcesof information related to a disciplinary infraction.

Third, remain poised and try to settle conflicts in ways that are in the best inter-ests of the student. Keep in mind that how you comport yourself during difficult andstressful circumstances is a public display of your competence.Furthermore,your suc-cessful navigation through delicate circumstances is a model of behavior for students.Finally, reflect on your own role in the situation.Consider what actions you are takingthat may be contributing to the conflict. As Kottler (2002) has aptly observed,we arethe primary authors of our own life stories, and we must determine what we are do-ing to either produce or maintain our disagreements with others.

SUMMARY

A teacher’s major responsibility is to deliver effective in-struction in a safe and orderly classroom. To meet thischallenge, you must know what to teach, how to applyevidenced-based instructional techniques, and how tochoose and implement strategies for managing studentbehavior.

General Education Curriculum and Tools Used toAdapt Instruction

• State governments are increasing their influence overthe development of the curriculum—i.e., the contenttaught in local schools.

• Most students with disabilities are expected toparticipate and make progress in some aspects of thegeneral education curriculum.

• Effective teachers use different strategies and tools toadapt curriculum and instruction, including

taxonomies, universal design for learning, planningpyramids, and instructional accommodations.

Major Approaches to Instruction and SystematicTeaching

• Three common approaches for deliveringinstruction are behavioral, cognitive, and acombination of the two.

• The behavioral approach is most useful for teachingbasic skills;cognitive and combined approaches suchas the Strategies Intervention Model (SIM) are usefulfor teaching problem solving and higher-order content.

• Effective teachers make use of evidence-basedpractices in the areas of instructional grouping,presenting content, providing opportunities forpractice, monitoring student progress, and usingtechnology to support instruction.

To link to websites thatsupport and extend the

content of this chapter, goto the Web Links module

in Chapter 5 of the CompanionWebsite at www.prenhall.com/

rosenberg.

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Systematic, Proactive, and Positive BehaviorManagement

• Well-planned, supportive lessons will fail if behavior-management concerns are neglected; fortunately,most student misbehavior can be addressed byfocusing on inattention to task, crowd control, andgeneral testing of limits.

• Effective teachers make use of three tiers of behaviormanagement:

• Inclusive classroom management practices focuson the prevention of problem behaviors,including the careful design of the physicalenvironment, the quality of instruction, and theclarity of the management plan.

• Targeted intervention plans are made availablefor those students who do not respond positivelyto the universal interventions.

• Wraparound interventions are for studentswhose severe and intractable behaviorsrequire community and interagencyintervention.

• Well-designed management plans include fiveelements: a mission statement; rules, procedures, andsupports; consequences for appropriate andinappropriate behavior; a crisis plan; and a documentthat presents the plan.

Effectively Communicating Instruction andBehavior Management

• Of equal importance to the technical aspects ofinstruction and behavior management is the mannerin which we communicate to students, colleagues,and families.

• Strategies that contribute to effective communicationinclude the development of authentic relationships,civility and respect, conveying appropriateexpectations, cultural sensitivity, and maintainingcredibility and dependability.

• Keep things in perspective and realize that, evenwith the best of plans, problems occur. How onebehaves during stressful situations is a public displayof competence.

ADDRESSING THE PROFESSIONALSTANDARDS

Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) Knowledge Standards addressed in thechapter:

CC5K1, CC5K2, CC5K3, CC5K4, CC5K6, CC5S10, CC5S13, CC7K1, CC7K3

Appendix B: CEC Knowledge and Skill Standards Common Core has a full listing ofthe standards referenced here.

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