team development early meetings are critical – patterns and norms are established. ideal size for...

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15.281 Advanced Managerial Communication Spring 2009

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Interpersonal Communication Styles

The Interpersonal Attitude Survey 15.281



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Theory: Interpersonal Attitude Instrument

Understanding communication style



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Communication Styles

� The Interpersonal Attitude Instrument posits that each of us has a default communication style

� These are not better or worse -- just different

� Analyst, Innovator, Producer, Diplomat



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Point Spread

� Significant delta = 10 points � This is your dominant communication style � People who work with you can predict

what you will do � Three very similar (4 pt spread)

� You are adaptable � One very low

� Least preferred style



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The Styles

� Analyst – Data Focus � Innovator – Creative Focus

� This is the hardest one to “learn”

� Producer – Results Focus � Diplomat – People Focus



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Type A – The Analyst (data)

� Analytical � Realistic � Quantitative � Problem solver � Rational � Likes numbers � Technical � Understands money � Mathematical � Knows how things � Logical work

� Critical � Asks “What?”



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Type B – The Innovator

� Imaginative � Visionary � Holistic � Artistic � Intuitive � Integrating � Synthesizing � Conceptual

� Speculative � Innovative � Impetuous � Curious � Playful � Takes risks � Breaks rules � Likes surprises � Asks “Why?”



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Type C – The Producer (results)

� Organized � Planned � Detailed � Punctual � Reliable � Stable � Careful � Consistent � Practical

� Neat � Administrative � Establishes procedures � Takes preventative

action � Gets things done � Interested in bottom

line � Asks “How?”



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Type D – The Diplomat (people)

� Emotional � Sharing � Interpersonal � Team Players � Kinesthetic � Nonverbal � Sensitive to others � Inspirational � Supportive � Likes to teach � Expressive � Likes to touch � Loquacious � Asks “Who?”



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Two Perspectives

Positive Negative

Analyst Industrious, Realistic, Problem Solver

Critical, Picky, “in the weeds”

Innovator Imaginative, Visionary, Intuitive

“out of touch with reality”

Producer Organized, Planned, Reliable

Rigid, “stuck in the rut”

Diplomat Supportive, Team Player

Pliable, “no backbone”



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What happens when . . .

Positive Negative











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Effective Teams

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Characteristics of an Effective Team

� Common and clear objectives � Explicit strategies and project plans � Clear, complementary roles and

responsibilities � Necessary capabilities � Clear, transparent and timely decision

making processes



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Characteristics continued

� Clear, open and rapid communication � Constructive attitudes and behaviors � Constructive and timely conflict resolution � Proportionate participation � Focus on content and process � Explicit agreement on communication norms



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Stages of Team Development

� Forming � Storming � Norming � Performing � Adjourning



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Effective Team Process

� A group of people working together does not automatically equal a team.

� Most teams convene to solve problems or capitalize on opportunities – this involves making decisions.



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A Purposeful and Rigorous Decision-Making Process � Identify and explore the problem. � Generate possible solutions – brainstorm. � Refine and critique possible solutions. � Implement the solution.



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Participation Is Critical

� Some disparity in levels of participation isnormal; watch for large disparities.

� People with higher status, greater knowledgeof the issues, or simply more talkative bynature tend to participate more actively.

� Cultural and gender differences can alsoaffect participation.



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Helping Others Participate

� Clarify a point. � Reinforce a point – ask for elaboration. � Direct query – “Tom, you haven’t said a word

during this discussion; what are your ideas?”



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Influence vs. Participation

� Influence and participation are not the same thing.

� Some people may speak very little, yet capture the attention of the whole group when they do speak.

� Others may talk frequently, but go unheard.



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Assessing Influence

� Which members are listened to when they speak?

� Which members are ignored? Why?

� Are there any shifts in influence? If so, whose? Why?

� Is there any rivalrywithin the group? Anystruggles forleadership?

� Who interrupts whom? � Are minority views

consistently ignoredregardless of possiblemerit?



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Constructive Conflict

� If a team is to become highly productive, their ability to have constructive conflict and creative abrasion is vital.

� Discuss team members’ different points of view and question underlying assumptions – task conflict – healthy and essential to a high-producing team.



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Other Conflicts

� Escalating task conflict can create stress, strained emotions, and tense relationships – affective or interpersonal conflict – can undermine the effectiveness of teams.

� Groupthink – members voluntarily restrict voicing criticisms and concerns about other members’ ideas.



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Assessing Conflict Patterns

� Does the team tend to consider only a few alternatives when problem-solving?

� What is done if people disagree? � What criteria are used to establish agreement

(majority vote, consensus)? � Do team members advocate more than they

inquire?



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Conflict Interventions

� Be clear in the beginning about appropriate behavior for team members.

