Teaching Methods

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What is the conceptual structure of a teaching method?

What are some of the major methods witnessed in the history of language teaching

Questions on teaching a language

Approach, method, technique

Changes in language teaching methods throughout history have reflected recognition of the changes in the kind of proficiency learners need.

Approaches and methods

Grammar translation Method Direct method Situational/oral Audiolingual The total physical response The silent way Suggestopedia Community language learning The natural approach Communicative approach Task-based language teaching Competency-based instruction Cooperative learning Whole language approach Multiple intelligence

Grammar translation method

ObjectivesTo be able to read literature written in the

target languageTo be able to translate from one language t

o anotherTo develop reading and writing skill

Principal Characteristics Grammar Translation is a way of learning a language by firstly analyzing its grammar rules, and then applying this knowledge to the task of translating sentences and texts into and out of the target language.

Reading and writing are the major focus; little or no systematic attention is paid to speaking and listening. Vocabulary selection is based solely on the reading texts used, and words are taught through bilingual word lists, dictionary study, and memorization. The sentence is the basic unit of teaching and language practice. Much of the lesson is devoted to translating sentences into and out of the target language, and it is this focus on the sentence that is a distinctive feature of this method.

GrammarRules

Target Language TranslationTranslation

Principle Characteristics Accuracy is emphasized. Students are expected to attain high standards

in translation, because of "the high priority attached to meticulous standards of accuracy which, as well as having an intrinsic moral value, was a prerequisite for passing the increasing number of formal written examinations that grew up during the century" (Howatt 1984: 132, cf. Jack C. Richards & Theodore S. Rodgers, 1986,4).

Grammar is taught deductively, that is, by presentation and study of grammar rules, which are then practiced through translation exercises.

The student's native language is the medium of instruction. It is used to explain new items and to enable comparisons to be made between the foreign language and the student's native language.

----Richards, J. C., & Rodgers, T. S. (1986). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press pp.3-4.

Application: Typical Techniques

(1)  Translation of a Literary Passage (2)  Reading Comprehension Questions (3)  Antonyms/Synonyms (4) Cognates (5)  Deductive Application of Rule (6)  Fill-in-the-blanks (7)  Memorization (8)  Use Words in Sentences (9)  Composition     

Shortcomings Wrong idea of what language is Lead to Less learners’ motivation or frustration for learn

ers "a tedious experience of memorizing endless lists of unusable

grammar rules and vocabulary and attempting to produce perfect translations of stilted or literary prose."

---from (Richards & Rodgers 1986 p.4). "It is a method for which there is no theory. There

is no literature that offers a rationale or justification for it or that attempts to relate it to issues in linguistics, psychology, or educational theory."(ibid.p.5)

Advantages of GTM

An effective way for application of grammar and sentence structure

Few demands on teachers Least stressful for students

The Direct Method

Background

In the late 19th century in Europe, for economic development, the cross-language communication became more frequent. As a result, there was an increasing demand on foreign languages learning and oral communication became the main goal of foreign language teaching.

First introduced in France and Germany. Berlitz (Maximilian D. Berlitz,1852-1921) used extensi

vely in Rhode Island, USA, and opened the first language school.

Objectives

Learn how to communicate in the target language- learn to think in the target language.

Correct pronunciation Emphasize listening and speaking. Think in target languages. No native la

nguage. No translation. Learning basic sentences, introducing

daily life.

Rationale of DM First language learning process

(1) No grammar

(2) No mother tongue

(3) No translation

(4) Postponement of printed word

(5) Postponement of written word

Rationale of DM

Linguistic theory Strong theoretical base in linguistics and psy

chology. Language is primarily spoken, not written. The basic unit of a language is sentence. Language is learned through

communication.

Rationale of DM

Learning theory Emphasising vocabulary acquisition through expos

ure to its use in situations. Meaning is to be conveyed directly in the target lan

guage through the use of demonstration and visual aids.

Direct communication: as baby learning mother tongue.

