technical forestry education - food and agriculture ... · pdf filecolour slides and film...
TRANSCRIPT
FOODAND
AGRICULTUREORGANIZATION
OF THEUNITED NATIONS
Rome, 1984
Technic Ifor-siryeducationDesign and implementation
byH.A. 11rniandD. Sim
FAOFORESTRY
PAPER
47
Technical forestry education Design and implementation
by H.A. Hilmi and D. Sim
FAO FORESTRY
PAPER
47
II;;~ . . ~, .... -:;;:g;
FOOD AND
AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION
OF THE UNITED NATIONS
Rome, 1984
The designations employed and the presentationof material in this publication do not imply theexpression of any opinion whatsoever on thepart of the Food and Agriculture Organizationof the United Nations concerning the legalstatus of any country, territory, city or area orof its authorities, or concerning the delimitationof its frontiers or boundaries.
M-39
ISBN 92-5-102080-9
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in ahy form or by any means.electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the priorpermission of the copyright owner. Applications for such permission,with a statement of the purpose and extent of the reproduction, shouldbe addressed to the Director, Publications Division, Food and AgricultureOrganization of the United Nations, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100Rome, Italy.
© FAO 1984
The designatio.ns employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries .
M-39
ISBN 92-5-102080-9
.AII rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in a~y form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. Applications for such permission,
. with a statement of the purpose and extent of the reproduction, should be addressed to the Director, Publications Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy.
© FAO 1984
ACKNOWLEDGMENPS
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations acknowledges withthanks a financial contribution from the Swedish International Development Authority(SIDA) Which has helped to make this publication possible.
The authors are greatly indebted for helpful suggestions and valued assistancefrom a number of people, in particular S.-G. Larsson and J.D. Leefe.
iii -
ACKOOllLEDGMENl'S
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations acknowledges with thanks a financial contribution from the Swedish International Development Authority (SIDA) which has helped to make this publication possible.
The authors are greatly indebted for helpful suggestions and valued assistance from a number of people, in particular ~G. Larsson and J.D. Leefe.
CONTENTS
Page
PART I EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY AND HUMAN REQUIREMENTS
INTRODUCTION ....... ....... ................... GOO ..... 000000000000
TRAINING REQUIRENENTS FOR FOREST TECHNICIANS 1
TECHNICAL TRAINING IN RELATION TO OTHER FORMS OF TRAINING 2
DIFFERENCES FROM OTHER FOREE OF TRAINING ........ ........ 2
4.1 Differences from professional training 2
4.2 Differences from vocational training 2
5. AIMS OF TECHNICAL FORESTRY TRAINING
5.1 Overall aim of the training 0000 ..... 000000 .........5.2 Specific aims of the training ....... ..........0000000001
3
3
3
5.2.1 Planning skills ............. 000000 ...... oeo0op0000po 3
5.2.2 Supervisory skills 000 ...... 0000 ....... *04,0000o0000on 3
5.2.3 Management of tools, machinery and equipment 3
5.2.4 Relevance to other rural activities 3
6. DESIGN AND IMPROVEMENT OF CURRICULA AND SYLLABUSES 4
6.1 Curriculum content e00015 ..... *00000.00000000G. ...... 4
6.2 Decisions on course format 0000000000000000000000 ..... 00000. 4
6.3 Syllabus construction ........... .....o.. o. oso COG o o 5
6.4 Syllabus development 0000C ........ 00000000 ......... 5
6.5 Time scale 5
6.6 Crosschecking of syllabus content 6
6.7 Relationship to university and overseas courses ...... 6
6.8 Subdivision of topics 6
6.9 Inclusion of basic studies ...... ......... ........... 000000G 6
6.10 Validation of courses ...... .............. ........... 0000000 6
6.11 Handouts and training manuals 00000000000 ..... 00000000000000 7
7. ORGANIZATION OF PRACTICAL WORK AND STUDY TOURS 7
7.1 Importance of practical work and tours ............. 7
7.2 Initial demonstration and training area 8
7.3 Practice yard 8
7.4 Training forest 8
7.5 Training in planning and supervision 8
-v-
CONI' EIIl'S
PART I - EDUCATIONAL TECHlllLOGY AND HUMAN R~IREMENI'S
1. INTRODUCTION •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
2.
3.
4.
6.
TRAINING REX;aIIREMERrS FOR FOREST ~HNICIAl5 •••••••••••••••••••••
TmHNICAL TRAINIlll IN RELATION TO 0l'J!ER FORM> OF TRAINIlD . ...... . DIFFERENCES FROM OTHER FORMS OF TRAINING •••••••••••••••••••••••••
Differences from professional training •••••••••••••••••••••
Differences from vocational training •••••••••••••••••••••••
AIMS OF TEX:HNICAL FORESTRY TRAINING .............................. Overall aim of the training ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Specific aima of the training ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
5. 2.1
5·2.2 5. 2.)
5·2.4
Planning skills •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Supervisory skills ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Management of toolSt machinery and equipment ••••••••
Relevance to other rural activities •••••••••••••••••
DESIGN AND IMPROVEMENl' OF CURRICULA AND SYLLABUSES ............... 6.1
6.2
6.)
6.4 6.5 6.6
6.7 6.8
6.9 6.10
6.11
CUrriculum content •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Decisions on course format •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Syllabus construction ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Syllabus development •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Time scale •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Cross-checking of syllabus content •••••••••••••••••••••••••
Relationship to university and overseas courses ••••• • ••••••
Sub-division of topics ••••••••• • •• • ••••• • ••••••••••••••••••
Inclusion of basic studies •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Validation of courses ..•..•.•........•.........•........•.. Handouts and training manuals ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
ORGANIZATION OF PRACTICAL WORK AND STUDY TOURS •••••••••••••••••••
Importance of practical work and tours •••••••••••••••••••••
Initial demonstration and training area ••••••••••••••••••••
Practice yard ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Training forest ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Training in planning and supervision •••••••••••••••••••••••
1
2
:1
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
5 5 5 6
6
6
6
6
7
7
7 8
8
8
8
-vi -
7.6 Training in oommunity forestry and extension
7.7 Study tours coo ***** co ........ oc 00000
7.8 Work experience
TEACHING AND TRAINIM DETHODS ooac00000coocoo.00Poccocc000 0000000000
8.1 Class teacning 000000 00000000004000000000000000000 10
8.2 Student participation occoccocooccoccococ000posocceoc 0000000 10
8.3 Lectures 6006000000000060000,00 000000 000000000 0000000 10
8.4 Discussion 11
8.5 Demonstrations 11
8.6 Group work 11
8.7 Project work 11
8.8 Written instructions 12
8.9 AssessmentE. 12
8.10 conclusions 0000000000004 0000000000000 0000600000006.^000000 12
LEARNIM ROURC.M. 00000000000000"e00000060660066060.000 12
9.1 Prepared diagrams 0000000000 0006000006000000666000.0006 OOOOO 12
9.2 Chalkboard diagrams 000600 OOOOOOOOOOOO 13
9.3 Flip charts coo° OOOOOOOOO 000poc000000cocooc000000e 00000000 oo
9.4 Horizontal chalkboards 00000000 0000006600000 OOOOO 6 OOOOOOOOOO /39.5 Sand table or terrain model OOOOOO OOOOOO OOOOOOO 13
9.6 Magnetic board 13
9.7 Felt boards 13
9.8 Overhead projector 14
9.9 Colour slides and film strips 00006000060000000006000 OOOOOOO 14
9.10 8mm films and film loops OOOOO .............. ..... 14
9.11 16mm sound films ........ 0000060000000600000 ......... 14
9.12 Tape recorder 00069000006.00,000060600000004000600000000000006 15
9.13 Television, video recorders and video cameras 15
9.14 Miscellaneous items 15
9.15 Library .......... 0600000000000000600000006000000 ......... 0p 15
DURATION OF TRAINING ................. 000000.000 OOOOO 0000000000000 16
10.1 General considerations 16
10.2 Level of entry in relation to the local community 16
10.3 Level of basic education required 16
10.4 Dangers of a too hie' educational threshold ..... ..... 17
10.5 Problems with a range of academic levels ........ 17
10.6 Deficiencies of a 2-year course ............... ........ ...o 17
10.7 Additional problems in acquiring practical experience 18
Page
9
9
9
108.
10.
- vi -
Training in oommunity forestry and extension •••••••••••••••
Study tours •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ~ •••••••••••••
Work expeJ;'i.ence ................................... ,. ••••••••••
TEACHING AND TRAINING 'METHODS .................•.•.......••..•.•.... 8.1 8.2
803
8.4
8·5 8.6
8.7 8.8
8·9 8.10
Class teacn~ng ....... ................. ' •••••••••••••••••••••••
Student participa.tion •••••• '! .•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Lectures •••••••••••• -•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Discussion •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Demonstrations •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Group work •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Project work •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Written instructions ••••••••••••••••••• •• ••••••••••••••••••
Assessment s
Conclusions
...............................•................
............•.....................•...... .....•. LEA.R.NIW RESOURCES •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
9.1
9.2
903
9.4 9.5 9.6 9·7 9.8
9.9 9.10
9.11
9.12
9. 13
9.14 9.15
Prepared diagram s ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Chalkboard diagrams ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Flip charts ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Horizontal chalkboards •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Sand table or terrain model ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Magnetic board •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Felt boards ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Overhead projector •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Colour s lides and film strips ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
8mm films and film loops •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
16mm sound films •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Tape recorder ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Television, video recorders and video cameras ••••••••••••••
Miscellaneous items ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Library ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
DURATION OF TRAINING •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
10.1
10. 2
1003 10.4
10.5 10.6
10.7
General considerations •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Level of entry in relation to the local community ••••••••••
Level of basic education required ••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Dangers of a too high educational threshold ••••••••••••••••
Problems with a ran~ of academic levels •••••••••••••••••••
Deficiencies of a 2-year course ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Additional problems in acquiring practical experience ••••••
9 9
9
10
10
10
10
11
11
11
11
12
12
12
12
1X ,_ ~.,;.
13-
13
13
13
13
13
14 14 14 14 15 15 15 15
16
16
16
17
17
17 18
Page
10.8 Alternative entry leVel 6000060000000600606066000006600600 18
10.9 Job requirements 000 00000 0000000000 00000000 0000000000 00000 18
10.10 Possibilities for specialization 000000 ...... 19
11. ENTRANCE QUALIFICATIONS 0000 ..... 060000 ..... 000006600006006000006 19
11.1 Level of general education 0000000000e0000006000000.00000 19
1102 Physical fitness ..... ........ 000000000000 000000000000 19
11.3 Aptitude and integrity of trainees ..... .......... 20
11.3.1 Assessment of aptitude ......... 00000000000Ceeee 20
11.3.2 Judgment of integrity ........ 20
11.3.3 Pre-service training ........... ..... 20
11.3.4 Links with training institution ......... 21
12. SCHOOL BUILDINGS 00000600660 ...... 0000006000000060000000600606000 21
12.1 Size in relation to staff requirements 21
12.2 Purpose-built schools 23
12.3 Shape and layout of academic and administrativebuildings 00 ....... 000 ...... e .......... 000 ...... 0000000000 23
12.4 Student dormitories and catering facilities -0...0-- 24
12.5 Staff quarters and other buildings ....... ....... 24
12.6 Landscaping of school grounds 000000.000oaeo ........ 000000 25
13. CONTROL OF TRAINING 25
13.1 Centralized institutions ....... ....... ....... 25
13.2 Departmental institutions ..... ............... ..... 25
13.3 Control of small institutions 0000000000000000.00000000e00 26
13.4 Relationship with university education ....... ..... 26
14. LOCATION OF SCHOOLS ...... ........ ....... ........ 26
14.1 Social factors 26
14.2 Level of development of forestry ......... 27
14.3 Source of student intake 27
14.4 Constraints on location in rural areas 27
15. TRAINING AND EMPLOYMENT OF TEACHING STAFF 27
15.1 Selection ..... 00006660066000000 ..... *0060 ......... 0000000 27
15.2 Induction ................ 0e00.50000e00000 ....... 0000000000 28
1503 Fu.rther development . ........ ....660006000060000000600 28
15.4 Pedagogic training 00 ....... 006060000060636000000004006000 28
1505 Higher level educational training ......... ........ 29
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
vii
10.8 Alternative entry level ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
10.9 Job requirements •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• • ••••••••
10.10 Possibilities for specialization •••••••••••••••••••••••••
ENrRANCE QUALIFICATIONS •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Level of general education ••••• • •••••••••••••••••••••••••
Physical
Aptitude
11-3.1
11-3.2
11-3.3,
11-3.4
fitness ..........•.........•..•.•.•.•.•......•.. and integrity of trainees •••••••••••••••••••••••
Assessment of aptitude ••••••••••••••• • •••••••••••
Judgment of integrity ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Pre-service training ••••••••••••••••••••••••••• • •
Links with training institution ••••• • ••••••••••••
SCHOOL BUILDINGS ••••••••••••••••••••••••••• • ••••••••••••••••••••
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
Size in relation to staff requirements ••••••••••••••••• • •
Purpose-built schools •••••••••••••••••••••••• • •••••••••••
Shape and buildings
l~out of academic and administrative ........ ••..•...........•..•.•..........•....•..
student dormitories and catering facilities ••••••••••••••
Staff quarters and other buildi~ •••••••••••••••••••••••
Landscaping of school grounds ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
CONTROL OF TRAINING •••••••••••••••• • ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
13.1
13.2
13-3
13.4
Centralized institutions •••• • •• •• ••••••••••••••••• • ••••••
Departmental institutions ••••••••••• • •••••••••••• •• ••••••
Control of small institutions ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Relationship with university education •••••••••••••••••••
LOCATION OF SCHOOLS .........•.....•............................. 14.1
14.2
14-3
14.4
Social factors •••••••••••••••••••• • ••••••••••••••••••••••
Level of development of forestry • ••••••••••••••••••••••••
Source of student intake ••••••••••••••••••••••••••• • •••• •
Constraints on location in rural areas ...•.....•......... TRAINING AND EMPLOYMENr OF TEACHING STAFF ...•...•.•............. 15·1
15.2
15-3
15.4
15·5
Selection
Induction
..........•..............•.... ..................
............... .......•....................•.... Further development ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Pedagogic training •••••••••• • ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Higher level educational training ••••••••••••••••••••••••
~
18
18
19
19
19
19 20
20
20
20
21
21
21
23
23
24
24 25
25
25
25
26
26
26
26
27 27 27
27
27 28 28
28
29
15.6
15.7
Inter-departmental or inter-country cooperation ...........
Build-up of experience 0000004o0000000.000000o0o00000000.00
Page
30
30
1508 Conditions of employment 4,00000000000000900000000o0o0e0o400 30
15.9 Motivation, incentives and job satisfaction oc00000m0000000 30
15.10 Cooperation with forest service staff 004000dOoo0o000.09040 31
15.11 Relations with secondary schools and the general public ... 32
16. TYPESOF COURSE 00000 ***** 0o000800900000004000000000000000coo0e000 32
16.1 Need for different levels oo.o0000,0000000000040040 OOOOO coo 32
16.2 Lower technical courses 0000000000 33
16.3 Higher technical courses 0000000000000000000000000000000 33
17. CONTINUINGEDUCATION 00.000000600000000000170000000000000610.0000 34
17.1 Object ives 00000090000000000000000000000000000000000e 34
17.2 Types of courses 00000000080oo,0000000000000000O000000 34
17.3 Frequ.ency of courses 0000so0oomoosos0000m0000s00000D0000 34
1704 Duration of courses 0000000000000000000000000 000000 00000000 35
1705 Attitud.e change .... 0000eooeoo 40000000000.000060000000o0o 35
17.6 Promo410/1 cou_rses 000000000000000000000000000000000042000 35
17.7 Extension education 9000.0000000000000070000000000000000000 35
17.8 Timing of continuing education ............................ 36
18. STUDENTACTIVITIES AND MORALE 000000000.0000BC00000000000O0000.*O0 36
18.1 Introduction 00000mOopo000000.30000000000000000000000000oo0o 36
18.2 School insignia ocr0000000000000000000ec0000000,000000000000 36
18.3 Student association and societies 440410000000000000p0000000 37
18.4 Sports activities 0000000000000000000000000o000000,0000 o o 00 37
18.5 School magazine ........................................... 37
18.6 Pri zes 0000000000000000000000000000000000ll0000o00000e 37
18.7 Student counselling 000000000000 006.4.009,700900.00.00.700 37
19. ANNUALNEWS 00000100000000000000000D00000oo00D00000 38
19.1 introduction 000ls000000000004000000000p00000000000000p00000 38
1942 Budget preparation 0000000000000000D000000000000000000e00 38
19.3 Examinations Ge00000000990000000000000 38
19.4 Presentation of diplomas and certificates 00000000000000900 38
/905 SPOrting events 00000000000D0000.00000000.1110004000000D000.00 39
16.
17·
18.
19.
15·6
15.7
15·8
15· 9 15.10
15.11
- viii -
Inter-<iepartmental or inter-country cooperation •••••••••••
Build-up of experience ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Conditions of employment ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Motivation, incentives and job satisfaotion •••••••••••••••
Cooperation with forest service staff •••••••••••••••••••••
Relations with secondary schools and the general public •••
TYPES OF COURSE •..•...•.•.................•........••..•.......•. Need for different levels •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Lower technical courses •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Higher technical courses ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
CONrINUING EDUCATION .............•.....•..........•...•.....•.... 17 .1
17·2
1703 17.4
17·5 17·6
17·7
17.8
Objectives ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Types of courses ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Frequency of courses ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Duration of courses •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Attitude change •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Promotion courses •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Extension education •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Timing of continuing education ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
STUDENr ACTIVrrIES AND l«)RALE ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
18.1 18.2
1803 18.4
18·5 18.6
18·7
Introduction ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
School insignia •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Student association and societies •••••••••••••••••••••••••
Sports
School
Prizes
Student
activities •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
magazine •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
.................................................... counselling •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
ANN'UAL I!!VENl'S ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
19.1
19·2
19.3
19.4
19.5
Introduction ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Budget preparation ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Examinations .............................................. Presentation of diplomas and certificates •••••••••••••••••
Sporting events •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
~
30 30 30 30
31 3?
32
32
33
33
34
34
34
34
35 35 35 35 36
36
36
36
37 37 37 37 37
38
38
38 38
38
39
PART II - PH/BICAL FACILITIES AND EQUIPMENT
INTRODUCTION000000000000.00000000000000060006000000060000000,00000o 41
CLASSROOM0.000000,, 00000000000000*0 000000000000000000000000 0000*00 41
2.1 Basic concepts 60000000000000000000000000000000006000600060000 41
2.2 Space 41
2.3 Light'ing 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000o000.0000000 41
VentilatiOn 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 422.442Furni shings .00000.0.0.0*o...0"e 00000 000000000002.5
2.6 42Electrical installat i0T1S 000000000000000000eseosot00000000000
42Safety ... 000000000o 000000 00000000000000000066,0000,0002.7
TEA.CHING LABORATORIES 0000000000000000000.06900000000000060.00006000 42
3.1 Needs ..... OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 000000000000000000 000000 42
3.2 Combined chemistry/soils labOratOrY 00000600000000000000000000 42
3.2.1 Space allocations OOOOOOOOOOOOO 000000006000000000000000 43
3.2.2 Storage and preparation facilities .................... 43
3.2.3 Lighting 000000000000000006000000000 OOOOO 0000000000006 43
3.2.4 Ventilation 00000000000600oo0000060000 OOOOOO 000000000o 43
3.25 Furnishings 00000 OOOOOOO 43
326 Services 60,100.00000000000000000000000 44
3.3 Biological laboratory 00000000c0000000000000000.09000090.00009 44
3.3.1 Space allocations 000000000000006000000000.0600000e.00 44
3.3.2 Lighting and ventilation OOOOOO ........................ 44
3.3.3 Furnishings 44
3.3.4 Services 0000000000000000000000 OOOOOOO 0000000000 OOOOO 44
3.4 Safety 000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000o 44
HERBARIUM 000000000000000000 OOOOOOOO 00000oo00.00o06000000060000000 45
4.1 Timber specimens 000000000009000000000000000000000000000000000 45
4.2 Lighting OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 000000000060004,000o000o0o0o00000 45
DISPLAY/STORAGE AREAS FOR OTHER COLLONIONS ........................ 45
5.1 Lighting and ventilation 6000000000600000060.a000000.000.000000 45
502 FarniShingS 000006000000000000000000000000000000000.0000000oo 45
DRAWING 01,1,ICE 00000000000000.20000000000e000000000000000000000000000 45
601 Alternative solutions OOOOO 00000060000000000000000000000000000 46
6.2 Addit ional equipment 00000000000.600000 OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO o o 46
6.3 Lighting and ventilation 000000062000000 OOOOOOO 00 OOOOO 40000.0046
LIBRARIES0000000000000000.00000060000600000000000eo000000000.00 46
7.1 Ideal facilities 000eao0000000000.00000000e0o0000000000 46
ix
PART II - PH'lSICAL FACILITIES AND EQUIPMENr
1 •
2.
3.
6.
7·
INl'RODUC1'ION """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
CLASSRoom """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
2.1
2.2
203
2.4
2·5 2.6
2.7
Basic concepts •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Spa.ce """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
Ligh.t ing """" """"""""""""""" """" ,,",,",,"""""",,",,""",,"",,",,",,",,",,"
Ventilation
Furnishings
...................................•. .............
.......... •..........................•............ Electrical installations •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Safety """,,,,""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
TEACHING LABORATORIES . ....................•.........•..............
303
Needs """"" •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Combined chemistry/soils laboratory ••••••••••••••••••••••••••
3.2.1 Space allocations •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
3.2.2 Stora~ and preparation facilities ••••••••••••••••••••
3.2.3 Lighting ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
3.2.4 Ventilation ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• • •••••••••
3.2.5 Furnishings •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
3.2.6 Services ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Biological laboratory ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
3.3.1 Space allocations •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
3.3.2 Lighting and ventilation ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• •
3.3.3 Furnishings •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
3.3.4 Services ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Safety •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
HERBARIlJM ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Timber specimens •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Lighting ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••
DISPLAY/STORAGE AREAS FOR OTHER COLLECTIONS .•••••••••••••••••••••••
Lighting and ventilation •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
F'urni shings •••••••••••• 0 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
DRAWIID OFF'ICE •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
6.1
6.2
6.}
Alternative solutions ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Additional equipment •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Lighting and ventilation •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
LIBRARIES ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Ideal facilities •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
41
41
41 41 41 42 42 42 42
42
42 42 43 43 43 43 43 44
44 44 44
44
44 44
45
45 45
45
45 45
45
46
46 46
46
46
7.2 Stack area ........ ***** 0.0001,00.e0e0 OOOOOOOO 0.2.000000eaeaocedep 46
7.3 Reading facilities OOOOOOOOOOO . OOOOO GO0000000000000000.0000000 46
7.4 storage of large flat items diep000ep0000esoeoce000. OOOOOOOOO 47
7.5 Workzroom OOOOO 009120000000O0abaeaa000 47
7.6 Study area ... OOOOOOOOO 47
7.7 Exhibition area 000000000900000 OOOOOO 0000000000,300000 OOOOOOOOO 47
7.8 Photograph collection 000000000000.00.000006000090000000. OOOOOO 0 47
7.9 Lighting and ventilation 47
7.10 Seating 47
OFFICES FOR TEACHING STAFF 00001,000 OOOOOOOOOOOOO *00000000 OOOOO 0008000 47
8.1 Principal
8.2 instructors 000 00 00 0,9009eao OOOOOOOOO OOOOOOOOOOO OOOOOOOOOOO
OFFICES FOR ADMINISTRATIVE STAFF
9.1 General principles 41.00aO0 000 0aeo00 000 000000046"es 00
9.2 Layout OOOOOOOOOOOOO 0000 00 00 0 0 pOODOO000e0000o0000000oaaea
9.3 Typing and reproduction facilities ............. OOOOOOOOOOOO
9.4 Print room oo"000s.......eageage......op000.....eoo
WORKSHOPS
10.1 Categories of workshop aeap00404000O000000OO00000,006 OOOOOOO 00
10.2 Students' workshop OOOOOOO .............. OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 000000
10.3 Maintenance staff workshops OOOOOOO ....... OOOOOOO ...........
10.4 Vehicle maintenance workshops OOOOOOOOOOO 00100900001790000.0000
TOOL STORES
11.1 Layout and furnishing 51
11.2 Maintenance facilities 0OebeeepeaaeO0O4.00 OOOOOOOOOO 00e OOOOOOOO a 51
DARKROOM 51
SPORTS FACILITIES 51
DORMITORIES Oaaaa040.0200000O00000000.0,1000e0o0e0a Da" ea "ea 0 0 52
14.1 Arrangement of accommodation 52
14.2 Furnishings 52
14.3 Sanitary facilities 52
144 Storage facilities -"gee.** <0060000000O0O000 52
14.5 Lighting 53
14.6 3afety 53
Page
47
48
48
48
48
49
49
49
49
49
50
50
50
8.
10.
11 •
12.
13.
14.
7.2 703
7·4 7·5 7·6 7·7 7.8 7·9 7·10
-x-
Stack area •.•...•..• IO •••• IO •• IO. IO ••• IO •••••• IO ••• IO. IO •••••••••••• IO.
Reading facilities ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Storage of large flat items •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Worlcroom ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Study area ••••••••••• IO •••••• IO. IO ••••••••••••• IO •••••••••••••••••
Exhibition area ••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Photograph collection •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Lighting and ventilation •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• -Seat ing ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• IO ••• IO ••• IO •• • IO •••••••••••••
OFFICES FOR TEACHINJ STAFF .......................................... 8.1
8.2 Principal ••••••••••••••••••••.••••• IO ••••••••••••••••••••••••••
InstI"Uctors •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
OFFICES FOR ADMINISTRATIVE STAFF ................................... . General principles ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Layout ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Typing and reproduction facilities ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Print room ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
WORKSHOPS •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
~
46
46
47 47 47 47 47 47 47
47
47 48
48
48 48
49 49
49
10.1 Categories of workshop •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 49
10.2 Students f workshop •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 49 10.3 Maintenance staff workshops ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 50
10.4 Vehicle maintenance workshops ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 50
TOOL STORES ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 50
11.1 Layout and furnishing ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 51
11.2 Maintenance facilities •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 51
DARKROOM •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 51
SPORTS FACILITIES . ................................................. . 51
DORMITORIES ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 52
14.1 Arrangement of accommodation •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 5? 14.2 furnishings................................................... 52 14.3 Sanitary facilities ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 52 14.4 Storage facilities •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 52 14.5 Ligilting •••••• O'........ ... ........ ......... ........ ...... ..... 53
14.6 3afety •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.•• 53
Page
CATMINGFACILITI OOOOOOOOOOOO OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO ......" 53
15.1 General arrangements OOOOO 00000000000000000000000000 OOOOOO 000000 53
15.2 Dining hall 000000000 OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 000000000000 OOOOOO 000000 53
15.3 Serving arrangements 000000 OOOOOOOOOOOOO 0000000000000000000013000 53
15.4 Food preparation areas 1+00000006 000000006000900000000000600 0 53
15.5 Storage facilities 040 OOOOOOOOOOOO 0 OOOOOOOO 000000000000000000000 54
RECREATION HALL OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 0000000000000000000 54
QUARTERS FOR STAFF OOOOOOO OOOOOO OOOOOOOOO 00001000000ap0o00 OOOOOOOOOO 54
17.1 General principles 54
17.2 Grades of accommodation OOOOO OOOOO 00000000020000000000 OOOOOOOOO 54
17.3 Location of quarters 55
17.4 Quarters for non-teaching staff 55
17.5 Standards of housing 55
17.6 Bachelor's accommodation and mess 55
17.7 Furnishings eepoo.eoego....e. OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOeo 55
CLINIC/FIRST-AID ROOM 0000000000000000000000000000 OOOOOOOO 000000000000 55
PRACTICE YARD AND UTILIZATION TRAINING AREA ................. OOOOOOOOO 56
19.1 Location 000000000000000000 OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 00000 OOOOOO 0 56
19.2 Facilities 56
19.3 Charcoal production OOOOO 0000000000000000 OOOOOOO 00 OOOOOOOOOO 56
19.4 Exhibition/demonstration area OOOOO .................0 56
19.5 Access 00000 OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 000 000 co 56
SCHOOL FOREST 57
FORESTNURSERY 000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 OOOOOOOOOO
21.1 Size OOOOOO OOOOOOOOOOOOOO .0..0 90 000 00000000000000 000000
21.2 Layout 000000000000000000000004000000000000000000000000000000000
21.3 Working shed 000000.000000 OOOOOO 000000000000000000000000000 OOOOOO
02104 NarSerY office and store OOOOOOOOOOOOO 0000000 OOOOOOO 000000000000
METEOROLOGICALSTATION OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 0000000000000000000000000
EQUIPMENT
23.1 Teaching equipment 58
23.2 Office equipment OOOOOO 0000 OOOOOOOOOOOOOO 00000000000000000000000 58
23.2.1 Principal's and instructors' offices 58
23.2.2 Administrative office 59
23.2.3 Typists' office 59
57
57
57
57
57
58
58
xi
~
15. CATE:RING FAcn..rrIES .................................................................................................. 53
16.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
15.1 General arrangements ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 53
15.2 Dining hall ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.•••••.•••.••••••••••••• 53
15.3 Serving arrangements •••• •••••.•••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••••••• 53
15.4 Food preparation areas ••••••••••••.••. • •••••••••••••••••••••.•• 53
15.5 Storage facilities ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 54
RECREATION HALL ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
QUARTERS FOR STAFF •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• • ••••••••
17.1
17 .2
1703
17.4
17·5 17.6
17.7
General principles •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Grades of accommodation ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Location of quarters •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Quarters for non-teaching staff ••••••••••••••• • ••••••••••••••••
Standards of housing •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Bachelor's accommodation and mess ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
F'urnishings ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
CLINIC/FIRST-AID ROOM •••••••••••••••• • ••••••••• • •••••••••••••••••••••
PRACTICE YARD AND UTILIZATION TRAINIlll AREA . .•.......................
54
54
54 54 55 55 55 55 55
55
56
19.1 Location ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 56
19.2 Facilities ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 56 19.3 Charcoal production •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 56
19.4 Exhibition/demonstration area •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 56 19.5 Access........... ••••••••• •• ••••••• ••• ••••••••••• ••••••• •• ••••• 56
SCHOOL FOREST •••••••••••••••••••••••••••• • •••••••••••••••••••••••••••
FOREST IDRSERY . .....................•................................ 21.1
21.2
21.3
• 21.4
Si ze •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Layout •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
l'iorking shed •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
NUrsery office and store •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
METEOROLOGICAL STATION . ............................................. . EQUIPMErIr ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• • ••••••••••••••••••••••••
2).1
23.2
Teaching equipment •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Office equipment ••••• ••••••••••••••••••• ••••• ••••••••••••••••••
23 . 2. 1 Principal' s and instructors' offices •••••••••••••••••••
23.2.2 Administrative office ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
23.2.3 Typists' office ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
57
57
57 57 57 57
58
58
58 58 58
59 59
xii
APPENDIX 1 Assessment of knowledge/skills required by foresttechnicians to perform their duties .. .......... ........... 63
APPENDIX2 Core curriculum 000000200000000000oGoo00000000000000000000o 64
APPENDIX 3 Course objectives Course: Silviculture 0.100,Section: Plantations C.111 0000900000000.80000000000000000 71
APPENDIX 4 Methodology for assessing trained manpower requirements forforestry and related industries 73
APPENDIX 5 Accommodation standards for educational buildings 80
APPENDIX 6 Teaching equipment 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000 81
APPENDIX 7 Office equipment 83
APPENDIX8 Laboratory equipment 0000oonopoo000000000000000000000000000 85
APPENDIX9 Herbarium equipment 11000oec00000000000000000000000000000 87
APPENDIX 10 Library equipment ..... ........ ...... 0000000000000000000000 88
APPENDIX 11 Books for technical forestry school libraries 90
APPENDIX 12 Workshop equipment 00000000000000 0000000 ................ 114
APPENDIX 13 Field equipment 0000000000000000o000000000000.0000000000 117
Page
23.3 Laboratory equipment 0000000000000000Q0000000000000000000000
23.4 Herbarium .................................................
23.5 Library 00000000000000000000000000000,00000000000000000o0000
23.6 Workshop equipment 000000000000000000000000o.000000000o00000
23.7 Field equipment 00000om00000oeome000000o0o0o000023.8 Camp equipment ........000oo0000000000000000000000Qoaoe23.9 Catering equipment 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000o
23.10 Firefighting equipment ... 000oo 0000 OooecoO000000s0000Omp
24. DESIGN AND SUPERVISION OF BUILDING PROJECTS
APPENDICES
59
59
59
59
60
60
60
60
61
"- xii -
23.3 Laboratory equipment ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 59
23.4 Herbarium •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 59 23.5 Library •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 59 23.6 Workshop equipment ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 59 23.7 Field equipment •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 60 23.8 Camp equipment ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 60 23.9 Catering equipment ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 60
23.10 Fire-fighting equipment •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 60
24. DESIGN AND SUPERVISION OF BUILDIMJ PROJECTS ••••••••••••• • ••••••••• 61
APPENDIX 1
APPENDIX 2
APPENDIX 3
APPENDIX 4
APPENDIX 5
APPENDIX 6
APPENDIX 7
APPENDIX 8
APPENDIX 9
APPENDIX 10
APPENDIX 11
APPENDIX 12
APPENDIX 13
APPEND ICEB
Assessment of knowledge/skills required by forest technicians to perform their duties •••••••••••••••••••••••
Core curriculum •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Course objectives - Course: Silviculture - C.100, Section: Plantations - C.111 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Methodology for assessing trained manpower requirements for
63
71
forestry and related industries ••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 73
Accommodation standards for educational buildings ••••••••• 80
Teaching equipment •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 81
Office equipment •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 83
Laboratory equipment •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 85
Herbarium equipment ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 87
Library equipment • •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 88
Books for technical forestr,y school libraries ••••••••••••• 90
Workshop equipment •••••••••••••••••••••• •• •••••••••••••••• 114
Field equipment ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 117
-1 -
PART I - EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY AND HUMAN REQUIREMENTS
IRTRODUCTION
A forest technician provides an essential link between the relatively small number ofprofessional and research workers in a forestry organization and the very much larger groupof vooational and manual workers who execute the day-to-day work of the organization. Theknowledge and skills required for this task cannot readily be acquired by "on-the-job"training or by private study. For the development of a substantial cadre of forestrytechnicians within a reasonable period of time, a carefully planned training programme,linked with practical experience, is considered necessary.
The purpose of this manual is, therefore, to review, and in some cases to re-define,the requirements and procedures for forestry training at technical level. It relates tocountries where forestry already plays, or is destined to play, an important part in thedevelopment of the community in its widest sense.
In Part I, the manual attempts to cover the basic aims and methods of this type oftraining, the range and length of courses likely to be required, the recruitment proceduresfor students, and the selection and training of teaching staff. Part II gives the rangeof physical facilities and equipment which are considered desirable to meet the trainingobjectives. The appendices give additional detailed information, including a corecurriculum.
Because of the wide range of conditions which are likely to be found within thecountries that this manual must serve, it cannot be too specific with many of the sugges-tions. However, it can point the way to a number of options in certain circumstances.The one most suited to local requirements may then be selected, or used as a basis forfurther development.
TRAINING REQUIREMENTS FOR FOREST TECHNICIANS
A technician requires, primarily, a broad understanding of the interrelationships offorestry, farming, grazing, water supplies, and wildlife in his working area. He needsto learn the contributions that all these activities can make to the well-being of thepopulation of the area in both goods and services. More specifically he, or she, needs toacquire the capability of translating oral and written instructions from professional staff,or research workers, into language or programmes of practical activity which junior gradesof staff can fully understand and implement.
The forest technician requires the skill to interpret or understand, within the frame-work of existing knowledge, the results obtained in the field and to draw attention to anyapparent abnormalities or unusual conditions that have arisen. The technician must alsounderstand the needs and aspirations of the local people and be trained and willing to meetthese requirements within the limits of good forestry practice and the funds available.Skills of leadership, planning, instruction and communication are also necessary for thetechnician to enable him to motivate and develop the labour force or the local communityto undertake increasingly complex tasks for the public good.
In many instances, training may also be required to provide knowledge, experience andskill in a wide range of activities which in a more developed society could be acquired bypersonal experience or by a broad education. Examples are familiarity with maps and plans,the conduct of official business and preparing concise and lucid reports.
Training may also be required to produce an attitude change from the outlook of ayoung student to that of a mature government, or corporate official, into whose hands con-siderable responsibility for funds, equipment, materials and employment is placed. Forthis, a high degree of self-discipline and integrity in conduct and decision-making is re-quired and training should be oriented, at all stages, to develop these qualities.
- 1 -
PART I - EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY AND HUMAN REQUIHEMENrS
1. INl'RODUCTION
A forest technician provides an essential link between the relatively small number of professional and research workers in a forestry organization and the very much larger group of vooational and manual workers who execute the day-to-day work of the organization. The knowledge and skills recjuired for this task cannot readily be acquired by "on-the-job" training or by private study. For the development of a substantial cadre of forestry technicians within a reasonable period of time, a carefully planned training programme, linked with practical experience, is considered necessary.
The purpose of this manual is, therefore, to review, and in Bome cases to re-define, the requirements and procedures for forestry training at technical level. It relates to countries where forestry already plays, or is destined to play, an important part in the development of the community in its widest sense.
In Part I, the manual attempts to cover the basic aims and methods of this type of training, the range and length of courses likely to be required, the recruitment procedures for students, and the selection and training of teaching staff. Part II gives the range of physical facilities and equipment which are considered desirable to meet the training objectives. The appendices give additional detailed information, including a core curriculum.
Because of the wide range of conditions which are likely to be found within the oountries that this manual must serve, it cannat be too specific with many of the suggestions. However, it can point the way to a number of options in certain circumstanoes. The one most suited to local requirements may then be selected, or used as a basis for further development.
2. TRAINING REQUIHEMENl'S FOR FOREST TEX::HNICIAN3
A technician requires, primarily, a broad understanding of the interrelationships of forestry, farming, grazing, water supplies, and wildlife in his working area. He needs to learn the contributions that all these activities can make to the well-being of the population of the area in both goods and services. More specifically he, or she, needs to acquire the capability of translating oral and written instructions from professional staff, or researoh workers, into language or programmes of practical activity which junior grades of staff can fully understand and implement.
The forest technioian requires the skill to interpret or understand, within the framework of existing knowledge, the results obtained in the field and to draw attention to any apparent abnormalities or unusual conditions that have arisen. The technician must also understand the needs and aspirations of the local people and be trained and willing to meet these requirements within the limits of good forestry practice and the funds available. Skills of leadership, planning, instruction and communication are also necessary for the technician to enable him to motivate and develop the labour force or the local community to undertake increasingly complex tasks for the public good.
In many instances, training may also be required to provide knowledge, experience and skill in a wide range of activities which in a more developed society could be acquired by personal experience or by a broad education. Examples are familiarity with maps and plans, the conduct of official business and preparing concise and lucid reports.
Training may also be required to produce an attitude change from the outlook of a young student to that of a mature government, or corpOrate official, into whose hands considerable responsibility for funds, equipment, materials and employment is placed. For this, a high degree of self-discipline and integrity in conduct and decision-making is required and training should be oriented, at all stages, to develop these qualities.
-2-
Finally, training at this level should be sufficiently intensive to provide a fores-try organization with a cadre of knowledgeable, skilled and motivated technical workers.It will then be possible to select from among them well-qualified candidates for advance-ment to higher technical or professional posts.
TECHNICAL TRAINING IN RELATION TO CTHER FORMS OF TRAINING
A forestry technician, by virtue of the link the post provides between professionalstaff and lower supervisory staff or manual workers, must acquire a range of skills andknowledge which, to some extent, will overlap with the levels both above and below thepost. A broad understanding of the task is also required in order to integrate success-fully advice received from many specialist sources.
A technician who is in close contact with skilled forest workers, requires initiallya degree of understanding and competence in fnrest operations in order to determine ifstandard techniques or procedures are being efficiently carried out. A thorough know-ledge of various operational performance rates is also required, both to plan timeschedules for different tasks and to identify individuals who may require further trainingto reach satisfactory standards of performance. A further requirement is the ability toteach workers new skills and to upgrade existing skills within the workforce.
The technician, therefore, requires a background of scientific knowledge linkedclosely to the ecological conditions and day-to-day operations of forest areas. Insightinto the planning and organizing functions of a professional forester is also essential,to be able to understand the importance of following approved techniques for forestoperations and the necessity for accuracy in data submitted for either record or planningfunctions. However, the technician's interests should lie more in the outcome or applica-tion of theories and formulae, rather than in their scientific basis or derivation.Ideally, sufficient competence in an international language should be acquired to enablereports and technical papers to be read both to widen knowledge and reinforce interest inthe Job.