� Make sure team goals are commonly held. � Suspend task discussion and examine team

processes. � To combat groupthink, assign a team member to

play devil’s advocate for important deliberations



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Team Development

� Early meetings are critical – patterns and norms are established.

� Ideal size for problem-solving team seems to be between five and ten.

� Recognize cognitive diversity and build commitment.

� Consider leadership issues.



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Starting to Work

� Set goals. � Establish a working approach – basic

logistics: attendance, participation, confidentiality, and preparation expectations.

� Review and monitor the work. � Evaluate the team’s effectiveness



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Persuasion & Effective Presentation Strategies

15.281 Advanced Managerial

Communication



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Today’s Agenda

� Elements of persuasion � Effective presentation strategies � Exercise: Persuasive presentations with

feedback



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The Art and Science of Persuasion

Logical Arguments: The Power of Evidence

Why?

Why?

Overall Argument

Sub-argument or Key message #1



Evidence Evidence Evidence Evidence



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The Art and Science of Persuasion

Cialdini’sPrinciples

� Liking: People like those who like them

� Reciprocity: People repay in kind

� Social Proof: People follow the lead of similar others

� Consistency: People align with their clear commitments

� Authority: People defer to experts

� Scarcity: People want more of what they can have less of



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Keys to Effective Presentations

� Strategy

� Structure

� Delivery

� Visual Aids



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Strategy: Analyzing the situation

Audience

Credibility Purpose

Context



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Structure: Organizing the presentation

� Indirect structure � Start with question and end with recommendation � More typical in academic and technical settings

� Direct structure: � Start with recommendation, support it, then

reiterate it � More typical in business settings and to

managerial audiences



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Delivery: Conveying your message

� Vocal channel

¾ How you sound to the audience

� Nonverbal channel

¾ How you look to the audience



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The Vocal Channel: How you sound

� Strive for natural variation in tone,

pitch, rate

� Use pauses for emphasis

� Convey enthusiasm

� Avoid filler words (um, uh)



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The Nonverbal Channel: How you look

� Project confidence and knowledge

� Connect with the audience

� Tools: � Posture and stance � Gestures � Movement � Facial expression and eye contact



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Presentations:Pulling It All Together

Strategy/Structure Delivery Tone, fluency,Purpose, audience,

confidence, movement,credibility, context, eye contactdirect/indirect structure

Visual Aids Handling Q&A Plan, listen, answer,Uncluttered, purposeful,

summarizewell titled, consistent



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An Exercise: Persuasive Presentations

� Government should cap the salaries of executives

� Government should not cap the salaries of executives

� The US economic stimulus plan will help the global economy

� The US economic stimulus plan will not help the global economy



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Guide to Meetings



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Meeting Planning Checklist

� Why meet? � Who to include? � What to discuss? � How to record ideas? � Where to meet?



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Meeting Goals and Purpose Identifying problems Solving problems

Brainstorming ideas Gathering information

Organizing Decision making

Completing Planning for implementation



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Balancing Competing Needs� Maximize speed � Maximize input � End on time � Take time needed to be �

�

�

Prioritize task by emphasizing a fast decision Be individually accountable; resist “groupthink” Work with limited

�

�

thoughtful & creative Prioritize process by promoting discussion and inclusion Be mutually accountable: move with the group

perspective and resources

� Work with diverse perspectives and resources



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Who to Invite?

� How many participants? � What type of group do you want? � Who needs to be there? � How much background or new

information do they need?



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Orchestrate the Roles � Who will serve as facilitator? � Who will serve as scribe? � Who will serve as timer? � Who will serve as minutes writer?

It is often helpful to include time limits for each agenda item and to designate a timer to keep the meeting moving forward.



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Set the Agenda

� Specify the purpose and the participants

� Schedule agenda items � Explain each agenda item � Decide on the discussion format � Decide on a decision-making technique

� Distribute the agenda in advance



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Opening the Meeting

Set the tone Remind participants of their roles Reach agreement on ground rules Involve people early Use icebreakers with new groups



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Mental Listening Skills

� Remove internal and external barriers � Show an active interest in

understanding others � Hear the difference between issues and

motives � Distinguish between logical and

emotional content



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Nonverbal Listening Skills

� Posture – “an open center” � Eye contact – “listening/speaking

connection” � Facial expressions and nodding � Hand and arm gestures � Awareness of others’ body language



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Space around You

� Space for yourself – sit or stand? � Space between people � Space at the table � Space based on culture



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Decision-making Models

� Executive or expert decisions � Majority vote � Consensus



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Ending the Meeting

� Know when to end � Summarize the meeting � Confirm the summary � End on a positive note � Follow-up to ensure implementation



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Working Effectively with a Difficult Audience