Imitation: repetition and practice Association: e.g.: hand – arm, shoulder, foot, leg… Grammar is taught inductively: Ss are presented wi

th examples.

Teaching model

Kelly’s 5 steps of teaching: Preparation: review previous lesson. Presentation: introduce new lesson. Association: associate previous and ne

w lessons. Systematization: systematize the new l

esson in certain situation. Application: practice

Techniques

Reading loud Question and answer exercise Getting students to self-correct Conversation practice Fill-in-the-blank exercise Dictation Map drawing Paragraph writing

Role of the teacher/ students

Teacher centered. Student role is less passive than in GTM.

T/S are partners. Teacher is the only demonstrator. He/s

he never translates but demonstrates the meaning through the use of realia, pictures or pantomime.

Activities–Berlitz School(1)

Never translate: demonstrate. Never explain: act. Never make a speech: ask

questions. Never imitate mistake: correct. Never speak with single words: use

sentences. Never speak too much: make Ss

speak much.

Activities –Berlitz School(2)

Never jump around: follow your plan. Never go too fast: keep the pace of the Ss. Never speak too slowly: speak normally. Never speak too quickly: speak naturally. Never speak too loudly: speak naturally. Never be impatient: take it easy.

Advantage of DM

An effective way in creating learners to be competent in using the target communicatively.

Disadvantage of DM

Difficult to implement in public secondary school education

Time-wasting Not all teachers were proficient

enough in the foreign language

Oral-Situational Approach

Developed in Britain and popular between the 1930s and 1960s

Main difference between DM and OSA

Oral-Situational Approach has a systematic planed vocabulary and grammar rules, DM hasn’t.

Main difference between ALM &OSA

Oral-Situational Approach doesn’t mention about reinforcement, ALM does.

Purpose

Teaching a practical skill of L2 through copy the way children acquire L1

Characteristic

˙Start from spoken language˙Avoid errors˙Teacher-centered˙Focus on Listening and speaking˙Chosen the vocabulary˙The first method uses structural

syllabus

Typical Procedure

˙Teacher gave a topic

˙Demonstrate with teaching aids

˙Key word changed

Advantages with using OSA

˙Bring the reality situation in the classroom˙Scheduled progress

Disadvantages with using OSA

˙Turn students into parrots

˙Boring and mindless

˙Reduce the motivation

The Audiolingual Method

˙Founded during World War II for military purposes in USA

˙Popular in the 1960s but died out in the 70s

Audiolingual

Objective Focus on students’ pronunciation, and train their ability

of listening by dialogues and drills Teaching model

Stimulus-response-reinforcement model (imitation, patterned drilling, substitution)

Language and Learning theory Structuralism/Behaviorism

Role of the teacher and students The controller and the controlled

An example

Teaching procedures

（ 1 ） hear a dialogue （ 2 ） repeat the dialogue （ 3 ） key words or structures cha

nged （ 4 ） practice substitutions in the p

attern drills

Features

（ 1 ） Imitation （ 2 ） repetition （ 3 ） Positively reinforced （ 4 ） Over learn *Emphasize in the “Form”, not the

“Meaning”

Criticism

Disadvantages It fails to address the context and function of

language. It banish all forms of language processing that

help students sort out new language information in their own minds.

Turn Students into parrots Boring and mindless Reduce the motivation

advantages Allows Students to communicate quickly Students became good at pattern

Total Physical Response/TPR (James Asher , 1966)

founded by James Asher, a professor of psychology at San José State University, California, USA

The Purpose

To have basic oral expression ability through using imperative sentences.

The Characteristic

（ 1 ） retention

（ 2 ） Direct commands

（ 3 ） No stress

（ 4 ） Listen first

*Emphasize in the “Meaning”,

not the “Form”

Typical Procedure in a TPR Course

（ 1 ） input

（ 2 ） comprehension

（ 3 ） express

Advantages with using TPR

˙Fun.