DIFFERENCES FROM OTHER FORMS OF TRAINIM
4.1 Differences from professional training
A technician's training should differ from that of a professional forester whoseeducation will normally be based on generalized theories or concepts from which he hasbeen trained to derive, on his own, specific solutions to particular problems. The tech-nician, on the other hand, is not likely to have had the time or the opportunity todevelop this generalized approach. Closer guidance is, therefore, required on techniquesand standard procedures derived for him by the professional staff. Nevertheless, anadequate range of discretion should be left for the adoption of techniques and proceduresconsidered to be the most suitable for the various situations encountered.
Whilst the training of a professional officer must equip him to integrate ideas ordata from many sources in order to develop plans or instructions, a technician requiresmore interpretive skills both to read and extract from such documents the information onwhich he must act. A technician, therefore, requires training in the logical arrange-ment of the contents of instructions, which will ensure that they are passed on properlyto workers and correctly executed. For this, the regular use of written instructions inthe training programme is an important aspect.
4.2 Differences from vocational training
Vocational training must initially place greater emphasis on certain personal skillsin order that these skills can be passed down to the workforce. Vocational training,therefore, concentrates more on precise performance within defined limits of programmesor work techniques and aims for the effective use of labour and resources provided. Atechnician's training presumes a greater freedom in decision-making on the techniques tobe applied and the ability to integrate costs or production data from vocational or lowerlevel supervisors, in order to give professional staff a clear picture of the status ofoperations within a working area.
- 2 -
Finally, training at this level should be sufficiently intensive to provide a forestry organization with a cadre of knowledgeable, skilled and motivated technical workers. It will then be possible to select from among them well-qualified candidates for advancement to higher technical or professional posts.
3. TECHNICAL TRAINING IN RELATION TO OTHER FORJofl OF TRAINING
A forestry technician, by virtue of the link the post provides between professional staff and lower supervisory staff or manual workers, must acquire a range of skills and knowledge which, to some extent, will overlap with the levels both above and below the post. A broad understanding of the task is also required in order to int egrate success-fully advice received from many specialist sources.
A technioian who is in close contact with skilled forest workers, requires initially a degree of understanding and competence in f orest operations in order to determine if standard techniques or procedures are being efficiently carried out. A thorough knowledge of various operational performance rates is also required, both to plan time schedules for different tasks and to identify individuals who may require further training to reach satisfactory standards of performance. A further requirement is the ability to teach workers new skills and to upgrade existing skills within the workforce.
The technician, therefore, requires a background of scientific knowledge linked closely to the ecological conditions and day-to-day operations of forest areas. Insight into the planning and organizing functions of a professional forester is also essential, to be able to understand the importance of following approved techniques for forest operations and the necessity for accuracy in data submitted for either record or planning functions. However, the technician's interests should lie more in the outcome or application of theories and formulae, rather than in their scientific basis or derivation. Ideally, sufficient competence in an international language should be acquired to enable reports and technical papers to be read both to widen knowledge and reinforce interest in the 'job.
4. DIFFERENCE3 FROM OTHER FORm OF TRAINIlIl
4.1 Differences from professional training
A technician's training should differ from that of a professional forester whose education will normally be based on generalized theories or concepts from which he has been trained to derive, on his own, specific solutions to particular problems. The technician, on the other hand, is not likely to have had the time or the opportunity to develop this generalized approach. Closer guidance is, therefore, required on techniques and standard procedures derived for him by the professional staff. Nevertheless, an adequate range of discretion should be left for the adoption of techniques and procedures considered to be the most suitable for the various situations encountered.
Whilst the training of a professional officer must equip him to integrate ideas or data from many sources in order to develop plans or instructions, a technician requires more interpretive skills both to read and extract from such documents the information on which he must act. A technician, therefore, requires training in the logical arrangement of the contents of instructions, which will ensure that they are passed on properly to workers and correctly executed. For this, the regular use of written instructions in the training programme is an important aspect.
4.2 Differences from vocational training
Vocational training must initially place greater emphasis on certain personal skills in order that these skills can be passed down to the workforce. Vocational training, therefore, concentrates more on precise performance within defined limits of programmes or work techniques and aims for the effective use of labour and resources provided. A technician's training presumes a greater freedom in decision-making on the techniques to be applied and the ability to integrate costs or production data from vocational or lower level supervi'sors, in order to give profeSSional staff a clear picture of the status of operations within a working area.
- 3 -
5. AIMS OF TECHNICAL FORESTRY TRAINING
5.1 Overall aim of the training
The overall aim of the training must be to produce a person with the basic physical,manual and mental skills to cover the range of operations which a forest technician iscurrently likely to meet and a degree of interest and adaptability to acquire additionalskills as these become necessary. To this must be added a well-defined body of knowledgeof forestry technology and practice, as well as ecological topics, to enable suitabletechniques to be applied in appropriate circumstances which are in keeping with the over-all ecological and development needs of the area. The technician must also be able torecognize abnormal conditions or results and to describe these precisely, when seekingspecialist help in solving any problems that may result.
5.2 Specific aims of the training
5.2.1 Planning skills
A technician must be taught a range of planning skills or techniques which fallwithin the framework of responsibilities at technical level. An understanding is re-quired of how to schedule a programme of work over a period of time in relation toclimatic conditions, the possible labour supply and any variations in cash flow orallocations. Additionally, some knowledge of planning the use of transport and equip-ment is required to maximize the benefits of any expenditure incurred on these items.The technician should also be able to define monthly or weekly work schedules which con-form to longer term plans, and to monitor progress and cost at frequent intervals todetect, as early as possible, any deviations from the overall plans. Skills in planningmay also have to extend to personnel matters, including scheduling vacations and trainingcourses to fit in with planned operations. Knowledge of budgeting and expenditure controlis also required as well as familiarity with the reporting procedures adopted by employers.
5.2.2 Supervisory skills
The training must also equip the technician with the knowledge and skills necessaryfor undertaking supervisory duties and, with further experience, to be able to undertakethe day-to-day management of a forestry enterprise.
5.2.3 Management of tools, machinery and equipment
The technician must have an adequate knowledge of the range of tools, machinery andequipment currently available for the tasks which have to be performed. The need toobtain information on new developments througn literature and contacts with suppliershas also to be pointed out. The technician's responsibility for looking after and main-taining in good order all such materials which are made available must similarly bestressed. In addition, the technician must be made aware of the need to balance thesupply of material resources and personnel required for the performance of any giventasks.
5.2.4 Relevance to other rural activities
An awareness is required of the social and development values of forestry to thecommunity and of its close relationship to agriculture and other rural activities. The
technician should also be equipped with the knowledge and skills necessary to motivatelocal people to work for an improvement of their living conditions.
The training of technicians for service in a specific country must always be closelylinked to the real needs of that country. No matter how attractive the syllabus or pro-gramme of another country may look, the basic criteria in syllabus construction mustalways be the requirements of that particular country or area at that stage of develop-ment, and how it can best be conveyed to the level of candidates available.
- 3 -
5. AIm OF TECHNICAL FORESTRY TRAINING
5.1 Overall aim of the training
The overall aim of the training must be to produce a person with the basic physical, manual and mental skills to cover the ran~ of operations which a forest technician is currently likely to meet and a degree of interest and adaptability to acquire additional skills as these become necessary. To this must be added a well-defined body of knowled~ of forestry technology and practice, as well as ecological topics, to enable suitable techniques to be applied in appropriate circumstances which are in keeping with the overall ecological and development needs of the ares. The technician must also be able to reoognize abnormal conditions or re sults and to describe these precisely, when seeking specialist help in solving any problems that may result.
5.2 Specific aims of the training
5.2.1 Planning skills
A technician must be taught a range of planning skills or techniques which fall within the framework of responsibilities at technical level. An understanding is required of how to schedule a programme" of work over a period of time in relation to climatic conditions, the possible labour supply and any variations in cash flow or allocations. Additionally, some knowledge of planning the use of transport and equipment is required to maximize the benefits of any expenditure incurred on these items. The technician should also be able to define monthly or weekly work schedules which conform to longer term plans, and to monitor progress and cost at frequent intervals to detect, as early as possible, any deviations from the overall plans. Skills in planning may also have to extend to personnel matters, including scheduling vacations and training courses to fit in with planned operations. Knowledge of budgeting and expenditure control is also required as well as familiarity with the reporting procedures adopted by employers.
5.2.2 Supervisory skills
The training must also equip the technician with the knowledge and skills necessary for undertaking supervisory duties and, with further experience, to be able to undertake the day-to-day management of a forestry enterprise.
5.2.3 Management of toolSt machinery and equipment
The technician must have an adequate knowledge of the range of tools, machinery and equipment currently available for the tasks which have to be performed. The need to obtain information on new developments through literature and contacts with suppliers has also to be pointed out. The technician1s responsibility for looking after and maintaining in good order all such materials which are made available must similarly be stressed. In addition, the technician must be made aware of the need to balance the . supply of material resources and personnel required for the performance of any given '·'
'''' tasks.
5.2.4 Relevance to other rural activities
An awareness is r equired of the social and development values of forestry to the community and of its close relationship to agriculture and other rural activities. The technician should also be equipped with the knowled~ and skills necessary to motivate local people to work for an improvement of their living conditions.
The training of technicians for service in a s pecific country must always be cl ose ly linked to the real needs of that country. No matter how attractive the syllabus or programme of another country may look, the basic criteria in syllabus construction must always be the requirements of that particular country or area at that sta~ of development, and how it can best be oonveyed to the level of candidates available.
-4-
6. DESIGN AND INPROVENENT OF CURRICULA AND SYLLA3USIB
6.1 Curriculum content
The basis for development of a relevant curriculum must be an initial widerangingStudy of all the operations currently being performed by staff at the technical level inthe employing organizations. Initial information on this can be gathered from a studyof the budget and any written instruCtions issued to staff on technical operations, adminis-trative or reporting procedures. This should be supplemented and verified by a close studyof work in the field, and in the offices, of staff of this category. It may lead to abetter understanding of the true role of the target group if some observations are alsomade of the groups of employees immediately above and below the technicians being studied.Detailed job descriptions, where they exist, supported by simple activity samples offield and administrative tasks, can lead to the definition of several broad categories ofwork and areas of knowledge and skills which appear to be important in the role of thetechnical staff. Son e informed opinions on the relative importance of these broadcategories of work and areas of knowledge and skills can be acquired by listing them andthen devising a rating scale. A wide range of experienced staff of the technical leveland above are then invited to complete the assessment sheets, bearing in mind theimportance of each topic in the foreseeable future (i.e. a 5 to 10year perspective).Rating can be done on either a 5 or 7 point scale. Verbal definitions should be givenof the meaning of each rating point to the field staff completing the assessments. Anexample of a 5 point scale is given below:
Rating points Degree of knowledge/skills required
1 Little or no knowledge/skills required2 Some knowledge/skills required3 Relatively good knowledge/skills required4 Very good knowledge/skills required5 Specialist knowledge/skills required.
A list of possible topics which staff may be asked to assess is given in Auendix 1.This would refer to a forest area where there is a relatively low level of educational andtechnical development and hence there is considerable emphasis on the more technicalaspects of the forest operations. For each topic, the median point of all the responsescan be worked out and the subjects ranked in order of the degree of importance accordingto the ratinge. Whilst this can be a valuable guide in curriculum development and sylla-bus construction, it must be borne in mind that the responses will be largely influencedby the degree of experience, and to some extent the educational background, of those whomade the responses. Hence, actual teaching times required will not necessarily corres-pond to the ratinge.
6.2 Decisions on course format
At an early stage in curriculum development, a policy decision must be made as towhether the course content is to be integrated into a few relatively broad areas of study,linking related topics, or divided into several separate course units each allocated spe-cific teaching times and credit hours. The choice between these systems is likely to bestrongly influenced by the general pattern of education adopted within the country fortechnical courses in other disciplines. It may also depend upon whether the trainingorganization is largely autonomous and producing candidates for a limited field of employ-ment, or integrated into the general pattern of technical and professional education. Inthis case, course credits may be interchangeable with other fields of study.
A course format made up of a few wideranging areas of study allows greater flexi-bility whilst staff are still trying to define more precise training needs. Limited,specific course units, on the other hand, lead to greater clarity and precision of materialto be taught, but should not be regarded as immutable. Regular and careful scrutiny oftheir relevance to the overall aim of the course is required. Core curricula for varioustyTes of courses are given in Appendix 2.
- 4 -
6. DESIGN AND IMPROVEMENl' OF CURRICULA AND SYLLABUSES
6.1 Curriculum content
The basis for development of a relevant curriculum must be an initlal wide-ranging study of all the operations currently being performed by staff at the technical level in the employing organizations. Initial information on this can be gathered from a study of the budget and any written instructions issued to staff on technical operations, administrative or reporting procedures. This should be supplemented and verified by a close study of work in the field, and in the offices, of staff of this category. It may lead to a better understanding of the true role of the target group if Bome observations are also made of the groups of employees immediately above and below the technicians being studied. Detailed job descriptions, where they exist, supported by simple activity samples of field and administrative tasks, can lead to the definition of several broad categories of work and areas of knowledge and skills which appear to be important in the role of the technical staff. Some informed opinions on the relative importance of these broad categories of work and areas of knowledge and skills can be acquired by listing them and then devising a rating scale. A wide range of experienced staff of the technical level and above are then invited to complete the assessment sheets, bearing in mind the importance of each topic in the foreseeable future (i.e. a 5 to 10-year perspective). Rating can be done on either a 5 or 7 point scale. Verbal definitions should be given of the meaning of each rating point to the field staff completing the assessments. An .example of a 5 point scale is given below:
Rating point s
1 2 3 4 5
Degree of knowledge/skills required
Little or no knowledge/skills required Some knowledge/skills required Relatively good knowledge/skills required Very good knowledge/skills required Specialist knowledge/skills required.
A list of possible topics which staff may be asked to assess is given in Appendix 1. This would refer to a forest area where there is a relatively low level of educational and technical development and hence there is considerable emphasis on the more technical aspects of the forest operations. For each topic, the median point of all the responses can be worked out and the subjects ranked in order of the degree of importance according to the ratings. Whilst this can be a valuable guide in curriculum development and syllabus construction, it must be borne in mind that the responses will be largely influenced by the degree of experience, and to some extent the educational background, of those who made the responses. Hence, aotual teaching times required will not necessarily correspond to the rat ings.
6.2 Decisions on course format
At an early stage in curriculum development, a policy decision must be made as to whether the course content is to be integrated into a few relatively broad areas of study, linking related topics, or divided into several separate course units each allocated specific teaching times and credit hours. The choice between these systems is likely to be strongly influenced by the general pattern of education adopted within the country for technical courses in other disciplines. It may also depend upon whether the training organization is largely autonomous and prodUCing candidates for a limited field of employment, or integrated into the general pattern of technical and professional education. In this case, course credits may be interchangeable with other fields of study.
A course format made up of a few wide-ranging areas of study allows greater flexibility whilst staff are still trying to define more precise training needs. Limited, specific course units, on the other hand, lead to greater clarity and precision of material to be taught, but should not be regarded as immutable. Regular and careful scrutiny of their relevance to the overall aim of the course is required. Core curricula for various types of courses are given in Appendix 2.
6.3 Syllabus construction
The list of subjects identified as essential for the course should be ranked in orderof importance and then scrutinized by a small group of experienced forest staff, of whomseveral should have had a fair amount of teaching or instructional experience. If theorganizations concerned intend to train candidates for employers outside the public sector,the opinions of these employers should also be represented in this group. For each sub-ject selected as relevant to the course, a series of course objectives should be derived,setting out clearly what the aims of teaching in that topic ought to be. Examples ofCourse Objectives based on those used at a forestry school in a developing country someyears agn are given in Alyendix 3.
When a series of Course Objectives have been defined, they can be made more specificby developing a series of Achievement Targets, precise statements derived from the broadobjectives of what a student should know, or be able to perform, on completion of thecourse. Though both Course Objectives and Achievement Targets may initially have to bedefined in rather general terms, both can, and should, be redefined more specifically atregular intervals. This will enable the course to match more closely to the ultimate jobrequirements. Examples of Achievement Targets for the relevant Course Objectives from thesame source are also given in Appendix 3.
6.4 Syllabus development
These stages of syllabus construction must lead to the identification, by a group ofinstructors, of the items of knowledge or skills - mathematical, verbal, or physical - astudent must acquire in order to reach the defined Achievement Targets. From this aseries of Course Outlines can be constructed, which after further discussion can be de-veloped into detailed statements of Course Contents. In many cases, this would consistin a particular topic of a brief statement of background information on the topic, ideallygathered from local experience,to establish its relevance to the programme in general.Secondly, it would include a general description of the application locally of any tech-niques or procedures involved, giving objectives and reasons for the work. Finally, astep-by-step description of the procedures would be included, with details of any equip-ment required and any records which have to be kept.
A concluding summary, restating the most important aspects of the study, is usuallynecessary. Suggestions of any practical or written exercises required to consolidate theknowledge or skills should be included. This material is best developed in a series ofshort, precise paragraphs which can form the basis of teaching handouts, and, in duecourse, a teaching manual for the course.
6.5 Time scale
Initially, this must be derived from within a more or less arbitrary framework ofoverall time available for the whole course, divided roughly into various sections relatedto the importance of each part of the daily work of the field staff. This, however, canonly be a very rough guide to the time allocation required for each broad section of thesyllabus. Preliminary preparation of the teaching notes can then proceed. As thistakes place, adjustments will have to be made to the provisional time allocations given tothe main subjects, in order to accommodate material found to be essential, if the definedAchievement Targets are to be reached. In some cases these targets may have to be modi-fied, if found to be too ambitious for the time available.
Whenever possible, trial runs of sections of the course may be made on limited groupsof students, such as during in-service courses, to measure the time requirements for suchsections and to determine their effectiveness. Pruning of some material which could betaught, but which may not be vital, may have to take place to keep the course materialwithin the time limits proposed.
Eventually, a syllabus can be prepared allocating blocks of time for certain items ofclosely related material. Later, a "Scheme of Work" should be prepared by the instructorgiving more precise teaching targets for each hour of the course. Further detailed revi-sion of the Course Content or time allocation can take place if, during teaching of thecourse, an accurate daily "Record of Work" is maintained detailing the topics actually
5- 5 -
6.3 Syllabus construction
The list of subjects identified as essential for the course should be ranked in order of importance and then scrutinized by a small group of experienced forest staff, of whom several should have had a fair amount of teaching or instructional experience. If the organizations concerned intend to train candidates for employers outside the public sector, the opinions of these employers should also be represented in this group. For each subject selected as relevant to the course, a series of course objectives should be derived, setting out olearly what the aims of teaching in that topic ought to be. Examples of Course Objectives based on those used at a forestry school in a developing country Borne years ago are given in Appendix 3.
When a series of Course Objectives have been defined, they can be made more specific by developing a series of Achievement Targets, precise statements derived from the broad objectives of what a student should know, or be able to perform, on completion of the course. Though both Course Objectives and Achievement Targets may initially have to be defined in rather general terms, both can, and should, be redefined more specifically at regular intervals. This will enable the course to match more closely to the ultimate job requirements. Examples of Achievement Targets for the relevant Course Objectives from the same source are also given in Appendix 3.
6.4 Syllabus development
These stages of syllabus construction must lead to the identification, by a group of instructors, of the items of knowledge or skills - mathematical, verbal, or physical - a student must acquire in order to reach the defined Achievement Targets. From this a series of Course Outlines can be constructed, which after further discussion can be developed into detailed statements of Course Contents. In many cases, this would consist in a particular topic of a brief statement of background information on the topic, ideally gathered from local experience,to establish its relevance to the programme in general. Secondly, it would include a general description of the application locally of any techniques or procedures involved, giving objectives and reasons for the work. Finally, a step-by-step desoription of the procedures would be included, with details of any equipment required and any records which have to be kept.
A concluding summary, restating the most important aspects of the study, is usually necessary. Suggestions of any practical or written exercises required to consolidate the knowledge or skills should be included. This material is best developed in a series of short, precise paragraphs which can form the basis of teaching han:iouts, and, in due course, a teaching manual for the course.
6.5 Time scale
Initially, this must be derived from within a more or less arbitrary framework of overall time available for the whole course, divided roughly into various sections related to the importance of each part of the daily work of the field staff. This, however, can only be a very rough guide to the time allocation required for each broad section of the syllabus. Preliminary preparation of the teaching notes can then proceed. As this takes place, adjustments will have to be made to the provisional time allocations given to the main subjects, in order to accommodate material found to be essential, if the defined Achievement Targets are to be reached. In some cases these targets may have to be modified, if found to be too ambitious for the time available.
Whenever possible, trial runs of sections of the course may be made on limited groups of students, such as during in-service courses, to measure the time requirements for such sections and to determine their effectiveness. Pruning of some material which could be taught, but which may not be vital, may have to take place to keep the course material within the time limits proposed.
Eventually, a syllabus can be prepared allocating blocks of time for certain items of closely related material. Later, a "Scheme of Work" should be prepared by the instructor giving more precise teaching targets for each hour of the course. Further detailed revision of the Course Content or time allocation can take place if, during teaching of the course, an accurate daily "Record of Work" is maintained detailing the topics actually
- 6 -
covered within each hour. This calls for a lot of hard work and interest on the part ofthe instructors, but is well worth the effort.
6.6 Cross-checking of syllabus content
As the syllabus sections and time allocations are developed, careful cross-checkingmust be carried out to ensure that skills required in one topic, but taught under another,have in fact been adequately covered before they are required. This procedure increasesin importance the more a course is broken into short, discrete course units. Checkingcan best be carried out by setting out Schemes of Work in related subjects, in parallelcolumns, in a form using a vertical time scale to show clearly when each topic will nor-mally be covered in the course. Adjustments may be required in certain programmes toensure that different topics keep in step with each other.
6.7 Relationship to university and overseas courses
A possible short-cut in curriculum development, involving a wide-ranging review ofwhat is taught either at university level or in similar forestry schools in other coun-tries may seem attractive, but may be totally misleading. It may cause inclusion in thesyllabus of items which seem academically attractive, but may be of little relevance to aparticular country, at its present stage of development. This may lead to theoreticaltraining in certain subjects, before there is a substantial body of local knowledge, orindeed any field activity to justify the course. An initial wide range of course titlesbuilt up in this way may simply lead to an unnecessary and unrewarding search for anyavailable material to fill out the courses. In these circumstances, the courses areunlikely to be relevant to the real needs of the country concerned.
6.8 Sub-division of topics
Bearing in mind the difficulties of recruiting suitable teachers, and the time takenfor them to build up skills in teaching and acquire detailed knowledge of local conditions,it is advisable for an initial programme of training to start with a syllabus limited to afew main broad topics. This allows greater flexibility in teaching. Sub-divisions ofmajor subjects, e.g. the separation of forest protection from a general course in silvi-culture, should take place only when sufficient local material has been accumulated tojustify establishing a course in its own right, and when there is adequate staff to coverthe variety of topics.
6.9 Inclusion of basic studies
A question of some importance is whether a technical course of this nature shouldinclude a period of basic, non-forestry studies. Generally it is best if candidates canbe recruited with the necessary qualifications in basic sciences, mathematics and languageto avoid this, and to allow all available time in the course to be devoted to relevanttechnical studies. If the basic qualifications of candidates prove inadequate for theunderstanding of the more scientific parts of the course, a programme of basic studies insubjects such as chemistry, mathematics, physics, biology, etc. may have to be devised.The material taught, and the exercises or experiments undertaken in this programme should,however, be specifically aimed at assisting teaching in the later technical parts of thecourse. This may involve a considerable period of research and cooperation between thebasic studies and technical instructors concerned, to devise a relevant training programme.
It is no part of the function of a technical training programme. to provide bridgingcourses leading to university entry later. These can more properly be provided in otherinstitutions such as junior colleges or continuing education centres. A technicalforestry course should concentrate its activities on more clearly defined objectives.
6.10 Validation of courses
Validation of courses must depend to some extent on the level of development of theemploying agencies. Where there are clearly defined functions or standards of performancefor staff members of particular grades, graduates from training programmes can be gradedby their superior officers on their ability to meet these requirements, within a specifictime, after completing their training. Where this indicates any recognizable pattern of
- 6 -
covered within each hour. This calls for a lot of hard work and interest on the part of the instructors, but is well worth the effort.
6.6 Cross-checking of syllabus content
As the syllabus sections and time allocations are developed, careful cross-checking must be carried out to ensure that skills required in one topic, but taught under another, have in fact been adequately covered before they are required. This procedure increases in importance the more a course is broken into short, discrete course units. Checking can best be carried out by setting out Schemes of Work in related subjects, in parallel columns, in a form using a vertical time scale to show clearly when each topic will normally be covered in the course. Adjustment s may be required in certain programmes to ensure that different topics keep in step with each other.
6.7 Relationship to university and overseas courses
A possible short-cut in curriculum development, involving a wide-ranging review of what is taught either at university level or in similar forestry schools in other countries may seem attractive, but may be totally misleading. It may cause inclusion in the syllabus of items which seem academically attractive, but may be of little relevance to a particular country, at its present stage of development. This may lead to theoretical training in certain subjects, before there is a substantial body of local knowledge, or indeed any field activity to justify the course. An initial wide range of course titles built up in this way may simply lead to an unnecessary and unrewarding search for any available material to fill out the courses. In these circumstances, the courses are unlikely to be relevant to the real needs of the country concerned.
6.8 Sub-division of topics
Bearing in mind the difficulties of recruiting suitable teachers, and the time taken for them to build up skills in teaching and acquire detailed knowledge of local conditions, it is advisable for an initial programme of training to start with a syllabus limited to a few main broad topics. This allows greater flexibility in teaching. Sub-divisions of major subjects, e.g. the separation of forest protection from a general course in silviculture, should take place only when sufficient local material has been accumulated to justify establishing a course in its arm right, and when there is adequate staff to cover the variety of topics.
6.9 Inclusion of basic studies
A question of Borne importance is whether a technical course of this nature should include a period of basic, non-forestry studies. Generally it is best if candidates can be recruited with the necessary qualifications in basic sciences, mathematics and language to avoid this, and to allow all available time in the course to be devoted to relevant technical studies. If the basic qualifications of candidates prove inadequate for the understanding of the more scientific parts of the course, a programme of basic studies in subjects such as chemistry, mathematics, physics, biology, etc. may have to be devised. The material taught, and the exercises or experiments undertaken in this programme should, however, be speoifically aimed at assisting teaching in the later technical parts of the course. This may involve a considerable period of research and cooperation between the basic studies and technioal instructors concerned, to devise a relevant training programme.
It is no part of the function of a technical training programme to provide bridging courses leading to university entry later. These can more properly be provided in other institutions such as junior colleges or continuing education centres. A technical forestry course should concentrate its activities on more clearly defined objectives.
6.10 Validation of courses
Validation of courses must depend to some extent on the level of development of the employing agencies. Where there are clearly defined functions or standards of performance for staff members of particular grades, graduates from training programmes can be graded by their superior officers on their ability to meet these requirements, within a specific time, after completing their tra ining. Where this indiccrtes any recognizable pattern of
-7
deficiencies in their performance, a review of the course must be undertaken. Bothfield staff and teaching staff will normally take part in such reviews.
In some cases the training institution may in fact be running ahead of field pro-cedures and it may not be possible to validate the course in this way. A periodic re-view should, however, be made by the most experienced field officers available, and thetraining staff. This review should seek to measure the range of knowledge and skillsthe graduates possess and to assess how relevant they are to the current needs of theemployers.
6.11 Handouts and training manuals
The development of an instructor's teaching notes into class handouts, and the useof these in teaching programmes should receive careful attention. Handouts are fullyjustified when the complexity of the material being taught is such that it cannot be con-veyed adequately, either orally or by visual aids such as chalkboard notes. An examplemight be the precise wording of forest laws or regulations. If they are used at allstages of a course, they may lead to inattention in class and excessive dependence on thehandout for later study. This may not always give satisfactory results. It requiresa high degree of skill on the part of an instructor both to retain the interest of aclass and to gain their active participation in learning, if students know they will getit all in the handout at the end of the lesson. Handouts may, therefore, be of greatervalue when used to summarize a substantial sub-division of a topic, before the instructormoves on to the following section, rather than as a daily teaching aid.
Class handouts, after 2 or 3 years' use and careful revision, should form the basisof a comprehensive teaching manual on the topic. This, in turn, can become one segmentof a teaching manual for the whole course. Such a manual, whilst depending heavily onindividual instructor's notes and handouts, should be extensively edited by one person tosecure a uniformity of style, language, sub-division and numbering through the course,and directly related to any sub-division or numbering system used in the syllabus. Whensuch a manual has been produced, the emphasis and pattern of the teaching can change.Students can be allocated adequate amounts of time to study the manual and class teachingcan concentrate more on practising skills, or using information they may have obtainedfrom their guided private study.
The construction of a training manual is a considerable task and once completed,teaching staff may feel they can relax and depend upon it as their main source of teachingmaterial, for a considerable period. Material very soon goes out of date, however,either due to further research or to change of emphasis in the course. Therefore, to beeffective, the format of the manual must be such that small sections of a few pages canbe discarded and rewritten, without upsetting the flow or numbering of the material. Aloose-leaf format is most useful for this purpose.
7. ORGANIZATION OF PRACTICAL WORK AND STUDY TOURS
7.1 Importance of practical work and tours
To be really effective, a forest technician should have a practical outlook, becapable of using tools and equipment and be able to cope with all manner of forest con-ditions. It is essential, therefore, that a forestry training programme at technicallevel should include a great deal of practical work and opportunities to visit a widerange of forest sites.
However, it is not sufficient simply to provide tools and equipment and then leavethe students to work without guidance. This aspect of their training must be properlyplanned and closely linked with the theoretical instruction. To make the maximum use ofthe time allocated for practical work, it has been found that various types of trainingareas should be established. Details are given below and also some guidance on the plan-ning of study tours.
- 7 -
deficiencies in their performance, a review of the course must be undertaken. Both field staff and teaching staff will normally take part in suoh reviews.
In some cases the training institution may in fact be running ahead. of field procedures and it may not be possible to validate the course in this way. A periodic review should, however, be made by the most experienced field officers available, and the training staff. This review should seek to measure the range of knowledge and skills the graduates possess and to assess how relevant they are to the current needs of the employers.
6.11 Handouts and training manuals
The development of an instructor's teaching notes into class handouts, and the use of these in teaching programmes should receive careful attention. Handouts are fully justified when the complexity of the material being taught is such that it cannot be conveyed adequately, either orally or by visual aids such as chalkboard notes. An example might be the precise wording of forest laws or regulations. If they are used at all stages of a course, they may lead to inattention in class and excessive dependence on the handout for later study. This may not always give satisfactory results. It requires a high degree of skill on the part of an instructor both to retain the interest of a class and to gain their active participation in learning, if students know they will get it all in the handout at the end of the lesson. Handouts may, therefore, be of greater value when used to summarize a substantial sub-division of a topic, before the instructor moves on to the following section, rather than as a daily teaching aid.
Class handouts, after 2 or 3 years' use and careful revision, should form the basis of a comprehensive teaching manual on the topic. This, in turn, can become one segment of a teaohing manual for the whole course. Such a manual, whilst depending heavily on individual instructor's notes and handouts, should be extensively edited by one person to Beoure a uniformity of style, language, sub-division and numbering through the oourse, and directly related to any sub-division or numbering system used in the syllabus. When such a manual has been produced, the emphasis and pattern of the teaching can change. Students can be allocated adequate amounts of time to study the manual and class teaching can concentrate more on practising skills, or using information they may have obtained from their guided private study.
The construction of a training manual is a considerable task and once completed, teaching staff may feel they can relax and depend upon it as their main source of teaching material, for a considerable period. Material very soon goes out of date, however, either due to further research or to change of emphasis in the course. Therefore, to be effective, the format of the manual must be such that small sections of a few pages can be discarded and rewritten, without upsetting the flow or numbering of the material. A loose-leaf format is most useful for this purpose.
7. ORGANIZATION OF PRACTICAL WORK AND STUDY TOURS
7.1 Importance of practical work and tours
To be really effective, a forest technician should have a practical outlook, be capable of using tools and equipment and be able to cope with all manner of forest con-ditions. It is essential, therefore, that a forestry training programme at technical level shou~d include a great deal of practical work and opportunities to visit a wide range of forest sites.
However, it is not sufficient simply to provide tools and equipment and then leave the students to work without guidance. This aspect of their training must be properly planned and closely linked with the theoretical instruction. To make the maximum use of the time allocated for practical work, it has been found that various types of training areas should be established. Details are given bel?w and also some guidance on the planning of study tours.
- 8 -
7.2 Initial demonstration and training area
Ideally a training institution should have 2 or 3 field training areas. One ofthese should be a series of plantations of differing age classes and, if relevant, dif-ferent species, and a reasonable amount of natural forest. This should be under theexclusive control of the institution. One staff member should exercise a supervisory orcoordinating function over the whole area. The detailed practical exercises should, how-ever, be planned and supervised by the staff member of whose course they form a part,within the agreed framework of management for the training area. The area should, there-fore, as far as practicable, be operated under an approved management plan, similar tothose in use throughout the forest district concerned. In general, however, unit areasto be treated will be considerably smaller than those of a fullscale plan.
The area should provide facilities for demonstrations and initial practice of forestrytechniques by students. At this stage of their training, the quality of performance willbe variable and the output generally low. These factors tend to upset operational plans,if such initial training activities are carried out in a forest under a normal managementregime, hence the need for designated training areas.
7.3 Practice yard
Depending upon the nature and range of operations required in the DemonstrationForest, the use of a Practice Yard may be justified. This will enable initial instruc-tion in tool maintenance and correct working techniques to be given to students, beforethey take par-tin exercises in the Demonstration Forest. This should ensure that theyopera-te efficiently and safely.
An open yard, preferably with a limited covered working area, should be establishedsufficiently close to the teaching block to permit quick access on foot. However, itshould also be far enough away, or sufficiently well screened, to avoid undesirable noisereaching the teaching area. The yard should contain facilities for tool maintenance andsupplies of logs for practising axe work and sawing techniques. A further area in whichstudents can use tools for working the soil or firefighting tools, has been found to beuseful.
7.4 Training forest
Following initial practice in a demonstration area, it is desirable that studentsshould have access to a largescale forest, not too far from the school, which hasexamples of as many types of field activities as possible. This allows full dayexercises or longer periods of practical training during the course, with the minimumamount of travelling time.
The definition of a largescale forest depends upon local management objectives, butsomething with an annual working area of at least 1 ha. for every student using it isdesirable. The area must be sufficiently large to allow each student adequate scope topractice skills such as planting, tending, pruning, thinning, etc., or corresponding skillsin natural forest techniques. On the other hand, it should still be sufficiently compactto allow a class to complete an operation over a unit area, such as a compartment, withouthaving to call in workers to complete the task. If this is required, it may lead tovariations in standards of performance, which can complicate record keeping for the localmanager.
7.5 Training in planning and supervision
During initial practice, and in some cases in the early stages of fullscale opera-tions, the work should be planned and closely supervised by instructors. They mustensure that proper techniques are applied and that a good organizational structure isestablished to provide for the control of the operations. As soon as the techniques andpatterns of work are well established, student leaders should be allocated, on a periodicbasis. They will draw the necessary tools and equipment from stores; issue it to groupmembers; allocate tasks and rates of output; verify that the work has been carried out ina satisfactory manner; and ensure that the equipment is returned in good order. Exercisesin such supervisory functions, and experience of the various problems which may arise, areas important as experience in the tasks themselves.
- 8 -
7.2 Initial demonstration and training area
Ideally a training institution should have 2 or 3 field training areas. One of these should be a series of plantations of differing age classes and, if relevant, different species, and a reasonable amount of natural forest. This should be under the exclusive control of the institution. One staff member should exercise a supervisory or coordinating function over the whole area. The detailed practical exercises should, however, be planned and supervised by the staff member of whose course they form a part, wi thin the agreed framework of management for the training area. The area should, therefore, as far as practicable, be operated under an approved management plan, similar to those in use throughout the forest district concerned. In general, however, unit areas to be treated will be considerably smaller than those of a full-scale plan.
The area should provide facilities for demonstrations and initial practice of forestry techniques by students. At this stage of their training, the quality of performance will be variable and the output generally low. These factors tend to upset operational plans, if such initial training activities are carried out "in a forest under a normal management regime, hence the need for designated training areas.
7.3 Practice yard
Depending upon the nature and range of operations required in the Demonstration Forest, the use of a Practice Yard may be justified. This will enable initial instruction in tool maintenance and correct working techniques to be given to students, before they take part "in exercises in the Demonstration Forest. This should ensure that they operate efficiently and safely.
An open yard, preferably with a limited covered working area, should be established sufficiently close to the teaching block to permit quick access on foot. However, it should also be far enough away, or sufficiently well screen.ed, to avoid undesirable noise reaching the teaching area. The yard should contain facilities for tool maintenance and supplies of logs for practi sing axe work and sawing techniques. A further area in which students can use tools for VK>rking the sailor fire-fighting tools, has been found to be useful.
7.4 Training forest
Following initial practice in a demonstration area, it is desirable that students should have access to a large-scale forest, not too far from the school, which has examples of as many types of field activities as possible. This allows full day exercises or longer periods of practical training during the course, with the minimum amount of travelling time.
The definition of a large-scale forest depends upon local management objectives, but something with an annual working area of at least 1 ha. for every student using it is desirable. The area must be sufficiently large to allow each student adequate scope to practice skills such as planting, tending, pruning, thinning, etc., or corresponding skills in natural forest techniques. On the other hand, it should still be sufficiently compact to allow a class to complete an operation over a unit area, such as a compartment, without having to call in workers to complete the task. If this is required, it may lead to variations in standards of performance, which can complicate record keeping for the local manager.
7.5 Training in planning and supervision
During initial practice, and in some cases in the early stages of full-scale operations, the work should be planned and closely supervised by instructors. They must ensure that proper techniques are applied and that a good organizational structure is established to provide for the control of the operations. As soon as the techniques and patterns of work are well established, student leaders should be allocated, on a periodic basis. They will draw the necessary tools and equipment from stores; issue it to group members; allocate tasks and rates of output; verify that the work has been carried out in a satisfactory manner; and ensure that the equipment i s returned in good order. Exercises in such supervisory functions, and experience of the various problems which may arise, are as important as experience in the tasks themselves.
97.6 Trainin5 in community forestry and extension
In areas where community forestry or extension programmes play a significant role inthe work of the forest authority, students should have ready access to several areas inwhich active community forestry programmes are in operation. Either through their owninstructors, or with the aid of community forestry staff from the authority, they shouldbe able to carry out case studies of local needs and aspirations. They should also par-ticipate in discussing, planning and facilitating realistic community forestry projectsand in evaluating their results.
The area to which they have access must be reasonably large and contain a consider-able number of identifiable communities with whom they can work. If this is not so,students may tend to visit particular communities at too close intervals of time togenerate any really fresh ideas or proposals on community needs. The task may then de-generate into a form of ritual discussion and planning, and fail to identify problemsarising in communities not yet oriented to this type of work.
Students are unlikely to remain long enough in an institution to see the full imple-mentation of any proposals they may draw up, but they can be graded in a careful reviewof written reports on one or more set tasks. They can widen their knowledge by studyingprojects at various stages of implementation.
7.7 Study tours
A programme of touring, preferably combined with practical studies and exercises, inecological conditions which are not represented near the training institution, should beincluded in the training programme. It is, however, often difficult to achieve a satis-factory balance in such a programme.
If the country is extensive, with widely differing ecological and social conditions,there may be a need to extend touring to cover as many variations as possible of the con-ditions. If, however, this involves long journeys and frequent changes of camp, studentstend to become tired and lose interest as the tour proceeds. A tour based on a largenumber of visits to different activities may lead to an excess of experiences, more thana student can reasonably assimilate within a limited period. Field officers often showgreat enthusiasm for their work and tend to crowd into a short visit as much activity aspossible. Opportunities for students to practice new techniques for a day or two through-out the programe are desirable, though both the level of performance and work output maybe low, as the group is unlikely to be able to spend enough time to master a new techniquefully. If it is practicable, a number of short tours of 2 weeks' duration with fewerobjectives may provide more useful experiences, but these in turn may involve greaterexpense and more unproductive travelling time.
A programme involving a camp in one particular area for a period of 6 to 8 weeks pro-vides the opportunity for more detailed experience in the techniques and working conditionsof the area, but it will not provide the range of experience desirable when widely variedecological conditions are met with in the country.