15.281 Advanced Managerial

Communication



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Today’s Agenda

� Working with difficult audiences � Exercise – Fast Food Fiasco � Presentations to hostile audiences � Homework – agenda preparation



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Why People Get Hostile � Passion/Emotion � Lack of Information � Fear and Threat � Sense of Impotence � Self-protection � Resentment of � Defensiveness Opposition Figures

� Isolation



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Use Effective Listening Skills

� Attending skills – nonverbal behaviors � Encouraging skills – set the tone � Following skills – ensure understanding

between listener and questioner



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Dealing with Difficult Questions

� Unclear questions – confusing because of structure, length, or word choice

� Questions framed in a limiting way – can trap or restrict you

� “Don’t know” questions



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Dealing with Difficult Questioners � Be polite – don’t lower yourself to their level

– stay calm, at least on the outside � Lessen hostility by pointing to common

ground � Paraphrase the feelings behind questions � Interrupt repeat offenders � Look elsewhere after responding



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Delivering Effective Responses

� Stick to your objective and organization � Provide a preview if you have a long

answer � Make your responses interesting � Keep the audience involved in Q&A � Comment on the question or the

process � Have the last word



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Fast Food Fiasco: A Role Play

� Work in groups of five or six � National marketing support manager � Franchise owner, manager, and

assistant manager of a McBurger fast-food restaurant

� Observers



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Presentation to a Hostile Audience

� Ten minute interactive presentation � May be persuasive or informative � Consider direct or indirect structure –

which is most appropriate? � Determine if visual aids are useful � Plan for five minutes of material � Bring your DVD+RW to the presentation



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Next Class � Team assignments � Prepare an agenda � Include objectives for the one hour

meeting � Suggest time allotments for each

agenda item � Teams will review agendas and select

the one they wish to follow



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Leadership Derailment

Professor Neal HartmanSloan School of Management

MIT



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Agenda

� Why leaders get derailed � Preventing leadership derailment � Leadership self-assessment � Team presentations



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Why leaders get derailed

� Difficulties with interpersonal relationships

� Alienating others on the way up � Being a “know-it-all” � Displaying an abrasive, bullying style

� Showing insensitivity to others



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� Problems building a team � Creating a team in one’s own image � Careless selection � Not allowing for true participation � Inability or unwillingness to resolve

conflict among team members � Reluctance to delegate



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� Challenges in moving from the technical/tactical level to thegeneral/strategic level

� Becoming caught in details � Succumbing to the pressure of higher

levels of leadership � Failing to move from doing to seeing

that things are done



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� Lack of ability to follow through � Lack of attention to detail � Moving too fast – leaving jobs

unfinished



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� Overly ambitious � Relying too much on personal strength � Stepping on others as they move along



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� Strategic differences with management� Inability to persuade one’s superiors

regarding a particular position � Inability to adapt to a supervisor with a

different style



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Top two derailment factors

� In Europe � In North America � Poor working � Inability to develop

relations or adapt � Inability to develop � Poor working

or adapt relations



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Leaders face added pressures

Top competencies include: � Adaptability � Communication � Decision making � Building a successful team � Managing the job



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Potential for derailment is high

According to Development Dimensions International, Inc., more than 2/3 of leaders show potential for derailment.

Why? � Being overly concrete � Micro-managing



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Consequences of derailment can be significant

� Organizational direction, performance, effectiveness and morale weaker

� Reputation of an organization and its executives suffer

� High replacement/lost opportunity costs are incurred

� The organization can be put under sustained pressure



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Signs that signal derailment

� Out of character behaviors

� Classic symptoms of stress

� Increased feelings of isolation

� Leader arrogance or self-delusion

� Tensions in close work relationships

� More caution or indecision

� Changes in work patterns

� Unexpected mistakes � Irrational decisions � Delays or failures in

delivering commitments � Increased reliance on

support systems



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Attributes that lessen derailment

� Diversity of experience

� Strong interpersonal skills

� Proven integrity

� Strategic and cognitive skills

� Fixing problems and managing mistakes

� Emotional stability and composure



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Thanks to . . .

� Center for Creative Leadership, Greensboro, N.C.

� Development Dimensions International, Inc.

� Business Leadership Review, January 2005



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MIT Sloan Communication Program Teaching Note JoAnne Yates

Active Listening and Reflective Responses One of the basic building blocks of communication--and one of the most difficult skills to learn and practice--is effective listening. We all spend much of our time hearing other people speak, but not necessarily listening to what they are really saying. Instead, for example, we daydream, start formulating responses before hearing the whole point, and interrupt to make a tangential comment. Meanwhile, we have failed to understand the speaker's real point and the thoughts or feelings underlying that point.