˙Memorable.

˙Good for kinesthetic learners.

˙No matter the class size.

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Advantages with using TPR

˙Work well with mixed-ability classes.

˙No requirement for many preparation or materials.

˙Effective with young learners.

˙Involves both left and right-brained learning

Disadvantages with using TPR

˙Students feel shy

˙Less useful for upper levels

˙overuse TPR

The silent way

Background

In the 1960s, both Behaviorism (psychological foundation) and Structuralism (linguistic foundation) were attacked by linguists and psychologists.

Behaviorism was followed by Cognitive Psychology.

Structuralism was followed by Transformational-generative linguistics.

Theoretical foundation

Transformational generative grammar: Language learning is not the outcome of habit formation

(Behaviorism). It is the process of creative rule formation or discovery. Theory internalized grammar of a language – Competence – enables one to create and understand totally new sentences.

Cognitive psychologyHuman is creative, so mimicry, memorization, repetition and parrot learning (Behaviorism) do not lead to real learning

Features of SW

All four skills are worked on from the beginning. In addition. Form and meaning are both important.

It assigns an active role to the learner.The teacher goes from familiar to

unfamiliar. For example, he starts with L2 sounds which are similar to L1 sounds.

Features of SW

The teacher speaks very little, only when needed. His silence motivates the learners to participate more and be active.

The teacher is not the model. His gestures work. Student’s “self criteria” for correctness are emphasized. The student takes the responsibility of learning.

Students’ actions show if they have learned.Students help each other.The teacher uses gestures and L1 to help them learn.Students’ familiar knowledge (old context) helps them learn

the unfamiliar (new context). The teacher’s interference is very little.

Features of SW

Meaning is achieved through perceptions (senses), not translation.Group cooperation is the norm.Little praise and punishment.Errors are important. They are the road signs.Self correction over teacher’s correction.Students listen to each other.Learning rates are different. Perfection is not the target.The teacher frees his time by his silence. Students are attentive.Meaningful practice is preferred to repetition.Logical presentation of language elements from familiar to unfamiliar.

Features of SW

Autonomy is gained by exploring and making choices.

Feedback from students informs the teacher.

No homework:sleeping practice

Syllabus is structure based.

Structures are not presented in a linear way.

Skills (speaking, reading and writing) reinforce one another.

Suggestopedia

The name is from the words suggestion and pedagogy.

Developed in the 1970s by the Bulgarian psychologist Georgi Lozanov

Attention and memory studies

(Adapted from: Richards & Rodgers 2001 Approaches & Methods in Language Teaching Cambridge)

Purpose

Desuggest the psychological barriers to learn vocabulary and conversation

Characteristics

˙Present text with music

˙Practiced breathing

˙Comfortable

˙Choose target language name

˙Colorful posters on the wall

˙Liberate instead of teach

Elements to Suggestopedia˙Authority: people remember best and are most influenced by

information coming from an authoritative source ˙Infantilization: authority is also used to suggest a teacher-

student relation like that of parent to child. In the child's role the learner takes part in role playing, games, songs, and gymnastic exercises that help "the older student regain the self-confidence, spontaneity, and receptivity of the child."

˙Double-planedness: The learner learns not only from effect of direct instruction but from the environment in which the instruction takes place (e.g. classroom decoration, music, shape of charts, teacher's personality)

˙Intonation, Rhythm and concert pseudo-passiveness:Both intonation and rhythm are coordinated with a musical background. The musical background helps to induce a relaxed attitude, which Lozanov refers to as concert pseudo-passiveness The type of music is critical to learning success: Lozanov recommends a series of slow movements (sixty beats a minute) in 4/4 time for Baroque concerto (strung together into a half-hour concert) The body relaxed, the mind became alert

Typical Procedure

˙Deciphering

˙Concert session

˙Elaboration

˙Production

Advantages with using Suggestopedia

˙Increase oral proficiency

˙Lower classroom anxiety

Disadvantages with using Suggestopedia

˙Unavailable of music and comfortable chair

˙No advanced comprehension technique

Community Language Learning

Developed by Charles Curran and his associates in 1970s

Comparison

Psychological Requirements for Successful Learning

˙S stands for security

˙A stands for attention and aggression

˙R stands for retention and reflection

˙D represents discrimination

Purpose

The teacher can successfully transfer his or her knowledge and proficiency in the L2 to the students; Specific purposes are not mentioned.