7.8 Work experience
A valuable contribution to practical training is to encourage students to seek paidemployment in forestry activities during vacations. This is not so easy in some countriesas it is in the temperate zones where a season of annual vacations, or favourable workingconditions, creates a demand for temporary employees. Vernacular language, lack of suit-able accommodation, food preferences, etc. all create problems initially. It is worth-while, however, exerting a good deal of official pressure on local staff to accept train-ees, and to assist them in overcoming these problems. Experience in actual working con-ditions, especially outside a student's home area, is likely to give a very valuable in-sight into workers' attitudes and motivation, as well as practical experience in forestryactivities.
- 9 -
7.6 Training in community forestry and extension
In areas where community forestry or extension programmes playa significant role in the work of the forest authority, students should have ready access to several areas in which active community forestry programmes are in operation. Either through their own instructors, or with the aid of oommunity forestry staff from the authority, they should be able to carry out case studies of local needs and aspirations. They should also participate in discussing, planning and facilitating realistic community forestry projects and in evaluating their results.
The area to which they have access must be reasonably large and contain a consider-able number of identifiable communities with whom they can work. If this is not so, students may tend to visit particular communities at too close intervals of time to generate any really fresh ideas or proposals on community needs. The task may then degenerate into a form of ritual discussion and planning, and fail to identify problems arising in communities not yet oriented to this type of work.
Students are unlikely to remain long enough in an institution to see the full implementation of any proposals they may draw up, but they can be graded in a careful review of written reports on one or more set tasks. They can widen their knowledge by studying projects at various stages of implementation.
7.7 study tours
A programme of touring, preferably combined with practical studies and exercises, in ecological conditions which are not represented near the training institution, should be included in the training programme. It is, however, often difficult to achieve a satis-factory balance in such a programme.
If the country is extensive, with widely differing ecological and social conditions, there may be a need to extend touring to cover as many variations as possible of the con-ditions. If, however, this involves long journeys and frequent changes of camp, students tend to become tired and lose interest as the tour proceeds. A tour based on a large number of visits to different activities may lead to an excess of experiences, more than a student can reasonably assimilate within a limited period. Field officers often show great enthusiasm for their work and tend to crowd into a short visit as much activity as possible. Opportunities for students to practice new teChniques for a day or two throughout the programme are desirable, though both the level of performance and work output may be low, as the group is unlikely to be able to spend enough time to master a new technique fully. If it i s practicable, a number of short tours of 2 weeks' duration with fewer objectives may provide more useful experiences, but these in turn may involve greater expense and more unproductive travelling time.
A programme involving a camp in one particular area for a period of 6 to 8 weeks provides the opportunity for more detailed experience in the techniques and working conditions of the area, but it will not provide the range of experience desirable when widely varied eoological conditions are met with in the country.
7.8 Work eXperience
A valuable oontribution to practical training is to encourage students to seek paid employment in forestry activities during vacations. This is not so easy in some countries as it is in the temperate zones where a season of annual vacations, or favourable working conditions, creates a demand for temporary employees. Vernacular language, lack of suit-able accommodation, food preferences, etc. all create problems initially. It is worth-while, however, exerting a good deal of official pressure on local staff to accept trainees, and to assist them in overcoming these problems. Experience in actual working conditions, especially outside a student's home area, is likely to give a very valuable insight into workers' attitudes and motivation, as well as practical experience in forestry activities.
- 10 -
8. TEACHING AM TRAINING METHODS
8.1 Class teaching
In some of the countries for which this publication is intended, a major element ofdirect teaching, i.e. the transfer of knowledge or experience from instructor to student,may still be essential. Students from rural backgrounds may lack many of the basic ex-periences of tools, materials and literature that one could reasonably expect of studentsfrom more wealthy and developed areas. Moreover, in their struggle to gain an education,usually in very difficult circumstances, their previous experience has conditioned themto concentrate on absorbing material taught, often with considerable accuracy of recall,but not always with a full understanding of its practical applications. Sometimes, therealso tends to be a strict compartmentalization of knowledge, one subject being regarded asa thing in itself, with no direct bearing on other subjects taught. This attitude mustbe broken down and students trained to seek information for themselves and to use know-ledge from one topic to solve problems in another. This cannot normally be done in onesingle step as soon as teaching commences; the results would in some cases be completebewilderment and considerable loss of teaching time.
In these circumstances, well-prepared class teaching must first establish the needfor, or utility of, an item of knowledge or skill in relation to local environment orprobable job requirements. The matter should then be explained or demonstrated in itsbasic concept, using simple terms and as few alternative language expressions as possible.It should also be related to local or regional conditions as closely as possible.
Where a teaching task involves a fairly complex operation, made up of several sub-operations, e.g. the task of "planting", it is important at this level of training to"set the scene"; that is, to review or describe briefly the overall task before describingand studying each of its component parts in detail. If this is ignored, it may be diffi-cult for students to relate the component parts to each other or to determine their rela-tive importance. A final review, linking up the parts taught and integrating them intothe composite picture of the operation, is equally essential.
8.2 Student participation
Students Should be encouraged to comment on or question the material being presentedto them. Time should be allowed in each teaching unit for an interchange of questionsbetween students and instructor to clarify points of doubt, or to verify for the instruc-tor if the matter being studied has been adequately understood. However, the instructormust be careful to control question time and keep it objective, otherwise valuable classtime will be lost. Where convenient, classwork should be allocated to test the comprehen-sion of individual students and to allow additional private practice.
8.3 Lectures
The formal lecture has, in general, only a limited value in technical training.Lecturing can only be an effective teaching technique where the students are of a highlevel and are able to extract, from a flow of descriptions, the key material to be recor-ded in notes in order to reconstruct later, any detailed concept which has been presented.
The lecture approach normally requires extensive background reading by the studentto supplement the information gathered in the classroom. Frequently there is a shortageof printed material at the required level, and what may be available may deal with thetopic in general terms, rather than in the more detailed and specific approach required bytechnical students. Where students have the necessary knowledge and skills to benefitfrom lecture-type teaching, one might well consider whether they would not be bettersuited to professional rather than technical level training.
The problem lies mainly in extracting the key elements from the material presentedby a teacher. The more detailed presentation of ideas with chalkboard notes, diagrams,or visual aids of various sorts, and the interplay of questions which should form part ofa well-constructed lesson, is likely to suit a wider range of technical students.
- 10 -
8. TEACHING AND TRAINING MEl'IIODS
8.1 Class teaching
In Borne of the countries for which this publication is intended, a major element of direct teaching, i.e. the transfer of knowledge or experience from instructor to student, may still be essential. Students from rural backgrounds may lack many of the basic experiences of tools, materials and. literature that one could reasonably expect of students from more wealthy and developed areas. Moreover, in their struggle to gain an education, usually in very difficult circumstances, their previous experience has conditioned them to concentrate on absorbing material taught, often with considerable accuracy of recall, but not always with a full understanding of its practical applications. Sometimes, there also tends to be a strict compartmentalization of knowledge, one subject being regarded as a thing in itself, with no direct bearing on other subjects taught. This attitude must be broken down and students trained to seek information for themselves and to use knowledge from one topic to solve problems in another. This cannot normally be done in one single step as soon as teaching commences; the results would in some cases be complete bewilderment and considerable loss of teaching time.
In these circumstances, well-prepared class teaching must first establish the need for, or utility of, an item of knowledge or skill in relation to local environment or prob~ble job requirements. The matter should then be explained or demonstrated in its basic concept, using s imple terms and as few alternative language expressions as possible. It should also be related to local or regional conditions as closely as possible.
Where a teaching task involves a fairly complex operation, made up of several suboperations, e.g. the task of "planting", it is important at this level of training to "set the scene"; that is, to review or describe briefly the overall task before describing and studying each of its component parts in detail. If this is ignored, it may be difficult for students to relate the component parts to each other or to determine their relative importance. A final review, linking up the parts taught and integrating them into the composite picture of the operation, is equally essential.
8.2 Student participation
Students should be encouraged to comment on or question the material being presented to them. Time shoul d be allowed in each teaching unit for an interchan~ of questions between students and instructor to clarify points of doubt, or to verify for the instructor if the matter being studied has been adequately understood. However, the instructor must be careful to control question time and keep it objective, otherwise valuable class time will be lost. Where convenient, classwork should be allocated to test the comprehension of individual students and to allow additional private practice.
8.3 Lectures
The formal lecture has, in ~neral, only a limited value in technical training. Lecturing can only be an effective teaching technique where the students are of a high level and are able to extract, from a flow of descriptions, the key material to be recorded in notes in order to reconstruct later, any detailed concept which has been presented.
The lecture approach normally requires extensive background reading by the student to supplement the information gathered in the clasGroom. Frequently there is a shortage of printed material at the required level, and what may be available may deal with the topic in general terms, rather than in the more detailed and specific approach required by technical students. Where students have the necessary knowledge and skills to benefit from lecture-type teaching, one might well consider whether they would not be better suited to professional rather than technical level training.
The problem lies mainly in extracting the key elements from the material presented by a teacher. The more detailed presentation of idea~ with chalkboard notes, diagrams, or visual aids of various sorts, and the interplay of questions which should form part of a well-constructed lesson, is likely to suit a wider range of technical students.
8.4 Discussion
Discussion may initially be of limited value as a teaching method. Students may atfirst be attuned to receiving information passively, than to contributing to it by sugges-tions. Discussion presupposes that the participants have sufficient basic information ona topic to engage in relevant discussion, and that the material is "discussable", i.e. amatter on which a number of reasonable and valid views can be held. This in general tends-Lo limit useful discussions to later stages in a course. However, they may be helpful inareas where working practices give an employee some discretion in his actions, e.g. timesor degrees of thinning. They serve little or no purpose where techniques are preciselylaid down, and any divergence from these would jeopardize the value of the work, e.g. inresearch procedures where results from various areas are being compared. Whilst theirvalue cannot be overlooked, in the generally tight time-schedule of a technical course,use may be limited to selecting or planning procedures to be adopted in a group task.
8.5 Demonstrations
Demonstrations of the use of tools or instruments, or of working techniques, are anessential follow-up to classwork. In fact, they may be a primary part in teaching, and inthis case the class should be held in a location where the demonstration can most con-veniently be staged. If there is a considerable element of practical skill in a topicbeing taught, the initial teaching might well be carried out in the practice yard, or inthe field, and detailed analysis of the activity and the necessary note-taking be referredto a subsequent classroom period. The use of skilled demonstrators, either highlytrained workers or assistant instructors, may permit the instructor to continue a smoothflow of teaching and comment while a procedure is being observed.
Supervised practice is an essential follow-up of demonstrations, so techniques beingintroduced should, after an initial general demonstration, be broken into sufficientlysmall units to allow each component part to be practised thoroughly. This requires anadequate supply of equipment and sufficient supervisors to break the class into smallpractice groups, where the performance of each student can be observed. The heavy re-quirements of staff to carry out this type of training effectively is not always fullyunderstood outside the immediate training organization.
8.6 Group work
Group work is valuable as an exercise in cooperation and in developing formal andinformal patterns of leadership. However, it again has its drawbacks, as not all themembers in a group may benefit equally from the exercise. The most able and energeticmay gain a great deal. The less able or the indifferent may simply have a "free ride".Assessment of individual performance within a group activity is not easy, and the lessable may gain from the general standard of performance of the more enterprising members.
The technique is of most value in the later stages of a topic, or a course, when theparticipants have a basis of information or experience which they can pool. It is ofparticular value when a task calls initially for the group to put forward constructivesuggestions, followed up by a detailed study to translate these suggestions into usefulactivity. Tasks related to the preparation of a management plan, or the formulation ofproposed activities in Community Forestry work, are often suitable.
8.7 Project work
An individual project can involve private reading, data collection, field observationsor measurements; and activities such as specimen collection and examination, or raisingplants. Spread over a substantial period of a course, it gives the students an opportu-nity to show initiative, persistence, and personal enthusiasm for the tasks they haveundertaken.
One possibility is the detailed study of a tree species requiring the collection ofbackground information, supplemented by actual observations and activities over a fullyear, and culminating in a written report. This is both a useful educational activityand a suitable method of gathering valuable supplementary information, perhaps not yet re-corded in reference works.
- 11 -
8.4 Discussion
Discussion m~ initially be of limited value as a teaching method. Students may at first be attuned to receiving information passively, than to contributing to it by suggestions. Discussion presupposes that the participants have sufficient basic information on a topic to engage in relevant discussion, and that the material is "discussable", i.e. a matter on which a number of reasonable and valid views can be held. This in ~neral tends to limit useful discussions to later stages in a course. However, they may be helpful in areas where working practices give an employee some discretion in his actions, e.g. times or degrees of thinning. They serve little or no purpose where teChniques are precisely laid down, and any divergence from these would jeopardize the value of the work, e.g. in research procedures where results from various areas are being compared. Whilst their value cannot be overlooked, in the generally tight time-schedule of a technical course, use may be limited to selecting or planning procedures to be adopted in a group task.
8.5 Demonstrat ions
Demonstrations of the use of tools or instruments, or of working techniques, are an essential follow-up to classwork. In fact, they may be a primary part in teaching, and in this case the class should be held in a location where the demonstration can most conveniently be staged. If there is a considerabl e element of practical skill in a topic being taught, the initial teaching might well be carried out in the practice yard, or in the field, and detailed analysis of the activity and the necessary note-taking be referred to a subsequent classroom period. The use of skilled demonstrators, either highly trained workers or assistant instructors, may permit the instructor to continue a smooth flow of teaching and comment while a procedure is being observed.
Supervised practice is an essential follow-up of demonstrations, so techniques being introduced should, after an initial general demonstration, be broken into sufficiently small units to allow each component part to be practised thoroughly. This requires an adequate supply of equipment and sufficient supervisors to break the c lass into small practice groups, where the performance of each student can be observed. The heavy requirements of staff to carry out this type of training effectively is not always fully under stood outside the immediate training organization.
8.6 Group work
Group work i s valuable as an exercise in cooperation and in developing formal and informal patterns of leadership. However, it again has its drawbacks, as not all the members in a group may benefit equally from the exercise. The most able and energetic may gain a great deal. The less able or the indifferent may simply have a Ufree ride It. Assessment of individual performance within a group activity is not easy, and the less able may gain from the general standard of performance of the more enterprising members.
The technique is of most value in the later stages of a topic, or a course, when the participants have a basis of information or experience which they can pool. It is of particular value when a task calls initially for the group to put forward constructive suggestions, followed up by a detailed study to translate these suggestions into useful activity. Tasks related to the preparation of a management plan, or the fo rmulation of proposed activities in Community Forestry work, are often suitable.
8.7 Project work
An individual project can involve private reading, data collection, field observations or measurements; and activities such as specimen collection and examination, or rai s ing plants. Spread. over a substantial period of a course, it gives the students an opportunity to show initiative, persistence, and personal enthusiasm for the tasks they have wtdertaken.
One possibility is the detai led study of a tree species requiring the collect ion of background information, supplemented by actual observations and activities over a full year, and culminating in a written report. This is both a useful educational activity and a suitable method of gathering valuable supplementary information, perhaps not yet recorded in reference works.
12
8.8 Written instructions
The use of written instructions in setting out tasks to be completed, or problems tobe solved, is a valuable teaching process. After leaving a training institution, a stu-dent will find that most of his directions for tasks to be accomplished, or techniques tobe practised, will come as written instructions. It is essential to provide studentswith practice at reading and comprehending instructions in formal technical language.During such exercises, students should be encouraged to struggle with any problems ofunderstanding or interpretation of the instructions. Instructional staff should onlyanswer questions, or offer explanations, where it becomes apparent that the instructionsare open to misinterpretation, or are too complex for them to be readily understood byparticular students.
8.9 Assessments
Regular assessments of individual performance are an important part in the learningprocess, both for the student and the instructor. It is impracticable to lay down firmguidelines for their use, as circumstances vary considerably in different courses.Nevertheless, short "quiz" type assessments are very valuable and should be given atregular intervals during a course. They are particularly useful when one stage is, tosome extent, dependent on the previous stage being properly understood.
For such assessments, objective type questions are easy to grade and students canget feedback from their results with the minimum delay. Where classes are large, thereare also great advantages from the instructor's point of view, in using objective typequestions in the main assessment or terminal test. This, however, deprives the studentsof practice in formulating ideas and putting them into their own words, which is a matterof great importance in training at this level.
Students, when learning in a language other than their mother tongue (and thishappens in many countries where local languages or dialects exist), need all the practicethey can get in expressing themselves freely and precisely in the official language. Theuse of letter grades in preference to numerical marks tends to smooth out some of theproblems arising from this type of marking.
8.10 Conclusions
The ype of teaching to be employed in any set of circumstances depends upon thelevel of the students, the stage of the course, and the nature of the topic. Flexi-bility and variety of approach is most easily arranged when wideranging courses aregiven broad allocations of time. Narrow courses within precise time schedules limit thepossibilities of digressing or trying a new approach to a topic. An essential require-ment is for the instructor to have sufficiently close contact with his class to sense ifhis material is being absorbed, and to stimulate his class to crosscheck it against anyprior knowledge they may have, or their general experience of the topic. A lesson plan,no matter how carefully prepared, should be suspended or even abandoned if the instructorcan sense that it is not being properly absorbed. The ability to switch, when necessary,to a fresh approach to explain a topic which is proving difficult to understand, is ahighly valuable skill in instruction.
9. LEARNING RESOURCES
Learning resources can vary from simple pieces of equipment to complex machines.Within the limited finances of most technical training programmes, and the nature andlevel of the material being taught, the simpler types of equipment tend to have manyadvantages.
9.1 Prepared diagrams
Diagrams are useful but must be used with care. They consist largely of twodimen-sional symbols which a person from a culture accustomed to such things may find readilyunderstandable, but which may be unintelligible to persons unused to expressing themselvesin this way. An area outlined in green on a chalkboard may well symbolize a forest to
- 12 -
8.8 Written instructions
The use of written instructions in s etting out tasks to be completed, or problems to be solved, i s a valuable teaching process. After leaving a training institution, a student will find that most of his directions for tasks to be accomplished, or techniques to be practised, will come as written instructions. It is essential to provide students with practice at reading and comprehending instructions in formal technical language. During such exercises, students should be encouraged to struggle with any problems of understanding or interpretation of the instructions. Instructional staff should only answer questions, or offer explanations, where it becomes apparent that the instructions are open to misinterpretation, or are too complex for them to be readily understood by particular students.
8.9 Assessment s
Regular assessments of individual performance are an important 'part in the learning process, both for the student and the instructor. It is impracticable to lay down firm guidelines for their use, as circumstances vary considerably in different courses. Nevertheless, short "quiz" type assessments are very valuable and should be given at regular intervals during a course. They are particularly useful when one stage is, to some extent, dependent on the previous stage being properly understood.
For such assessments, objective type questions are easy to grade and students can get feedback from their results with the minimum delay. Where classes are large, there are also great advantages from the instructor's point of view, in using objective type questions in the main assessment or terminal test. This, however, deprives the students of practice in formulating ideas and putting them into their own words, which is a matter of great importance in training at this level.
Students, when learning in a language other than their mother tongue (and this happens in many countries where local languages or dialects exist), need all the practice they can get in expressing themselves freely and precisely in the official language. The use of letter grades in preference to numerical marks tends to smooth out some of the problems arising from this type of marking.
8. 10 Conclusions
The type of teaching to be employed in any set of circumstances depends upon the level of the students, the stage of the course, and the nature of the topic. Flexibility and variety of approach is most easily arranged when wide-ranging courses are given broad allocations of time. Narrow courses within precise time schedules limit the possibilities of digressing or trying a new approach to a topic. An essential requirement is for the instructor to have sufficiently close contact with his class to sense if his material is being absorbed, and to stimulate his class to cross-check it against any prior knowledge they may have, or their general experience of the topic. A lesson plan, no matter how carefully prepared, should be suspended or even abandoned if the instructor can sense that it is not being properly absorbed. The ability to switch, when necessary, to a fresh approach to explain a topic which is proving difficult to understand, is a highly valuable skill in instruction.
9 . LEARNING RESOURCES
Learning resources can vary from simple pieces of equipment to complex machines. Within the limited finances of most technical training programmes, and the nature and level of the material being taught t the s impler types of equipment tend to have many advantages.
9 .1 Prepared diagrams
Diagrams are useful but must be used with care. They consist largely of two-dimens ional symbols which a person from a culture accustomed to such things may find readily understandable, but which may be unintelligible to persons unused to expressing themselves in thi s way. An area outlined in green on a chalkboard may well symbolize a forest to
- 13 -
persons used to that convention, but be confusing to someone unacquainted with it.Logical colouring of diagrams, however, appears to assist understanding at most stages,and costs very little more than a single colour.
Diagrams should, whenever possible, be of the "build up" type, starting with thesimplest concert or model, and adding information progressively as the description pro-ceeds. Well produced overlays for an overhead projector are excellent for this purpose,but an instructor must balance the time taken to produce these against their ultimateusage. To justify the time taken in preparation, such aids must normally be used on anumber of occasions. They are, therefore, best adapted to short courses repeated 3 or 4times a year. If required only once a year, they are most valuable in areas of studywhere things do not change rapidly, e.g. some aspects of botany, entomology or forestutilization where the scope of teaching changes relatively slowly, rather than in silvi-cultural and management techniques where ideas or procedures may be outdated more rapidly,or where several alternative solutions may be acceptable.
9.2 Chalkboard diagrams
Skill in the production of neat chalk or crayon diagrams is a highly desirable attri-bute for an instructor. Such diagrams, built up before a student's eyes, with adequateexplanation, take away much of the awe and mystery of more complex prepared diagrams,which may sometimes be difficult to comprehend and very difficult to transcribe intonotes. The use of "logical colours" in all these diagrams is an aid to understanding.
9.3 Flip charts
For more complex situations, flip charts prepared in advance, especially where addi-tions are indicated in distinctive colours, are relatively cheap and very helpful. If
left in a classroom or a library resource centre for further study, they can enable stu-dents to work out the process and absorb it at their own speed.
9.4 Horizontal chalkboards
For tasks where there is a spatial element, e.g. the organization of groups in inven-tory or silvicultura], treatment tasks, or for fire prevention, a "horizontal chalkboard"using models or counters suitably colour-coded to represent various tasks, is a morelogical method of explaining procedures than a vertical board or diagram. The onlylimitation to this technique is that fewer students can normally see a horizontal layoutthan a vertical one. If this can be overcome, the more ready understanding of particularsituations, and the ability to demonstrate how to move persons or items of equipment overan area, is of great instructional value.
9.5 Sand table or terrain model
A further development of the horizontal chalkboard is a sand table or terrain model.This is normally a static exhibit of strong construction, requiring a permanent space incircumstances where space is often at a premium. It involves greater work in preparation,but allows a number of solutions to any problem to be displayed at the same time.
9.6 ngnetic board
A magnetic board allows models or counters to be used in the vertical position andhence overcomes the viewing limitations of the horizontal chalkboard. The disadvantagesare cost and the amount of time required to prepare the models. It is, however, possibleto improvise a magnetic board using, for example, a metal cupboard.
9.7 Felt boards
Felt boards can be of particular value in teaching situations where a number of alter-native solutions are possible and each one should be examined; for example, in discussingthinning or canopy opening operations. However, it takes time to prepare the variousitems required to illustrate a topic and the storage facilities must be both adequate and
well-organized. If not, some of the illustrations tend to get lost, others become rathertattered or alternative uses are found for them. Felt boards are more suited for courseswhich are repeated frequently, rather than for courses held annually.
- 13 -
persons used to that convention, but be confusing to someone unacquainted with it. Logical colouring of diagrams, however, appears to assist understanding at most stages, and costs very little more than a single colour.
Diagrams should, whenever possible, be of the I1build Upll type, starting with the simplest concept or model, and adding information progressively as the description proceeds. Well produced overlays for an overhead projector are excellent for this purpose, but an instructor must balance the time taken to produce these against their ultimate usa~. To justify the time taken in preparation, such aids must normally be used on a number of occasions. They are, therefore, best adapted to short courses repeated 3 or 4 times a year. If required only once a year, they are most valuable in areas of study where things do not change rapidly, e.g. some aspects of botany, entomology or forest utilization where the scope of teaching changes relatively slowly, rather than in silvicultural and management techniques where ideas or procedures may be outdated more rapidly, or where several alternative solutions may be acceptable.
9.2 Chalkboard diagrams
Skill in the production of neat chalk or crayon diagrams is a highly desirable attribute for an instructor. Such diagrams, built up before a student's eyes, with adequate explanation, take away much of the awe and mystery of more complex prepared diagrams, which may sometimes be difficult to comprehend and very difficult to transcribe into note s. The use of "logical colours" in all these diagrams is an aid to understanding.
9.3 Flip charts
For more oomplex situations, flip charts prepared in advance, especially where tions are indicated in distinctive colours, are relatively cheap and very helpful. left in a classroom or a library resource centre for further study, they can enable dents to work out the prooess and absorb it at their own speed.
9.4 Horizontal chalkboards
addiIf
stu-
For taSKS where there is a spa~ial element, e.g. the organization of groups in. inventory or silvioultural treatment tasks, or for fire prevention, a "horizontal chalkboard" using models or counters suitably colour-coded to represent various tasks, is a more logical method of explaining procedures than a vertical board or diagram. The only limitation to this technique is that fewe r students can normally see a horizontal layout than a vertical one. If this can be overcome, the more ready understanding of particular situations , and the ability to demonstrate how to move persons or items of equipment over an area, is of great instructional value.
9.5 Sand table or terrain model
A further development of the horizontal chalkboard is a sand table or terrain model. This i s normally a static exhibit of strong construction, requiring a permanent space in circumstances where space is often at a premium. It involves greater work in preparation, but allows a number of solutions to any problem to be displayed at the same time.
9.6 Magnetic board
A magnetic board allows models or counters to be used in the vertical position and hence overcome s the viewing limitations of the horizontal chalkboard. The disadvantages are cost and the amount of time required to prepare the models. It is, however, possible to improvise a magnetic board using, for example, a metal cupboard.
9.7 Felt boards
Felt boards can be of particular value in teaching situations l-lhere a number of alternative solutions are possible and each one should be examined; for example, in discussing thinning or canopy opening operations. However, it takes time to prepare the various items required to illustrate a topic and the st orage facilities must be both adequate and well-organized. If not, some of the illustrations tend to get lost, others become rather tattered or alternative uses are found for them. Felt boards are more · suited for courses which are repeated frequently, rather than for courses held annually.
- 14-
9.8 Overhead projector
The overhead projector can be a very useful aid to teaching, but to be really effec-tive, the instructional staff require training in its use. This visual aid is particu-larly suitable for certain topics such as botany, entomology and soils, where illustrationscan remain unaltered for a long period. With the use of a thermo-copier, it is relativelyeasy to transfer black and white drawings to transparency film which, with care, will lastfor years. It is also possible to prepare a series of transparencies, in permanentcolours, illustrating various topics. Otherwise, the overhead projector can be used justlike a chalkboard with non-permanent transparency marking pens. The difference is thatthe instructor remains seated facing the class and possibly can maintain better studentcontrol. Another technique is to fit a roll of transparency film, which makes it possibleto give a series of illustrations and to refer back to the earlier ones, by simply re-winding the roller. Prepared transparencies can also be purchased with overlays andworking parts which actually move. These can be of real value in connection with instruo-tion concerning topics such as the maintenance of motor vehicles and machinery.
It should be noted that the screen must be fixed correctly above the projector, if thedistortion of the image is to be avoided. Where the power supply is variable, a voltagestabilizer should be used, as the bulbs are very sensitive to voltage fluctuations.
9.9 Colour slides and film strips
A comprehensive and well-indexed collection of colour slides of field activities oroperations, or of areas of a country which cannot easily be visited, can be of conSiderablevalue in supporting the instructions given. It must be remembered, however, that Parti-cularly in hot climates, not all classrooms can be adequately screened for this purpose,and if they can, they often become very uncomfortable. A good system of daylight back-projection onto a screen about 80 to 100 cm. square is valuable. Though this can some-times be improvised, it is often difficult to get the right combination of intensity oflit, short focus lens, and adequate screening round the picture, to give satisfactoryviewing to a class. A well designed kit of matched projector and screen is a goodinvestment.
Film strips, either purchased or made locally by the staff, can supplement slideswhere a specific short unit of instruction can conveniently be covered in this way. Theynormally have to be re-photographed from individual slides, as it is unusual to obtain aseries of near perfect shots first time.
The task of planning and photographing a series of slides, or a film strip, as ateaching aid, can in itself be an important learning resource. It can stimulate valuablediscussion on the precise point it is necessary to illustrate in each frame and this helpsto reinforce correct procedures in the operation.
9.10 8mm films and film loops
Short 8mm films are of some value in initial training, such as demonstrating stepsin planting or tree felling. Unfortunately, the time taken and the film consumed byamateurs to get an acceptable series of shots of a task, limits their use. They canusually only be justified when there are large classes and it is difficult to break theseinto sufficiently small groups for personal demonstrations in the field.
It is also possible to purchase film loops illustrating, for instance, maintenancetasks on vehicles and machinery, e.g. changing a wheel. A special type of projector,which is inexpensive, is required for projecting film loops.
9.11 16mm sound films
A 16mm sound projector, of a reliable and robust make, with good local servicingfacilities is desirable. The number of films of direct teaching value on any particulartopic within a country is likely to be very limited and would barely justify the cost ofthis equipment. Fortunately, there are usually a large number of films available ofgeneral interest which have good educational value and also provide a popular recreationalfacility in an institution. Some films of specific teaching value can usually be borrowed
- 14 -
9.8 Overhead projector
The overhead projector can be a very useful aid to teaching, but to be really effective, the instructional staff require training in its use. This visual aid is particularly suitable for certain topics such as botany, entomology and soils, where illustrations can remain unaltered for a long period. With the use of a thermo-copier, it is relatively easy to transfer black and white drawings to transparency film which, with care, will last for Y8ars. It is also possible to prepare a series of transparencies, in permanent colours, illustrating various topios. otherwise, the overhead projector can be used just like a chalkboard with non-permanent transparency marking pens. The difference is that the instructor remains seated facing the class and possibly can maintain better student control. Another technique is to fit a roll of transparency film, which makes it possible to give a series of illustrations and to refer back to the earlier ones, by simply rewinding the roller. Prepared transparencies can also be purchased with overlays and working parts which actually move. These can be of real value in connection with instruction concerning topics such as the maintenance of motor vehicles and machinery.
It should be noted that the screen must be fixed correctly above the projector, if the distortion of the image is to be avoided. Where the power supply is variable, a voltage stabilizer should be used, as the bulbs are very sensitive to voltage fluctuations.
9.9 Colour slides and film strips
A comprehensive and well-indexed collection of colour slides of field activities or operations, or of areas of a country which cannot easily be visited, can be of conS~derable value in supporting the instructions given. It must be remembered, however, that particularly in hot climates, not all classrooms can be adequately screened for this purpose, and if they can, they often become very uncomfortable. A good system of daylight backprojection onto a screen about 80 to 100 cm. square is valuable. Though this can sometimes be improvised, it is often difficult to get the right combination of intensity of light, short focus lens, and adequate screening round the picture, to give satisfactory viewing to a class. A well designed kit of matched projector and screen is a good investment.
Film strips, either purchased or made locally by the staff, can supplement slides where a specific short unit of instruction can conveniently be covered in this way. They normally have to be re-photographed from individual slides, as it is unusual to obtain a series of near perfect shots first time.
The task of planning and photographing a series of slides, or a film strip, as a teaching aid, can in itself be an important learning resource. It can stimulate valuable discussion on the precise point it is necessary to illustrate in each frame and this helps to reinforce correct procedures in the operation.
9.10 8mm fi lms and film loops
Short 8mm films are of some value in initial training, such as demonstrating steps in planting or tree felling. Unfortunately, the time taken and the film consumed by amateurs to get an acceptable series of shots of a task, limits their use. They can usually only be justified when there are large classes and it is difficult to break ~he ·se
into sufficiently small groups for personal demonstrations in the field.
It is also possible to purchase film loops illustrating, for instance, maintenance tasks on vehicles and machinery, e.g. changing a wheel. A special type of projector, which is inexpensive, is required for projecting film loops.
9.11 16mm sound films
A 16mm sound projector, of a reliable and robust make, with good local servicing facilities is desirable. The number of films of direct teaching value on any particular topic within a count ry is likely to be very limited and would barely justify the cost of this equipment. Fortunately, there are usually a large number of films available of general interest which have good educational value and also provide a popular recreational facility in an institution. Some films of specific teaching value can usually be borrowei
15
from UN agencies through the local UNDP Representative. Films of a more general naturecan usually be obtained on loan from various embassies or from cultural agencies.
9.12 Tape recorder
A tape recorder may be of value in recording instructions on tasks or field opera-tions where the training is wellestablished, teaching material is highly formalized, andboth staff and students are sufficiently educated to use it properly. Another possibleuse is in the initial stages of workstudy, when practising timing. However, the depen-dence on aural clues, without visual clues, does not make for particularly accuratemeasurements.
Tape recorders can also be of value to staff for checking their teaching performanceand in identifying, for subsequent correction, disturbing mannerisms in speech. Similarly,they can be used to help students train for public speaking.
9.13 Television, video recorders and video cameras
In areas where there is a wellestablished television network, a TV receiver may beof value, at least in a commonroom or recreational area, for keeping students in touchwith current national events. Occasional programmes may be of more direct teachinginterest, but it is likely to be pure coincidence if these are shown at a time when theycan fit in naturally to a teaching programme. A video recorder, to tape and play backsuch material at a more appropriate time, is of value but this normally requires the ser-vices of an assistant to record and care for tapes. A video camera can produce tapedrecords much more cheaply than a conventional colour film camera, but cutting or editingsuch tapes is more difficult than with films.
Closed circuit television may be of value in enabling a large group to view adetailed operation in rather greater detail than if they were observing it normally.Regrettably, the cost of this equipment and skilled operators to use and maintain it, canonly be justified in a large polytechnictype institution where the expenses can be sharedover several departments and a reasonably high degree of utilization of the equipment canbe obtained.
These more expensive techniques are unlikely to find a place in the budget of aforestry school operating alone on limited funds.
9.14 Miscellaneous items
An adequate supply of 7 or 10 magnification binoculars, a loud hailer, and a supplyof portable 2way radios may all find a useful place in the teaching equipment, dependingupon the needs and state of development of an institution.
The use of handouts and training manuals has been discussed in Section 6.11 above.
9.15 Library
A library is an essential feature of an educational institution and in most countriesto which this manual will apply, it will have to depart from the accepted standards ofaccommodation_and facilities which are found in more developed areas. Depending upon thestandard of living accommodation available and the possibilities for study in a student'sown quarters, a library may have to provide a much higher proportion of study places thanmight otherwise be required. It may be the only really suitable place for quiet studyand up to 80% of the students may wish to use it at any particular time. The less com-fortable the living accommodation, the greater the need for adequate space for studywithin the library.
The stock of books should also be generous. Students at this level often haveneither the funds, nor the opportunities to purchase textbooks locally for their own use.Nor is there, in many developing countries, a tradition of students purchasing textbooks,using them carefully for a period and then reselling them at only a small loss, to theirsuccessors. Students, therefore, tend to be totally dependent on library resources forany material to supplement class teaching, or to widen their general knowledge.
- 15 -
from UN agencies through the local UNDP Representative. Films of a more general nature can usually be obtained on loan from various embassies or from oultural agencies.
9.12 Tape recorder
A tape recorder may be of value in recording instructions on tasks or field operations where the training i s well-established, teaching material is highly formalized, and both staff and student s are sufficiently educated to use it properly. Another possible use is in the initial stages of work-study, when practising timing. However, the dependence on aural clues, without visual clues, does not make for particularly accurate measurement s.
Tape recorders can also be of value to staff for checking their teaching performance and in identifying, for subsequent correction, disturbing mannerisms in speech. Similarly, they can be used to help students train for public speaking.
9.13 Television, video recorders and video cameras
In areas where there i s a well-established television network, a TV receiver may be of value, at least in a corrunon-room or recreational area, for keeping students in touch with current national events. Occasional programmes may be of more direct teaching interest, but it is likely to be pure coincidence if these are shown at a time when they can fit in naturally to a teaching programme. A video recorder, to tape and play back such material at a more appropriate time, is of value but this normally requires the services of an assistant to record and care for tapes. A video camera can produce taped records much more Cheaply than a conventional colour film camera, but cutting or editing such tapes is more difficult than with films.
Closed circuit television may be of value in enabling a large group to view a detailed operation in rather greater detail than if they were observing it normally. Regrettably, the cost of this equipment and skilled operators to use and maintain it, can only be justified in a large polytechnic-type institution where the expenses can be shared over several departments and a reasonably high degree of utilization of the equipment can be obtained.
These more expensive techniques are unlikely to find a place in the budget of a forestry school operating alone on limited funds.
9. 14 Miscellaneous items
An adequate supply of 7 or 10 magnification binoculars, a loud hailer, and a supply of portable 2-way radios may all find a useful place in the teaching equipment, depending upon the needs and state of deve lopment of an institution.
The use of handouts and training manuals has been discussed in Section 6.11 above.
9.15 Library
A library i s an essential feature of an educational institution and in most countries to which this manual will apply, it will have to depart from the accepted standards of accommodation _and facilities which are found in more developed areas. Depending upon the standard of living accommodation available and the possibilities for study in a student's own quarters, a library may have to provide a much higher proportion of study places than might otherwise be required. It may be the only really suitable place for quiet study and up to 80% of the students may wish to use it at any particular time. The less comfortable the living accommodation, the greater the need for adequate space for study within the library.
The stock of books should also be generous . Students at this level often have neither the funds, nor the opportunities to purchase textbooks locally for their own use. Nor is there, in many developing countries, a tradition of students purchasing textbooks, using them carefully for a period and then reselling them at only a smal l loss, to their successors. Students, therefore, tend to be totally dependent on library resources for any material to supplement class teaching, or to widen their general knowledge.
- 16-
Conditions in the library and the supply of books and periodicals should be such asto encourage reading. It is a hignly desirable habit during training and it is likely tobe the main means of keeping up to date with new developments after training. Also, itis a vital skill for interpreting written instructions in their subsequent duties.
The library should be provided with easily accessible card indices, by subject andauthor, and students should first be taught, and then encouraged, to use these to seeksupplementary information on study topics for themselves.
If possible, a section of the library should be developed as a resource centre andshould be the main repository of maps, charts, diagrams, etc., not in current use. Tablesor frames of a convenient size to hold these items during study should be provided.
The library should also have a large general reading section to encourage reading ofnon-technical material. Only a person who can read sufficiently easily for pleasure isever likely to tackle more serious reading for self-improvement. A number of inter-national cultural agencies are usually able to assist in lending books to stock a generalreading section.
The importance of a library as a learning resource and the high cost of books andother material and equipment housed in it justifies the employment of a professionallibrarian. This person should enjoy the same status and conditions of service as theteaching staff. The librarian's function should, in fact, be regarded more as a teacherthan as a custodian of books.
In the early stages of the course, the librarian should play an active and signifi-cant part in teaching students how to make the fullest use of the resources available.Later, during individual study projects, the approach should be different, students beingencouraged to locate information for themselves by showing how it should be done, ratherthan directly supplying information on a topic.
The librarian can also be made responsible for the audio-visual aids and for re-producing handouts. A further duty might be, if suitably qualified, to conduct remedialclasses in the teaching langume of the institution.
10. DURATION OF TRAINING
10.1 General considerations
Briefly, training should normally be as long as a country can afford in its currentfinancial and personnel circumstances, also taking into account the level of technologybeing practised in the field at that time. A vital factor frequently overlooked byeducational planners and teachers from more developed societies, is the very limitedcultural base (judged in external terms) from which students start.
10.2 Level of entry in relation to the local comnunity
Students in developing countries are often educationally well in advance of theirparents and are, therefore, unable to receive from them the informal education common indeveloped countries. Whilst students may have a considerable amount of local culture orinformation, which some teachers may not always be fully able to exploit, they tend tolack many aspects of knowledge or experience which are accepted as normal elsewhere.
Skills of reading to seek out information, as distinct from memorizing for examina-tions, or the use of mathematics to solve everyday problems or for budgeting purposes, arefrequently poorly developed in basic schooling and take time to build up during a courseof technical education.
10.3 Level of basic education required
The duration of training to achieve specific objectives depends largely upon thelevel of basic education required at the entry point. However, the level required andthe duration of training permitted by the administering agencies, tend to depend more on
- 16 -
Conditions in the library and the supply of books and periodicals should be such as to encourage reading. It is a highly desirable habit during training and it is likely to be the main means of keeping up to date with new developments after training. Also, it is a vital skill for interpreting written instructions in their subsequent duties.
The library should be provided with easily accessible card indices, by subject and author, and students should first be taught, and then encouraged, to use these to seek supplementary i nformation on study topics for themselves.
If possible, a section of the library should be developed as a resource centre and should be the main repository of maps, charts, diagrams, etc. t not in current use. Tables or frames of a convenient size to hold these items during study should be provided.