As a consultant or manager, you will be called on to listen in many different contexts and for many purposes. You will need to gather data about a problem in order to help solve it. You will need to listen to a subordinate's career problems in order to help hm develop. You will need to understand the point of view of another person in order to carry on effective negotiations for somethng you want from her. You will need to interview candidates for positions in your group. Before you can communicate effectively as managers you need to learn some useful approaches and techniques for effective listening. This teachng note describes active listening, a comprehensive approach to the task of listening It also describes reflective responses, a particular responding technique that is based upon Western concepts of the role of feelings in interpersonal relationships. Reflective responses can be especially useful in certain types of listening situations.

Active Listening Active listening is a term often used to describe a general approach to listening that helps you gain more information, improve your understanding of other points of view, and work cooperatively with superiors, subordinates, and peers. This approach requires not just that you learn and remember more of what the other party has said, but also that you communicate your interest and involvement to that party, as well. Active listening requires effective use of verbal and nonverbal communication, as well as mental and emotional discipline.

An active listener:

Looks and sounds interested in the speaker. By conveying your interest, you can encourage the speaker to communicate more extensively and to clarify and expand on thoughts and feelings. Communicate your interest by maintaining good eye contact. (In American culture and many Western cultures, this means looking into the other person's eyes much, though not all, of the time. Too much eye contact may make the speaker feel self-conscious, but too little will make him feel ignored). Maintain a body position and facial expression that indicate attentiveness, not boredom. Nod encouragingly to show understanding and interest. Avoid drawing, playing with your pen, or other distracting behaviors. (Conversely, try not to be distracted by the speaker's mannerisms.) Use vocalizations such as "uh-huh" and "yes" to encourage him to continue.

Adopts the speaker's point of view. You will understand and remember the speaker's points most effectively if you try to see things from her point of view, at least initially. Try to listen, not to interrupt, finish sentences, or rush the speaker. Most of all, try to suppress your initial reactions and to hear and understand the speaker's perspective. Try to listen and respond from the

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speaker's frame of reference, not your own. Listen for her feelings, not just her words. Try to empathize with her position. Depending on the context and purpose of your communication, you may later shft modes into a discussion in which you also present your own point of view, but to be a good active listener, you shouldn't do that until you thoroughly understand the speaker's point of view.

Clarifies the speaker's thoughts and feelings. You will listen better if you are not talking too much yourself. When you are in active listening mode, limit your talking to things that will contribute to getting the fullest informational and emotional content from the speaker. Avoid inserting your own marginally related experiences and minimize interruptions. When the speaker pauses, ask open-ended questions (e.g., "How do you feel about X?" "Tell me about X." "What concerns you about X?") rather than questions that can be answered in a single word or phrase ("Are you satisfied with X?" "Is X on schedule?'). Use reflective response techniques (described in more detail below) to check the accuracy of your understanding of the speaker's ideas and especial1y feelings (e.g., "So you are frustrated at your inability to progress on X?").

You may adapt active listening techniques to different types of listening, with your role ranging from minimal intervention to more active solicitation and even into giving advice, depending on your needs.

Reflective Responses Reflection, or reflective response technique, borrowed from certain types of counseling techniques, is designed to elicit as full a sense as possible of the speaker's thoughts and especially feelings. It is a way of helping someone explore her own personal meanings. This technique involves reflecting back to the speaker what you believe she has said in order to verify (or clarify) your understanding and to encourage the speaker to continue elaborating on her point of view.* An active listener is already using aspects of this technique, but reflection requires taking even greater care in the following areas:

Reflect the speaker's thoughts and feelings. Restate what you believe the speaker has said to check for the accuracy of your understanding (e.g., "So you couldn't finish the assignment on time." "Then you think the time allotted was inadequate?"). Even more importantly, reflect back the speaker's feelings as you have heard or inferred them (e.g., "You seem to feel anxious because you couldn't finish the assignment on time."). This interpretation of feelings is, of course, more tricky in that it often requires you to read between the lines, to infer feelings underlying what has been said (e.g., "You seem angry about the reorganization," rather than "So the department was reorganized."). Thus you may want to use wording or voice tone make your inferences into questions, rather than statements (e.g., "So you feel anxious because you couldn't finish the assignment on time?" "Do you feel anxious because you couldn't finish the assignment on time?").

Respond rather than lead the conversation. Let the speaker's thoughts' and feelings be your guide in the conversation. Don't guide the conversation by asking questions or interjecting ideas or suggestions that take the speaker into

*This description of the technique is based on Chapters 9 and 10 of Interpersonal Behavior: Communication and Understanding in Relationships, by Anthony G. Athos and John J. Gabarro (Prentice Hall).



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new areas of interest to you (e.g., "Have you thought about X?" "Maybe you should ask about Y ."). Instead, respond to and reflect back what he actually said or what you sense is implied by what he said (e.g., "So you feel trapped by this project?"). Try to stay within the speaker's frame of reference, rather than asking questions or making suggestions that come from your own frame of reference. Even asking "Why?" may distract the speaker from one line of thoughts or feelings into defending and justifying feelings or actions.