Characteristics

˙Client-Counselor and Learner-Knower relationships

˙Humanistic Techniques

˙Code Alternation

Advantages with using CLL

˙Remove the feeling of distance and insecure

˙Counselor allows the learner to decide the topic

Disadvantages with using CLL

˙Teacher may become too indirective

˙Confidence based on an inductive strategy for learning

Typical Procedure

˙Translation˙Group Work˙Recording˙Transcription˙Analysis˙Reflection and observation

Main Steps of Procedure of CLL

˙Investment

˙Reflection

The Comprehension-based Approach

(Natural Approach)•The Natural Approach was developed by Tracy The Natural Approach was developed by Tracy Terrell and Stephen Krashen, starting in 1977. It Terrell and Stephen Krashen, starting in 1977. It came to have a wide influence in language teachcame to have a wide influence in language teaching in the United States and around the world.ing in the United States and around the world.

Features of NA

Listening comprehension is very important Begin by listening to meaningful speech Speak when ready One step beyond their level of competence Error correction Appropriate input for the learners Adopt freely from various method sources

The NA v.s. The DMThe NA emphasize on

1.Exposure / input

2.Optimizing emotional preparedness

3.A prolonged period of hearing

The DM emphasize on

1.Teach monologue

2.Direct repetition

3.Formal Q/A

4.Accurate production

Objectives of NA

To be able to function adequately in the target situation.

To be able to convey their requests and idea

Teacher and Student Roles

Teacher Roles The primary source Create a classroom atmosphere Choose a rich mix of classroom activitiesStudent Roles Participator ; responder

The Communicative Approach

Hymes’ view of communicative competence (1979)

formally possible (grammatically acceptable)

understandable to human beings

in line with social norms

in fact done:

Do people actually use language this way?

Canale and Swain’s Four dimensions of Canale and Swain’s Four dimensions of communicative competence (1980)communicative competence (1980)

Grammatical competence

Sociolinguistic competence

Discourse competence

Strategic competence

(Richards & Rodgers, 1986:71)

Hedge’s five main components of Hedge’s five main components of communicative competence communicative competence (2000)(2000)

Linguistic competence

Pragmatic competence

Discourse competence

Strategic competence

Fluency

Theory of LearningTheory of Learning

the communication principlecommunication principle: Activities that involve real communication promote learning.

the task principletask principle: Activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning (Johnson 1982).

the meaningfulness principlemeaningfulness principle: Language that is meaningful to the learner supports the learning process.

(P20)(P20)

Features of CA

Communicative intentThe use of authentic materialsActivities are often carried out

Activities Classification Functions

Pre-communicative activities

Structural activities

Primary focus on linguistic forms

Quasi-communicative activities

Focus on forms plus meanings

Communicative activities

Functional communicationactivities

Focus on meanings plus forms

Social interaction activities

Primary focus on meanings

Major Classroom ActivitiesMajor Classroom Activities

Teacher and Student Roles

Teacher roles

(1) To facilitate communication

(2) To be a co-communicator

Student roles

Communicator

Advantages of the CA

(1) Students will be more motivated

(2) Students have opportunities to express

(3) Student security is enhanced     

Disadvantages of the CA

No environment of ESLDifficulty in evaluating students’

performanceIgnore the training of reading

and writing

Typical techniques

Authentic materialsScrambled sentencesLanguage gamesPicture strip storyRole play

Task-based language teaching Competency-based instruction Cooperative learning Whole language approach Multiple intelligence