The library should also have a large general reading section to encourage reading of non-technical material. Only a person who can read sufficiently easily for pleasure is ever likely to tackle more serious reading for self-improvement. A number of international cultural agenci es are usually able to assist in lending books to stock a general reading secti on.
The importance of a library as a learning resource and the high cost of books and other material and equipment housed in it justifies the employment of a professional librarian. This person should enjoy the same status and conditions of service as the teaching staff. The librarian's function should, in fact, be regarded more as a teacher than as a custodian of books.
In the early stages of the course, the l i brarian should play an active and significant part in teaching students how to make the fullest use of the resources available. Later, during individual study projects, the approach should be different, students being encouraged to locate information for themselves by showing how it should be done, rather than direct ly supplying information on a topic.
The librarian can also be made responsible for the audio-visual aids and for reproducing handouts. A further duty might be, if suitably qualified, to conduct remedial classes in the teaching language of the institution.
10. DURATION OF TRAINING
10.1 General considerations
Briefly, training should normally be as long as a country can afford in its current financial and personnel circumstances, also taking into account the level of technology being practised in the field at that time. A vital factor frequently overlooked by educational planners and teachers from more developed societies, is the very limited cultural base (judged in external terms) from which students start.
10.2 Level of entry in relation to the local corrnmmity
students in developing countri es are often educationally well in advance of their parents and are, therefore, unable to receive from them the informal education common in deve l oped countries. Whilst students may have a considerable amount of local culture or information, which some teachers may not always be fully able to exploit, they tend to lack many aspects of knowledge or experience which are accepted as normal elsewhere.
Skills of reading to seek out information, as distinct from memorizing for examinations, or the use of mathematics to solve everyday problems or for budgeting purposes, are frequently poorly developed in basic schooling and take time to build up during a course of technical education.
10.3 Level of basi c education required
The durat i on of trai~ing to achieve specific objectives depends lar~ly upon the level of basic education required at the entry point. However, the level required and the duration of training permitted by the administering agencies, tend to depend more on
- 17 -
general views held about education and comparability with other disciplines in a countrythan on any objective assessments of the requirements of a technical post in forestry.
Comparability with technical courses in other fields, such as agriculture, oftenlimits a forestry course to a specific period, of which 2 years seems, at present, to bea widely accepted limit. Working back from the ultimate objectives of the course, itthen becomes necessary to require a fairly high level of basic education initially, toenable candidates to reach the required final level within the prescribed period. Inmany countries, 12 years of basic education now appears to be the accepted norm.
Lower levels of basic education would in many cases be acceptable, if a longerperiod of technical training were acceptable. The final product might not be so welleducated in a general sense, but might well be more technically competent and experiencedin the student's particular field. The choice, therefore, depends upon the value placedlocally on a fuller general education, with possibly more limited technical abilities, ormore limited general education, but a longer technical course. A further factor in-fluencing this decision is the possibility of trainees widening their basic educationlater, by continuing classes once they have entered full-time employment. This, un-fortunately, is likely to be more difficult in rural areas where many forestry tech-nicians will normally be stationed. Hence, it provides a strong argument in favour ofhigh entry level initially.
10.4 Dangers of a too high educational threshold
Where a country insists on a full basic educational course up to university entrancestandard, as a prerequisite to technical training, the technical course sometimes tends todraw in a proportion of "missed university" applicants looking for some alternativetraining. This is not necessarily a good basis for recruitment, as students may havefailed university entry due to some deficiencies in teaching or learning over the lastone or two years in school. If this is the case, it does not provide a solid foundationfor further study. In fact, time is likely to be wasted in the early part of the fores-try course providing a basic study programme to bring them up to the level they were pre-sumed to have reached, and on which the rest of the course is to be built.
It may also tend to draw in a certain proportion of candidates who are not trulytechnically oriented, but are anxious to proceed later to some form of further educationand see the forestry course as a means to an end. They are unlikely to remain in fores-try, even if they graduate successfully.
10.5 Problems with a range of academic levels
There can also be problems with a wider range of academic levels in these circumstan-ces. A few students may be at or near university entrance level, whilst the majority ofthe class are below this level. Teaching devised to develop the abilities in the lowerrange may cause boredom to the more able students and lead them to perform less well thanthey might. On the other hand, if encouraged, they can provide a stimulus to the lessable students.
10.6 Deficiencies of a 2-year course
Technical training following a full 12-year basic education must, in most cases, belimited to 2 years' duration, both for economic reasons and in order to avoid overlappingwith a 3-year university first degree course. Whilst 2 years may, in some cases, beadequate for training, a large part of the time must be used in acquiring new informationand experience. Hence, there is a danger of a relatively small amount of the time avail-able being devoted to using this information in situations closely resembling working con-ditions. Students are, therefore, inclined to go out deficient in experience in applyingall the technical knowledge gained, unless the course is carefully planned to include workexperience. This may mean that classwork should not exceed 55% of the total time avail-able.
- 17 -
general views held about education and comparability with other disciplines in a country than on any objective assessments of the requirements of a technical post in forestry.
Comparability with technical courses in other fields, such as agriculture, often limits a forestry course to a specific period, of which 2 years seems, at present, to be a widely accepted limit. Working back from the ultimate objectives of the course, it then becomes necessary to require a fairly high level of basic education initially, to enable candidates to reach the required final level within the prescribed period. In many countries, 12 years of basic education now appears to be the accepted norm.
Lower levels of basic education would in many cases be acceptable, if a longer period of technical training were acceptable. The final product might not be so well educated in a general sense, but might well be more technically competent and experienoed in the student's particular field. The choice, therefore, depends upon the value placed locally on a fuller general education, with possibly more limited technical abilities, or more limited general education, but a longer technical course. A further factor influencing this decision i s the possibility of trainees widening their basic education later, by continuing classes once they have entered full-time employment. This, unfortunately, i s likely to be more difficult in rural areas where many forestry technicians will normally be stationed. Hence, it provides a strong argument in favour of high entry level initially.
10.4 Dangers of a too high educational threshold
Where a country insists on a full basic educational oourse up to university entrance standard, as a prerequisite to technical training, the technical course sometimes tends to draw in a proportion of "missed university" applicants looking for Borne alternative training. This is not necessarily a good basis for recruitment, as students may have failed university entry due to some deficiencies in teaching or learning over the last one or two years in school. If this is the case, it does not provide a so lid foundation for further study. In fact, time is likely to be wasted in the early part of the forestry course providing a basic study programme to bring them up to the level they were presumed to have r eached , and on which the rest of the course is to be built.
It may also tend to draw in a certain proportion of candidates who are not truly techni cally oriented, but are anxious to proceed later to some form of further education and see the forestry course as a means to an end. They are unlikely to remain in forestry, even i f they graduate successfully.
10. 5 Problems with a range of academic levels
There can a lso be problems with a wider range of academic levels in these circumstances. A few students may be at or near university entrance level, whilst the majority of the class are below this level. Teaching devised to deve lop the abi lities in the lower range may cause boredom to the more able students and lead them to perform less well than they might. On the other hand, if encouraged, they can provide a stimulus to the less able students.
10.6 Deficiencies of a 2-year course
Technical training following a full 12-year basic education must, in most cases, be limited to 2 years' durat ion, both for economic reasons and in order to avoid overlapping with a 3-year university first degree course. Whilst 2 years may, in some cases, be adequate for training, a large part of the time must be used in acquiring new information and experience. Hence, there is a danger of a relatively small amount of the time available being devoted to using thi s information in s ituations closely resembling working conditions. Students are, therefore, inclined to go out defic ient in experience in applying all the technical knowledge gained, unless the course i s carefully planned to include work experience. This may mean that c lasswork should not exceed 55% of the total time avai lable.
18
10.7 Additional problems in acquiring practical experience
Whilst it would be ideal for students to gain practical experience before commencingtheir training, it is not easy to persuade them to do this. The local concept of thebenefits of education may be against students involving themselves in manual work. There-fidre, students at this educational level are very likely to enter fresh from school andlack any understanding of either the requirements or nature of the course they are aboutto undertake. There are also distinct practical difficulties in arranging field trainingin some areas. The living conditions of the local people may make it difficult fortrainees to find acceptable living accommodation in areas in which they are posted. Also,the wide social gap which sometimes exists between workers and educated persons may behard to bridge.
10.8 Alternative entry level
A course of technical education commencing after 10 years' basic education may havedistinct advantages. This assumes that the organizers have a clear understanding of theeducational level of the intake, have formulated specific goals for the training, and areprepared to allow sufficient time to attain these goals. In countries where less import-ance is placed on completing a full academic programme of education, a technical institu-tion is likely to attract a large number of suitable candidates at the 10-year educationallevel.
At this stage, it may also be easier for a student to integrate into a programme ofpre-school practical work, especially if some care is taken in selecting the location forthe work and in arranging satisfactory living conditions. A group of 2 to 4 studentsliving and training together can provide mutual support and exchange of experience. Ayear spent in this way followed by an extension of the basic course to 3 years is morelikely to equip a candidate to take over the responsibilities of a field appointment than12 years' education followed by 2 years of technical training. However, it may benecessary to consider the implications in respect of government salary scales, which areoften related to both technical qualifications and the level reached in basic education.
Another problem which may also arise if entry is allowed at the 10th year level isthat of the exceptional students who are clearly capable of higher education. Unfortu-nately, they will not have the requisite educational level and may be required to under-take a further period of 2 years' general education to gain entry. In an area wherethere are many 12th grade students available, it may be extremely hard to obtain sponsor-ship to undertake these additional studies, no matter how technically competent the candi-date has been. However, this problem is unlikely to arise in more than a small percent-age of the students, say, 5-10% at the most, and therefore the bulk of the students willbe correctly located at the technical level. Special arrangements should be made, ifpossible, for the top students, as experience has shown that university graduates withprevious technician training can make very valuable contributions to the development offorestry.
The above proposal could work, provided there is an adequate career structure fortechnicians. This must recognize that a competent and experienced technician is oftenof greater value than a fresh graduate and the rewards be adjusted accordingly. Other-wise, the educational level of entry for forestry technicians may have to be comparablewith other technical training, in order to gain recognition for salary purposes.
10.9 Job requirements
The duration of training must also take into account job requirements and any firmpolicy for continued training during service. In the initial stages of forestry develop-ment within a country, where the main field tasks centre on demarcation and protection ofa forest estate, a relatively short course, of about one year, may be adequate. This
should concentrate on surveying and the physical protection of forest areas.
As the situation develops, simple inventory techniques, logging skills and some silvi-culture must gain prominence in the course. Further developments usually call for moredetailed studies of inventory techniques; a broader field of utilization and engineeringstudies, including road-making and simple construction; and a wider range of silvicultural
10.7 Additional problems in aCquiring practical experience
Whilst it would be ideal for students to gain practical experience before commencing their training, it is not easy to persuade them to do this. The local concept of the benefits of education may be against students involving themselves in manual work. Therefore, students at this educational level are very likely to enter fresh from school ~nd lack any understanding of either the requirements or nature of the course they are about to undertake. There are also distinct practical difficulties in arranging field training in some areas. The living conditions of the local people may make it difficult for trainees to find acceptable living accommodation in areas in which they are posted. Also, the wide social gap which sometimes exists between workers and educated persons may be hard to bridge.
10.8 Alternative entry level
A oourse of technical education commencing after 10 years' basic education may have distinct advantages. This assumes that the organizers have a clear understanding of the educational level of the intake, have formulated specific goals for the training, and are prepared to allow sufficient time to attain these goals. In countries where less importance is placed on completing a full academic programme of education, a technical institution is likely to attract a large number of suitable candidates at the 10-year educational level.
At this stage, it may also be easier for a student to integrate into a programme of pre-school practical work, especially if some care is taken in selecting the location for the work and in arranging satisfactory living conditions. A group of 2 to 4 students living and training together can provide mutual support and exchange of experience. A year spent in this way followed by an extension of the basic course to 3 years is more likely to equip a candidate to take over the responsibilities of a field appointment than 12 years' education followed by 2 years of technical training. However, it may be necessary to consider the implications in respect of government salary scales, which are often related to both technical qualifications and the level reached in basic education.
Another problem which may also arise if entry is allowed at the 10th year level is that of the exceptional students who are clearly capable of higher education. Unfortunately, they will not have the requisite educational level and may be required to undertake a further period of 2 years' general education to gain entry. In an area where there are many 12th grade students available, it may be extremely hard to obtain sponsorship to undertake these additional studies, no matter how technically competent the candidate has been. However, this problem is unlikely to arise in more than a small percentage of the students, say, 5-10% at the most, and therefore the bulk of the students will be correctly located at the technical level. Special arrangements should be made, if possible t for the top student s, as experience has shown that university graduates with previous technician training can make very valuable contributions to ~he development of forestry.
The above proposal could work, provided there is an adequate career structure for technicians. This must recognize that a competent and experienced technician is often of greater value than a fresh gr:-aduate and the rewards be adjusted accordingly. otherwise, the educational level of entry for forestry technicians may have to be comparable with other technical training, in order to gain recognition for salary purposes.
10.9 Job requirements
The duration of training must also take into account job requirements and any firm policy for continued training during service. In the initial stages of forestry development within a country, where the main field tasks centre on demarcation and protection of a forest estate, a relatively short course, of about one year, may be adequate. This should concentrate on surveying and the physical protection of forest areas.
As the situation develops, simple inventory techniques, logging skills and some silviculture must gain prominence in the course. Further developments usually call for more detailed studies of inventory techniques; a broader field of utilization and engineering studies, including road-making and simple construction; and a wider range of silvicultural
-19-
skills and management and administrative techniques. For this, a course of 2 years isthe minimum requirement and many candidates would benefit from an even longer period ofstudy to absorb the material offered.
10.10 Possibilities for specialization
In most countries technicians are, at least initially, expected to undertake a widerange of tasks and are unlikely to be able to specialize for several years. Where theemploying agency is poorly staffed, it is of considerable importance to have technicianswith broadly-based training, who can be posted wherever a need arises. Even where therange of technical tasks may initially be limited, training should be geared to widenthese limits as quickly as possible, to exploit the full potential of the area.
As a country reaches an adequate level of technical staff, more attention can be paidto providing alternative programmes of study to fit candidates for specific vacancies with-in the employing agency. This may result in a reduction in the length of training forsome tasks, but generally the time saved can be better used in improving the level oftraining in the chosen field.
A high degree of specialization is, however, undesirable initially, as it may deprivecandidates of the wider understanding of the full relationship of forestry to the biologi-cal and social factors, which is necessary to pursue their specialization effectively. It
may also condemn a candidate to a very narrow promotion channel. Specialized skills maybest be imparted in refresher, or further training courses, to staff who have shown them-selves competent over a wide range of tasks, and who have indicated a genuine interest intackling a more specialized activity.
11. ENTRANCE QUALIFICATIONS
11.1 Level of general education
As suggested in Section 10.3 above, the level of general education for entry to atechnical training course is more likely to be determined by the entrance requirements ofthe authorities for similar technical courses, rather than in relation to the specific re-quirements of a forestry course. Where substantial progress is being made in the fieldof secondary education, an entry point at Grade 12 seems to be the accepted level. Theactual attainment in the Grade 12 assessment, however, normally lies in a band immediatelybelow university entrance level. If possible, a procedure for accepting exceptionalcandidates who have not achieved this level, but who have shown in some other way a par-ticular aptitude for forestry work, should be devised. This, however, may not be accept-able in certain countries where it may be hard to demonstrate the objectivity of the choiceof a particular candidate.
Other measures may be necessary in areas where the school system may not be meetingthe full requirements of government service and industry at the Grade 12 level. In suchcases, it should be possible to devise a forestry course which can accept candidates at alower level of general education, say, down to Grade 10. These courses will be longerthan the usual technicians' course, in order that the required level of attainment, atleast in technical operations, can be reached by the students.
11.2 Physical fitness
A reasonable standard of physical fitness is required, though this is hard to definein non-medical terms. Candidates should be free of any active disease, or injury, whichwould impair their ability to carry out any of the necessary physical tasks involved in thecourse. A reasonable record of resistance to common illnesses and some evidence ofstamina, rather than great strength, is desirable. Any prior history of mental or emo-tional disturbances should generally be regarded as a serious disadvantage for the commence-ment of a strenuous course of training. Forestry work however is, in general, so variedthat a wide variety of different degrees of fitness can be accommodated, and there is noparticular need to lay down specific height, weight or size attainments, such as may be re-quired for police or military service.
- 19 -
skills and mana~ment and administrative techniques. For this, a course of 2 years is the minimum requirement and many candidates would benefit from an even longer period of study to absorb the material offered.
10. 10 Possibili ties for specialization
In mast countries technicians are, at least initially, expected to undertake a wide range of tasks and are unlikely to be able to specialize for several years. Where the employing agency is poorly staffed, it is of considerable importance to have technici ans with broadly-based training, who can be posted wherever a need arises. Even where the range of technical tasks may initially be limited, training should be geared to widen these limits as quickly as possible, to exploit the full potential of the area.
As a country reaches an adequate level of technical staff , more attention can be paid to providing alternative programmes of study to fit candidates for specific vacancies within the employing agency. This may result in a reduction in the length of training for some tasks, but ~nerally the time saved can be better used in improving the level of training in the chosen field.
A high degree of specialization is, however, undesirable initially, as it m~ deprive candidates of the wider understanding of the full relationship of forestry to the biological and social factors, which is necessary to pursue their specialization effectively. It may also condemn a candidate to a very narrow promotion channel. Specialized skills may best be imparted in refresher, or further training courses, to staff who have shown themselves competent over a wide range of tasks, and who have indicated a genuine interest in tackling a more specialized activity.
11. ENI'RAICE QUALIFICATION3
11.1 Level of general education
As suggested in Section 10.3 above, the level of general education for entry to a technical training course is more likely to be determined by the entrance requirements of the authorities for "Similar technical courses, rather than in relation to the specific requirements of a forestry course. Where substantial progress is being made in the field of secondary education, an entry point at Grade 12 seems to be the accepted level. The actual attainment in the Grade 12 assessment, however, normally lies in a band immediately below university entrance level. If possible, a procedure for accepting exceptional candidates who have not achieved this level, but who have shown in some other way a particular aptitude for forest ry work, should be devised. This, however, may not be acceptable in certain countries where it may be hard to demonstrate the objectivity of the choice of a particular candidate.
Other measures may be necessary in areas where the school system may not be meeting the full requirements of government service and industry at the Grade 12 level. In such cases, it should be possible to devise a forestry course which can accept candidates at a lower level of general education, say, down to Grade 10. These courses will be longer than the usual technicians' course, in order that the required level of attainment, at least in technical operations, can be reached by the students.
11.2 Physical fitness
A reasonable standard of physical fitness is required, though this is hard to define in non-medical terms. Candidates should be free of any active disease, or injury, which would impair their ability to carry out any of the necessary physical tasks involved in the course. A reasonable record of resistance to common illnesses and some evidence of stamina, rather than great strength, is desirable. Any prior history of mental or emotional disturbances should generally be regarded as a serious disadvantage for the ~ommence-ment of a strenuous course of training. Forestry work however is, in general, so varied that a wide variety of different degrees of fitness can be accommodated, and there is no particular need to lay down specific height, weight or size attainments, such as may be required for police or military service.
- 20-
In areas where female candidates are accepted, the standard of fitness required musttake into account whether or not females are going to be interchangeable with male candi-dates in all tasks. It is possible that they are more likely to gravitate into some lessstrenuous tasks associated with silviculture, mensuration or research. They should notbe excluded by any attempt to set unreasonably high standards of fitness or strength thatonly a few could attain.
11.3 Aptitude and integrity of trainees
11.3.1 Assessment of aptitude
An aptitude for the work, and a willingness to persist in it, even in difficultcircumstances, may best be judged by a period of pre-service training, rather than by acontrived 2 or 3-day test course before selection. Unless such a course is devised withconsiderable skill, and monitored by trained personnel, it may highlight the extroverttype, but may miss the more consistent performer who could ultimately be of greater valueto an organization.
Any procedure for measuring a candidate's aptitude for training is complicated by thevery wide range of skills a forestry technician may be expected to demonstrate. Simpletests of manipulative skills, such as may be used to screen candidates for machine-operator posts, cover only a very narrow band of the skills required. Complex tests ofleadership and judgment, usually employed to screen military cadet candidates, are costlyand difficult to apply with the limited staff available. With forestry too, it has tobe remembered that devising relevant tests can be expensive in relation to the smallnumber of candidates which most countries wish to train each year. Furthermore, it isdifficult to place a relative value on the different aspects of skills which are shown.
11.3.2 Judgment of integrity
Integrity in this sense means not, for example, honesty in the handling of funds orproperty, which in any case would be very difficult to assess (unless a candidate had acriminal record, and this is rather unlikely). It refers to honesty or genuineness inthe candidate's desire to enter and pursue effectively the set course of training and asubsequent career in forestry.
To attempt to judge a candidate's integrity in seeking training is extremely impor-tant, but is by no means easy to achieve. In an economy offering a relatively low pro-portion of the population safe and secure employment, as against self-employment in agri-culture or rural crafts, there is often a very high desire to commence training for anyapparently secure post, particularly in the public sector.
Forestry training institutions may, therefore, receive too many applications, someof which come from candidates who have little or no concept of the requirements of thetraining or subsequent employment, but who are willing to invest the cost of a postagestamp in submitting an application. As most candidates may be fresh from school andhave had little opportunity to gather any knowledge of forestry activities, it is almostimpossible to determine which ones are genuine applicants and which are simply job seekers.Until a forestry organization is reaching a stage of adequate staffing, however, it isvery difficult to adopt any procedure other than direct entry to training, because of theneed to build up the staff as quickly as possible.
In areas which are grossly understaffed, the general level of performance of fieldwork may be so low that it will be counter-productive to introduce new candidates tosuch an unsatisfactory level of performance or organization. On the other hand, wherean organization has reached, or is closely approaching full staffing, there should beadequate opportunity for placing new candidates in the field to gain work experience.Ideally, experienced staff should be selected to supervise their work and to commentobjectively on their suitability for more formal training.
11.3.3 Pre-service training
The length of pre-service training is likely to be affected by the general schoolprogramme of the country. Candidates are normally selected as soon as the results of
- 20 -
In areas where female candidates are accepted, the standard of fitness required must take into account whether or not females are going to be interchangeable with male candidates in all tasks. It is possible that they are more likely to gravitate into some less strenuous tasks associated with silviculture, mensuration or research. They should not be excluded by any attempt to set unreasonably high standards of fi tnesB or strength that only a few could attain.
11.3 Aptitude and integrity of trainees
11.3.1 Assessment of apt itude
An aptitude for the work, and a willingness to persist in it, even in difficult circumstances, may best be judged by a period of pre-service training, rather than by a contrived 2 or 3-day test course before selection. Unless such a course is devised with considerable skill, and monitored by trained personnel, it may highlight the extrovert type t but may miss the more consistent performer who could ultimately be of greater value to an organi zat ion.
Any procedure for measuring a candidate's aptitude for training is complicated by the very wide range of skills a forestry technician may be expeoted to demonstrate. Simple tests of manipulative Skills, such as may be used to screen candidates for machineoperator posts, cover only a very narrow band of the skills required. Complex tests of leaderShip and judgment, usually employed to screen military cadet candidates, are costly and difficult to apply with the limited staff available. With forestry too, it has to be remembered that devising relevant tests can be expensive in relation to the small number of candidates which most countries wish to train each yeax. FUrthermore, it is difficult to place a relative value on the different aspects of skills which are shown.
11 03. 2 Judgment of integrity
Integrity in this sense means not, for example, honesty in the handling of funds or property, which in any case would be very difficult to assess (unless a candidate had a criminal record, and thi s is rather unlikely). It refers to honesty or genuineness in the candidate's desire to enter and pursue effectively the set course of training and a subsequent career in forestry.
To attempt to judge a candidate's integrity in seeking training is extremely important, but is by no means easy to achieve. In an economy offering a relatively low proportion of the population safe and secure employment, as against self-employment in agriculture or rural crafts, there is often a very high desire to commence training for any apparently secure post, particularly in the public sector.
Forestry training institutions may, therefore, receive too many applications, some of which come from candidates who have little or no concept of the requirements of the training or subsequent employment, but who are willing to invest the cost of a postage stamp in submitting an application. As most candidates may be fresh from school and have had little opportunity to gather any knowledge of forestry activities, it is almost impossible to determine which ones axe genuine applicants and which are simply job seekers. Until a forestry organization is reaching a stage of adequate staffing, however, it is very difficult to a40pt any procedure other than direct entry to training, because of the need to build up the staff as quickly as possible .
In areas which are grossly understaffed, the general level of performance of field work may be so low that it will be counter- productive to introduce new candidates to such an unsatisfactory level of performance or organization. On the other hand, where an organization has reached, or is closely approaching full staffing, there should be adequate opportunity for placing new candidates in the field to gain work experience. Ideally, experienced staff should be selected to supervise their work and to comment objectively on their suitability for more formal training.
11.3.3 Pre-service training
The length of pre-service training i s likely to be affected by the general school programme of the country. Candidates are normally se lected as soon as the results of
- 21 -
the national scholastic examinations are known, in competition with other training insti-tutions. It is administratively convenient, but by no means essential, for forestryinstitutions to follow the normal academic year of the country. If this is the case, afull year's pre-service experience is most likely to be adopted. If the training insti-tution draws its candidates entirely from those with pre-service experience, it can com-mence its academic year at any season, and any length of pre-service training from 3 to12 months or more can be adopted.
There are many advantages in arranging a course to end during a quiet season of thefield operations. This enables the graduates to be appointed, to take up their duties,and to become reasonably acquainted with their new surroundings and tasks, before havingto face a peak work requirement. If possible, the pre-service experience should coverthe full range of seasons. This particularly applies if class teaching is to be closelylinked to, or partly dependent upon, the field experience. Some candidates might bene-fit from a longpr period of experience and should not be ruled out from further considera-tion, if not selected for training at the first opportunity.
11.3.4 Links with training institution
One possible drawback of a period of pre-service training is that the supervisionmay be weak and the programme of work inadequately planned. If this is the case, thecandidates may fail to appreciate the value of the experience, or to make the fullest useof it. This can be overcome by establishing, right from the start, a direct link withthe training institution which they will ultimately attend.
If possible, the candidates should attend a short introductory course in physicaland manual skills at the institution. They can then be sent out in groups of 3 or 4, toselected training locations, possibly moving througn two or three such locations duringthe period of training. The candidates should be required to submit detailed monthlyreports on the work they have done and may be supplied with record sheets to collect dataon rates of work and costs of operations. They should be encouraged to look closely ateach task performed, and to use these sheets as a basis for management proposals in theirformal training. A "correspondence course" situation, supervised by a number of instruc-tors at the training institution, can help the candidates to make the most effective useof their time. The instructors should visit the students once or twice and accompanythem to work. This will also enable the institution to weed out unsuitable candidatesand should bring in students with relevant practical experience on which further trainingcan be based.
This system, however, will only work if the general standards of performance in thefield are sufficiently high. It is an extremely difficult task for instructors in aninstitution to rectify bad working techniques picked up in a poorly supervised situation.
12. SCHOOL BUILDINGS
12.1 Size in relation to staff requiremerits
The total establishment of technicians in a country must be determined by the appli-cation of agreed staff ratios to areas of plantation establishment and management; highforest management; industrial requirements; multiple-use forestry and ancillary activitiessuch as are suggested in Appendix 4 dealing with the assessment of trained manpower forforestry and related industries. Where such a study indicates a short-fall in technicalstaff, either at the present or at some future time, a rate of build-up towards the targettotal must be decided, taking into account the annual increase in resources likely to beavailable to absorb qualified candidates into field posts, and an optimum size of classfor efficient and economic teaching. To this must be added an annual allowance fordeaths, retirals and resignations from the existing staff.
Perhaps the greatest problem lies in fluctuations of the economy over the time-scalewhen trainees are in the "pipeline", i.e. between pre-training practical experience andqualification. This in some cases may be 3 or 4 years. Fluctuations in the nationaleconomy leading to a reduction in the number of new posts created annually, or to a defer-ment in the filling of vacancies, plays havoc with a planned training programme. At such
- 21 -
the national scholastic examinations are known, in competition with other training institutions. It is admini stratively convenient, but by no means essential, for forestry institutions to follow the normal academic year of the country. If this is the case, a full year's pre-service experience is most likely to be adopted. If the training institution draws its candidates entirely from those with pre-service experience, it can commence its academic year at any season, and any length of pre-service training from 3 to 12 months or more can be adopted.
There are many advantages in arranging a course to end during a quiet season of the field operations. This enables the graduates to be appointed, to take up their duties, and to become reasonably acquainted with their new surroundings and tasks, before having to face a peak work requirement. If possible, the pre-service experience should cover the full range of seasons. This particularly applies if class teaching is to be closely linked to, or partly dependent upon, the field experience. Some oandidates might benef it from a lon~r period of experience and should not be ruled out from further consideration, if not selected for training at the first opportunity.
11.3.4 Links with training institution
One possible drawback of a period of pre-service training is that the superv~slon may be weak and the programme of work inadequately planned. If this is the case, the candidates may fail to appreciate the value of the experience, or to make the fullest use of it. This can be overcome by establishing, right from the start, a direct link with the training institution which they will ultimately attend.
If possible, the candidates should attend a short introductory course in physical and manual skills at the institution. They can then be sent out in groups of 3 or 4, to se lected training locations, possibly moving through two or three such locations during the period of training. The candidates should be required to submit detailed monthly reports on the work they have done and may be supplied with record sheets to collect data on rates of work and costs of operations. They should be encouraged to look closely at each task performed, and to use these sheets as a basis for management proposals in their formal training. A "correspondence course" situation, supervi sed by a number of instructors at the training institution, can help the candidates to make the most effective use of their time. The instructors should visit the students once or twice and accompany them to work. This will also enable the institution to weed out unsuitable candidates and should bring in students with relevant practical experience on which further training can be based.
This system, however, will only work if the general standards of performanoe in the field are sufficiently high. It is an extremely difficult task for instructors in an institution to reotify bad working techniques picked up in a poorly supervised situation.
12. SCHOOL BUILDINGS
12.1 Size in relation to staff requiremerfts
The total establishment of technicians in a country must be determined by the application of agreed staff ratios to areas of plantation establishment and management; high forest management; industrial requirements; multiple-use forestry and ancillary activities such as are suggested in Appendix 4 dealing "lith the assessment of trained manpower for forestry and related industries. Where such a study indicates a short-fall in technical staff, either at the present or at some future time, a rate of build- up towards the target total must be decided, taking into account the annual increase in resources likely to be available to absorb qualified candidates into field posts, and an optimum size of class for efficient and economic teaching. To this must be added an annual allowance for deaths, retirals and reSignations from the existing staff.
Perhaps the greatest problem lies in fluotuations of the economy over the time-scale when trainees are in the "pipeline", i.e. between pre-training practical experience and qualification. This in some cases may be 3 or 4 years. Fluctuations in the national economy leading to a reduction in the number of new posts created annually, or to a deferment in the filling of vacancies, plays havoc with a planneJ training programme. At such
- 22 -
a time, even the possibility of holding candidates over in lower grade field posts untilvacancies arise at their correct grade, is limited.
During a period of increase in the establishment, the staff of an organization tendsto be weighted towards the younger age groups, and a normal pattern of replacement, basedon a percentage retirement and wastage is hard to define. A certain "frustration element"is likely to enter into the calculations after a few years. Some staff may resign in mid-career to seek other opportunities, if they find themselves one of a large group competingfor relatively few vacancies in higher posts. If a "bonding system" applies to newentrants, departures during the period of bonding are likely to be very low, but this maybe followed by a surge as soon as the bonding period is aver. The surge effect tends todecrease with the length of the bonding period. It would seem that the incentive tomake a change is decreased as length of service and salary level are increased, unlessproblems of limited promotion prospects arise.
In spite of these difficulties, it is necessary to establish some pattern of retire-ment and wastage for an organization, in order to plan the intake for training. Initially,the information on which this is based may not always be as accessible or as precise asone would wish. However, during a period of growth of an organization and within a rela-tively stable or modestly expanding economy, a replacement factor of 10-15% annually ofthe existing staff may be considered adequate. During periods of very rapid expansionof the economy, this rate may double, but few countries can sustain such boom conditionsfor long. Provided that detailed personnel records are maintained, it should be possible,at a later stage, regularly to analyze details of staff retirements and wastage, in orderto provide more accurate forecasts of the replacement factor.
Nevertheless, even when more accurate information is available, a problem stillremains in balancing the staff requirements of the organization with the training con-siderations of the institution concerned. From the organization's point of view, it isa question of providing sufficient trained technicians over a reasonable period of time,to meet any planned increases and the annual replacement factor. From the training angle,it is a matter of forming classes which are economic, can be handled by the staff availableand are likely to be absorbed smoothly into employment on completion of their training.A class of about 20 is the minimum acceptable, if staff costs are to be kept within reason-able limits. Classes of 30 or, in exceptional cases, up to 40 can be taught by anexperienced instructor, provided that a number of assistants are available to break theclass into groups of about 8 students for practical exercises. The larger the class, theless direct contact between instructor and individual students, and the less possibilityof giving detailed assistance to those who most need it.
When the requirements for trained staff are extensive, multiple classes taught inparallel streams are necessary. Large classes of 70 or 80 students cannot normally enjoythe close contact between student and instructor desirable for teaching at this level.
Up to the size limit of a single stream (say, 40 students), any rise and fall innumbers required is a relatively minor matter which can be dealt with by small adjustmentsin the number of assistants and in the supply of equipment. When the annual requirementexceeds the efficient level of one class, the decision to follow a double (or even treble)stream pattern of education involves considerably greater expenditure, and the commitmentof more experienced staff as instructors. It also involves major problems in planningand executing practical exercises, especially those involving travel. This cannot beundertaken without some very serious consideration of trained manpower requirement fore-casts or projections, to ensure that the double or treble streams will be required for asufficient number of years to justify the cost. The use of less highly trained staff oncertain tasks may reduce the need for fully trained technicians. Expansion to double ortriple streaming for a limited number of years can only be justified, if there is a long-term programme of continuing education by refresher, or upgrading, courses to utilize thesurplus capacity when multiple streams are no longer required.
In large countries with varying ecological zones, two or more smaller schools, con-centrating on topics appropriate to the particular serie, may be more efficient than alarge central organization trying to cover all variations of ecological conditions.
- 22 -
a time, even the possibility of holding candidates over in lower grade field posts until vacancies arise at their correct grade, is limited.
During a period of increase in the establishment, the staff of an organization tends to be weighted towards the younger age groups, and a normal pattern of replacement, based on a percentage retirement and wastage is hard to define. A certain IIfrustration element" is likely to enter into the calculations after a few years. Some staff may re s ign in midcareer to seek other opportunities , if they find themselves one of a large group competing for relatively few vacancies in higher posts. If a "bonding system" applies to new entrants, departures during the period of bonding are likely to be very low, but this may be followed by a surge as soon as the bonding period is over. The surge effect tends to decrease with the length of the bonding period. It would seem that the incentive to make a change is decreased as length of service and salary level are increased, unless problems of limited promotion prospects arise.
In spite of these difficulties, it is necessary to establi sh some pattern of retirement and wastage for an organi zation, in order to plan the intake for training. Initially, the information on which thi s i s based may not always be as accessible or as precise as one would wish. However, during a period of growth of an organization and within a relatively stable or modestly expanding economy, a replacement factor of 10-15% annually of the existing staff may be considered adequate. During periods of very rapid expansion of the economy, this rat e may double , but few countries can sustain such boom conditions for long. Provided that detailed personnel records are maintained, it should be possible, at a later stage , regularly to analyze details of staff retirement s and wastage, in order to provide more accurate forecasts of the replacement factor.
Nevertheless, even when more accurate information is available, a problem still remains in balancing the staff requirements of the organization with the training considerations of the institution concerned. From the organization's point of view, it is a question of providing suffi cient trained technicians over a reasonable period of time, to meet any planned increases and the annual replacement factor. From the training angle r it is a matter of forming classes which are economic, can be handled by the staff available and are likely to be absorbed smoothly into employment on completion of their training. A class of about 20 is the minimum acceptable, if staff costs are to be kept within reasonable limits. Classes of 30 or, in exceptional cases , up to 40 can be taught by an experienced instructor, provided that a number of assistants are available to break the class into groups of about 8 students for practical exeroises. The larger the class, the less direct contaot between instructor and individual students, and the less possibility of giving detailed assistance to those who most need it.
When the requirements for trained staff are extensive, multiple classes taught in parallel streams are neoessary. Large olasses of 70 or 80 students cannot normally enjoy the close contact between student and instructor desirable for teaching at this level.
Up to the s ize limit of a single stream (say, 40 students), any rise and fall in numbers required is a relatively minor matter which can be dealt ... lith by small adjustments in the number of assistants and in the supply of equipment. When the annual requirement exoeeds the efficient level of one class, the decision to follow a double (or even treble) stream pattern of education involves considerably greater expenditure, and the commitment of more experienced staff as instructors. It also involves major problems in planning and exeouting practical exercises, especially those involving travel. This cannot be undertaken without some very serious consideration of trained manpower requirement forecasts or projections, to ensure that the double or treble streams will be required for a sufficient number of years to justi fy the cost. The use of less hignly trained staff on certain tasks may reduce the need for fully trained technicians. Expansion to doub le or triple streaming for a limited number of years can only be justified, if there is a longterm programme of oont inuing education by re freSher , or upgrading, courses to utilize the surplus capacity when multiple streams are no longer required.
In large countries with varying ecological zones, two or more smaller sohools, conoentrating on topics appropriate to the particular zone, may be more efficient than a large central organization trying to cover all variations of ecologioal oonditions.
- 23 -
12.2 Purpose-built schools
There is a great need for properly designed schools for technical training in fores-try but, unfortunately, their requirements have seldom been quantified. Hence, archi-tects usually have little appreciation of the particular needs of this type of establish-ment. FUrthermore, any suggestions which are offered during the design phase may be re-garded as an instrusion into the sphere of their professional competence. They frequent-ly offer a modified secondary school conceict of building, resulting from familiarity withsuch designs, or scaled-down lecture theatre facilities rather than a design based on athorough study of the particular needs of a technical course.
The World Bank recommends as suitable guidelines for space allocations the publica-tion "Accommodation Standards for Educational Buildings" (revised 1977), published by theBuilding Research Establishment, Department of the Environment, London, England, U.K.Some relevant, but slightly modified figures, from the section "Colleges of Further Educa-tion" have been quoted in Appendix 5. The modifications are based on world-wide exper-ience in teaching at forestry technical level.
Classrooms are important and must be of such a size that they permit, and encourage,student activity rather than passive learning. Small, individual desks are of limitedvalue, other than for examinations. Chairs with a small writing area on one arm are evenless useful at this level of teaching. Larger tables for one or two persons, but lightenough to forre into sets of two or more to allow groups to spread documents, drawings,maps or botanical specimens over a wide area, are the best. As group tasks should be aregular feature of training, the design and construction of furniture and the size of roomdaould be related. The floor area should be sufficient to permit 8 groups to work simul-taneously on joint tasks, in reasonable comfort, with sufficient space between groups togive some sense of privacy. A table-top area of 0.45m2 and a floor allowance of2.5m2-3-2m per person should meet these requirements.
Classes should be designed, as required for planned intake, in the range of 20 to 40students. For laboratories, a higher space allocation of about 4.5m2 per person may benecessary to allow for side benches and adequate storage space. Provision should also bemade for preparation rooms and equipment stores, directly accessible from the laboratory,at a level of about 15% of the teaching space in the laboratory.
Space allocations such as these may seem generous at the beginning, but it is notuncommon for an institution to be pressed to increase its intake at some stage in spite ofcareful forward planning, and these initial allocations may make it possible without toogreat inconvenience or disruption of the teaching programme.
A building design based on a repeated reinforced concrete pillar and beam module, of,say, 3m length and 8-9m span, is useful in that partition walls can be non-load-bearing.This means that they can be moved at intervals of perhaps Im, if the requirements of theteaching change. In general, the length of the classrooms should not exceed 1.5 timesthe breadth, but there is some value in having moveable partitions between some pairs ofrooms. This allows for the occasional-use of double-size classrooms by guest lecturers,for securing adequate dispersal of candidates during examinations, or for certain taskssueh as exhibitions, which require unusual amounts of space.
12.3 Shape and layout of academic and administrative buildings
The shape and layout of any particular group of buildings is very much dependent uponthe site available and on the artistic or professional merits of the architect employed.Architects generally want freedom of expression and are not over-keen to accept sugges-tions from lay clients; therefore it is advisable to give a carefully thought-out and de-tailed brief. Important points to decide at an early stage are whether to favour asingle or multi-storey building and aim at a compact layout, or accept some degree of dis-persal to take advantage of particular site factors.