Respond to feelings, rather than content. As suggested earlier, feelings are generally a better indication of personal meanings than content is. Thus you will help the speaker's self-exploration more by responding to her feelings (e.g., "So you resent Susan's frequent absences?") than to the content (e.g., "How often was Susan out of the office?") There is a corollary to this guideline: You can get at a person's feelings better by responding to the more personal aspects of what she says. Whenever possible, choose the specific, personal points (e.g., "So your subordinate, John, tends to challenge you in front of others.") rather than the abstract generalizations (e.g., "So the firm's hierarchy is weak ") to respond to and reflect back at the speaker. This encourages her to explore those personal feelings more thoroughly and to make clear her own assumptions.

Reflective vs. Directive Responses Obviously, this reflective technique is not always appropriate to the circumstances and to your needs or purposes. At times you may want to be more directive and less refective in your interactions. You may want to argue, advise, or confront. Thus once you have learned to use the reflective mode of listening, you need to consider when to use it, when to shift from that mode to a more directive mode, and when not to be reflective at all. Here are some reasons and times for using this reflective technique:

When you need or want to understand the other person's feelings more completely When you sense that the other person has not yet revealed his thoughts and feelings about the situation When you sense that the other person is not sure of his true feelings

Thus active listening with reflective responses is often the first stage of an interaction. Then, once you feel you really understand the person's perspective, you can switch to a more directive or confrontational or persuasive stance. Here, you can lead as well as respond and speak from your own frame of reference as well as the other person's.

Conclusion Listening is a critical communication skill for managers and consultants, as well as for all of us in our personal lives. Advising someone well on a career, personal, or organizational issue requires that you understand that person's point of view. You can't negotiate effectively until you understand what the other person wants. Effective persuasion depends on a clear understanding of the other person's perspective. In all of these situations, active listening, often beginning with reflective responses, is crucial to achieving your ultimate communication objectives.

Active listening is a skill that, like other communication skills, must be developed. It does not come naturally to most of us. Practicing active listening and particularly reflective responses can feel artificial when these skills are isolated from a real communication need. Still, only by practicing can you develop these skills and then integrate them with your other communication skills.



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Teaching Note Neal A. Hartman, MIT

NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION

Nonverbal communication plays a central role in human behavior and it is important to recognize that communication frequently involves more than a verbal message. Effective communication requires that we understand the role of nonverbal behavior as one dimension of communication competence.

Nonverbal behavior has become a major field of research in the communications discipline and one consistent theme is that the meaning of nonverbal message depends on its context. It we observe a person crying with no information regarding the situation. it is difficult to determine if the tears are an expression of joy or sorrow. We must also consider nonverbal communication in a cultural context. Nonverbal behaviors such as eye contact, facial movements, and use of personal space vary from one culture to another.

The study of nonverbal communication involves a broad range of topics. What follows are some descriptions of kinesics (study of bodily movement) and proxemics (study of personal space and territoriality). These categories have been selected based on their relevance to managerial and professional communication.

Movements Have Symbolic Meaning

Kinesics involves the study of bodily movement. Ekman and Friesen (1 969) developed a classification system identifying five types of body movements which have communication functions. 1

Emblems are movements which have a direct verbal translation, generally a word or phrase. These are often culture specific. The popular hand gesture displayed by University of Texas Longhorn fans translates as "Hook 'em, Horns"; that same emblem displayed to a married Italian man would suggest his wife is having an affair. Recognizable emblems would include "A-OK" and "Victory."

Illustrators are nonverbal cues directly linked with words. They reinforce verbal communication and allow us to accent or emphasize words or ideas. We also use illustrators to help describe something, as in "It was this wide."

Affect displays are body movements which reveal our affective, or emotional, state. Facial cues are the primary way we reveal our feelings nonverbally. Affect displays can be used to influence others. A speaker, for example, displays enthusiasm

1 P. Ekman and W. Friesen, "The repertoire of nonverbal behavior. Categories, origins, usage, and coding."

Serniotica, 1 (1969), 49-98.



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and hopes it exudes to the audience. Affect displays may also be emotional expressions and not necessarily symbolic.

Regulators are nonverbal cues which regulate interaction. Consider the regulators used in normal conversation which determine turn-taking. Individuals utilize eye behavior, inflection, and head nodding to regulate conversation.

Adaptors are movements that satisfy personal needs and help you adapt to your environment. Adaptors may also be behaviors or objects that are manipulated for purpose. Adaptors include behaviors like yawning and moving/adjusting your glasses.

Eye Contact and Facial Behavior

In interpersonal and group communication, we generally are communicating something by looking or not looking at someone. When eye contact does occur, it may perform one or more functions.

The eyes can indicate thought processes, or the cognitive function. It is common for many people to glance away when they are thinking. Eyes can also perform a monitoring function. From interpersonal to public speaking situations, we can monitor our communication effectiveness by looking at others and monitoring their feedback.

As mentioned previously in this teaching note, eye contact also helps to regulate the flow of communication. If a professor asks a question and you did not wish to respond, you will most likely avoid establishing eye contact; direct eye contact suggests a willingness to respond. The eyes can also offer insight to emotions and feelings as part of their expressive function.

Facial behavior expresses emotions we experience internally and is particularly intentional, probably because we are conscious of it and it is a very visible part of communication. Facial expressions are particularly useful for indicating our clarity or confusion over the content in a message.

Space and Territoriality

Proxemics explains how people use space to communicate while territoriality describes how we stake claim to an area. Hall (1 959, 1966) suggests that there are four zones of personal space which surround us and have meaning in commnication.2 Interpretations of personal space vary across cultures. The spatial distances include the following four zones:

* Intimate zone physical contact to 18 inches

common zone for intimate relationships

2 E.T. Hall. The Silent Language, Greenwich, CT: Fawcett, 1959. E.T. Hall. The Hidden Dimension, Garden City, NJ: Doubleday, 1966.



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* Personal zone 18 inches to 4 feet

common zone for interpersonal communication

* Social zone 4 feet to 10- 12 feet

normal distance used in work settings

* Public zone 10 - 12 feet and beyond

communication at this distance is general formal

Various factors affect how close we sit or stand next to someone. The distance is normally determined by social and cultural norms and the unique patterns of those interacting. The nature of the topic itself may influence distance.

Cultural norms are important in determining the use of personal space in communication situations. The following scale provides a measure for how selected cultures view personal space:

Personal Space in Several Cultures

Latin American Arab French American German Japanese

SMALL LARGE SPACE SPACE

It is important to recognize cultural differences in the interpretation of personal space as they relate to greetings, conversations, and seating at meetings.

The concept of territoriality is borrowed from studies of animal behavior, but humans, too, claim particular areas. Look at where you are sitting in class; it is probable you are in the same seat where you sat previously (or at least in the same general area) even though you do not have assigned seating. We frequently display territorial behavior in public places by marking a spot with a coat or other object. Individuals claim their territory when they arrive and choose a seat at a meeting or conference.

Summary

Nonverbal communication is highly believable and at least as important as verbal communication. While it is useful to observe nonverbal behavior, it is important to remember that:



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* the context of nonverbal behavior is relevant

* individuals respond differently to different situations

* cultural norms affect peoples' reactions to nonverbal cues.

This teaching note attempts to introduce you to some concepts of nonverbal communication which are relevant to professional communication. A bibliography listing additional sources follows.



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Selected Bibliography of Nonverbal Communication

Adler, Nancy J. International Dimensions of Organizational Behavior, 3rd ed. Cincinnati, Ohio: South-Westem College Publishing, 1997.

Hall, E.T. The Silent Language, Greenwich, CT: Fawcett, 1959.

Hall, E.T. The Hidden Dimension, Garden City, NJ: Doubleday, 1966.

Infante, Dominic A.; Rancer, Andrew S.; and Womack, Deanna F. Building Communication Theow, 3rd ed. Prospect Heights, Illinois: Waveland Press, 1997.

Knapp, Mark. Nonverbal Communication in Human Interaction, New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1992.



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Cross-Cultural Variables* In the Culture at Large

Language Use of space Perceptions of time Meaning of nonverbal behaviors Degree of individualism or collectivism High context or low context Importance of hierarchy Use of silence Definition of power and leadership Definition and rigidity of gender roles Attitudes about technology and the environment Criteria for success Use of humor

In Business and Industry Role of written communication (inform? persuade? document? reinforce?) Level of informality among co-workers Criteria for success (individual and organization) Oral presentation styles (relatively formal or informal?) Emphasis on task versus relationships Goals of business as a cultural institution

In Education Purpose of education: to push the frontiers of knowledge? to pass on tradition? to education students in disciplines? to education students in how to be good members of society?

Relationship between teacher and student: is the teacher a revered figure in the culture? is the teacher the repository of wisdom or a facilitator who guides students?

Benefit of education: does education confer status or prestige? can it be a detriment for certain members of the culture?

Behavior of students in the classroom: are students expected to participate actively in the classroom? can students compete with one another? can students challenge the teacher?

Norms in the classroom: who talks in class? for how long? how do they get the floor?

*These lists are not intended to be all inclusive, but instead to give a sense of potential cultural differences.