For a single stream institution with classes of up to 40 students, a single-storeylayout is likely to prove to be the cheapest and most efficient. In this case, aT-shaped layout provides a very compact design. The classrooms, library/herbarium andlaboratories can form the top of the T, with the administrative and storage accommodationlocated in the base. A circulation area is desirable at the junction of the two areas.
- 23 -
12.2 Purpose-built schools
There is a great need for properly designed schools for technical training in forestry but, unfortunately, their requirements have seldom been quantified. Hence, architects usually have little appreciation of the particular needs of this type of establishment. furthermore, any suggestions which are offered during the design phase may be regarded as an instrusion into the sphere of their professional competence. They frequently offer a modified secondary school concept of building, resulting from fami liarity with such designs, or scaled-down lecture theatre facilities r ather than a design based on a thorough study of the particular needs of a technical course.
The World Bank reoommends as suitable guidelines for space allocations the publication "Accommodation Standards for Eliucational Buildings" (revised 1977), published by the Building Research Estab lishment, Department of the Environment, London, England, U.K. Some relevant, but slightly modified figures, from the section "Colleges of F\lrther Education lt have been quoted in Appendix 5. The modifications are based on world-wide experience in teaching at forestry technical level.
Classrooms are important and must be of such a size that they permit, and encourage, student activity rather than passive learning. Small, individual desks are of limited value, other than for examinations. Chairs vlith a small writing area on one arm are even less useful at this level of teaching. Larger tables for one or two persons, but light enough to form into sets of two or more to allow groups to spread documents, drawings, maps or botanical specimens over a wide area, are the best. As group tasks should be a regular feature of training, the design and construction of furniture and the size of room should be related. The floor area should be sufficient to permit 8 groups to work s imultaneously on joint tasks, in reasonable comfort, with sufficient space between groups to give some sense of privacy. A table-top area of O.45m2 and a floor allowance of 2.5m2-3m2 per person should meet these requirements.
Classes should be designed, as required for planned intake, 'n the range of 20 to 40 students. For laboratories, a higher space allocation of about 4.5m2 per person may be necessary to allow for side benches and adequate storage space. Provision should also be made for preparation rooms and equipment stores, directly accessible from the laboratory, at a level of about 15% of the teaching space in the laboratory.
Space allocations such as these may seem generous at the beginning, but it is not uncommon for an institution to be pressed to increase its intake at some stage in spite of careful forward planning, and these initial allocations may make it possible \-lithout too great inconvenience or disruption of the teaching programme.
A"building design based on a repeated reinforced concrete pillar and beam module, of, say , 3m length and 8- 9m span, is useful in that partition vlalls can be non-load-bearing. This means that they can be moved at intervals of perhaps 1m, if the requirements of the teaching change. In general, the length of the classrooms should not exceed 1.5 times the breadth, but there is some value in having moveable partitions between some pairs of rooms . This allows for the occasional-use of double- size classrooms by guest lecturers, for securing adequate disper sal of candidates during examinations, or for certain tasks such as exhibitions, which require unusual amounts of space.
12.3 Shape and layout of academic and administrative buildings
The shape and layout of any particular group of buildings is very much dependent upon the site available and on the artistic or professional merits of the architect employed. Architects generally \vant freedom of expression and are not over-keen to accept suggestions from lay clients; therefore it is advisable to give a carefully thought-out and detailed brief. Important points to decide at an early stage are whether to favour a single or multi-storey building and aim at a compact layout, or accept some degree of dispersal to take advantage of particular site factors.
For a s ingle stream institution with classes of up to 40 students, a single-storey layout is likely to prove to be the cheapest and most efficient. In this case , a T-shaped layout provides a very compact design. The classrooms, library/herbarium and laboratories can form the top of the T, with the administrative and storage accommodation located in the base. A circulation area is desirable at the junction of the two areas.
24
For a larger institution, still on a single-storey plan, an H-block layout or a rect-angle enclosing an ornamental courtyard, may prove more suitable. The centre bar of theH can contain the library/resource centre and a herbarium/museum, whilst one side can bedevoted to classrooms and the other to laboratories and a small assembly hall or auditorium.Office accommodation for staff can be incorporated in one of the wings.
Where high temperatures and humidity are experienced, it is most convenient toarrange rooms in a single line to allow ventilation from both sides. In cooler areas,the layout can be made more compact by having, say, classrooms on one side and officesand stores on the other side of a central corridor, in either an H or a T format. This,however, involves a wider roof span with greater problems of construction or the need forload-bearing partition walls, which limits the possibility of rearrangement later.
A double-storey design is probably best for a multi-stream institution, as it enablesboth teaching and administrative accommodation to be kept within a reasonable ground area.Office and storage accommodation and a library/resource centre can be located on the groundfloor, and teaching accommodation and laboratories on the upper storey. In this case,except for the library area, a layout of rooms on either side of a central corridor isdesirable to avoid an excessively long and narrow format. If teaching accommodation isconfined to the upper floor, external verandahs or circulation spaces between classroomsare necessary to allow relaxation between classes.
Staff office accommodation always represents a problem. Individual offices for allstaff members are costly and result, generally, in small and cramped cubicles in order toachieve a reasonable level of economy. Whilst the principal and certain senior staff maywarrant individual offices, where they can discuss matters with assistants or students inprivacy, 2 or 3 assistants sharing a more spacious office is not undesirable and can bebeneficial. In the first place, not all are likely to be using it at one and the sametime and when they are, some degree of inter-communication and discussion of activitiescan be established.
Adequate storage space, such as cupboards and filing cabinets in the offices, andsmall storerooms for easy access to teaching materials are essential. This helps tominimize delay and disruption to classes when additional supplies are required duringteaching. The layout should also incorporate adequate general storage space, so thatmaterials can be easily classified and issued with the minimum of delay. Office accomo-dation should also be provided for a storekeeper, in order that adequate records of stocks,issues and costs can be maintained.
The buildings should incorporate toilet and washroom facilities for both staff andstudents, so that a switch from practical work to class activities can easily be made.
12.4 Student dormitories and catering facilities
Careful consideration should be given to the layout and design of the student dormi-tories and associated catering facilities. As with the academic and administrativeaccommodation, single or multi-storey buildings can be used, depending upon the site and/orthe size of the institution. Scattered, one-storey buildings are normal for smallerinstitutions or where there are amenity considerations. For larger institutions, two- orthree-storey blocks are preferable, as they economize in space and reduce maintenance costs.
The student dormitories and catering facilities in the smaller institutions shouldform a block at a convenient distance from the classrooms and offices. Recreationalfacilities should also be included in this block and usually a sick-bay or first-aid room.This type of layout may not always be possible with the larger institutions.
12.5 Staff quarters and other buildings
The staff quarters should be included in the layout of school buildings ideallywithin walking distance of the academic and administrative block. Different types ofhouses will be required to meet the needs of both instructional and administrative staff.Details are given in Part II of the manual.
- 24 -
For a larger institution, still on a single-storey plan, an H-block layout or a rectangle enclosing an ornamental courtyard, may prove more suitable. The centre bar of the H can contain the library/resource centre and a herbarium/museum, whilst one side can be devoted to classrooms and the other to laboratories and a small assembly hall or auditorium. Office accommodation for staff can be incorporated in one of the ,-;rings.
Where high temperatures and humidity are experienced, it is most convenient to arrange rooms in a single line to allow ventilation from both sides. In cooler areas, the layout can be made more compact by having, say, classrooms on one side and offices and stores on the other side of a central corridor, in either an H or a T format. This, however, involves a wider roof span with greater problems of construction or the need for load-bearing partition ''lalls, which limits the possibility of rearrangement later.
A double-storey design is probably best for a multi-stream institution, as it enables both teaching and administrative accommodation to be kept within a reasonable ground area. Office and storage accommodation and a library/resource centre can be located on the ground floor, and teaching accommodation and laboratories on the upper storey. In this case, except for the library area, a layout of rooms on either side of a central corridor is desirable to avoid an excessively long and narrow format. If teaching accommodation is confined to the upper floor, external verandahs or circulation spaces between classrooms are necessary to allow relaxation between classes.
Staff office accommodation "always represents a problem. Individual offices for al l staff members are costly and result, generally, in small and cramped cubicles in order to achieve a reaso~ble level of economy. Whilst the principal and certain senior staff may warrant individual offices, where they can discuss matter s with ass istants or students in privacy, 2 or 3 assistants shari ng a more spacious office is not undesirable and can be beneficial. In the first place, not all are likely to be using it at one and the same time and when they are, some degree of inter-communication and discussion of activities can be established.
Adequate storage space, such as cupboards and filing cabinets in the offices, and small storerooms for easy access to teaching materials are essential. This helps to minimize delay and disruption to classes when additional supplies are required during teaching. The layout should also incorporate adequate general storage space, so that materials can be easily classified and issued Vlith the minimum of delay. Office accomodation should also be provided for a storekeeper, in order that adequate records of stocks, issues and costs can be maintained.
The buildings should incorporate toilet and washroom facilities for both staff and students, so that a switch from practical work to class activities can easily be made.
12.4 Student dormitories and catering facilities
Careful consideration should be given to the layout and design of the student dormitories and associated catering facilities. As with the academic and administrative accommodation, single or multi-storey buildings can be used, depending upon the site and/or the size of the institution. Scattered, one-storey buildings are normal for smaller institutions or where there are amenity considerations. For larger institutions, two- or three-storey blocks are preferable, as they economize in space and reduce maintenance costs.
The student dormitories and catering facilities in the smaller institutions should form a block at a convenient distance from the classrooms and offices. Recreational facilities should also be included in this block and usually a sick-bay or first-aid room. This type of layout may not always be possible with the larger institutions.
12.5 Staff quarters and other buildings
The staff quarters should be included in the layout of school buildings ideally within walking distance of the academic anQ administrative block. Diffe rent types of houses will be required to meet the needs of both inst?uctional and administrative staff. Details are given in Part II of the manual.
25 -
Other buildings Which will have to be provided include various categories of workshop,tool stores, and possibly a small sawmill. When siting these buildings, great care mustbe taken to ensure that any noise arising will not distract students in class or adminis-trative staff in their offices.
12.6 Landscaping of school grounds
When the layout of the school buildinge is being considered, careful thought shouldbe given to obtaining maximum educational benefits from the landscaping of the site.Possibilities may exist for retaining individual trees, or groups of trees, which can beutilized in teaching such subjects as forest botany and forest mensuration. Similarly,outcrops of rock can be useful, if geology is included in the curriculumyand examples ofvegetation types. Space should also be left for planting specimen trees and for bringdngin logp for timber measurement.
Other features to consider are groups or belts of trees for screening buildings, re-ducing noise and acting as dust filters. Likewise, amenity areas with trees, shrubs andplants should be planned to enhance the site. The establishment of a school garden maybe another possibility, as this can be used to reduce food costs at the institution. It
could also have an educational value in showing students how to produce their own vege-tables. Space might also be available for fruit and nut trees and, in certain countries,fish farming could be introduced. To sum up, given space and time, it should be possibleto obtain a wide range of educational benefits from the school grounds.
13. CONTROL OF TRAINING
This is more likely to be determined by the policy of a particular governmentthan by an objective consideration df training needs and goals.
13.1 Centralized inetitutions
If a government tends to favour large centralized polytechnic institutions, it isalmost impossible for forestry training to hold out as an individual orgpnization. It
tends to be absorbed into a large agricultural or biologically based institution. Whilethere may be benefits in having this broad perspectiue on training, numerically theforestry sector is likely to represent only a minor part of the institution and both staffand students may feel that the special needs of their studies receive limited attention.Though they may gain in some respects from the ability to share common staff and services,they may lose in other ways.
This is particularly true in respect of providing the practical exercises which arerequired to make students competent performers in the skills, as distinct from "knowledge-able" in the various forestry subjects. Even where facilities are available in a forestsite a few kilometres distant, the proportion of time spent in travelling in relation tothe actual practice achieved may be disproportionate. Within such large institutions,individual departments can rarely control transport of their own and must rely on a poolof vehicles, which makes trips at short notice very difficult to arrange.
13.2 Departmental institutions
If the emphasis in training is placed on an ability to carry out a range of par-ticular skills in order to tackle problems in actual working environments, i.e. to beadequately prepared to take over a field charge immediately on qualification, then thereis a strong case for placing the training under the main employing body. Also, theschool should be located in an area where facilities for realistic practical training arereadily available.
If the training is controlled by the forest authority, it is likely to be more closelyrelated to the particular requirements of the authority and to be more flexible to thechanging emphasis and needs of the service. On the other hand, should the control be inthe hands of a central educational organization, or a largp inter-disciplinary institution,there will be a tendency to "straight-jacket" courses into specific time units to achievecomparability with other courses. In other words, the requirements of tidy educationaladministration may take precedence over the wider needs of the training.
- 25 -
other buildings which will have to be provided include various categories of workshop, tool stores, and possibly a small sawmill. When siting these buildings, great care must be taken to ensure that any noise arising will not distract students in class or administrative staff in their offices.
12.6 Landscaping of school grounds
Whsn the layout of the school buildings is being considered, careful thought should be given to obtaining maximum educational benefits from the landscaping of the site. Possibilities may exist for retaining individual tress, or groups of trees, which oan be utilized in tsaching such subjects as forest botany and forest mensuration. Similarly, outcrops of rock can be useful, if geology is included in the curriculum, and examples of vegetation types. Space should also be left for planting specimen trees and for bringing in logs for timber measurement.
other features to consider are groups or belts of trees for soreening buildings, re-ducing noise and acting as dust filters. LikeWise, amenity areas with trees, shrubs and plants should be planned to enhanoe the site. The establishment of a school garden may be another possibility, as this can be used to reduce food costs at the institution. It could also have an educational value in shOwing students how to produce their own vegetables. Space might also be available for fruit and nut trees and, in certain countries, fish farming could be introduoed. To sum up, given space and time, it should be possible to obtain a wide range of educational benefits from the school grounds.
1 3. CONTROL OF TRAINING
This is more likely to be determined by the policy of a partioular government than by an objective consideration o'f training needs and goals.
13.1 Centralized institutions
If a government tends to favour large centralized polytechnic institutions, it is almost impossible for forestry training to hold out as an individual organization. It tends to be absorbed into a large agricultural or biologically based institution. While there may be benefits in having this broad perspecti~e o~ training, numerically the forestry ssctor is likely to represent only a minor part of the institution and both staff and students may feel that the speoial needs of their studies receive limited attsntion. Though they may gain in some respeots from the ability to share common staff and services, they may lose in other ways.
This is partioularly true in respect of providing the practical exercises which are required to make students competent performers . in the skills, as distinct from "knowledgeable" in the various forestry subjects. Even where facilities are available in a forest site a few kilometres distant, the proportion of time spent in travelling in relation to the actual practice achieved m~ be disproportionate. Within such large institutions, individual departments can rarely control transport of their own and must rely on a pool of vehicles, which makes trips at short notice very difficult to arrange.
13.2 Departmental institutions
If the emphas i s in training is placed on an ability to carry out a range of particular skills in order to tackle problems in actual working environments, i.e . to be adequately prepared to take over a field charge immedi ately on qualification, then there is a strong case for placing the training under the main employing body. Also, the school should be located in an area where facilities for realistic practical training are readily available.
If the training is controlled by the forest authority, it is likely to be more closely related to the particular requirsments of the authority and to be more flexible to the changing emphasis and needs of the service. On the other hand, should the control be in the hands of a central educational organization, or a lar~ inter-disciplinary institution, there will be a tendency to II stra1ght-jacket" courses into specific time units to achieve comparability with other courses. In other words, the requirements of tidy educational administration m~ take precedence over the wider needs of the training.
- 26 -
Another aspect to be considered is that many forestry topics are "weather dependent"and this does not suit the long-term, pre-planned programmes of the large educationalinstitutions. In smaller institutions, some syllabus and programme flexibility can beallowed to ensure that subjects are taught, and experience gained, when weather conditionsare most suitable to the task.
13.3 Control of small institutions
One defect of a small institution may be that it is too self-oentred and that thetraining may go ahead to the satisfaction of the staff, but not necessarily of others.A good "advisory board" of experienced field staff, well acquainted with current needs andprobable future trends of operations, and realistic in their assessment of students' andstaff's capabilities, is therefore desirable to review curriculum content and suggestmodifications. Their task should be to guide the general direction of the course, inorder to meet the needs of the employers and to maintain a proper balance between the manytopics clamouring for attention. Their function should not extend to the day-to-dayrunning of the institution, which can only be planned and executed by the staff who are indaily contact with the students. In a situation where the standard of training is stilllow, it may be difficult to find field staff of a sufficient degree of maturity andexperience, to form such an advisory board.
Budgets and major equipment purchases should be initiated by the institutional staff,but screened by the advisory board before being incorporated into the budget of theorganization. Day-to-day allocations for expenditure on training needs should be agreedwith the board, on a "221: capita" basis, and a senior staff committee left to decideallocations between sections of the institute and day-to-day purchases.
13.4 Relationship with university education
Possibly the least satisfactory solution is to have technical training in forestryincorporated in a university programme. In the first place, university staff are trainedto a hign professional level and oriented normally to research rather than teaching; inthe second, they usually lack knowledge and basic experience of the range of technicalskills which the technician requires. In this environment, experienced forest technicianswho could contribute substantially to the training, are usually relegated to a low, non-academic status and in consequence feel largely undervalued. The overall result is thatthe course tends to be a watered-down version of a degree course given to candidates belowdegree entry level and largely ignoring the specific requirements of technical skills.Also, the right of a technician to value and take pride in these skills is ignored.
University and technical training must, therefore, be recognized as being separateentities, with very different staff and training requirements. Nevertheless, they arecomplementary and close liaison should be maintained, where possible. Such liaisonshould have maximum use of existing training resources as a primary goal and a generalimprovement of the star-lc-lards of training at all levels. In order to bring about improve-ment, it may be advantageous to establish a National Forestry Education Council, at whichemployers, educators and trainers, at all levels, can be represented. The forest tech-nician schools, for instance, may be able to offer practical courses, such as the use ofchainsaws, to university students during their vacations. Such courses, in the firstinstance, could lead to better understanding between professional and technical students.Ultimately, after the students graduate, they could bring about good working relationshipsin the field.
14. LOCATION OF SCHOOLS
14.1 Social factors
The location of an institution is normally influenced by the general development of acountry. Where there is a marked trend towards urbanization and a high value placed uponthe amenities of life in larger centres, it may be difficult to locate an institution in arural area, even though this mignt provide the best environment and facilities for training.The problem lies not solely with the students, but more often with the staff or - morecorrectly - with their wives. In these circumstances, wives are often more reluctant to
- 26 -
Another aspect to be considered is that rna.ny forestry topics are "weather dependent n
and this does not suit the long-term, pre-planned programmes of the large educational institutions. In smaller institutions, some syllabus and programme flexibility can be allowed to ensure that subjects are taught, and experience gained, when weather conditions are most sui table to the task.
13.3 Control of small institutions
One defect of a small institution may be that it is too self-oentred and that the training may go ahead to the satisfaction of the staff, but not necessarily of others. A good "advisory board" of experienced field staff, well acquainted with current needs and probable future trends of operations, and realistic in their assessment of students' and staffls capabilities, is therefore desirable to review curriculum content and suggest modifications. Their task should be to guide the general direction of the course, in order to meet the needs of the employers and to maintain a proper balance between the many topics clamouring for attention. Their function should not extend to the day-to-day running of the institution, whioh oan only be planned and executed by the staff who are in daily contact with the students. In a situation where the standard of training is still low, it may be difficult to find field staff of a sufficient degree of maturity and experience, to form such an advisory board.
Budgets and major equipment purchases should be initiated by the institutionsl staff, but screened by the advisory board before being incorporated into the budget of the organization. Day-to-day allocations for expenditure on training needs should be agreed with the board, on a "~ capita" baSiS, and a senior staff committee left to decide allocations between sections of the institute and day-to-d~ purchases.
13.4 Relationship with university education
Possibly the least satisfactory solution is to have technical training in forestry inoorporated in a university programme. In the first place, university staff are trained to a high professional level and oriented normally to research rather than teaching; in the seoond, they usually lack knowledge and basic experience of the range of technical skills whioh the technician requires. In this environment, experienced forest technicians who could contribute substantially to the training, are usually relegated to a low, nonacademic status and in consequence feel largely undervalued. The overall result is that the course tends to be a watered-down version of a degree course given to candidates below degree entry level and largely ignoring the specific requirements of technical skills. Also, the right of a technician to value and take pride in these skills is ignored.
University and technical training must, therefore, be recognized as being separate entities, with very different staff and training requirements. Nevertheless, they are complementary and close liaison should be maintained, where possible. Such liaison should have maximwn use of existing training resources as a primary goal and a general improvement of the standards of training at all levels. In order to bring about improvement, it m~ be advantageous to establish a National Forestry IDucation Council, at which employers, educators and trainers, at all levele, oan be represented. The forest technician schools, for instance, may be able to offer practical courses, such as the use of chainsaws, to univerSity students during their vacations. Suoh courses, in the first instance, could lead to better understanding between professional and technical students. Ultimately, after the students graduate, they could bring about good working relationships in the field.
14. LOCATION OF SCHOOLS
14.1 Social factors
The looation of an institution is normally influenced by the general development of & country. Where there is a marked trend towards urbanization and a high value placed upon the amenit'ies of life in larger centres, it may be di~ficult to locate an institution in a rural area, even though this might provide the best environment and facilities for training. The problem lies not solely with the students, but more often with the staff or - more correctly - with their wives. In these circumstances, wives are often more reluctant to
27
give up the amenities of urban living and can often use the problems of shopping and theeducation of children in rural areas as reasons for staying in the centres of population.This inevitably leads to instability and a quick turnover of staff.
Where the process of urbanization has not yet advanced strongly, it is easier tolocate a school in a rural area and provide satisfactory living standards for both stu-dents and staff. Overall, possibly the best location for a forestry school is on theoutskirts of a small town which is in close proximity to large-scale forestry operations.Ideally, the town should have most of the facilities which modern living demands, such assupply of electricity and piped water, schools, shops and a hospital.
14.2 Level of development of forestry
The general development of forestry within the area or country is also a releTantfactor. If there is still a large programme of surveying, inventory, or other fieldmanagement activities requiring staff to spend long periods working in remote areas, itis desirable to mirror this in the students' training, so they know what to expect in
their work situation. If forestry has progressed towards a more industrial atmosphere,with plantations feeding industries in close proximity to manufacturing communities,there may not be the same need for training in rural living. In this situation, thestaff may be able to live in centres of population and travel, as required, to the field.
14.3 Source of student intake
Another consideration is the fact that in many countries there is likely to be apreponderance of town-bred students in the forestry institutions. This arises becausethe towns provide the best educational facilities, and Ttudents from these areas tend todo better in a competitive entrance process, if formal education plays a major role in it.In these cases, an introduction to rural living and experience of providing one's ownentertainment and recreation is an essential feature in training. This can best be pro-vided in relatively small institutions in a rural area.
14.4 Constraints on location in rural areas
One drawback of a small school in a rural area is that it may lack the services ofgood mechanics, carpenters, electricians, plumbers, etc. from the surrounding anea. In
these circumstances, the institution may be forced to make alternative arrangements fromits own resources, often at considerable cost. A positive feature, however, is that itbrings students into closer contact with the problems of maintenance of these servicesand this may be of value to them later when posted to remote stations.
15. TRAINIM AD EMPLOYMENT OF TEACHING STAFF
15.1 Selection
Ideally, a candidate for an instructor's post in a technical institution shouldhave a minimum of 2 years' experience in the field, after qualifying from a similarcourse. This may be increased to 5 years, if the employing organization is welldeveloped and can provide a wide range of experience for a candidate over these years.
In cases where crash training programmes are required, the minimum period of fieldexperience may have to be waived. It should be remembered that if this takes -place,for the first year the new instructor will be at a great disadvantage, as it is lifficultto exercise authority over a class who were his or her contemporaries only one zrearjunior. The first year of service in these circumstances is, therefore, often unsatis-factory to both teacher and employer, and a direct posting from student to school staffshould be avoided.
Selection should, Whenever possible, be made from candidates who have voluuteeredfor the work for genuine reasons of interest, not because it may appear to provide easyliving conditions, or a short-cut to higher education. This should not rule out theselection of certain candidates who may appear to their former instructors, or to theirsupervisors, to have some special aptitude or qualities which would be of value in atraining situation.
- 27 -
give up the amenities of urban living and can often use the problems of shopping and the education of children in rural areas as reasons for staying in the centres of popul&~ion. This inevitably leads to instability and a quick turnover of staff.
Where the prooess of urbanization has not yet advanced strongly, it is easier to locate a school in a rural area and provide satisfactory living standards for both students and staff. Overall, possibly the best looation for a forestry school is on the outskirts of a small town which is in close proximity to large-scale forestry operations. Ideally, the town should have most of the facilities which modern living demands, such as supply of electricity and piped water, schools, shops and a hospital.
14.2 Level of develOpment of forestry
The general development of forestry within the area or country is also a relevant factor. If there is still a large programme of surveying, inventory, or other field management activities requiring staff to spend long periods working in remote areas, it is desirable to mirror this in the students' training, so they know what to expect in their work situation. If forestry has progressed towards a more industrial atmosphere, with plantations feeding industries in close proximity to manufacturing communities, there may not be the same need for training in rural living. In this situation, the staff may be able to live in centres of population and travel, as required, to the field.
14.3 Source of student intake
Another consideration is the fact that in many countries there is likely to be a preponderance of town-bred students in the forestry institutions. This arises because the towns provide the best educational facilities, and students from these areas tend. to do better in a competitive entranoe process, if formal education plays a major ro~e in it. In these cases, an introduction to rural living and experience of providing onels own entertainment and recreation is an essential feature in training. This can best be pro-vided in relatively small institutions in a rural area.
14.4 Constraints on location in rural areas
One drawback of a small school in a rural area is that it may lack the services of good meohanios, carpenters, electricians, plumbers, etc. from the surrounding area. In these circumstances, the institution may be forced to make alternative arrangemen,1a from its own resources, often at considerable cost. A positive feature, however, is "that it brings students into closer contact with the problems of maintenance of these services and this may be of value to them later when posted to remote stations.
15. TRAIIlIIll AND EMPLOYMENr OF TEACHIIll STAFF
15.1 Selection
Ideally, a candidate for an instructor's post in a technical institution should have a minimum of 2 years' experience in the field, af'ter qualifying from a simi..lar course. This may be increased to 5 years, if the employing organi zation is we~l developed and can provide a wide range of experience for a candidate over these years.
In cases where crash training prograrrmes are required, the minimum period of field experienoe may have to be waived. It should be remembered that if this takes :place, for the first year the new instructor will be at a great disadvantage, as it is difficult to exercise authority over a class who were his or her contemporaries only one ~ar junior. The first year of service in these circumstances is, therefore, often unsatisfactory to both teacher and employer, and a direct posting from student to school staff should be avoided.
Selection should, whenever pOSSible, be made from candidates who have voluuneered for the work for genuine reasons of interest, not because it may appear to provide easy living conditions, or a shorl-cut to higher education. This should not rule 0.' the selection of certain candidates who m~ appear to their former instructors, or 10 their supervisors, to have some special aptitude or qualities which would be of value in a training situation.
- 28 -
15.2 Induction
A candidate for a teaching post with limited field experience is best engaged as afield-work instructor and should only be given limited classroom responsibilities for atleast a year. This enables the institution to assess if the person has any aptitude forthe task, and is willing to accept the self-discipline of regular and consistent workwhich is required of a teacher. During this period, the head of section should give thenew instructor some tuition in preparing and conducting demonstrations and in supervisinggroups of students. The criteria for assessing performance in field work should also beexplained and the instructor required to practise on students engaged on practical tasks.
A candidate with a longer period of field service can pass through the stage ofdemonstrator and field instructor more quickly. Just sufficient time to gain some con-fidence in the work and to adjust his or her level of instruction to that of the studentsshould be allowed. Thereafter, a limited programae of class teaching can be undertaken,in a familiar topic, under the guidance of an experienced staff member.
15.3 Further development
If a candidate shows aptitude for teaching, a decision must be reached as to whetherhis or her basic knowledge is sufficient for teaching duties to be undertaken, or Whetherfurther training is required. In areas where educational programmes are highly developed,a teacher may not be regarded as qualified unless in possession of a Bachelor's or even aMaster's degree, though the latter may be of very little relevance to the work of a teacherat the technical level.
If such higher qualifications are required, a period of 4 to 5 years may have to beinvested in the further education of a staff member required for a teaching post. Sub-sequently, there is likely to be a reluctance to move the instructor out of the trainingfield, because of the investment. This, inevitably, limits the working experience ofsuch staff and builds a degree of obsolescence into the training programme, unlessperiods of sabbatical leave, or further study in the field, can be granted.
Where education is controlled by the employing authority, and located in smallerinstitutions, it may be accepted that a period of work experience, or a short course ofstudy in a country at a more advanced technological level, can provide adequate initialpreparation. This involves a much shorter and less costly programme which is morerelevant to field operations, and makes a later transfer from training to field dutiesless of a loss to the organization. It also allows more time for formal training in thetechniques of instruction and use of the related training facilities.
15.4 Pedagogic training
It is most difficult to locate suitable educational establishments for trainingforestry instructors. A general teacher training programme at secondary school level isof limited value. The candidate is "odd man out" in his class and busy lecturers canseldom tailor his assignments or programmes to be of any real value to him, other than insome general principles of teaching. He must, therefore, take his chance in the generalprogramme and derive What benefit he can from it, adapting newly-acquired knowledge andskills to his field of training.
Fortunately, one organization providing specific programmes for training instructorsin forestry institutions does exist, at the Centre for Forestry Education Development,Los Baños, Philippines. In this centre, which for the time being caters only for candi-dates from Asia and the Southwest Pacific region, a six-months' programme provides for aperiod of study in educational science, backed up by further training in specialized pro-fessional areas that have been identified for individual course members. Work is alsocarried out on the preparation of a special teaching programme related to a selectedtopic. It is hoped that similar institutions will be established in other regions andthat they will gain from the experience acquired from the pioneer work carried out atLos Baños. It should also be mentioned that in some of the more advanced countriesthere are courses for training technical teachers. However, the number of placesavailable is limited and, again, the course curriculum may not be entirely related to therequirements of a forestry instructor.
- 28 -
15.2 Induction
A candidate for a teaching post with limited field experience is best engaged as a field-work instructor and should only be given limited olassroom responsibilities for at least a year. This enables the institution to assess if the person has any aptitude for the task, and is willing to accept the self-discipline of regular and consistent work which is required of a teacher. During this period, the head of section should give the new instructor" some tuition in preparing and conducting demonstrations and in supervising groups of students. The criteria for assessing performance in field work should also be explained and the instructor required to practise on students engaged on practical tasks.
A candidate with a longer period of field service can pass through the stage of demonstrator and field instructor more quickly. Just sufficient time to gain some confidence in the work and to adjust his or her level of instruction to that of the students should be allowed. Thereafter, a limited programme of class teaching can be undertaken, in a familiar topic, under the guidance of an experienced staff member.
1503 Further development
If a candidate shows aptitude for teaching, a decision must be reached as to whether his or her basic knowledge is sufficient for teaching duties to be undertaken, or whether further training is required. In areas where educational programmes are highly developed, a teacher ~ not be regarded as qualified unless in possession of a Bachelor's or even a Master's degree, though the latter may be of very little relevance to the work of a teacher at the technical level.
If such higher qualifications are required, a period of 4 to 5 years may have to be invested in the further education of a staff member required for a teaching post. Subsequently, there is likely to be a reluctance to move the instructor out of the training field, because of the investment. This, inevitably, limits the working experience of such staff and builds a degree of obsolescence into the training programme, unless periods of sabbatical leave, or further study in the field, can be granted.
Where education is controlled by the employing authority, and looated in smaller institutions, it may be acoepted that a period of work experience, or a short course of study in a country at a more advanced technological level, can provide adequate initial preparation. This involves a muoh shorter and less costly programme which is more relevant to field operations, and make~ · a later transfer from training to field duties less of a los s to the organi za.tion. It also allows more time for formal training in the techniques of instruction and use of the related training facilities.
15.4 Pedagogic training
It is most difficult to locate suitable · educational establishments for training forestry instructors. A general teacher training programme at secondary school level i s of limited value. The candidate is "odd man out" in his class and busy lecturers can seldom tailor his assignments or programmes to be of any real value to him, other than in some general principles of teaching. He must, therefore, take his chance in the general programme and derive what benefit he can from it, adapting newly-acquired knowledge and skills to his field of training.
Fortunately, one organization providing specific programmes for training instructors in forestry institutions does exist, at the Centre for Forestry F}iucation Development, Los Banos, Philippines. In this centre, which for the time being caters only for candidates from Asia and the Southwest Pacific region, a six-months' programme provides for a period of study in educational science, backed up by further training in specialized professional areas that have been identified for individual course members. Work is also carried out on the preparation of a special teaching programme related to a selected topiC. It is hoped that similar institutions will be established in other regions and that they will gain from the experience acquired from the pioneer work carried out at Los Banos. It should also be mentioned that in some of the more advanced countries there are courses for training technical teachers. However, the number of places available is limited and, again, the course curriculum may not be entirely related to the requirements of a forestry instructor.
-29
If difficulties are found in locating suitable formal courses for training theinstructors, a short-term solution is to arrange for a training team to visit the insti-tution and give courses on teaching techniques. The team members should be experiencedteachers and can probably be recruited from a local teacher training college or a tech-nical institute. The course duration can be in the region of two to three weeks, withfollow-up visits later, once the instructors have gained some teaching experience. Pro-vided that the training team members are well-experienced and enthusiaetic, it is sur-prising how much the new instructors can be motivated towards good teaching practices.Later on, this initial training can be supplemented by longer periods of study, as suit-able courses are located or established, and as funds or fellowships are made available.
If the above measures are not possible, there remains "on-the-job" training. Such aprogramne can serve very well, provided that the workload of the supervisor makes time fortraining an assistant, and provided that there is adequate rapport between the senior andjunior members.
Initial tasks can involve a review of class teaching on which the assistant's prac-tical work classes are based. The assistant can be set specific tasks of studying recentlibrary acquisitions, journals or internal circulars, to determine if the content of thetraining programme is fully up-to-date. He may then be given tasks of revising diagramsor illustrations used in class teaching and asked to suggest ways in which current ideascan be more skilfully presented. At the end of a course, he can assist the instructor inan overall review of the content and method of presentation of the course in the light ofdefined objectives and achievement targets.
In this way he can build up sufficient familiarity with a course to carry out teachingof a particular section himself. He should be allowed adequate time to draft a scheme ofwork for the section and prepare a series of outline lesson plans. Specific instructionshould also be given in the use of teaching aids appropriate to the course. As a follow-up, he should be encouraged to produce revised or additional material for overhead pro-jection, or to select a new collection of projector transparencies, if appropriate. In
addition, he Should review the existing facilities and equipment for practical exercisesand suggest ways in which they could be more effectively used, identifying deficienciesfor which further purchases are required.
Another aspect of the training given Should be experience of planning camps or fieldexercise programmes to support particular sections of the classwork. Having prepared aplan, the assistant should play a prominent part in administrating and supervising theprogramme to verify the effectiveness of the plan.
Practice in drafting examination questions, in preparing model answers, and ingrading examination scripts, under close scrutiny from the supervisor, is also an essen-tial feature of instructor training.
Finally, it should be noted that to prepare a newcomer effectively to accept fullresponsibility for a course may take 1 to 2 years, depending upon the depth and range ofexperience gained in the field before assuming teaching duties.
15.5 Higher level educational training
Training in wider-ranging educational planning, management, and development may notbe relevant to all teachers in technical institutions, some of whom may wish to return tonormal field duties, or seek promotion in a specialized field, after a period of serviceas a teacher. This type of education is normally available at a university offering aprofessional programme in education. It is best taken after about 5 years' teachingexperience, by anyone who wishes to continue teaching and aspires to a higher post in theinstitution.
Such courses would be a natural development of interregional centres for forestryeducational development which could cooperate closely with an established universityfaculty of education, since the course would cover more general principles of planning,management and development, with only limited reference to specific forestry problems.
- 29 -
If difficulties are found in locating suitable formal courses for training the instructors, a short-term solution is to arrange for a training team to visit the institution and give courses on teaching techniques. The team members should be experienced teachers and can probably be recruited from a local teacher training college or a technioal institute. The course duration can be in the region of two to three weeks, with follow-up visits later, once the instructors have gained some teaching experience. Provided that the training t.eam members are well-experienced and enthusiastic, it is surprising how muoh the new instructors can be motivated towards good teaching practices. Later on, this initial training can be supplemented by longer periods of study, as suitable courses are located or established, and as funds or fellowships are made available.
If the above measures are not possible t there remains "on-the-job" training. Such a programme can serve very well, provided that the workload of the supervisor makes time for training an assistant, and provided that there is adequate rapport between the senior and junior members.
Initial taoks oan involve a review of class teaching on which the assistant's practical work claeses are based. The assistant can be set specific tasks of studying recent library acquisitions, journals or internal circulars, to determine if the oontent of the training programme is fully up-to-date. He may then be given tasks of revising diagrams or illustrations used in class teaching and asked to suggest w83B in whioh ourrent ideas oan be more skilfully presented. At the end of a course, he oan assist the instruotor in an overall review of the oontent and method of presentation of the oourse in the light of defined objeotives and achievement targets.
In this way he oan build up sufficient familiarity with a course to carry out teaching of a particular seotion himself. He should be allowed adequate time to draft a soheme of work for the section and prepare a series of outline lesson plans. Speoific instruction should also be given in the use of teaching aids appropriate to the course. As a fo11owup, he should be encouraged to produce revised or additional material for overhead projection, or to select a new collection of projector transparencies, if appropriate. In addition, he should review the existing facilities and equipment for practioal exeroises and suggest ways in which they could be more effeotively used, identifying deficiencies for which further purohases are required.
Another aspeot of the training given should be experience of planning oamps or field exeroise programmes to support particular seotions of the classwork. Having prepared a plan, the assistant should play a prominent part in administrating and supervising the programme to verify the effeotiveness of the plan.
Practice in drafting examdnation questions, in preparing model answers, and in grading examdnation scripts, under close scrutiny from the supervisor, is also an assent ial feature of instructor training.
Finally, it should be noted that to prepare a newcomer effeotively to aooept full responsibility for a oourse ~ take 1 to 2 years, depending upon the depth and range of experience gained in the field before assuming teaching duties.
15.5 Higher level educational training
Training in wider-ranging eduoational planning, management, and development may not be relevant to all teachers in teohnioal institutions, some of whom ~ wish to return to normal field duties, or seek promotion in a specialized field, after a period of service as a teacher. This type of education is normally available at a university offering a professional programme in education. It is best taken after about 5 years' teaching experienoe, by anyone who wishes to continue teaching and aspires to a higher post in the inst i tut ion.
Such courses would be a natural development of interregional centres for forestry educational development which could cooperate closely with an established university faculty of education, since the course would cover more general principles of planning, management and development, with only limited reference to specific forestry problems.
- 30-
15.6 Inter-departmental or inter-country cooperation
Where cooperative programmes can be established, either between departments withina country employing technical instructors, or between countries with generally similarenvironmental conditions, these are likely to be of great value in preparing staff forteaching at the technical level. A reasonable diversity of candidates is not a greatdrawback, if emphasis is placed on principles and methods. One disadvantage is thatnot much attention can be given to detailed course content, but this is offset by theexperience which is gained of a wider variety of approaches to teaching.
15.7 Build-up of experience
A feature which is often insufficiently rated by administrators is the value ofthe build-up of experience in the staff of a training institution. If this can beachieved to a satisfactory level, the existing staff can contribute greatly to thetraining of newcomers. The amalgam of well-tried procedures and the fresh ideas orexperience of the newcomers can lead to a progressive improvement in the content andpresentation of courses.
15.8 Conditions of employment
Specific conditions of employment will depend largely on whether the traininginstitution is a large, semi-independent organization linked to a major polytechnicinstitution, or a small organization linked closely with, or even fully integrated into,the main employing agency. In the first case, the conditions of service and salaryscales are likely to be influenced, if not controlled, by national agreements or by apattern of remuneration common to all such institutions in the country. In a smallerdepartmental institution, where a fairly hiei degree of mobility of staff betweentraining and field posts is expected, salary scales and conditions of service will bemore closely linked to specific ranks or pay scales in field duties.
Additional increments, either on a temporary or permanent basis, may be required tocompensate for the fact that most staff at residential institutions have certain extra-curricular responsibilities or duties, at abnormal times. Salary differentials betweenteaching and field posts must not, however, be so great as to hamper reasonable movementbetween teaching and practice, and lock into the system persons whose primary interestis the enhanced reward. Fringe benefits can be useful additions to the standard con-ditions of employment, as they may attract some good candidates for teaching pouts.These benefits may include such items as good quality housing, pleasantly located withinthe school site, assistance with garden maintenance and reasonable access to transportfor study or recreational purposes.