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15.281 Assignment Persuasive Presentation with Q&A

Prepare a 5-minute persuasive presentation with visual aids, with 2 additional minutes of Q&A. This assignment gives you a chance to brush up your presentation skills, and to practice handling non-hostile questions, before the presentation to a hostile audience. You may choose your topic and situation, as long as the purpose is persuasive and as long as your classmates, TAs, and I will understand it. If you feel that your basic presentation skills are in good shape, you might try something new or different such as a sitting presentation from a paper-based slide pack (as is frequently done in consulting firms). Check with me or the TAs if you have questions about topic or format. Below are some suggestions for topics:

You are on the student organizing committee planning one of the international trips. You have a 5-minute segment of the meeting to persuade the group about some new or changed element of the planned trip.

You are a student member of the committee to examine the Core curriculum at the Sloan School. Make a brief presentation to convince your colleagues and faculty members to make some change in the Core curriculum.

NOTE: Please prepare a paragraph or two for me or the TA explaining your scenario, topic, and audience. Also include a paper copy of your slides.

Guidelines

Form: 5-minute persuasive presentation plus 2-minute Q&A Due: LEC 4 Grade: 5%, based on strategy/structure, delivery, visual aids, and Q&A



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15.281 Assignment Meeting Agenda (Homework)

Prepare for LEC 6

During LEC 6, the class will break up into your teams and each of the teams will finalize its topic and determine and assign tasks necessary for putting the class together. The meeting will last for 1 hour. Please write a meeting agenda for that meeting. Your agenda should be more than a simple list of subjects. The agenda should include several pieces of information:

• Context/need for the meeting • Agenda items with some subset of the following for each issue or meeting

segment: • Goal(s) (e.g., for information, for decision, etc.) • Process (e.g., brainstorm options) • Time allotted • Name of other(s) presenting or presiding, if appropriate • Attached information for reading before meeting, if appropriate

One of you in each team will be chosen to lead the meeting, using your agenda.



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15.281 Assignment Presentation to a Hostile Audience

(with self-evaluation and optional revision)

The Presentation Prepare a presentation (with visual aids if appropriate) on a topic of your choice, addressed to a hostile audience. You will have 10 minutes total, but to allow interaction, you should prepare no more than 5 minutes worth of material (and you may find that you have trouble getting even that amount presented before interruption, depending on the topic and situation). Your presentation may be explicitly (e.g., recommend a project that your audience actively opposes) or implicitly (e.g.. explain new belt-tightening measures to your staff in a way that elicits their support without alienating them) persuasive, or it may deliver bad news (e.g., tell staff of a plant close-down). Here are some additional sample topics to give you ideas:

You are CEO for a firm that has been suffering losses over the past two years. You have just come from a Board of Directors session in which it was decided that the firm must close one of its plants and lay off 1,000 people. Announce this decision either to your management staff or to the personnel of the doomed plant.

You are an outside consultant brought in to evaluate the upcoming launch of a new computer service for home computer users. Firm X has spent a great deal of time developing this product, and those directly involved in the product are very enthusiastic about it. You have decided on the basis of your study, however, that the market is not yet ready for such a service. You must address a group composed of Firm X executives (including several champions of this project), recommending against launching the product at this time.

Remember that audience interaction takes time, so you should limit the length of the presentation itself. (You might, however, have additional overhead transparencies prepared for responding to likely questions.)

Note: Please prepare a paragraph or two for me and for the other students in your presentation group, explaining your scenario and suggesting likely lines of questioning.

Guidelines

Form: 10-minute interactive presentation Due: LEC 8 Grade: 7.5% of course grade, based on persuasive strategy and structure,

delivery, handling of hostile questions, and visual aids (if used)



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The Self-Evaluation View the videotape of your presentation twice, then write a 1-2 page memo to the person who viewed your presentation (i.e., to me or to the TA), analyzing your performance in the areas listed below, and suggesting changes that might improve it. Feel free to focus on those issues that seem most relevant to your presentation.

Strategy and structure: Were you explicitly or implicitly persuasive? Did you use direct or indirect structure? Why? How did you organize your main points, and why? How effective were your strategy and structure? What would you do differently next time, based on the audience's reaction and your viewing of the videotape?

Handling of hostile questions: Analyze how well you answered questions and dealt with hostility. Did you anticipate most of the questions in advance, or did some take you by surprise? Did you stay calm? Were your answers credible and effective? Did you avoid getting into one-on-one debates with a single questioner? What would you do differently next time, based on the audience's reaction and your viewing of the videotape?

Delivery: Did you feel confident when you gave your presentation? Do you look confident in the videotape? Assess your strengths and weaknesses in verbal and nonverbal aspects of delivery (e.g., voice tone, gestures, eye contact, etc.) How does your delivery compare to that in your presentations in 15.280, if you took that class? What would you do differently next time, based on the audience's reaction and your viewing of the videotape?