To retain staff who are particularly valuable to a training institution, it isimportant that facilities are available to create certain ad personan posts which haveenhanced salary scales. These may be used to secure continuity of service of a parti-cularly well qualified staff member, or to retain a person with a possible loss of careerprospects whilst a suitable replacement is being trained.
15.9 Motivation, incentives and job satisfaction
Assuming the financial and domestic aspects of the post have been reasonably dealtwith, personal motivation may spring from the good relationships between the staff mem-ber and the institution in general, and with his supervisors and colleagues.
In planning courses, within acceptable guidelines, instructors should be permittedconsiderable freedom of expression. They should be permitted to display initiative andskills in developing and applying new techniques in the classroom or with field instruc-tion and should be encouraged to seek out positive new approaches to identified learningproblems. Staff members, at all levels, should be given full credit in reports andsuch documents for any contributions they have made to the development of courses.
If their proposals require further research, or the purchase of additional equipment,before they can be fully implemented, reasonable support should be given. This may in-clude allocations of time and resources to test the proposals and assistance in obtainingbudgetary provision for any additional equipment which is considered essential.
- 30 -
15.6 Inter-departmental or inter-country cooperation
Where cooperative programmes can be established, either between departments within a country employing technical instructors, or between countries with generally similar environmental conditions, these are likely to be of great value in preparing staff for teaching at the technical level. A reasonable diversity of candidates is not a great drawback, if emphasis is plar.ed on principles and methods. One di sadvantage is that not much attention can be given to detailed course content, but this is offset by the experience which is gained of a wider variety of approaches to teaching.
15.7 Build-up of experience
A feature which is often insufficiently rated by administrators is the value of the build-up of experience in the staff of a training institution. If this can be achieved to a satisfactory level, the existing staff can contribute greatly to the training of newcomers. The ame.lgam of well-tried procedures and the fresh ideas or experience of the newcomers can lead to a progressive improvement in the content and presentation of courses.
15.8 Conditions of employment
Specific conditions of employment will depend largely on whether the training institution is a large, semi-independent organization linked to a major polytechnic institution, or a small organization linked closely with, or even fully integrated into, the main employing agency. In the first case, the conditions of service and salary scales are likely to be influenced, if not controlled, by national agreement. or by a pattern of remuneration common to all such institutions in the country. In a smaller departmental institution, where a fairly high degree of mobility of staff between training and field posts is expected, salary scales and conditions of service will be more olosely linked to specific ranks or pay scales in field duties.
Additional increments, either on a temporary or permanent basis, may be required to compensate for the fact that most staff at residential institutions bave certain extracurricular responsibilities or duties, at abnormal times. Salary differentials between teaching and field posts must not, however, be so great as to hamper reasonable movement between teaching and practice, and lock into the system persons whose primary interest is the enhanced reward. Fringe benefits can be useful additions to the standard conditions of employment, as they may attract some good candidates for teaching posts. These benefits may include such items as good quality housing, pleasantly located within the school site, assistance with garden maintenance and reasonable access to transport for stuiy or recreational purposes.
To retain staff who are particularly valuable to a training institution, it is important that facilities are available to create oertain ad personam posts which have enhanced salary scales. These may be used to secure continuity of service of a particularly well qualified staff member, or to retain a person with a possible loss of career prospects whilst a suitable replacement is being trained.
15.9 Motivation, incentives and job satisfaction
Assuming the financial and domestic aspects of the post have been reasonably dealt with, personal motivation may spring from the good relationships between the staff member and the institution in general, and with his supervisors and colleagues.
In planning courses, within acceptable guidelines, instructors should be permitted considerable freedom of expression. They should be permitted to displ~ initiative and ski lls in developing and applying new techniques in the classroom or \on th field instruction and should be encouraged to seek out positive neH approaches to identified learning problems. Staff members, at all levels, should be given ful l credit in reports and such documents for any contributions they have made to the development of courses.
If their proposals require further research, or the purchase of additional equipment, before they can be fully implemented, reasonable support should be given. This may include allocations of time and resources to test the proposals and assistance in obtaining budgetary provision for any additional equipment which i s considered essential.
- 31 -
Staff members should be enabled, and encouraged, to play a constructive part in thedevelopment of educational policy and practice within the training programme. They shouldbe fully consulted on all new proposals and be invited to submit alternative or additionalproposals where relevant. They should also be free to comment on the administrative pro-cedures within the organization and to play a part in ensuring that these serve, ratherthan restrict, the main objectives of education. It has been found that monthly staffmeetings provide a convenient forum for discussing new proposals and administrativematters.
The overall relationship of the institution to the departmental and national develop-ment programmes must be emphasized to all members of the staff. Channels should be pro-vided for directing any staff suggestions which might contribute to the increased effic-iency of the organization to appropriate levels at which they can be properly studied andimplemented.
The status of the institution and personal pride at being selected as one of itsstaff may have a beneficial influence on an instructor's work. Staff members shouldknow that success achieved in their tasks will be noted at the highest levels in theorganization and may count favourably on their behalf, if they wish to move out to suitablefield posts at a later date. Continuing contact with their former students in the field,and feedback on their performances, particularly their successes, is a valuable element injob satisfaction. Close contacts of this nature, including facilities to meet formerstudents in their field posts and to discuss any problems of training, should be enoouraged.
In general, a staff member should be encouraged to feel "part of" rather than "anemployee of" the training institution, and to regard any contribution he makes to itsimprovement as a contribution to a group of which he is an integral part.
15.10 Cooperation with forest service staff
Close cooperation with forest service staff, or other potential employers, is essen-tial for a number of reasons. In the first place, training must be regularly adapted tomeet the changing needs of the forestry sector. A good flow of information from fieldworkers about new developments is therefore required, even before the latest ideas and pro-cedures have been formalized into departmental or company instructions. The instructorsmust be alert to any policy changes or emphasis in the direction of work, or to any prob-lems arising, which a modification of the teaching programme might help to solve.
They should have a good understanding of all types of forestry work going on through-out the country and of the potential of both the current work techniques and the localstaff for assisting in the development of the skills of their students. Recommendationson where students might be placed in relation to the students' own interests and capa-bilities, and knowledge of the nature and the availability of suitable tasks and super-visors, are valuable aids in making the best use of new recruits to an organization.This is particularly important in building up the confidence and skills of the less ablestudents, and in stretching the capabilities of those who are competent but are unwillingto exert themselves fully.
Good relations with forest service staff can also assist with the location of fieldtasks suitable for providing useful training for students. Similarly, they can help tosmooth over problems which may arise when a training group moves into a forest and carriesout practical work, initially not always of the highest technical standard. In addition,information from field workers on current problems can give instructors some leads forpersonal study, or research programmes, which will enrich their courses and enhance theirstatus as teachers.
Good relations will also lead to objective and honest feedback on the qualities ofnew graduates and help to assess the effectiveness of the training they have received.This gives useful verification of an instructor's personal assessment of the students'qualities and suitability for certain tasks. Finally, cooperation may also be requiredfor an instructor to pursue his own interests or to make studies on forest operations, orto collect data for inclusion in the teaching programme.
- 31 -
Staff members should be enabled, and encouraged, to play a constructive part in the development of educational policy and practice within the training programme. They should be fully consulted on all new proposals and be invited to submit alternative or additional proposals where relevant. They should also be free to conunent on the administrative procedures within the organization and to play a part in ensuring that these serve, rather than restrict, the main objectives of education. It has been found that monthly staff meetings provide a convenient forum for discussing new proposals and administrative matters.
The overall relationship of the institution to the departmental and national development programmes must be emphasized to all members of the staff. Channels should be provided for directing any staff suggestions which might contribute to the increased efficiency of the organi zation to appropriate levels at which they can be properly studied and implemented.
The status of the institution ani personal pride at being selected as one of it s staff may have a beneficial influence on an instructor's work. Staff members should know that success achieved in their tasks will be noted at the highest levels in the organization and may count favourably on their behalf, if they wish to move out to suitable field posts at a later date. Continuing contact with their former students in the field, and feedback on their performances, particularly their successes, is a valuable element in job satisfaction. Close contacts of this nature, including facilities to meet former students in their field posts and to discuss any problems of training, should be enoouraged.
In general, a staff member should be encouraged to feel "part ofu rather than Itan employee ofn the training institution, and to regard any contribution he makes to its improvement as a contribution to a group of which he is an integral part.
15.10 Cooperation with forest service staff
Close cooperation with forest service staff, or other potential employers, is essential f or a number of reasons. In the first place, tr?ining must be regularly adapted to meet the changing needs of the forestry sector. A good flow of information from field workers about nel'l developments is therefore required, even before the latest i deas and procedures have been formali zed into departmental or company instructions. The instructors must be alert to any policy ohanges or emphasis in the direction of work, or to any problems arising, which a modification of the teaching programme might help to solve.
They should have a good understanding of all types of forestry work going on throughout the country and of the potential of both the current work techniques and the local staff for assisting in the development of the skills of their students. Recommendations on where students might be placed in relation to the students' own interests and capabilities, and knowledge of the nature and the availability of suitable tasks and supervisors, are valuable aids in making the best use of new recruits to an organization. This is particularly important in building up the confidence and skills of the less able students, and in stretching the capabilities of those who are competent but are unwilling to exert themselves fully.
Good relations l'lith forest service staff can also assist with the location of field tasks suitable for providing useful training for students. Similarly, they can help to smooth over problems which may arise when a training group moves into a forest and carries out practical work, initially not always of the highest technical standard. In addition, information from field workers on current problems can give instructors some leads for personal study, or research programmes, which will enrich their courses and enhance their st atus as teachers.
Good relations will also lead to objective and hone st feedback on the qualitie s o f new graduate s and help to assess the effectiveness of the training they have received. This gives useful verification of an instructor's personal assessment of the students' qualities and suitability for certain tasks. Finally, cooperation may also be required for an instructor to pursue his own interests or to make studies on forest operations, or to collect data for inclusion in the teaching programme.
- 32 -
15.11 Relations with secondary schools and the general public
Although a forestry institution should endeavour to maintain good relations with allsecondary schools which approach it for information or assistance, it is normally imprac-ticable to maintain an even flow of cooperation with all the schools in a country, hencea special relationship with certain schools is likely to develop. There may be schoolswhich, because of their location, the background of their pupils, or the particularinterests of their staff, have a close interest in forestry. This link should be fos-tered by a supply of information on training opportunities, talks, slide or film shows,displays or assisted visits to forest activities, whichever is appropriate. It is fromthese schools that some of the most committed candidates for entry to forestry institutionsmay come.
The link Should start well down the school, at least 2 or 3 years below the levelfrom which recruitment is made. This gives pupils a chance to consider at length theidea of forestry as a career, to find out more about it and its implications on theirlives, and either to rule it out or to form a strong ambition to undertake it. Crashrecruiting compaigns in the dull days between the main examinations and the end of theschool year are of little value and may even be counterproductive. It is likely thatthey will draw in a mass of applicants who may have been impressed by the skilful presen-tation of the programme, but Who have not given it sufficient consideration in relation totheir own interests and inclinations.
Good relations with the general public should be fostered as far as academic commit-ments allow. Public relations exercises should be used to emphasize to students thatthey are training to be public servants, and must serve the public in any way they can,especially While benefiting from a publicly-sponsored and financed educational programme.Participation in community activities such as tree planting are valuable. Students mustorganize themselves to carry out the work efficiently in the public eye and this placesthem under a useful form of informal discipline. On the other hand, the public shouldbe given the opportunity to see that the students are being endowed with correct attitudesto service and, if possible, to gain some minor advantages from the training provided.
Participation in agricultural shows, or government publicity activities to explainthe services of the government to the people, are particularly helpful. The benefits ofparticipation in such activities are not limited to the pUblic. Preparation of clear,concise explanations, presentation of demonstrations and answering of questions andgenerally organizing an interesting and attractive presentation can involve hard construc-tive work and close cooperation amongst class members. The extent to which an institutioncan participate in such activities must be carefully balanced against any disruption thatthey may cause in the educational programme. Limitation of participation may, however,achieve some degree of competition amongst students to participate and so enhance thevalue of the experience.
16. TYPES OF COURSE
16.1 Need for different levels
Many countries recognize the need for at least two levels in their technician grades;a lower level, generally called a Forest Ranger, and a higher level, generally called aForester, although in some countries these titles are reversed. The creation of separateranks with particular establishments and salary scales presupposes that different functionsand ranges of duties have been defined for the two grades. Whilst these may differaccording to the particular needs of different areas or countries, the Forest Ranger wouldnormally fulfil an executive role. His duties would include supervising and executingparticular technical tasks involving such skills as surveying, mensuration, basic silvi-cultural techniques, and trying to secure an acceptable standard of skill and outputamongst the labour force.
The higher technical level, on the other hand, would have a role involving more plan-ning and decision-making in the technical sphere. In this case, the duties would includeselecting areas for specific silvicultural operations; matching species to site conditions;specifying degrees of thinnings and other treatments in crops of certain ages, within de-fined limits, and checking and approving proposed road lines and the standards of construc-tion.
- 32 -
15.11 Relations with secondary schools and the general public
Although a forestry institution ehould endeavour to maintain good relations with all secondary schools which approach it for information or assistanoe, it is normally impracticable to maintain an even flow of cooperation with all the schools in a country, hence a epeoial relationship with certain echools is likely to develop. There may be echools which, because of their location, the background of their pupils, or the particular interests of their staff, have a olose interest in forestry. This link should be fostered by a supply of information on training opportunities, talks, slide or film shows, diepla.ys or assisted vieits to forest activities, whichever is appropriate. It is from these schools that some of the most committed candidates for entry to forestry institutions ID8\Y come.
The link should start well down the school, at least 2 or 3 years below the level from whioh reoruitment is made. Thie gives pupils a ohance to oonsider at length the idea of forestry as a career, to find out more about it and its implications on their lives, and either to rule it out or to form a strong ambition to undertake it. Craeh reoruiting oompaigns in the dull days between the main examinations and the end of the school year are of little value and may even be oounterproductive. It is likely that they will draw in a mass of applicants who may have been impressed by the skilful presentstion of the programme, but who have not given it sufficient consideration in relation to their own interests and inclinations.
Good relations with the general public ehould be foetered as far as academia commitments allow. Public relations exercises should be used to emphasize to students that they are training to be public servants, and must serve the public in any wa.y they can, especially while benefiting from a publicly-sponsored and financed educational programme. Participation in community activities such ae tree planting are valuable. Students must organize themselves to carry out the work efficiently in the public eye and this places them under a useful form of informal discipline. On the other hand, the public should be given the opportunity to see that the students are being endowed with correct attitudes to servioe and, if possible, to gain some minor advantages from the training provided.
Participation in agricultural shows , or government publicity activities to explain the services of the government to the people, are particularly helpful. The benefits of participation in such activities are not limited to the public. Preparation of clear, concise explanations, presentation of demonstrations and answering of questions and generally organizing an interesting and attractive presentation can involve hard constructive work and close cooperation amongst class members. The extent to which an institution can participate in such activities must be oarefully balanced against any disruption that they ma;y cause in the educational programme. Limitation of participation may, however, achieve some degree of competition amongst students to participate and so enhance the value of the experience.
16. TYPES OF COURSE
16.1 Need for different levels
Many countries reoognize the need for at least two levels in their technician grades; a lower level, generally called a Forest Ranger, and a higher level, generally called a Forester, although in 60me countries the s e titles are reversed. The creation of s eparate ranks with particular establishments and salary scales presupposes that different functions and ranges of duties have been defined for the two grades. Whilet these may differ according to the particular needs of different areas or countries, the Forest Ranger would normally fulfil an executive role. His duties Nould include supervi Sing and executing particular technical tasks involving such ski l ls as surveying, mensuration, basic silvicultural techniques, and trying to secure an acceptable standard of skill and output amongst the labour force.
The higher technical level, on the other hand , would have a role involving more planning and decision-making in the technical sphere. In this case, the duties would include selecting areas for specific silvicultural operations ; matching species to site conditions; speoifying degrees of thinnings and other treatments in crops of certain ages, within defined limits, and checking and approving propos ed road lines and the standards of construction.
- 33 -
The nature of the two functions would suggest that training for these two levels ofwork should be progressive, one following the other, with an interval of perhaps 3-5years' service in the field. If the two levels of training are provided concurrently,there must be a distinct difference in the level of education for the candidates oneither course. If both are drawn from a common pool of candidates, with the sane numberof years of education, it is doubtful if any basic educational examination system orselection process is sufficiently discriminating to sort out two groups of people intoexclusive levels of training which will affect their entire lives.
There is a strong argument for providing a basic technical training programme forperhaps 2 years, and then deferring the selection procedure for training for the higherlevel until candidates have demonstrated by their daily work some aptitude for advancementto a higher post.
16.2 Lower technical courses
It is essential, in defining the contents of a lower technical course, to decide ob-jectively the proper functions of this grade of staff in the field, and to design boththe course content and methods of instruction to achieve these ends. A detailed studyof work undertaken by this grade is likely to indicate the need for a high degree ofskills and knowledge in a wide range of basic forest operations. A lower grade techni-cian should be fully competent to carry out and demonstrate the full range of skilledtasks that his workers may be required to perform. He must be able to recognize a rangeof ecological conditions in Which different procedures may be called for. He requiresbasic Skills in surveying and mensuration to determine the area and condition of a cropand should be able to seleot from a number of standard alternatives the procedure mostsuited to the crop at that time. His skills will largely lie in the recognition ormeasurement of certain forest conditions and his ability to select and apply appropriatetechniques to achieve the objects of management. He also requires the skills and prac-tical experience necessary to guide competent workers in simple building or road construc-tion tasks, and to follow accurately plans or diagrams defining such work. He should bethoroughly acquainted with all aspects of record keeping reauired of him and be competentat making brief and accurate reports on achievements, expenditures and labour issues.Also, he must be able to apply any rules covering the use of funds, or the use ani careof stores and equipment in his charge.
As the technician at this level must have a practical approach, the course should bedevised to permit students to gain as much experience in exercising these skills in thetraining situation as circumstances allow. It should also cover basic supervisory skillsto enable the trainee to manage a work force effectively. After training, the technicianshould be given an introductory period of service in the field. During this time, hisperformance can be closely supervised to ensure that he has achieved the right level ofcompetence, before he is given full charge of a specific area or range of duties.
16.3 Higher technical courses
Higher technical courses, if they follow a period of service in the lower technicallevel, may start with a short period of verifying or updating candidates' technical skills,though there should be little doubt about these if an adequate selection procedure hasbeen employed. The course should then focus its attention on the supervisory, planningor general management skills required to coordinate the activities of a number of lowergrade technicians. Techniques of identifying specific targets from long-range plans, andof budgeting both in terms of cash, materials and manpower to ensure the smooth workingof a management programme should be taught.
Where detailed management plans already exist, these should be used as a basis forexercises in scheduling future annual work programmes. The cost of labour, materialsand use of equipment should be calculated, using current charges. In addition, monthlyschedules of work should be prepared, in which the resources available are balancedagainst the tasks required, within the framework of the seasons. Procedures should alsobe taught for reviewing and cross-checking reports from lower technical staff, and forverifying these reports against agreed work schedules or targets. A wide rangr of skillsin planning harvesting patterns and roai systems, in conformity with the terrain and tomeet specific demands, is also necessary. Staff reporting is another essential area of
- 33 -
The nature of the two functions would suggest that training for these two levels of work should be progressive, one following the other, with an interval of perhaps 3-5 years' . service in the field. If the two levels of training are provided concurrently, there must be a distinct difference in the level of education for the candidates on either course. If both are drawn from a common pool of candidates, with the same number of years of education, it is doubtful if any basic educational examination system or selection process is sufficiently discriminating to Bort out two groups of people into excluBive levels of training which will affect their entire lives .
There iB a strong argument for providing a basic technical training programme for perhapB 2 yearB, and then deferring the selection procedure for training for the higher level until candidates have demonstrated by their daily work some aptitude for advancement to a higher post.
16.2 Lower technical courses
It is essential, in defining the contents of a lower technical course, to decide objeotively the proper functions of this grade of staff in the field, and to design both the course content and methods of instruction to achieve these ends. A detailed study of work undertaken by this grade is likely to indicate the need for a high degree of skills and knowledge in a wide range of basic forest operations. A lower grade technician should be fully competent to oarry out and demonstrate the full range of skilled taskB that his workerB may be required to perform. He must be able to recognize a range of ecological conditions in which different procedures may be called for. He requires basic akills in surveying and mensuration to determine the area and condition of a crop and should be able to Beleot from a number of Btandard alternatives the procedure most suited to the crop at that time. HiB skillB will largely lie in the recognition or measurement of certain forest conditions and his ability to select and apply appropriate techniques to achieve the objects of management. He also requires the skills and practical experience necessary to guide competent workers in simple building or road construction tasks , and to follow accurately planB or diagrams defining such work. He should be thoroughly acquainted with all aspects of record keeping required of him and be competent at making brief and accurate reports on achievements, expenditures and labour issues. Also, he must be able to apply any rules covering the UBe of funds, or the use and care of stores and equipment in his charge.
As the technician at this level must have a practical approach, the course should be devised to permit students to gain as much experience in exercising these skills in the training situation as circumstances allow. It should also cover basic supervisory skills to enable the trainee to manage a work foroe effectively. After training, the technician should be given an introductory period of service in the field. During this time, his performanoe can be closely supervised to ensure that he has achieved the right level of competence, before he is given full charge of a specific area or range of duties.
16.3 Higher technical courses
Higher technical courses, if they follow a period of service in the lower technical level, m~ start with a short period of verifying or updating candidates' technical skills, though there should be little doubt about these if an adequate selection procedure haB been employed. The course should then focus its attention on the supervisory, planning or general management skills required to coordinate the activities of a number of lower grade technicians. Techniques of identifying specific targets from long-range plans, and of budgeting both in terms of cash, material s and manpower to ensure the smooth working of a management programme should be taught.
Where detailed management plans already exist, these should be used as a basis for exerci s e s in scheduling future annual work programmes. The cost of labour, materials and us e of equipment should be calculated, using current charges. In addition, monthly schedules of work should be prepared, in which the resources available are balanced against the tasks required, within the framework of the seasons. Procedures should also be taught for reviewing and cross-checking reports from lower technical staff, and for verifying the s e reports against agreed work schedules or targets. A wide range of skills in planning harve sting patterns and road systems , in c~nformity with the terrain and to meet specific demands, is also necessary. Staff reporting is another es sential area of
34
training and course members should be shown how to evaluate the performance of subordinatestaff and prepare objective reports. The reporting procedures taught should include theuse of job descriptions and associated rating scales to measure specific performances inthe duties which have to be performed. The assessment of personal attributes, such ascooperation with colleagues, oral and written skills and approach to work, also requiresattention. Some understanding of work study procedures and the general principles ofworker health and safety must also be acquired by the trainees. In addition, explana-tions should be given of any specific regulations on these matters which may have to beobserved at work.
The duration of such a course is likely to be 1 to ti years. In order to widenthe experience of the technicians attending the course, it is useful if at least part ofthis time can be spent on a study tour, or work experience, in another country. iihere
such a course recruits candidates direct from schools, or with a minimum of work experience,at least 3 years should be allowed for training. The first two years should followroughly the pattern of the lower technical training, though more emphasis is likely to beplaced on academic achievement and somewhat less on acquiring a high level of manual skills.The additional year should concentrate on teaching the supervisory and planning functions.It is doubtful, however, if such a pattern of training, lacking as it does essential workexperience against which to judge theoretical planning and management studies, will initi-ally produce such satisfactory supervisory staff as a twosta.ge programme.
17. CONTINUING EDUCATION
17.1 Ob "ectives
Continuing education should have two major objectives. One: to provide technicalupdating of staff where procedures have developed since initial training was given, andtwo: to renew the interest and enthusiasm of the staff for their work. The coursesshould be regarded as a major continuing function of a technical training institutionand not as an "optional extra" to be pursued when there is nothing else to do. Theyshould cover the working life span of all technical staff in the organization and preparepromising members of such staff for promotion.
17.2 ypes of courses
Continuing education courses should be of several different types to meet the needsof the employing agency at various stages of its development. Courses of a specifictechnical nature are required when new techniques or procedures are introduced. Thesemay include both field and administrative or financial procedures. These courses shouldbe given to staff who will be required to implement the techniques initially. Theyshould cover not only the technical details of the procedures but also general backgroundinformation on why the changes are necessary and what benefits are likely to accrue fromthem. Emphasis should be given to leadership and instructional techniques, so that thestudents can, in turn, present the information to their workers and secure its willingacceptance. . The need to take appropriate steps to overcome the general apathy to change,at the worker level, should be emphasized.
Courses of a more general updating nature should be offered to experienced staff whoare required to convert from one type of work to another; e.g. from manmade to naturalforest operations, or from savannah to high forest techniques. General refreshercourses, covering in part recently introduced techniques, but more specifically changesin outlook or emphasis in the work of the organization, e.g. a move away from directinvolvement in major forest operations towards promoting community forestry enterprises,should be available on a regular basis. Shorter courses may also be provided for careerdevelopment or to prepare staff to introduce and implement new campaigns involving thegeneral public or other government or private agencies.
17.3 Frequency of courses
The frequency with which any individual may be required to take part in continuingeducation depends upon a number of factors. These include the mobility of the individualbetween different types of work and the number of changes in procedures. However, the
- 34 -
training and course members should be shown how to evaluate the performance of subordinate staff and prepare objective reports. The reporting procedures taught should include the use of job descriptions and associated rating scales to measure specific performances in the duties which have to be performed. The assessment of personal attributes, Buch as cooperation with colleagues, oral and written skills and approach to work, also requires attention. Some understanding of work study procedures and the general principles of worker health and safety must also be acquired by the trainees. In addition, explanations should be given of any specific regulations on these matters which may have to be observed at work.
The duration of such a course is likely to be 1 to 1-} years. In order to widen the experience of the technicians attending the course, it is useful if at least part of this time can be spent on a study tour, or work experience, in another country. Where Buch a course reoruits candidates direct from schools, or with a minimum of work experience, at least 3 years should be allowed for training. The first two years should follow roughly the pattern of the lower technical training, though more emphasis is likely to be placed on academic achievement and somewhat less on aoquiring a high levsl of manual skills. The additional year should concentrate on teaohing the supervisory and planning functions. It is doubtful, however, if suoh a pattern of training, lacking as it does essential work experience against which to judge theoretioal planning and management studies, will initially produce such satisfactory supervisory staff as a two-stage programme.
11. CONl'IWING IDUCA!l'ION
11.1 Objeotives
Continuing education should have two major objectives. One: to provide technioal updating of staff where procedures have developed since initial training was given, and two: to renew the interest and enthusiasm of the staff for their work. The oourses should be regarded as a major continuing function of a technical training institution and not as an "optional extra" to be pursued when there is nothing else to do. They should oover the working life span of all technioal staff in the organization and prepare promising members of such staff for promotion.
17.2 Types of courses
Continuing education courses should be of several different types to meet the needs of the employing agency at various stages of its development. Courses of a specific technical nature are required when new techniques or procedures are introduced. These may include both field and administrative or financial procedures. These courses should be given to staff who will be required to implement the techniques initially. They should cover not only the technical details of the procedures but also general background information on why the changes are necessary and what benefits are likely to accrue from them. Elnphasis should be given to leadership and instructional techniques, so that the students cant in turn, present the information to their workers and secure its willing acoeptance. . The need to take appropriate steps to overcome the general apathy to change, at the worker level, should be emphasized.
Courses of a more general updating nature should be offered to experienced staff who are required to convert from one type of work to another; e. g. from man-made to natural forest operations, or from savannah to high forest techniques. General refresher courses, covering in part recently introduced techniques, but more specifically changes in outlook or emphasis in the work of the organization, e.g_. a move awa:y from direct involvement in major forest operations towards promoting community forestry enterprises, should be available on a regular basis. Shorter courses may also be provided for career development or to prepare staff to introduce and i mplement new campaigns involving the general public or other government or private agencies.
17.3 Frequency of courses
The frequency with which any individual may be required to take part in continuing education depends upon a number of factors. These include the mobility of the individual between different types of work and the number of chan~s in procedure s . However, the
- 35 -
attendance of individuals at courses should be regularly monitored by an active personnelgroup who should try to ensure that every staff member gets an opportunity to participatein the continuing education process at least once in every 4-5 years.
17.4 Duration of courses
The duration of any course must depend on the objectives of the course. Allowancemust also be made for the fact that staff undertaking continuing education after a periodof field service will need time to readjust to the learning situation. Very short, in-tensive courses are, therefore, likely to be less effective than those where students canproceed at a more leisurely pace and devote some time either to private study or the inter-change of working experience with their colleagues. Bearing in mind the cost and disrup-tion to normal work of bringing together the participants of a course, and the value of ageneral broadening of interests, a duration of perhaps one month is likely to increase itseffectiveness.
For conversion or refresher courses, a duration of 3 to 6 weeks is normally adequate,thougn this Should not rule out either shorter or longer courses, if these can be justi-fied by specific objectives. In general, a period of about 8-10 weeks spent on continu-ing education over a 4-5 year cycle, representing an investment of 4-5% of a person'sworking time in this vital and usually rewarding activity, does not seem unreasonable.
17.5 Attitude change
A major objective of any continuing education programme must be to regenerate astudent's interest in his work and to build up his confidence in the performance of hisduties. Negative attitudes towards work may result from personal doubts about one'sability to cope with a task, or about the relevance and importance of the work in thenational context. Seeking out and rectifying areas in which a person is deficient inknowledge requires considerable tact. Few people are anxious to highlignt areas inwhich they are conscious of personal deficiencies. If these can be detected and a sympa-thetic programme devised to overcome the deficiencies, considerable personal satisfactionand a positive attitude change towards work normally results.
The continuing education programme should be presented at all times as an opportunityfor self-improvement. It should never be suggested as a penalty for poor performance.The relevance of particular tasks in the national context may be clarified by talks anddiscussions. Every candidate leaving a continuing education programae should feel thathis task is vital, in some way, to the overall strategy of his employers and that he isnow better able to understand this task and contribute more effectively to it.
17.6 Promotion courses
Promotion courses may be justified, not necessarily to qualify a person for promotion,but to highlight the different scope of the work a technician may have to undertake if heis advanced to a higher level. The requirements of work planning and budgeting, plus thetechniques of supervision, including checking and control at a higher level, may have tobe presented to technical staff to ensure that when a technician is promoted he actuallyperforms the new functions expected of him. Otherwise, there is a danger that he will tryto continue with his previous tasks and this may interfere with the duties of those underhis charge. Such courses should be available to potential promotion candidates beforeany firm decision on promotion is made. This enables assessments to be made of their per-formance on the course and the effect the training has had on their work in the field whilewaiting for a promotion opportunity to arise.
17.7 Extension education
All students in their initial training should receive a basic introduction to exten-sion techniques. These introductory lectures should concentrate on effective communica-tions with local community groups, the definition of the needs of target populations andhow to determine the balance between official and community action to meet these needs.The required training is sometimes now absorbed into a wider course on Community Forestry.Such a course, whilst providing an understanding and appreciation of extension work andestablishing an attitude favourable to cooperation or participation in it, may not be ade-
- 35 -
attendance of individuals at courses should be regularly monitored by an active personnel group who should try to ensure that every staff member gets an opportunity to partioipate in the continuing education process at least once in every 4-5 years.
17.4 Duration of courses
The duration of any course must depend on the objectives of the course. Allowance must also be made for the fact that staff undertaking continuing education after a period of field service will need time to readjust to the learning situation. Very short, intensive courses are, therefore, likely to be less effective than those where students can proceed at a more leisurely pace and devote some time either to private study or the interchange of working experience with their colleagues. Bearing in mind the cost and disruption to normal work of bringing together the participants of a course, and the value of a general broadening of interests, a duration of perhaps one month is likely to increase its effectiveness.
For conversion or refresher courses, a duration of 3 to 6 weeks is normally adequate, .though this should not rule out either shorter or longer courses, if these can be justified by specific objectives. In general, a period of about 8-10 weeks spent on continuing education over a 4-5 year cycle, representing an investment of 4-5% of a person's working time in this vital and usually rewarding activity, does not seem unreasonable.
17. 5 Attitude change
A major objeotive of any continuing education programme must be to regenerate a student's interest in his work and to build up his confidence in the performance of his duties. Negetive attitudes towards work may result from personal doubts about one's ability to oope with a task, or about the relevance and importance of the work in the national context. Seeking out and rectifying areas in which a person is deficient in knowledge requires considersble taot. Few people are anxious to highlight areas in which they are conscious of personal deficienoies. If these can be detected and a sympathetic programme devised to overoome the defioiencies, consider~ble personal satisfaction and a positive attitude change towards work normally results.
The continuing education programme should be presented at all times as an opportunity for self-improvement. It should never be suggested as a penalty for poor performance. The relevance of particular tasks in the national context may be clarified by talks and discussions. Every candidate leaving a continuing education programme should feel that his task is vital, in some way, to the overall strategy of his employers and that he is now better able to understand this task and contribute more effectively to it.
17.6 Promotion courses
Promotion courses may be justified, not necessarily to qualify a person for promotion, but to highlight the different scope of the work a teohnician may have to undertake if he is advanced to a higher level. The requirement s of work planning and budgeting, plus the techniques of supervision, including checking and control at a higher level, may have to be presented to technical staff to ensure that when a technician is promoted he actually performs the new functions expected of him. Otherwise, there is a danger that he will try to continue with his previous tasks and this may interfere with the duties of those under his cha.rge. Such courses should be available to potential promotion candidates before any firm deoision on promotion is made. This enables assessments to be made of their performance on the course and the effect the training has had on their work in the field while waiting for a promotion opportunity to arise.
17.7 Extension education
All students in their initial training should receive a basic introduction to extension techniques. These introductory lectures should concentrate on effective communications with local oommunity groups, the definition of the needs of target populations and how to determine the balance between offioial and community action to meet these needs. The required training is sometimes now absorbed into a wider course on Conummity Forestry. Such a course, whilst providing an understanding and appreciation of extension work and establishing an attitude favourable to cooperation or participation in it, m~ not be ade-
- 36 -
quate to prepare a person to play a major role in extension or community forestry acti-vities. Further training may be provided by a period of service as an assistant in anextension branch, but even so, there is a need for more formal training in these tech-niques to be provided in continuing education.
Specific courses in extension techniques should be available to staff, either asthey are posted to such duties, or as they move up to a position of responsibility inwhich they may have to promote or evaluate such activities within their territorialcharges. A deeper study of sociological conditions and motivations in local populationsshould be the basis for more exacting case studies of previous or ongoing projects. Theprogramme should also provide for participation in current extension activities.
17.8 Timing of continuing education
Continuing education should be, as its name implies, a continuing process runningparallel to the main functions of an educational establishment. It should not be iso-lated from the mainstream of work and confined to periods such as vacations in the normalprogramme. In the first place, vacations are just as necessary for instructional staffas they are for students and it is logical to concentrate these in periods when there isa break in the prograrrune of activity. If there is a heavy commitment to continuing edu-cation programmes, the staff will start their next main period of teaching without therest and recuperation that a vacation implies.
Vacations for staff are also important for checking and maintaining equipment andpursuing private studies or field visits to ensure that course material is updated.There are also such mundane tasks as repainting and repairing teaching and living accom-modation, as well as family needs. Apart from these human considerations, if a pro-gramme of continuing education is running parallel with the main educational programme,it allows topics which are weather dependent to be taken at the most suitable time ofyear. In addition, staff who are taking courses in both basic training and continuingeducation simultaneously are very likely to be able to share experiences or informationwith both groups. Thus, they can bring the best teaching methods or latest technicaladvances to the continuing stream, and conversely, many useful field observations fromcourse members of the continuing stream can be passed on to the inexperienced studentson the basic course.
18. STUDENT ACTIVITIES AND MORALE
18.1 Introduction
Whereas the prime objective of a forestry school at technical level must be to pro-duce first-class technicians, it has to be remembered that these technicians can play aleading role in village and small town communities. The training programme should,therefore, provide opportunities for them to widen their knowledge on a broad front, todevelop the skills of leadership in a community and to become fully aware of the rolethey can play in society. As part of this process, it is important that high studentmorale is maintained at the school, together with a good sense of self-discipline. Theyshould feel proud to be forestry students and be very willing to work hard to achievehigh standards. To this end, a number of activities should be encouraged. These arediscussed below.
18.2 School insignia
At an early stage, a school badge and motto should be adopted. Staff and studentsshould be encouraged to make suggestions and a vote can be taken to decide which designand motto is most popular. Once approved by the appropriate authority, the insignia canbe used on notepaper, school publications and for sign boards. It can also be used toproduce an official tie which can be sold through the student body, any profits beingused to finance student activities. Similarly, school badges can be made for use onblazers and football shirts. School T-shirts can also be popular and sometimes a lapelbadge is in demand.
- 36 -
quate to prepare a person to play a major role in extension or community forestry activities. Further training may be provided by a period of service as an assistant in an extension branch, but even so, there is a need for more formal training in these techniques to be provided in continuing education.
Specifio courses in extension techniques should be available to staff, either as they are posted to such duties, or as they move up to a position of responsibility in which they may have to promote or evaluate such activities within their territorial charges. A deeper study of sociological conditions and motivations in local populations should be the basis for more exacting case studies of previous or ongoing projects. The programme should also provide for participation in current extension activities.
17.8 Timing of continuing education
Continuing education should be, as its name implies, a continuing process running parallel to the main functions of an educational establishment. It should not be iso-lated from the mainstream of work and confined to periods such as vacations in the normal programme. In the first place, vacations are just as necessary for instructional staff as they are for students and it is logical to concentrate these in periods when there is a break in the programme of activity. If there is a heavy commitment to oontinuing edu-cation programmes, the staff will start their next main period of teaching without the rest and recuperation that a vacation implies.
Vacations for staff are also important for ohecking and maintaining equipment and pursuing private studies or field visits to ensure that course material is updated. There are also such mundane tasks as rspainting and repairing teaching and living accommodation, as well as family needs. Apart from these human considerations, if a programme of continuing educati on is running parallel with the main sducational programme, it allows topics which are weather dependent to be taken at the most suitable time of year. In addition, staff who are taking courses in both basic training and continuing education simultaneously are very likely to be able to share experiences or information wi th both groups. Thus, they can bring the best teaching methods or latest technical advances to the continui~ stream, and conversely, many useful field observations from course members of the continuing stream can be passed on to the inexperienced students on the basic course.
18. STUDENl' ACTIVITIES AND MORALE
18.1 Introduction
Whereas the prims objective of a forestry sohool at techpical level must be to produce first-class technicians, it has to be remembered that thsse teohnicians can pl~ a leading role in village and small town communities. The training programme should, therefore, provide opportunities for them to widen thsir knowledge on a broad front, to dsvelop the skills of leadership in a community and to become fully aware of the role they can play in society. As part of this process, it is important that high student morale is maintained at the school, together with a good sense of self-discipline. They should feel proud to be forestry students and be very willing to work hard to achieve high standards. To this end, a number of activities should be encouraged. These are discussed below.
18.2 School insignia
At an early stage, a school badge and motto should be adopted. Staff and students should be encouraged to make suggestions and a vote can be taken to decide which design and motto is most popular. Once approved by the appropriate authority, the insignia can be used on notepaper, school publications ani for sign boards. It can also be used to produce an official tie which can be sold through the student body, anY profits being used to finance student activities. Similarly, schryol badges can be made for use on blazers and football shirts. School T-shirts can also be popular and sometimes a lapel badge is in demand.
- 37 -
18.3 Student association and societies
If at all possible, the students should be encouraged to form a non-political studentassociation or union, with elected leaders. Positions such as president or chairman,secretary, treasurer and sports secretary are quite usual and a number of committees maybe formed. The association should be required to keep proper minutes of all its meetingsand usually these should be submitted to the school principal or director, for informationpurposes. He can, of course, raise any issues which might be contentious and it helps ifregular meetings are held with the student leaders.
Apart from dealing with general student issues, the association should be responsiblefor promoting societies such as an amateur dramatic group, a music circle or a photographyclub. The school may also give assistance to these societies, either by providing faci-lities or financial aid.
18.4 Sports activities
Sports activities, as detailed in Part II, Section 13, should be given every en-couragement and it may be necessary to provide financial assistance for the purchase ofindividual items of sports kit, e.g. football boots, which can be very expensive. Ifschool teams are formed, they should be allowed to join local leagues and the school mayhave to assist with the provision of transport for any away matches. Benefactors of theschool should be encouraged to support the teams and to donate shields and cups for com-petitions. In some schools, it may be the official policy to appoint instructors withspecial responsibilities for sports activities. Apart from coaching, they should try toallow the students to organize sporting events themselves, only taking direct action whenthings are not working properly.
18.5 School magazine
One means of publicizing the activities of an institution is to publish a magazine.Ideally, this should be produced by the students, but it is quite usual for one or more ofthe staff members to take part in an advisory, and sometimes executive, role. All membersof the staff and students should be encouraged to submit non-political articles, eithertechnical or general. An editorial panel is normally appointed to scrutinize the materialsubmitted and select and edit appropriate articles. The school principal may wish to seea draft of the magazine before it is published, in order to check for any items which couldcause official embarrassment. Local firms can be talked into placing advertisements in themagazine, at reasonable rates, which will help to subsidize the cost of production. Nowa-
days, with the cost of paper and printing rising, even a very modest printed publicationcan be expensive. Initially, therefore, a simple, duplicated edition should be producedon the equipment available at the institution. Later, if the magazine is popular, thepresentation can be improved by using off-set printing. It takes a great deal of effortto produce a school magazine and good leadership and enthusiasm are vital. However, evenif only one issue is published annually, the benefits to the institution in terms of pub-licity and establishing an identity are very significant.
18.6 Prizes
Most forestry schools, once established, provide prizes for various subjects andachievements, including the best project work submitted and the best all-round student.To encourage student activities and community involvement, a useful prize can be offeredto the student who has shown the greatest sense of duty in this field.
18.7 Student counselling
Finally, the instructional staff should closely watch the activities of all thestudents and help them, if possible, to make a contribution to the life of the institution.Some may only make a limited contribution, but if the ethos is right the message shouldget through.
If students are found to have personal problems, these should be dealt with immediate-ly, otherwise other students may be affected. The staff, in general, should try to promotethe image of a caring community. Hopefully, this attitude will be carried by the studentsto the various communities in which they will eventually live.
- 37 -
18.3 student assooiation and societies
IT at all possible, the students should be encouraged to form a non-political student association or union, with elected leaders. Positions such as president or chairman, secretary, treasurer and sports secretary are quite usual and a number of committees may be formed. The association should be required to keep proper minutes of all its meetings and usually these should be submitted to the schoo l principal or director, for information purposes. He can, of course, raise any issues which might be contentious and it helps if regular meetinge are held with the student leaders.
Apart from dealing with general student issues, the association should be responsible for promoting sooieties such as an amateur dramatic group, a music circle or a photography club. The school may also give assistance to these societies, either by providing facilities or financial aid.
18.4 sports aotivities
sports aotivities, as detailed in Part II, Section 13, should be given every encouragement and it may be neoessary to provide financial assistance for the purchase of individual items of sports kit, e.g. football boots, which can be very expensive. If school teams are formed, they should be allowed to join local leagues and the school may have to assist with the provision of transport for any away matches. Benefactors of the sohool should be enoouraged to support the teams and to donate shields and cups for competitions. In some schools, it m~ be the official policy to appoint instructors with special responsibilities for sports activities. Apart from coaching, they should try to allow the students to organize sporting events themselves, only taking direct action when things are not working properly.
18.5 Sohool magaZine
One means of publicizing the activities of an institution is to publish a magazine. Ideally, this should be produced by the students, but it is quite usual for one or more of the staff members to take part in an advisory, and sometimes executive, role. All members of the staff and students should be encouraged to submit non-political articles, either technical or general. An editorial panel is normally appointed to scrutinize the material submitted and select and edit appropriate articles. The school principal may wish to see a draft of the magazine before it is published, in order to check for any items which could cause official embarrassment. Local firms can be talked into placing advertisements in the magazine, at reasonable rates, which will help to subsidize the oo~t of production. Nowadays, with the cost of paper and printing rising, even a very modest. printed publication can be expensive. Initially, therefore, a s imple, duplicated edition should be produced on the equipment available at the institution. Later, if the magazine is popular, the presentation can be improved by using off-set printing. It takes a great deal of effort to produce a Bchool magazine and good leadership and enthusiasm are vital. However, even if only one i ssue is published annually, the benefits to the institution in terms of publicity and establishing an i dent ity are very significant.
18.6 Prizes
Most forestry schools, once established, provide prizes for various subjects and achievements, including the best project work submitted and the best all-round student. To encourage student activities and community involvement, a useful prize can be offered to the student who has shown the greatest sense of duty in this field.
18.7 Student counselling
Finally, the instructional staff should closely watch the activities of all the students and help them, if possible, to make a contribution to the life of the institution. Some may only make a limited contribution, but if the ethos is right the message should get through .
If students are found to have personal problems, these should be dealt with immediately, otherwise other student s may be affected. The staff, in general, should try to promote the image of a caring community. Hopefully, thie attitude will be carried by the students to the various communities in which they will eventually live.
- 38 -
19. ANNUAL EVENTS
19.1 Introduction
In this final section of Part I, attention is drawn to important events which willoccur annually in the life of a forestry school and which require a great deal of prepara-tory work if they are to be carried out efficiently and successfully.
19.2 12114.221LEITEJILLan
This annual financial exercise, on which the next year's work programme will depend,must receive careful attention from all members of the staff concerned. It is, therefore,a good idea if relevant members of the staff are asked to note down, throughout the year,labour costs, food prices and any vehicles, tools, items of equipment or books which arelikely to be required in the following financial year. Heads of sections, or the prin-cipal, can then compile a list of requirements, with the likely costs, immediately priorto the budget preparation period. Once the draft details of the budget have been pre-pared, senior members of the staff should form a committee, with the principal, to re-fine and complete the budget proposals.
19.3 Examinations
Examinations are normally held at the end of each term to check the individual pro-gress of students. These also provide an opportunity to train both staff and studentsin examination.procedures, before the final examination. Each instructor should be re-quired to draft his own examination questions and present them to the head of his section,or to the principal, for approval. Great care should be taken with the wording of thequestions, to avoid double meanings, very complicated mathematical questions and spellingmistakes which can confuse. The examination rooms should be prepared in good time forthe scheduled examinations, with adequate seating, possibly numbered, and a good supplyof paper, spare pens and other requisites. A clock should also be provided. It iscustomary on these occasions to remind the students about the examination rules; theseshould normally have been posted on the notice-board a few days earlier. Studentsshould be allowed to raise any queries about the questions, before the examinationstarts.
The examiners should mark the examination papers without delay and the resultsShould be posted as soon as possible. One reliable instructor is usually entrusted withthe task of compiling the results which should be submitted to the principal for signa-ture before they are posted. Any unusual results of individual students should bechecked out in case any mistakes have arisen. The final marks should be carefully ana-lyzed by the instructional staff to see what lessons can be learnt. Tidy copies shouldbe filed for future reference purposes, e.g. final course results or student transcripts.
19.4 Presentation of diplomas and certificates
Diplomas and certificates will normally be presented at the end of the academicyear. This is an occasion which can be treated as a low-key event, or it can become ahighlight of the year. Most institutions prefer the latter and try to obtain maximumpublicity from it.
To be really successful, the event calls for a great deal of preparation, particu-larly if exhibitions are to be staged. The guest speakers must be given plenty ofnotice about the event and reminded nearer the day. Students should be allowed toinvite members of their family and friends, but a limit may have to be placed on thenumber permitted. The mass media should be invited to attend and as many national andlocal dignitaries as possible. The programe and invitations should be printed, iffunds allow.
On the day, great care should be taken with the seating arrangements and the instal-lation of a public-address system, if this is necessary. The catering arrangementsshould also be carefully thought out. Guest speakers' contributions should be publiclyacknowledged during the ceremony. The principal should follow this up with a personalletter to each speaker the next day.
- 38 -
19. ANNUAL EVENl'S
19.1 Introduct ion
In this final section of Part I, attention is drawn to important events which will occur annually in the life of a forestry school and which require a great deal of preparatory work if they are to be carried out efficiently and successfully.
19.2 Budget preparation
This annual financial exercise, on which the next year's work programme will depend, must receive careful attention from all members of the staff concerned. It is, therefore, a good idea if relevant msmbers of the staff are asked to note down, throughout the year, labour oosts, food prices and any vehicles, tools, items of equipment or books which are likely to be required in the following financial year. Heads of sections, or the principal, can then compile a list of requirements, with the likely costs, immediately prior to the budget preparation period. Once the draft details of the budget have been prepared, senior members of the staff should form a committee, with the principal, to re-fine and complete the budget proposals.
19.3 Examinations
Ex:aminations are normally held at the end of each term to check the individual progress of students. These also provide an opportunity to train both staff and students in examination.prooedures, before the final examination. Each instructor should be required to draft his own examination questions and present them to the head of his section, or to the principal, for approval. Great care should be taken with the wording of the questions, to avoid double meanings, very complicated mathematical questions and spelling mistakes which can confuse. The examination rooms should be prepared in good time for the scheduled examinations, with adequate seating, possibly numbered, and a good supply of paper, spare pens and other requisites. A clock should also be provided. It is customary on these occasions to remind the students about the examination rules; these should normally have been posted on the notice-board a few daye earlier. Students should be allowed to raise any queries about the questions, before the examination starts.
The examiners should mark the examination papers without delay and the results should be posted as soon as possible. One reliable instructor is usually entrusted with the task of compiling the results which should be submitted to the principal for signature before they are posted. Any unusual results of individual students should be checked out in case any mi at ake shave ari sen. The final marks should be oarefully analyzed by the instructional staff to see what lessons can be learnt. Tidy copies should be filed for future referenoe purposes, e.g. final course results or student transcripts.
19.4 Presentation of diplomas and certifioates
Diplomas and certificates will normally be presented at the end of the academic year. This is an occasion which can be treated as a low-key event, or it can become a highlight of the year. Most institutions prefer the latter and try to obtain maximum publioity from it.
To be really successful, the event calls for a great deal of preparation, particularly if exhibitions are to be staged. The guest speakers must be given plenty of notice about the event and reminded nearer the day. Students should be allowed to invite members of their family and friends, but a limit may have to be placed on the number permitted. The mass media should be invited to attend and as many national and local dignitaries as possible. The programme and invitations should be printed, if funds allow.
On the day, great care should be taken with the seating arrangements and the installation of a public-address system, if this is necessary. The catering arrangements should also be carefully thought out. Guest speakers' contributions should be publicly acknowledged during the ceremony. The principal should follow this up with a personal letter to each speaker the next day.
39
Over the years, it is possible for the event to assume a national character, par-ticularly in small countries. This can have a very beneficial effect in respect ofgovernment support.
19.5 Sporting events
In some countries, forestry schools stage sporting events which can have greatpublic appeal. These are useful occasions for gaining support from both government andthe local communities. However, they should be organized with care to ensure that theydo not cause serious disruption of the training programme.
- 39 -
OVer the years, it is possible for the event to assume a national character, particularly in small countries. This can have a very beneficial effect in respect of government support.
19.5 Sporting event s
In some countries, forestry schools stage sporting events which can have great public appeal. These are useful occasions for gaining support from both government and the local communities. HO>lever, they should be organized ,lith care to ensure that they do not cause serious disruption of the training programme.
-41 -
PART II - PHYSICAL FACILITIES AND EQUIPMENP
INTRODUCTION
This part of the manual deals with the various buildings, workshops, stores, otherphysical facilities and associated equipment, which are considered necessary to meettraining objectives. Obviously, not all these facilities will be required by everyinstitution, nor will it be always possible to provide every item which is considereddesirable. However, by presenting the complete range, it is hoped that the manual willgive guidance to any orgenization faced with providing accommodation for a forestryschool at the technical level. Existing forestry schools may also benefit, particularlyif there are plans to extend their physical facilities.
CLASSROOMS
2.1 Basic concepts
Classrooms in a technical institution should be designed primarily as workrooms inwhich formal classes can be held, rather than the reverse. They must also take intoaccount the wide variety of activities which may take place within them, of which passivelistening to lectures and note-taking may be only of minor importance.
Though the classroom function may be of some importance at the commencement of thecourse, the possibilities for group activities and joint problem-solving are likely toincrease during the course. The need for students to handle instruments, equipment, andspecimens of many different types during the learning process, suggests a much more flex-ible layout than a formal lecture situation. A room should be laid out in such a waythat a switch to group activities can be made with the minimum of disturbance. Workingtables are in most cases much more practical than traditional desks. They should besufficiently large to allow students to spread maps, plans, documents and specimens asrequired during their studies. The chairs should be adult-size, not secondary schoolsize.
2.2 Space
A space allocation of 2.5m2 per place (up to 3m2 if funds permit) is adequate forthe type of teaching envisaged. Though the cost per student place for buildings ofgenerous proportions may seem high initially, it is a relatively minor item in the overalleducational cost, when the life of a well constructed building is 30-50 years. Some may,in fact, serve considerably longer.
2.3 Lighting
Good natural lighting is highly desirable and should come, if possible, from twosides of a room. The orientation of the room is important in relation to the incidenceof the sun's rays at different seasons of the year. In some cases, adeauate shading canbe provided by constructing a deep verandah on one side of a room, which can then serveas a circulation space for students between classes. It is not usually necessary, oreconomic, to provide verandahs on both sides of a room. However, "sun spoilers" builtinto the walls above the windows, or sun-screens on the windows themselves, may be neces-sary to avoid direct sunlight falling on the working tables at certain times of the year.If the building structure does not permit windows on two sides of a room, high intensityartificial lighting is necessary.
Windows should not extend to the end of the room where the chalkboard or projectionscreens are located. If this happens, there is usually some degree of reflection fromthe surface of the board or screen, which makes viewing difficult. The presence of alarge area of windows, in relation to the total wall space available, limits the possi-
- 41 -
PART II - PHYSICAL FACILITIES AND EQUIPMENr
1. INrRODUCTION
This part of the manual deals with the various buildings, workshops, stores, other physical facilities and assooiated equipment, which are considered necessary to meet training objeotives. Obviously, not all these facilities will be required by every institution, nor will it be always possible to provide every item which is considered desirable. However, by presenting the oomplete range, it is hoped that the manual will give guidanoe to any organization faced with providing accommodation for a forestry school at the technioal level. Existing forestry schools may also benefit, particularly if there are plans to extend their physical facilities.
2. CLASSROOMS
2.1 Basic concept s
Classrooms in a technical institution should be designed primarily as workrooms in which formal classes can be held, rather than the reverse. They must also take into account the wide variety of activities which may take place within them, of which passive listening to lectures and note-taking may be only of minor importance.
Though the classroom function may be of some importance at the commencement of the course, the possibilities for group activities and joint problem-solving are likely to increase during the course. The need for students to handle instruments, equipment, and specimens of many different types during the learning process, suggests a much more flexible layout than a formal lecture situation. A room should be laid out in such a way that a switch to group activities can be made with the minimum of disturbance. Working tables are in most cases much more practical than traditional desks. They should be sufficiently large to allow students to spread maps, plans, documents and specimens as required during their studies. The chairs should be adult-size, not secondary school size.
2.2 ~
A space allocation of 2.5m2 per place (up to 3m2 if funds permit) is adequate for the type of teaching envisaged. Though the cost per student place for buildinge of generous proportions may seem high initially, it is a relatively minor item in the overall educational cost, when the life of a well constructed building is 30-50 years. Some may, in fact, serve considerably longer.
203 Lighting
Good natural lighting is highly desirable and should come, if possible, from two sides of a room. The orientation of the room is important in relation to the incidence of the sun's rays at different seasons of the year. In some cases, adequate shading can be provided by constructing a deep verandah on one side of a room, which can then serve as a circulation space for students between classes. It is not usually necessary, or economic, to provide verandahs on both sides of a room. However, "sun spoilers" built into the walls above the windows, or sun-screens on the windows themselves, ~ be necessary to avoid direct sunlight falling on the working tables at certain times of the year. If the building struoture does not permit windows on two sides of a room, high intensity artificial lighting is necessary.
Windows should not extend to the end of the room where the chalkboard or projection screens are located. If this happens, there is usually some degree of reflection from the surface of the board or screen, which makes viewing difficult. The presence of a large area of Windows, in relation to the total wall space available, limits the p08si-
- 42 -
bility of fixing display boards in the room. A compromise between good natural lightingand the need for suitable display space must be found during the design stage.
2.4 Ventilation
Good ventilation, by means of louvred or opening casement windows, is necessary.This should be supplemented by ventilation spaces in the upper walls, especially insituations where high winds and heavy rainfall may force the closure of windows at times.It is essential to maintain cool conditions for study, particularly in the afternoons.Where necessary, large ceiling fans can be used to promote circulation of air and 3 or 4of these fans, at a low speed, can maintain a satisfactory movement of air in an average -size classroom. Air conditioners create a totally foreign environment and should be dis-couraged, unless essential for the maintenance or use of some special equipment.
2.5 Furnishings
A good teaching table should be provided with aupboards or drawers for storing allthe equipment an instructor is likely to need, e.g. chalks, drawing instruments, felt boardmaterials, spare pencils, pens and paper. In general, to maintain the "work room" atmos-phere, this table should be on the floor level, and not on a raised dais. This inhibitsthe free movement of work tables throughout the room, and causes the instructor to step upand down unnecessarily as he circulates amongst his class.
Adequate storage space for students' materials, either in shallow cupboards withsliding doors below the windows, or in shelves or racks at one end of the room, should beprovided. This enables uncompleted tasks to be set aside and retrieved easily, as classsessions begin and end. Alternatively, a small teaching materials store, aocessible from2 adjoining classrooms, serves the same purpose and avoids the loss of floor area causedby cupboards or shelves.
2.6 Electrical installations
A classroom should have as many electrical sockets as found practicable. Socketsare normally required at both ends of the room to provide power for audio-visual aids suchas overhead projectors or slide projectors. Additional sockets can be provided at eitherside of the room to supply reading lamps or light tables, if these are required. (SeeSection 6 below.)
2.7 Safety
The main entrance to a classroom should be of sufficient size to allow the room to beevacuated quickly in an emergency. The door should open outwards from the room and, wher-ever the basic design permits a second door, this should be provided in the diagonallyopposite corner or side. A fire extinguisher should be installed within the room or inan easily accessible location outside it.
3. TEACHING LABORATORIES
3.1 Needs
The need for teaching laboratories depends upon the scope of the curriculum. Insome cases the policy requirement is to provide a bridging course in basic studies,ostensibly to bring all students up to the level at which they can benefit from the re-mainder of the course. Too often, however, this is simply an admission of the inadequa-cies of the secondary school standards and it imposes on the technical curriculum matterswhich should properly be dealt with at the pre-entry level. Such courses are sometimesof little relevance to subsequent studies. Where they can be modified to serve the needsof the technical subjects, they can be very useful. In this instance, laboratories arerequired for their proper implementation.
3.2 Combined chemistry/soils laboratory
A basic chemistry laboratory, which can serve as a soils laboratory for later stagesof the course, is desirable. This has much in common with a similar laboratory for the
- 42 -
bility of fixing display boards in the room. A compromise between good natural lighting and the need for sui table display space must be found during the design stage.
2.4 Ventilation
Good ventilation, by means of louvred or opening casement windows, is necessary. This should be supplemented by ventilation spaces in the upper walls, especially in situations where high winds and heavy rainfall may force the closure of windows at times. It is essential to maintain cool conditions for study, particularly in the afternoons. Where necessary, large ceiling fans can be used to promote circulation of air and 3 or 4 of these fans, at a low speed, can maintain a satisfactory movement of air in an averagesize classroom. Air conditioners create a totally foreign environment and should be discouraged, unless essential for the maintenanoe or use of some special equipment.
2.5 Furnishings
A good teaching table should be provided with cupboards or drawers for storing all the equipment an instructor is likely to need, e.g. chalks, drawing instruments, felt board materials, spare pencils, pens and paper. In general t to maintain the "work room" atmos-phere, this table should be on the floor level, and not on a raised dais. This inhibits the free movement of work tables throughout the room, and causes the instructor to step up and down unnecessarily as he circulates amongst his class.
Adequate storage space for students' materials, either in shallow cupboards with sliding doors below the windows, or in shelves or racks at one end of the room, should be provided. This enables uncompleted tasks to be set aside and retrieved easily, as class sessions begin and end. Alternatively, a small teaching materials store, accessible from 2 adjoining classrooms, serves the same purpose and avoids the lOBS of floor area oaused by cupboards or shelves.
2.6 Electrical installations
A classroom should have as many electrical sockets as found practicable. Sockets are normally required at both ends of the room to provide power for audio~isual aids such as overhead projectors or slide projectors. Additional sockets can be provided at either side of the room to supply reading lamps or light tables, if these are required. (See Seotion 6 below.)
2.7 Safety
The main entrance to a classroom should be of sufficient size to allow the room to be evacuated quiokly in an emergency. The door should open outwards from the room and, wherever the basic design permits a second door, this should be provided in the diagonally opposite corner or side. A fire extinguisher should be installed within the room or in an easily accessible location outside it.
3. TEACHING LABORATORIES
3.1 Needs
The need for teaching laboratories depends upon the scope of the curriculum. In some cases the policy requirement is to provide a bridging course in basic studies, ostensibly to bring all students up to the level at which they can benefit from the remainder of the course. Too often, however, this is simply an admission of the inadequacies of the secondary school standards and it imposes on the technical curriculum matters which should properly be dealt with at the pre-entry level. Such courses are sometimes of little relevance to subsequent studies. Where they can be modified to serve the needs of the technical subjects, they can be very useful. In this instance, laboratories are required for their proper implementation.
3.2 Combined chemistry/soils laboratory
A basic ohemistry laboratory, which can serve as a soils laboratory for later stages of the course, is desirable. This has much in common with a similar laboratory for the
- 43 -
initial stages of an introductory university course in chemistry. In this case, however,space allocations can be made more generous to permit senior students to carry out soilstudies simultaneously with the junior chemistry course.
3.2.1 Space allocations
A space allocation of 4.5m2 per student should be adequate to cover routine classesand to leave some bench space available for continuing demonstrations or experimente.
3.2.2 Storage and preparation facilities
An area behind the wall of the instructor's bench should be formed into two rooms,accessible from either side of the teaching bench and, if possible, connected by an in-ternal door. One room should serve as a preparation room, in which exercises can beplanned and prepared before being attempted in class. The second room should serve as areadyuse store, holding stocks of equipment in common use, Which the instructor may notwish to leave unattended in the class. It should also house replacement bottles or packsof all consumable materials in general use which, if replenished at intervals, will ensurethat classes are not delayed by unforeseen shortages.
The preparation room should be furnished with adequate cupboard space, both above andbelow bench level. Glassfronted cupboards, above bench level, enable materials not fre-quently used to be stored and located more readily. A central bench should be installed,connected to water supplies and provided with one or more laboratory sinks, plus gas andelectrical connections suitably protected against water. A proper laboratory tool kit,in a locked cabinet, should be provided and a comprehensive laboratory firstaid kit. Aspace allocation of 15% of the laboratory area should prove adequate. Depending on thecomplexity of studies to be undertaken, fume cupboards or cupboards for precision balancesmay be located on a bench at the rear of the laboratory.
3.2.3 Li§hting
Though adequate natural lighting is desirable, as in classrooms, it is undesirable tohave all the side wall space given over to windows. A reasonable proportion should besolid wall to protect balances, water deionisers and other items of equipment which maybe in regular use. These walls are also a convenient location for small fireextinguish-ers which should be of the inert chemical or gas type. To compensate for the loss ofwindow space, a high level of intensity of artificial lighting, preferably using floures-cent tubes, is required. Roof lights are seldom satisfactory in tropical areas where theuan may be directly overhead for part of the year.
3.2.4 Ventilation
Good natural ventilation by louvred windows or fixed louvres mounted high in the wallsis desirable, but should be supplemented by extractor fans. The normal type of rooffanmounted as in a classroom is not suitable in a laboratory, where it may disturb gas flamesor the operation of balances.
2.3.5 Furnishinge
Laboratory benches up to 6m long by 70cm wide and 80cm high are suitable for 6 stu-dents working in pairs. They should be fitted with laboratory sinks and tops at bothends and in the centre, if possible. Each working space should have convenient access togas taps and electrical sockets suitably shielded against water. There should be drawer/cupboard facilities at both ends and at 1 or 2 points along the bench, if convenient.These cupboards should be freestanding from the structure of the bench, as this allowsflexibility of location. Laboratory stools, of a type which can be stored convenientlyunder the benches, should be provided for students.
A large teaching bench, 3-4m long, raised on a low platform, with sink facilities atone or, preferably, both ends, and at least 2 twin gas taps and 2 twin electric sockets,is desirable. It should incorporate both drawers and cupboards for storing teadhingequipment in regular use.
- 43 -
initial stages of an introductory university course in chemistry. In this case, however, space allooations can be made more generous to permit senior students to carry out soil studies simultaneously with the junior chemistry course.
3.2.1 Space allocations
A space allocation and to leave some bench
2 of 4.5m per student should be adequate to cover routine classes space available for continuing demonstrations or experiments.
3.2.2 storage and preparation facilities
An area behind the wall of the instructor's bench should be formed into two rooms, accessible from either side of the teaching bench and, if possible, connected by an internal door. One room should Berve as a preparation room, in which exercises can be planned and prepared before being attempted in class. The second room should serve as a ready-use store, holding stocks of equipment in common use, which the instructor may not wish to leave unattended in the class. It should also house replacement bottles or packs of all oonsumable materials in general use which, if replenished at intervals, will ensure that classes are not delayed by unforeseen shortages.
The preparation room should be furnished with adequate cupboard space, both above and below bench level. Glass-fronted oupboards, above bench level, enable materials not frequently used to be stored and located more readily. A central bench should be installed, connected to water supplies and provided with one or more laboratory sinks, plus gas and electrical connections suitably protected against water. A proper laboratory tool kit, in a locked cabinet, should be provided and a comprehensive laboratory first-aid kit. A space allocation of 15% of the laboratory area should prove adequate. Depending on the complexity of studies to be undertaken, fume cupboards or cupboards for precision balances may be located on a bench at the rear of the laboratory.
3.2.) Lighting
Though adequate natural lighting is desirable, as in classrooms, it is undesirable to have all the side wall space given over to windows. A reasonable proportion should be solid wall to protect balances, water de-ionisers and other items of equipment which may be in regular use. These walls are also a convenient location for small fire~xtinguishers which should be of the inert chemical or gas type. To compensate for the loss of window space, a high level of intensity of artificial lighting, preferably USing flourescent tubes, is required. Roof lights are seldom satisfactory in tropical areas where the sun may be direotly overhead for part of the year.
3.2.4 Ventilation
Good natural ventilation by louvred windows or fixed louvres mounted high in the walls is desirable, but should be supplemented by extractor fans. The normal type of roof-fan mounted as in a classroom is not suitable in a laboratory, where it may disturb gas flames or the operation of balances.
2.3.5 Furnishings
Laboratory benches up to 6m long by 70cm wide and 80cm hign are suitable for 6 students working in pairs. They should be fitted with laboratory sinks and tops at both ends and in the centre, if possible. Each working space should have convenient access to gas taps and electrical sockets suitably shielded against water. There should be drawer/ cupboard facilities at both ends and at 1 or 2 points along the bench, if convenient. These cupboards should be free-standing from the structure of the bench, as this allows flexibility of location. Laboratory stools, of a type which can be stored conveniently under the benches, should be provided for students.
A large teaching bench, 3-4m long, raised on a low platform, with sink facilities at one or, preferably, both enls, and at least 2 t,.,rin ga:::> taps and 2 twin electric sockets, is desirable. It should incorporate both drawers and cupboards for storing teaching equipment in regular use.
-44-
3.2.6 Services
In areas where a mains supply of gas is not available, liquid petroleum gas piped tobenches from a pair of large cylinders mounted outside the laboratory, and connected by anautomatic switch-over valve, is probably the best for general use. The gas pipes shouldrun in an underfloor channel, covered by a concrete or wooden slab, depending upon theconstruction of the building, to twin laboratory gas taps at intervals of about 2m alongthe bench tops.
Electrical cables should run through metal conduits to suitable sockets providedagainst moisture.
All waste liquid should discharge first into diluting sinks outside the building,before being discharged into the main drainage system.
Large inert powder or foam fire extinguishers, an asbestos blanket and a properlyequipped laboratory first-aid kit should be located near the instructor's bench, or in thepreparation room if it is accessible at all times.
3.3 Bioloical laboratory
A biological laboratory which may share the same storage and preparation room as achemistry/soils laboratory may be built in one block. In addition to basic botany andbiological classes, it can also cater for practical exercises in entomology, pathology andwood utilization, if necessary. In many institutions, it may be more intensively usedthan the combined chemistry/soils laboratory, and therefore it should be adequatelyequipped for its multiple role.
3.3.1 Space allocations
Space allocations overall can be slightly less than for a chemistry/soils laboratory,as it is convenient to use narrower benches. An overall allocation of about 4m3 per stu-dent should be adequate.
3.3.2 Lighting and ventilation
Lighting and ventilation requirements are substantially similar to those of thechemistry/soils laboratory described above.
3.3.3 Furnishinfs
Laboratory benches can be of standard table height and reduced in width to 60cm.Free-standing drawer/cupboard units can be located below the benches.
3.3.4 Services
Gas outlets are not normally necessary on all benches. These can be provided atlimited points on fixed side and rear benches. This allows greater flexibility inarranging the benches in the main part of the room.
Frequent electrical sockets, connected by cables in metal conduits, are required ifmicroscopes or illuminated dissecting stages are to be used. The electrical connectionsto conduits in the floor can be flexible and detachable and the laboratory benches madefree-standing, so that a certain degree of variation in their location is possible.
Sinks and water supplies can also be confined to fixed side and rear benches and tothe instructor's bench. Balances, if required, should also be confined to these benches.The usual provision of fire extinguishers and first-aid kits should be made for this lab-oratory.
3.4 Safety
Laboratories should always have 2 large, outward-opening doors, at diagonally oppo-site corners, to allow quick evacuation of the room in emergencies. The "emergency door"
-44-
).2.6 Services
In areas where a mains supply of gas is not available, liquid petroleum gas piped to benches . from a pair of large cylinders mounted outside the laboratory, and connected by an automatic switch-over valve, is probably the best for general use. The gas pipes should run in an underfloor channel, covered by a concrete or wooden slab t depending upon the construction of the building, to twin laboratory gas taps at intervals of about 2m along the bench tops.
Electrical cablss should run through metal conduits to suitable sockets provided against moisture.
All waste liquid should discharge first into diluting sinks outside the building, before being discharged into the main drainage system.
Large inert powder or foam fire extinguishers, an asbestos blanket and a properly equipped laboratory first-aid kit should be located near the instructor's bench, or in the preparation room if it is accessible at all times.
3.3 Biological laboratory
A biological laboratory which may share the same storage and preparation room as a chemistry/soils laboratory may be built in one block. In addition to basic botany and biological classes, it can also cater fo~ practical exercises in entomology, pathology and wood utilization, if necessary. In many institutions, it may be more intensively used than the combined chemistry/soils laboratory, and therefore it should be adequately equipped for its multiple role.
3.3.1 Space allocations
Space allocations overall can be slightly as it is convenient to us e narrower benches. dent should be adequate.
less than for a chemistry/soils laboratory, An overall allocation of about 4m3 per st~-
3.).2 Lighting and ventilation
Lighting and ventilation requirements are substantially similar to those of the chemistry/soils laboratory described above.
).3.3 Furnishings
Laboratory benches can be of standard table height and reduced in width to 60cm. Free-standing drawer/cupboard units can be located below the benches.
3.3.4 Services
Gas outlets are not normally necessary on all benches. limited points on fixed side and rear benches. This allows arranging the benches in the main part of the room.
These can be provided at greater flsxibility in
Frequent electrical sockets, connected by cables in metal conduits, are required if microscopes or illuminated dissecting stages are to be used. The electrical connections to conduits in the floor can be flexible and detachable and the laboratory benches made free-standing, so that a certain degree of variation in their location is possible.
Sinks and water supplies can also be confined to fixed side and rear benches and to the instructor's bench. Balances, if required, should also be confined to these benches. The usual provision of fire extinguishers and first-aid kits should be made for this laboratory.
3.4 Safety
Laboratories should always have 2 large, outward-opening doors, at diagonally opposite corners, to allow quick evacuation of the room in emergencies. The "emergency door"
45
must be kept free of all obstructions and closed by a bar and lever device which willrespond to pressure, in a hurried evacuation.
HERBARIUM
A herbarium for the storage of prepared plant specimens, with facilities for storageof timber specimens and mycological material, is desirable.
Preparation of material by students can best be done in the biological laboratory, sothe herbarium itself need only provide sufficient space for a master collection of plants,plus duplicates of species in common use for class study. There is, of course, the needfor a reasonable working area for a herbarium keeper, and possibly an assistant, to pre-pare or classify plants as necessary. The herbarium keeper is likely to be a member ofthe teaching staff and to have office accommodation elsewhere.
Drying ovens for preparing specimens are probably best located in the biologicallaboratory where they are more readily accessible to students. On the other hand, faci-lities for fumigating or preserving specimens are best located in a small workroom orcubicle attached to the herbarium. In certain climates, one or more dehumidifiers maybe required to maintain a level of humidity sufficient to prevent deterioration of thecollect ion.
4.1 Timber specimens
Where collections of timber specimens are maintained, suitable racks for display arenormally required. A set of simple tools for preparing the specimens is also necessary.An industrial-type vacuum cleaner, to maintain a high level of cleanliness, is desirableif preparation work is carried out within the herbarium.
4.2 Lighting
Lighting can be by a limited area of windows high in the walls, and by artificiallights, to avoid direct sunlight falling on to the collection.
DISPLAY/STORAGE AREAS FOR OTHER COLLMTIONS
Depending upon the size of the institution, a suitable room may be required for thedisplay or storage of other specimens used for teaching purposes. Examples are rock andsoil samples, insect collections, taxidermic or Skull collections and samples of timberdefects.
5.1 Lighting and ventilation
Lighting and ventilation conditions similar to a herbarium or a biological laboratoryare appropriate to this room.
5.2 Furnishings
Wall cabinets are required and, ideally, the section below table heigbt should bewider than the upper part, to provide a narrow surface on which specimens can be laidwhilst they are being stored or retrieved. A card index of the collection, giving de-tails of the location of specimens in the various storage spaces, is necessary. One ormore centre tables for preparing or examining specimens are required, but equipment forhandling the materials should normally be kept in the appropriate laboratory.
DRAWING OFFICE
A drawing office requires a high allocation of space pertherefore in every institution the question must be raised asof this space for drawing tasks alone can justify the cost oflevel of economy is required in the desigr of an institution,general classroom facilities for this subject.
student (3.7-4.6m2),andto whether the utilizationits provision. If a highit may be necessary to use
- 45 -
must be kept free of all obstructions and closed by a bar and lever device which will respond to pressure, in a hurried evacuation.
4. HERBARIUM
A herbarium for the storage of prepared plant specimens, with facilities for storage of timber specimens and mycological material, is desirable.
Preparation of material by students can best be done in the biological laboratory, so the herbarium itself need only provide sufficient space for a master collection of plants, plus duplicates of species in common use for class study. There is, of course, the need for a reasonable working area for a herbarium keeper, and possibly an assistant, to prepare or classify plants as necessary. The herbarium keeper is likely to be a member of the teaching staff and to have office accommodation elsewhere.
Drying ovens for preparing specimens are probably best located in the biological laboratory where they are more readily accessible to students. On the other hand, facilities for fumigating or preserving specimens are best located in a small workroom or oubicle attached to the herbarium. In certain climates, one or more dehumidifiers may be required to maintain a level of humidity sufficient to prevent deterioration of the collection.
4.1 Timber Specimens
Where collections of timber specimens are maintained, suitable racks for display are normally required. A set of simple tools for preparing the specimens is also necessary. An industrial-type vacuum cleaner, to maintain a high level of cleanliness, is desirable if preparation work is carried out within the herbarium.
4.2 Lighting
Lighting can be by a limited area of windows high in the walls, and by artificial lights, to avoid direct sunlight falling on to the collection.
5. DISPLAY/STORAGE AREAS FOR OTHER COLLEX;TIONS
Depending upon the size of the institution, a suitable room may be required for the display or storage of other specimens used for teaching purposes. Examples are rock and Boil samples, insect collections, taxidermic or Skull collections and samples of timber defects.
5.1 Lighting and ventilation
Lighting and ventilation conditions similar to a herbarium or a biological laboratory are appropriate to this room.
5.2 Furnishings
Wall cabinets are required and, ideally, the section below table height should be wider than the upper part, to provide a narrow surface on which specimens can be laid whilst they are being stored or retrieved. A card index of the collection, giving details of the location of specimens in the various storage spaces, is necessary. One or more centre tables for preparing or examining specimens are required, but equipment for handling the materials should normally be kept in the appropriate laboratory.
6. DRAWING OFFICE
A drawing office requires a high allocation of space per therefore in every institution the question must be raised as of this space for drawing tasks alone can justify the cost of level of economy is required in the design of an institution, general classroom facilities for this subject.
2 student (3.7-4.6m ), and to whether the utili zation its provision. If a high it may be necessary to use
- 46 -
6.1 Alternative solutions
If the basic layout of classrooms provides for 2 adjoining classrooms with a slidingpartition between them, this can be opened to allow a class to use the 2 rooms simultan-eously. Class members can congregate in one room to receive instructions, and thenspace themselves out over the two rooms for drawing practice, making use of all the tablespace available.
6.2 Additional equipment
If a classroom is to be used in this way for drawing purposes, wooden drawing boardsraised at an angle on wedgeshaped blocks, with metal retaining bars at the lower edge,should be provided for each student. These are placed on the standard work tables. Thecost of individual drafting tables is unlikely to be justified, except in institutionswhich offer particular options in surveying, engineering or management with a substantialcontent of drawing practice.
Portable "light tables" should be available in reasonable numbers, but it is notusually necessary to provide sufficient to meet the needs of all students at once.Arrangements may have to be made, however, to permit students access to the room afternormal working hours to allow them to make use of these items. This avoids unnecessaryexpenditure on items used for a short part of the programme. Chests for storing maps ordrawings in progress should be provided.
6.3 Lightinf and ventilation
Good natural lighting should be supplemented in rooms used as drawing offices byhigh intensity overhead lighting. There will almost certainly be a need for this ondull days, or for any evening work. Whenever possible, individual desk lamps should beprovided. Good ventilation, by ceiling fans or possibly extractor fans, is essential tokeep working conditions satisfactory for students, and avoid any damage to work by perspi-ration. This is particularly important where artificial lighting may add to the heat inthe room.
7. LIBRARIES
7.1 Ideal facilities
Because of space and cost restrictions, it is often difficult to incorporate in alibrary all the many desirable features one would like. The layout should, however,include an office for the librarian and a suitable working space for an assistant behinda counter, located adjacent to the entrance. A zone for reference books, with cabinetsfor both subject and author record cards, perhaps a microfilm reader and printer shouldbe located where they can be closely supervised by the library staff. Racks for thedisplay of current periodicals, before they are arranged in serial order, should also belocated in this zone. An exhibition area may be provided, if space permits, to enableboth instructional staff and students occasionally to stage exhibits on specialized sub-jects.
7.2 Stack area
The stack area should be reasonably compact, with the stacks running out at rightangles to the walls with windows located between the stacks. There is a temptation toeconomize in space by making the area between the stacks rather narrow, but this inhibitsfree movement of users and should be avoided. A space of at least 1.20m between stacksshould be allowed.
7.3 Reading facilities
Sufficient table space should be provided near the stacks to allow readers to samplebooks or to make short extracts from them. A zone should be reserved for the storage ofmaps, plans, charts, diagrams and other large items. The table space should be adequatefor these to be studied without need of folding and risk of damage.
- 46 -
6.1 Alternative solutions
If the basic layout of classrooms provides for 2 adjoining classrooms with a sliding partition between them, this can be opened to allow a class to use the 2 rooms simultaneously_ Class members can congregate in one room to receive instructions, and then space themselves out over the two rooms for drawing practice, making use of all the table space available.
6.2 Additional equipment
If a classroom is to be used in this way for drawing purposes, wooden drawing boards raised at an angle on wedge-shaped blocks, with metal retaining bars at the lower edge, should be provided for each student. These are placed on the standard work tables. The cost of individual drafting tables is unlikely to be justified, except in institutions which offer particular options in surveying, engineering or management with a substantial content of drawing practice.
Portable "light tables" should be available in reasonable numbers, but it is not usually necessary to provide sufficient to meet the needs of all students at once. Arrangements may have to be made, however, to permit students access to the room after normal working hours to allow them to make use of these items. Thi~ avoids unnecessary expenditure on items used for a short part of the programme. Chests for storing maps or drawings in progress should be provided.
6.3 Lighting and ventilation
Good natural lighting should be supplemented in rooms used as drawing offices by high intensity overhead lighting. There will almost certainly be a need for this on dull days, or for any evening work. Whenever possib~e, individual desk lamps should be provided. Good ventilation, by ceiling fans or possibly extractor fans, is essential to keep working conditions satisfactory for students, and avoid any damage to work by perspiration. This is particularly important where artificial lighting may add to the heat in the room.