Visual Aids: Did you use visual aids? If you did, evaluate them. Were they appropriate and effectively designed? How would you change them (if at all) in the future? If you didn't use visual aids, why not? If you revise your presentation, should you use them?

Guidelines

Form: 1-2 page memo, single spaced Due: LEC 10 Grade: 7.5% of course grade, based on acuteness of analysis, adequacy of

evidence, organization, clarity, and effectiveness

Optional Revised Presentation You may choose to give your presentation to a hostile audience again, correcting as many problems in the original as possible. This revision is a chance to benefit from the in-class feedback and your self-analysis. You should keep the same general situation and purpose unless we agree that you need to change. Your new grade on the presentation will be averaged with your original one. These presentations will take place out of class as scheduled during the week of LEC 12-13.



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15.281 Assignment Analysis of Leadership Characteristics and Behaviors

This assignment asks you to consider your leadership experiences in various settings (e.g., work, school, teams, other organizations) along with readings and class discussions concerning leadership qualities and behaviors. Prepare a 3-5 page analysis of your leadership characteristics and behaviors. How would you describe your leadership qualities? Using specific examples and situations, illustrate the kinds of leadership behaviors you have used. Based on your analysis, are there behaviors you would like to change and/or characteristics you would like to eliminate or develop as you prepare for future leadership positions?

Guidelines

Form: 3-5 page paper, single-spaced Grade: 10% of course grade, based on strategy, structure, style, and clarity Due: LEC 15



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15.281 Assignment Team Project: Class and Team Self-Assessment

For this assignment, the class will divide up into five teams, each of which will be responsible for planning and conducting a 75-minute class segment. After you have conducted the class, you will write a team analysis of your team's process in organizing and running the class.

Class Session

Your team should choose some communication topic on which you would like to conduct a 75- minute class session. Possible topics include business-media relations, negotiation and conflict resolution, appraisal interviewing, handling dificult situations such as firing an employee, corporate crisis communication, intercultural communication, and gender differences in communication styles. Once you have chosen a topic, you should decide how you want to approach it in class.Choose and distribute readings, if appropriate, and devise classroom activities such as role plays,discussion, presentations, cases, or outside visitors. The TAs and professor will be available forconsultation, but you will be responsible for preparing the class session.

Guidelines

Form: 75-minute class segment on a communication topic Due: LEC 14, 15, 16, 19, or 20 Grade (team): 10% of course grade, based on appropriateness of topic to course and

time limit, effectiveness of activities, coordination of class.

Team Analysis

After you have conducted the class, your team will write a single memo to me analyzing your team's process in coordinating your class and product (the class itself). In discussing your process, consider how your team decided on the topic and elements of your class. How did you make the decision? How did you divide up the relevant tasks? What changes in your team process would have made this team task easier? In discussing your product, explain your team's goals for the class, then analyze how well the class you conducted achieved those goals. Did your classmates react to your materials and instructions as you expected? Did parts of the class take more or less time than you had allocated? What did you learn from this experience?

Guidelines

Form: Memo, 3 pages, single spaced Due: One week after your class segment Grade (team): 10% of course grade, based on acuteness of analysis, adequacy of

evidence, organization, clarity, and effectiveness



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15.281 Assignment Individual Project

This assignment asks you to give one longer presentation and to write a one-page executive summary on some project you are working on in another course, for your thesis, for an outside job, or for this class. The final presentation and document must have a real world audience (either actual or hypothetical). Thus a project that requires working with an outside client is well-suited for this assignment. If you want to base your individual project on a term paper or thesis aimed at a teacher, you will need to adapt it to an appropriate external audience for your 15.28 1 presentation and document.

The due dates and brief descriptions of the various phases of the project are as follows:

LEC 7 Subject for project. One paragraph on the tentative subject, audience, and purpose of your project. Some discussion with me may be necessary before you finalize your project. (You may change topics up to LEC 14, by turning in an alternative paragraph for the new topic.)

LEC 22-23 Final oral presentation. Your presentation with visual aids should be 1 5 - 20 minutes long, plus up to 5 minutes of Q & A. The presentation should be aimed at your hypothetical real-world audience. Your purpose may be informative or persuasive, depending on the nature of your project.

Guidelines

Form: 15 - 20-minute presentation plus 5 minutes of Q & A Grade: 15% of course grade, based on strategy, structure, delivery, and

visual aids

LEC 23 Executive summary. Your executive summary should be a 1 -page (single spaced, including tables, graphs, etc., as appropriate) document, aimed at your hypothetical audience and having a suitable structure and level of detail.

Guidelines

Form: 1-page executive summary Grade: 10% of course grade, based on strategy, structure, style, and clarity



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