7. LIBRARIES
7.1 Ideal facilities
Because of space and cost restrictions, it is often difficult to incorporate in a library all the many desirable features one would like. The layout should, however, include an office for the librarian and a suitable working space for an assistant behind a counter, located adjacent to the entrance. A zone for reference books, with cabinets for both subject and author record cards, perhaps a micro-film reader and printer should be located where they can be closely supervised by the library staff. Raoks for the display of current periodicals, before they are arranged in serial order, should also be located in this zone. An exhibition area may be provided, if space permits, to enable both instructional staff and students occasionally to stage exhibits on specialized subjects.
7.2 Stack area
The stack area should be reasonably compact, with the stacks running out at right angles to the walls with windows located between the stacks. There i s a temptation to economize in space by making the area between the stacks rather narrow, but this inhibits free movement of users and should be avoided. A space of at least 1. 20m between stacks should b. allowed.
7.3 Reading facilities
Sufficient table space should be provided near the stacks to allow readers to sample books or to make short extracts from them. A zone should be reserved for the stora~ of maps, plans, charts, diagrams and other large items. The table space should be adequate for these to be studied without need of folding and risk of damage.
-47-
7.4 Storage of large flat items
Flat mapchests, or preferably, hanging map chests, should be provided to store thelarge flat items mentioned above and to allow easy location and retrieval. These mayhave to be locked and under the control of the library staff to meet security require-ments in some areas.
7.5 Workroom
Where space permits, a small workroom for the labelling and repair of books isdesirable. It keeps the issue and retrieval area of the library free from wastematerials, and enables the staff to carry out the work without disturbance to the usersof the library.
7.6 Study area
If the library is to be used as a study area for students, either a large extensionbeyond the stack area or a separate room adjoining it should be provided. Reading desksin this area should be arranged perhaps in a cruciform pattern with partitions betweenadjoining readers to minimize distraction, and to give the greatest sense of privacypossible, in relatively crowded circumstances.
7.7 Exhibition area
The exhibition area may simply consist of large-size noticeboards on which posters,charts, etc, can be displayed from time to time. If space permits, display cabinets andstands can also be provided.
7.8 Photoijaph collection
If a collection of colour transparencies or photographs has been assembled, theseshould be controlled by the librarian, and facilities for viewing sheets of slides andselecting photographs suitable for teaching purposes should be provided in the referencearea of the library. A proper system for recording loans of such material must be main-tained by the librarian.
7.9 Lighting and ventilation
A high intensity of lighting is required within a library. Good ventilation isalso of great importance. Where humidity is high, a number of dehumidifiers appropriateto the volume of space should be located in the stack and reference areas to reduce humid-ity to an acceptable level at which there is no danger of the growth of mould on books.
Wet and dry bulb thermometers, or a recording thermo-hydrograph, are desirable tomonitor humidity, if dehumidifiers are used. They can also be used to determine themost economical settings of the equipment.
7.10 Seating
Library chairs should have padded seats and wooden arms. The floor should becovered with a material which will reduce noise, such as thermoplastic tiles. Also, thelegs of the chairs should be fitted with smooth studs to limit noise from chairs beingmoved by readers.
8. OFFICES FOR TEACHING STAFF
8.1 Principal
An office for the principal or director should be in the region of 20m2, to provideadequate space for his own requirements and for meetings with staff and groups of visitors.For these meetings, a table is required of about 2m long by 70cm wide. This can adjointhe main desk to form a T-shaped discussion area, or can be set back against a wall whennot in use. A felt-covered noticeboard and a small, good quality chalkboard are useful
- 47 -
7.4 Stora52 of large flat items
Flat mapchests, or preferably, hanging map chests, should be provided to store the large flat items mentioned above and to allow easy location and retrieval. These may have to be locked and under the control of the library staff to meet security requirement s in Bome areas.
7.5 Workroom
Where space permits, a small workroom for the labelling and repair of books is desirable. It keeps the issue and retrieval area of the library free from waste materials, and enables the staff to carry out the work without disturbance to the users of the library.
7.6 Study area
If the library is to be used as a study area for students, either a large extension beyond the stack area or a separate room adjoining it should be provided. Reading desks in this area should be arranged parhaps in a crucifcrm pattern with partitions between adjoining readers to minimize distraction, and to give the greatest sense of privacy possible, in relatively crowded circumstances .
7. 7 Exhibition area
The exhibition area may simply consist of large-size noticeboards on which posters; charts, etc. oan be displ~ed from time to time. If space permits , display cabinets and stands can also be provided.
7.8 Photograph collection
If a collection of colour transparencies or photographs has been assembled , these should be controlled by the librarian, and facilities for viewing sheets of slides and selecting photographs suitable for teaching purposes should be provided in the reference area of the library. A proper system for recording loans of such material must be maintained by the librarian.
7.9 Lighting and ventilation
A high intensity of lighting is required within a library. Good ventilation is also of great importance. Where humidity is high, a number of dehumidifiers appropriate to the volume of space should be located in the stack and reference areas to reduce humidi ty to an acoeptable level at which there is no danger of the growth of mould on books.
Wet and dry bulb thermometers, or a recording thermo-hydrograph, are desirable to monitor humidity, if dehumidifiers are used. They can also be used to determine the most economical settings of the equipment.
7.10 Seating
Library chairs should have padded seats and wooden arms. The floor should be covered with a material which will reduce noise, such as thermoplastic tiles. Also, the lege of the chairs should be fitted with smooth studs to limit noise from chairs being moved by readers.
8. OFFICES FOR TEACHING STAFF
8.1 Principal
An office for the principal or director should be in the region of 20m2 , to provide adequate space for his own requirements and for meetings with staff and groups of visitors. For these meetinge, a table is required of about 2m long by 70cm wide. This can adjoin the main desk to form a T-shaped discussion area, or can be set back against a wall when not in use. A felt-covered noticeboard and a small, good quality chalkboard are useful
- 48 -
pieces of equipment which can be installed. A safe should also be installed to providesecurity for cash and for confidential documents such as examination question papers.
Adequate window space is needed, but not so much as to detract from the privacy ofthe room. Good overhead lighting and a flexible desk lamp are desirable. A desk-topfan may be required to ensure air circulation during meetings. A signal lit, locatedoutside the door and operated from a switch at the desk, is useful to indicate periodswhen the occupant does not wish to be disturbed. Two or three electrical sockets forthe use of portable electric equipment should be provided.
8.2 Instructors
Senior instructors, such as the vice-principal or assistant director and heads ofsections, may also require individual ()Toes, in order that they may interview staff orstudents in private. An area of 15-20m will be adequate, but if two senior members ofthe staff agree to share an office, it should be not less than 20m2.
In the case of junior instructors, they can normally share offices of 20-25m2 withoutmuch inconvenience. A reasonably full teaching schedule will ensure that the number oftimes the two instructors are in the office together is limited. If there are a numberof field assistants and space is limited, three or four can be expected to share an officeof about 20m2, as their main duties are in the field.
In all cases, a felt-covered noticeboard and a chalkboard are desirable. Adequatenatural and artificial lighting is necessary and at least 2 electrical sockets to serveeach desk in the room. These should be so located as to avoid trailing wires on thefloor, which can be particularly dangprous in a room with multiple occupation. Storagespace is also essential for teaching aids and the desks which are supplied should haveadequate drawer space. At least one drawer should be lockable, for safeguarding con-fidential papers.
9. OFFICES FOR ADMINISTRATIVE STAFF
9.1 General principles
As far as practicable, the administrative staff should be strictly limited, other-wise there is a tendency for this type of staff to proliferate, which frequently makesadministration more cumbersome rather than more efficient. For small institutions, onecompetent clerk, with a typist/clerical assistant and a messenger has been found to beperfectly adequate. For larger organizations, a greater sub-division of tasks and aconsequent increase in staffing may be necessary.
9.2 Layout
In general, an open-plan layout, with perhaps glass-walled cubicles for certain staffmembers, permits good supervision and a smooth flow of paper work. The senior member ofthe administrative staff, who may also perform the functions of an accountant, may belocated in a glass-walled booth of about 12m in one corner of the administrative office.Desks or tables should be provided nearby for a filing clerk, and a financial clerk, ifthe volume of financial work justifies this assistance. Initially, the financial clerkmay be able to maintain the stores and equipment records, in addition to his normalduties. Later, the record-keeping may have to be undertaken by the storekeeper. In
large institutions, a clerk dealing with personnel and students' records may also benecessary, but this work can often be handled by the filing clerk. A messenger/traineeclerk can often handle many miscellaneous tasks and look after the reproduction equipment.A space allocation of about 5m2 per person should be adequate.
Desks in this office should be located sufficiently near each other to allow goodoral communication and the easy transfer of files and documents. At the same time, itis important to allow sufficient space for low book racks or cupboards in which eachemployee can store the records or materials relevant to his or her task.
One or more noticeboards should be provided on which staff leave rosters, financialcharts and general notices can be displayed.
- 48 -
pieces of equipment which can be installed. A safe should also be installed to provide seouri ty for cash and for confidential documents such as examination question papers.
Adequate window space is needed, but not so much as to detract from the privacy of the room. Good overhead lignting and a flexible desk lamp are desirable. A desk-top fan may be required to ensure air circulation during meetings. A eignal lignt, located outside the door and operated from a switch at the desk, is u seful to indicate periods when the occupant does not wi sh to be disturbed. Two or three electrical sockets for the use of portable electric equipment should be provided.
8.2 Instructors
Senior instructors, such as the vice-principal or assistant director and heads of sections, may al s o require individual of~ice s , in order that they may interview staff or students in private. An area of 15- 20m will be adequate, but if two senior members of the staff agree to share an office, it should be not less than 20m2•
In the case of junior instructors, they can normally share offices of 20-25m2 without much inconvenience. A reasonably full teaching schedule will ensure that the number of times the two instructors are in the office together is limited . If there are a number of field assistants and space is limited, three or four can be expected to share an office of about 20m2 , as their main duties are in the field.
In all cases, a felt-covered noticeboard and a chalkboard are desirable. Adequate natural and artificial lighting is necessary and at least 2 electrical sockets to serve each desk in the room. These should be so located as to avoid trailing wires on the floor, which can be particularly dangerous in a room with multiple occupation. Storage space is also essential for teaching aids and the desks which are supplied should have adequate drawer space. At least one drawer should be lockable, for safeguarding confidential papers.
9. OFFICES FOR ADMINISTRATIVE STAFF
9.1 General principles
As far as practicable, the administrative staff should be strictly limited, otherwise there is a tendency for this type of staff to proliferate, which frequently makes administration more cumbersome rather than more efficient. Fbr small institutions, one competent clerk, with a typist/clerical assistant and a messenger has been found to be perfectly adequate. For larger organizations, a greater sub-division of tasks and a consequent increase in staffing may be necessary.
9.2 Layout
In general, an open-plan layout, with perhaps glass-walled cubicles for certain staff members, permits good supervision and a smooth flow of paper work. The senior member of the ad.ministrative staff, who may also perfo~m the functions of an accountant, may be located i n a gl ass-walled booth of about 12m in one corner of the administrative office. Desks or tables should be provided nearby for a filing clerk, and a financial clerk, if the vol ume of financial work justifies this assistance. Initially, the financial clerk may be able to maintain the stores and equipment records, in addition to his normal duties. Later, the record-keeping may have to be undertaken by the storekeeper. In large institutions , a clerk dealing Hith personnel and students' records may also be necessary, but thi s work can often be handled by the filing clerk. A messenger/trainee clerk can often handle many miscellaneous tasks and look after the reproduction equipment. A space allocation of about 5m2 per person should be adequate.
Desks in this office should be located sufficiently near each other to allow good oral communication and the easy transfer of files and documents. At the same time, it is important to allow sufficient space for low book racks or cupboards in which each employee can store the records or materi als relevant to his or her task.
One or more noticeboaris should be provided on whi ch staff leave rosters, financial charts and general notice s can be di splayed.
49
9.3 Ty2ing and reproduction facilities
If at all possible, there should be a separate typist's office. In small institu-tions, there will normally be only one typist who will also act as the receptionist andtelephone operator. Where the volume of work justifies two typists, the senior typistcan be entrusted with all important correspondence, including typing examination materialunder secure conditions. This will leave the junior typist to handle the routine typing,enquiries and telephone calls. Their room should have a small public area with a lowcounter. A wood and obscure glass screen can be used to cut off a section of the office,to allow the senior typist to work with some degree of privacy. There should also be adoor providing direct communication to the administrative office. A space allocation of12-15m2 should be adequate.
In smaller institutions, space should be made available in the typist's office foreither or both Photocopying and duplicating machines, though these may be operated by anoffice messenger, or trainee clerk.
There should be adequate lighting and natural ventilation, and sufficient electricalsockets to allow a variety of office machines to be located and used conveniently in thisroom. Depending upon the complexity of the organization, an office varying from 12 to30m2 may be needed.
9.4 Print room
In larger institutions, it may be desirable to establish a separate print room. Thiscould house an offset printer with associated plate-making equipment; ink and spirit dupli-cators; photocopiers and overhead projector transparency makers; collators and binders.Such a room should also provide desk space for the technician in charge, and storage spacefor stocks of materials and chemicals, and for print orders before distribution.
10. WORKSHOPS
10.1 9ategnries of workshop
Workshops can be divided into 3 categories: workshops used for instructional purposesin the training programme; those used for general maintenance of buildings and facilities;and those for vehicles. Though for convenience they may be located close, or evenadjacent, to each other, they should be quite separate, to avoid friction between instruc-tors and maintenance staff over borrowing of tools and equipment.
10.2 Students' workshop
A students' workshop should normally be located some distance from the main teachingblock, preferably in a special "utilization" area, to avoid noise disrupting other classes.It should have all the necessary facilities to provide the practical skills required incourses such as Forest Utilization and Engineering. It should also provide "hobby" faci-lities for students interested in wood or metalwork. These may be made available afternormal hours, or at weekends, to encourage an interest in woodwork, or in servicing smallitems of mechanical equipment, by selected groups of keen students. A reasonable numberof grindstones should be available for sharpening axes and common cutting tools. It isoften most convenient to locate these outside the main workshop, in a roofed area, with aconcrete floor and open or wiremesh walls. A simple water suRply is necessary for wet-ting stones when in use. An overall space allocation of 6-8pla per student place may berequired.
The workshop should have as wide a span as a reasonably simple roof truss can cover,and as long as necessary for the size of class, and range of work, envisaged. It shouldprovide a number of cupboards and shelves around the walls for storing tools. Spaceshould be available for a number of wooden, general purpose work benches, standing somedistance from the walls, so that they are accessible to students from both sides. Thesemay be used mainly for manufacturing and fitting tool handles, and for hobby activities.There should be a large, unobstructed area in the centre for erecting filing vices, iflarge handsaws are still in use. When these are replaced by motor-saws, a number of
- 49 -
9.3 Typing and reproduction facilities
If at all possible, there should be a separate typist's office. In small institutions, there will normally be only one typist who "ill also act as the receptionist and telephone operator. Where the volume of work justifies two typists, the senior typist can be entrusted with all important correspondence, including typing examination material under secure conditions. This will leave the junior typist to handle the routine typing, enquiries and telephone calls. Their room should have a small public area with a low counter. A wood and obscure glass screen can be used to cut off a section of the office, to allow the senior typist to work with some degree of privaoy. There should also be a door Providing direct communication to the administrative office. A space allocation of 12-15m2 should be adequate.
In smaller institutions, space should be made available in the typist's office for either or both photocopying and duplicating machines, though these may be operated by an office messenger, or trainee clerk.
There should be adequate lighting and natural ventilation, and sufficient electrical sockets to allow a variety of office machines to be located and used conveniently in this room. Depending upon the complexity of the organization, an office varying from 12 to 30m2 may be needed.
9.4 Print room
In larger institutions, it may be desirable to establish a separate print room. This could house an offset printer with associated plate-making equipment; ink and spirit duplicators; photocopiers and overhead projector transparency makers; collators and binders. Such a room should also provide desk space for the technician in charge, and storage space for stocks of materials and chemicals, and for print orders before distribution.
1 O. WORKSHOPS
10.1 categories of workshop
Workshops can be divided into 3 categories: works hops used for instructional purposes in the training programme; those used for general maintenance of buildings and facilities; and those for vehicles. Though for convenience they may be located close, or even adjacent, to each other, they should be quite separate, to avoid friction between instructors and maintenance staff over borrowing of tools and equipment.
10.2 Students' workshop
A students' workshop should normally be located Borne distance from the main teaching block, preferably in a special "utilization" area, to avoid noise disrupting other classes. It should have all the necessary fac ilities to provide the practical skills required in courses such as Forest Utilization and Engineering. It shoul d also provide t'hobby" faci-lities for students interested in wood or metalwork. These may be made available after normal hours, or at weekends, to encourage an interest in woodwork, or in serviCing small items of mechanical equipment, by selected groups of keen students. A reasonable number of grindstones should be available for sharpening axes and common cutting tool s . It i s often most convenient to locate these out s ide the main workshop, in a roofed area, with a concrete floor and open or wiremesh walls. A simple \o/ater su~plY is necessary for wetting stones when in use. An overall space allocation of 6-8m per student place may be required.
The workshop should have as wide a span as a reasonably simple roof truss can cover, and as long as necessary for the size of class, and range of work, envisaged. It should provide a number of cupboards and shelves around the walls for storing tools. Space should be available for a number of wooden, general purpose work benches, standing some distance from the walls, so that they are accessible to student s from both sides. These may be used mainly for manufacturing and fitting tool handles, and for hobby activities. There should be a large, unobstructed area in the centre for erecting filing vices, if large handsaws are still in use. vfuen the se are replaced by motor-saws, a number of
50
wooden or preferably metal benches, fitted with a vice and other facilities for maintain-ing chains and small motors, should occupy this space. Storage facilities are desirableunderneath the benches for tools and parts.
A semicircular demonstration bench, of normal table heignt, should be located at oneend of the workshop, for demonstrations by the instructors. The bench should be fittedwith drawers or cupboards for all the common tools or spares the instructor is likely torequire. A chalkboard should be located behind this demonstration bench, and round thewalls boards should be available for displaying diagrams or working instructions.
In view of the large covered area required and the need for wall space for shelves,windows may have to be located in the upper levels of the walls, thus making the worklargely dependent on hin intensity artificial lighting. The type of fitments for thefluorescent tubes should permit easy cleaning in order to avoid dust and cobwebs accumu-lating round the lights, which is dangerous.
During construction, facilities should be provided for 3phase power at suitablevoltages for both machines and hand tools. In some cases, power outlets or transformersfor low voltage portable hand tools may also be provided. Where there are differentvoltages available, the plugs should be distinctive, so that it is not possible to connecttools or equipment to the wrong voltage supply point.
10.3 Maintenance staff workshops
A workshop for maintenance staff should provide facilities for simple wood and metal-work, for repairing or making items for teaching purposes, and for carrying out routinemaintenance of buildings. Space for a small bandsaw, a universal woodworking machineand a stand drill are desirable. Shielded areas should be provided for gas or electricwelding, or for grinding tools likely to emit sparks. Facilities for bending and shear-ing metal may be required and for battery charging. These should be located in an areaisolated from any activity emitting sparks.
Adequate bench space against walls, with cupboards below and tool racks above, is
required. At least one freestanding bench in the centre of the room is desirable.
10.4 Vehicle maintenance workshops
The extent of the facilities which it is prudent to provide in a vehicle maintenanceworkshop depends upon the accessibility and reliability of the maintenance servicesavailable in commercial workshops nearby. At least a simple workshop with facilitiesfor routine maintenance and repairs should be considered. The building should provideworking spaces for 2-3 vehicles, one or more of them with an inspection pit.
A comprehensive kit of vehicle workshop tools, properly arranged in a secure storagecabinet, is a valuable asset. Basic requirements are one or more hydraulic jacks, someaxle stands, low trolleys on castors to enable mechanics to slide under vehicles and asmall compressor for operating an oil spray and a tyre pump. A reasonable stock of tyresand tubes, lubricants and brake fluid, oil and air filters and other commonly used sparesis advisable. A working bench with a vice and a small enclosed office area for stockcontrol and vehicle maintenance records are necessary. If the institution is in a remotearea, more elaborate equipment, including an overhead beam and pulley for removing heavycomponents, should be provided.
11. TOOL STORES
There are two approaches to the storage and use of tools at a forestry school. Thefirst approach is to supply each student with a complete set of working tools, at the com-mencement of training, and to make the student responsible for their care during the course.If this approach is adopted, it is highly desirable to provide each student with a woodencupboard or box. Hooks or racks can be fixed inside, on which the tools can be placed.This system, however, does not give the student any experience of the daily problems ofissue, retrieval and maintenance of tools when they are in multiple use. The secondapproach covers this adequately as tools are issued for each operation. In this case, it
- 50 -
wooden or preferably metal benches, fitted with a vice and other facilities for maintaining chains and small motors, should occupy this space. Storage facilities are desirable underneath the benches for tools and parts.
A semi-circular demonstration bench, of normal table height, should be located at one end of the workshop, for demonstrations by the instructors. The bench should be fitted with drawers or oupboards for all the common tools or spares the instructor is likely to require. A chalkboard should be located behind this demonstration bench, and round the walls boards should be available for displaying diagrams or working instructions.
In view of the large covered area required and the need for wall space for shelves, windows may have to be located in the upper levels of the walls, thus making the work largely dependent on high intensity artificial lighting. The type of fitments for the fluorescent tubes should permit easy cleaning in order to avoid dust and cobwebs accumulating round the lights, which is dangerous.
During construction, facilities should be provided for 3-phase power at suitable voltages for both machines and hand tools. In some cases, power outlets or transformers for low voltage portable hand tools may also be provided. Where there are different voltages available, the plugs should be distinctive, so that it is not possible to connect tools or equipment to the wrong voltage supply point.
10.3 )~intenance staff workshops
A workshop for maintenance staff should provide facilities for simple wood and metalwork, for repairing or making items for teaching purposes, and for carrying out routine maintenance of buildings. Space for a small band-saw, a universal wood-working machine and a stand drill are desirable. Shielded areas should be provided for gas or electric welding, or for grinding tools likely to emit sparks. Facilities for bending and shearing metal may be required and for battery charging. These should be located in an area isolated from any activity emitting sparks.
Adequate bench space against walls, with cupboards below and tool racks above, is required. At least one free-standing bench in the centre of 'the room is desirable.
10.4 Vehicle maintenance workshops
The extent of the facilities which it is prudent to provide in a vehicle maintenance workshop depends upon the accessibility and reliability of the maintenance services available in commercial workshops nearby. At least a simple workshop with facilities for routine maintenance and repairs should be considered. The building should provide working spaces for 2-3 vehicles, one or more of them with an inspection pit.
A comprehensive kit of vehicle workshop tools, properly arranged in a secure storage cabinet, is a valuable asset. Basic requirements are one or more hydraulic jacks, some axle stands, low trolleys on castors to enable mechanics to slide under vehicles and a small compressor for operating an oil spray and a tyre pump. A reasonable stock of tyres and tubes, lubricants and brake fluid, oil and air filters and other commonly used spares is advisable. A working bench with a vice and a small enclosed office area for stock control and vehicle maintenance records are necessary. If the institution is in a remote area, more elaborate equipment, including an overhead beam and pulley for removing heavy components, should be provided.
11. TOOL STORES
There are two approaches to the storage and use of tools at a forestry school. The first approach is to supply each student with a complete set of working tools, at the commencement of training, and to make the student responsible for their care during the course. If this approach is adopted, it is highly desirable to provide each student with a wooden cupboard or box. Hooks or racks can be fixed inside, on which the tools can be placed. This system, however, does not give the student any expe~ience of the daily problems of issue, retrieval and maintenance of tools when they are in multiple use. The second approach covers this adequately as tools are issued for each operation. In this case, it
- 51 -
is usual for the forestry school to have a common stock of tools which can be issued asrequired. The size of the store will depend upon the method of storage selected and therange of tools and equipment which have to be held in stock.
11.1 Layout and furnishing
A tool store should have a large counter, about 1m high, behind which 2 or 3 personscan work easily. The counter should be situated some distance from the inside of thedoor, so that issues and retrievals of tools can be carried out protected from the weather.A series of racks or frames running out from the walls and capable of taking a large numberof similar items, are usually erected. Racks at floor level, on which axes and similarcutting tools can be stored, are also necessary. A set of free-standing shelves, access-ible from all sides, should be available to store minor items. In spite of the desire toeconomize in space, all items should be stored at a height which can be reached by a normaladult. The use of blocks or steps to reach items on higher shelves or racks hinders thesmooth issue of tools, which is essential when a large working group has to be suppliedwithin a short space of time.
Where possible, tools should be identified by numbers, which can be stamped on tometal or wooden parts, or painted on. If students are allocated individual numbers on anattendance roll, it should be possible to give a student the same tool on each exercise.Some of the advantages of individual issues are thereby gained, plus experience of theproblems encountered with the general storage of tools. It may also enable responsibilityfor lost tools to be attributed to a particular person. For small tools, pegboards withshadow outlines of the appropriate items allows quick verification that all items have beenreturned.
11.2 Maintenance facilities
A tool store should either have maintenance facilities for common handtools, or easyaccess to the students' workshop where this work can be carried out. The storekeepershould check all tools as they are returned, before they are placed back into their stor-age place. He should be made responsible for any maintenance or repair work which isfound necessary and cannot be fitted into the students' training programme.
DARKROOM
In most institutions, a small darkroom is of value to encourage staff and studentsto process films, or prepare prints and enlargements for use in teaching or study reports.The range of equipment can vary from a small "starter set" for keen amateurs up to elabo-rate enlarging and copying facilities, if the cost can be justified by the use likely tobe made of these facilities.
In the case of a modestly equipped darkroom, the facilities may be made available tostudents, under reasonable supervision, as knowledge and skills in photography may be anasset to them later in their careers. In more elaborately equipped darkrooms, studentuse should only be allowed under the guidance of a trained technician, in order to safe-guard the equipment. If space permits, the darkroom can be attached to the library andcome under the supervision of the librarian.
SPORTS FACILITIES
A small residential institution in a developing country can seldom justify the pro-vision of a sports pavilion. Dormitories and shower facilities are generally locatedsufficiently close to sports fields to be used conveniently by players. Limited storagefacilities for balls and other equipment may be needed, but these can often be combinedwith a general recreation room for the students, or in storerooms attached to the dormi-tories.
Sports facilities generally follow the wishes of the students. One football pitchis usually considered essential, and is normally adequate; it is a relatively inexpensivefacility to maintain. Volley-ball and basket-ball courts occupy limited areas, are cheap
- 51 -
is usual for the forestry school to have a common stock of tools which can be issued as required. The s ize of the store will depend upon the methoJ. of storage selected and the range of tools and equipment Hhich have to be held in stock.
11.1 Layout and furnishing
A tool store should have a large counter, about 1m high, behind which 2 or 3 persons can work easily. The counter should be s ituated some distance from the inside of the door, so that issues and retrievals of tools can be carried out protected from the weather. A series of racks or frames running out from the walls and capable of taking a large number of similar items, are usually erected. Racks at floor level, on which axes and s imilar cutting tools can be stored, are also necessary. A set of free-standing shelves, accessible from all Sides, should be available to store minor items. In spite of the desire to economize in space, all items should be stored at a height which can be reached by a normal adult. The use of blocks or steps to reach items on higher shelves or racks hinders the smooth issue of tools, which is essential when a large working group has to be supplied within a short space of time.
Where possible, tools should be identified by numbers, which can be stamped on to metal or wooden parts, or painted on. If students are allocated individual numbers on an attendance roll, it should be possible to give a student the same tool on each exercise. Some of the advantages of individual issues are thereby gained, plus experience of the problems encountered with the general storage of tools. It may also enable responsibility for lost tools to be attributed to a particular person. For small tools, pegboards with shadow outlines of the appropriate items allows quick verification that all items have been returned.
11.2 Maintenance facilities
A tool store should either have maintenance facilities for common handtools, or easy access to the students' workshop where this work can be carried out. The storekeeper should check all tools as they are returned, before they are placed back into their etorage place. He should be made responsible for any maintenance or repair work which is found necessary and cannot be fitted into the students' training programme.
12. DARKROOM
In most institutions, a small darkroom is of value to encourage staff and students to process films, or prepare prints and enlargements for use in teaching or study reports. The range of equipment can vary from a small "starter set " for keen amateurs up to elaborate enlarging and copying facilities, if the cost can be justified by the use likely to be made of these facilities.
In the case of a modestly equipped darkroom, the facilities may be made available to students, under reasonable superviSion, as knowledge and skills in photography may be an asset to them later in their careers. In more elaborately equipped darkrooms, student use should only be allowed under the guidance of a trained technician, in order to safeguard the equipment. If space permits, the darkroom can be attached to the library and come under the supervision of the librarian.
13. SPORTS FACILITIES
A small res idential institution in a developing country can seldom justify the provision of a sports pavilion. Dormitories and shower facilities are generally located sufficiently close to sports fields to be used conveniently by players. Limited storage facilities for balls and other equipment may be needed, but these can often be combined with a general recreation room for the students, or in storerooms attached to the dormitories.
Sports facilities generally follow the Hishes of the students. One football pitch is usually considered essential, and is normally adequate; it is a relatively inexpensive facility to maintain. Volley-ball and basket -ball courts occupy limited areas, are cheap
52
to establish and maintain, and can provide periods of very energetic exercise for reason-able numbers of students. For short periods of exercise after classes, they may be moreused than a football field, and where the need justifies the provision of 2 or more ofthese courts, this should be arranged.
Tennis can provide good relaxation, but at a somewhat higher cost, for a more limitednumber of participants. The investment in posts and nets, wire mesh fencing for thecourts, and the general maintenance of the surface is relatively high, as are the costs ofracquets and balls. The provision of these facilities will depend upon the level ofinterest in the game in the particular area.
Hockey and cricket pitches are normally only justified in largpr institutions, inareas where there is a particular popularity of these games. The relatively high cost ofthe equipment must be balanced against the probable interest in these sports.
Athletics facilities, particularly if they can be combined with the layout of afootball field, are desirable. Running tracks and jumping pits are generally most usefuland are not unduly expensive to maintain.
14. DORMITORIES
14.1 Arrangement of accommodation
Where possible, dormitories should provide room for 2 students. Single rooms areunduly expensive and may be made very cramped to achieve economy. Rooms for 4 studentsfrequently involve the use of 2tier beds and create an institutional, rather than adomestic atmosphere. An allocation of about 6m2 per person is desirable. A block of10 to 20 rooms arranged backtoback in pairs, each facing out onto a Covered verandah,with toilet and washroom facilities at either end, provide a reasonably convenient arrange-ment in warm areas. Alternatively, pairs of rooms on either side of a central corridorare useful in areas of high rainfall or low temperatures. In large institutions, thereis a case for building 2 or 3storey blocks, unless there are special site or amenityfactors in favour of scattered 1storey buildings.
14.2 Furnishings
Rooms should be furnished with beds, desks or work tables, chairs and simple book-cases. Space is required for a large cupboard for hanging and storing clothes for eachstudent. Part of the cupboard should be shelved for storing clothes and space providedfor shoes. A small noticeboard for pinning reminders or photographs avoids damage to thewall surfaces. Floors should be easily cleaned. Heavy duty thermoplastic tiles through-out the block, except in the toilet/washroom area, are comfortable and reasonably durable.They create a much pleasanter atmosphere in the rooms than bare concrete.
14.3 Sanitary facilities
Washbasins, showers and toilets should be provided on a scale of 1 to 8 students, ifpossible, and 1 to 12 at a maximum. If these facilities are located at both ends of aresidential block, it enables the accommodation to be split between male and female stu-dents with a greater degree of flexibility. Near the toilet facilities, an area forwashing and ironing clothes is useful. There may also be facilities for making hotdrinks in the late evening. If these facilities are not provided, students are liable toimprovise them in their own rooms, creating a fire hazard and possibly overloading theelectrical system.
14.4 Storage facilities
A dormitory block should provide at least one store room in which students can keepempty suitcases and trunks during termtime, to reduce congeation in their rooms. Asmall closet for storing brushPs ani cleaning materials is necessary, as is one or moredustbins for the disposal of litter. Space may also be provided for storing sports equip-ment.
- 52 -
to establish and maintain, and can provide periods of very energetic exercise for reasonable numbers of students. For short periods of exercise after classes, they may be more used than a football field, and where the need justifies the provision of 2 or more of these courts, this should be arranged.
Tennis can provide good relaxation, but at a somewhat higher cost t for a more limited number of participants. The investment in posts and nets, wire mesh fencing for the courts, and the general maintenance of' the surface is relatively high, as are the costs of racquets and balls. The provision of these facilities will depend upon the level of interest in the game in the particular area.
Hockey and cricket pitches are normally only justified in larger institutions, in areas where there is a particular popularity of these games. The relatively high cost of the equipment must be balanced against the probable interest in these sports.
Athletics facilities, particularly if they can be combined with the layout of a football field, are desirable. Running tracks and jumping pits are generally most useful and are not unduly expensive to maintain.
14. DORMrrORIES
14.1 Arrangement of accommodation
Where possible, dormitories should provide room for 2 students. Single rooms are unduly expensive and may be made very cramped to achieve economy. Rooms for 4 students frequently involve the use of 2-tier beds and create an institutional, rather than a domestic atmosphere. An allocation of about 6m2 per person is desirable. A block of 10 to 20 rooms arranged back-to-baok in pairs, each facing out onto a covered verandah, with toilet and washroom facilities at either end, provide a reasonably convenient arrangement in warm areas. Alternatively, pairs of rooms on either side of a central corridor are useful in areas of high rainfall or low temperatures. In large institutions, there is a oase for building 2- or 3-storey blocks, unless there ,are special site or amenity factors in favour of scattered 1-storey buildings.
14.2 Furnishings
Rooms should be furnished with beds, desks or work tables, chairs and simple bookcases. Space is required for a l arge cupboard for hanging and storing clothes for each student. Part of the cupboard should be shelved for storing clothes and space provided for shoes. A small noticeboard for pinning reminders or photographs avoids damage to the wall surfaces. Floors should be easily cleaned. Heavy duty thermoplastic tiles throughout the block, except in the tOilet/Hashroom area, are comfortable and reasonably durable. They create a much pleasanter atmosphere in the rooms than bare concrete.
14.3 Sanitary facilities
Washbasins, showers and toilets should be provided on a scale of 1 to 8 students, if possible, and 1 to 12 at a maximum. If these facilities are located at both ends of a residential block, it enables the accommodation to be split between male and female students with a greater degree of flexibility. Near the toilet facilities, an area for washing and ironing clothes is useful. There may also be facilities for making hot drinks in the late evening. If these facilities are not provided, students are liable to improvise them in their own rooms, creating a fire hazard and possibly overloading the electrical system.
14.4 Storage facilities
A dormitory block should provide at least one store room in which students can keep empty suitcases and trunks during term-time, to reduce conge ~;tion in their rooms. A small closet for iJtoring brushps 2nd cleaning materials is nece:.isary, as is one or more dustoins for the disposal of litter. Space may also be provided for storing sports equijr ment.
- 53 -
14.5 Lighting
Dormitories should be provided with good artificial lighting for the study tables andeither bedlamps or suitable electrical sockets for lamps. At least one plug for a radio,or other small electrical appliance, should be provided in each room.
14.6 Safety
Dormitories should be provided with large foam-type fire extinguishers in accessibleplaces. Central corridors and staircases should be sufficiently wide to allow quickevacuation of the residents in emergencies. In particular, corridors should be kept clearof boots and shoes, or other obstructions, which might cause people to trip and delayevacuation. In multi-storey buildings, 2 separate staircases should be provided in spiteof the additional cost involved.
15. CATERING FACILITIES
15.1 General arrangements
A students' dining hall or cafeteria should ideally provide space for a small sitting-room in which students can assemble before meals. The room should provide a number ofeasy chairs or settees, and small tables for magazines or indoor games. Where available,a television set, or radio, may be located in this area. The recreation area may beseparated from the main dining area by an open metal grille, or an ornamental screen,which can be folded back to increase the dining area on special occasions. The assemblyof students in such an area before a meal is served is a much more refined procedure thanqueueing outside a dining hall. It is therefore valuable in training students in accept-able social behaviour. The space may also be used for quiet recreation after meals.
15.2 Dining hall
The main dining hall should provide tables for 8 to 10 students, to encourage them tomix and socialize in reasonable numbers. For economy and good hygiene, tables with plas-tic tops are most desirable. The floor should be of an easily cleaned material such asthermoplastic, or decorative ceramic tiles. Walls should be treated with washable paintand kept clean at all times. Curtains on the windows create a more relaxed domesticatmosphere in the room. Water coolers should be provided in warm climates.
15.3 Serving arrangements
A serving counter should be provided at one end, or along one side, of the dininghall and arranged so that students can collect their meals as quickly as possible. If
this is not taken into account in the planning stage, the hall will acquire an undesirableinstitutional atmosphere and those at the end of the queue are likely to have cold food.In some cases, adequate table space behind the counter is necessary for laying out com-partmented plastic or metal trays which also serve as dishes, for pre-serving meals. If
this procedure is not followed, sufficient space must be allowed at the serving counterfor helpers to dispense 3 or 4 items of the meal onto the plates, as the students movealong.
15.4 Food preparation areas
The cooking and food preparation areas should be screened from the serving area by apartial wall, which will allow reasonable access between the two, but cut off the dininghall from the noise and activity of the kitchen. A largp scullery should be located nearthe serving counter to avoid transporting utensils with left-over food through the kitchen.Access to this may be by a hatch at one side of the serving counter. The scullery re-quires large sinks and a plentiful supply of hot water for washing dishes. It alsorequires adequate plate racks so that dishes or trays can dry in the air and not requiredrying by cloths. The cookers and other items of equipment used for the final preparationof the food should be in an area giving easy access to the serving counter and be suppliedwith adequate facilities for washing food and utensils. The preliminary preparation offood, such as peeling and cleaning raw vegetables, should be isolated from the final foodpreparation area.
o
- 53 -
14.5 Lighting
Dormitories should be provided with good artificial lighting for the study tables and either bedlamps or suitable electrical sockets for lamps. At least one plug for a radio, or other small electrical appliance, should be provided in each room.
14.6 Safety
Dormitories should be provided with large foam-type fire extinguishers in accessible places. Central corridors and stairoases should be sufficiently wide to allow quick evacuation or the residents in emergencies. In particular, corridors should be kept clear of boots and shoes, or other obstructions, which might cause people to trip and delay evacuation. In multi-storey bUildings, 2 separate staircases should be provided in spite of the additional cost involved.
15. CATERING FACILITIES
15.1 General arrangements
A students' dining hall or cafeteria should ideally provide space for a small s ittingroom in whioh students can assemble before meals. The room should provide a number of easy chairs or settees, and small tables for magazines or indoor games. Where available, a television set, or radio, may be located in this area. The recreation area may be separated from the main dining area by an open metal grille, or an ornamental screen, which can be folded back to increase the dining area on special occasions. The assembly of students in such an area before a meal is served is a much more refined procedure than queueing outside a dining hall. It is therefore valuable in training students in acceptable social behaviour. The space may also be used for quiet recreation after meals •
. 15.2 Dining hall
The main dining hall should provide tables for 8 to 10 students, to encourage them to mix and socialize in reasonable numbers. For economy and good hygiene, tables with plastic tops are most desirable. The floor should be of an easily cleaned material s uch as thermoplastic, or decorative ceramic tiles. Walls should be treated with washable paint and kept clean at all times. Curtains on the windows create a more relaxed domestic atmosphere in the room. water coolers should be provided in warm climates.
15.3 Serving arrangements
A serving counter should be provided at one end, or along one side, of the dining hall and arranged so that students can collect their meals as quickly as possible. If this is not taken into account in the planning stage, the hall will acquire an undesirable institutional atmosphere and those at the end of the queue are likely to have cold food. In some cases, adequate table space behipd the counter is necessary for laying out compartmented plastic or metal trays which also serve as dishes, for pre-serving meals. If this procedure is not followed, sufficient space must be allowed at the serving counter for helpers to dispense 3 or 4 items of the meal onto the plates, as the students move along.
15.4 Food preparation areas
The cooking and food preparation areas should be screened from the serving area by a partial wall, which will allow reasonable access between the two, but cut off the dining hall from the noise and activity of the kitchen. A large scullery should be located near the serving counter to avoid transporting utensil s with left-over food through the kitchen. Access to this may be by a hatch at one side of the serving counter. The scullery requires large sinks and a plentiful supply of hot water for washing dishes. It also requires adequate plate racks so that dishes or trays can dry in the air and not require drying by cloths. The cookers and other items of equipment used for the final preparation of the food should be in an area giving easy access to the serving counter and be supplied with adequate facilities for washing food and utensils. The preliminary preparation of food, such as peeling and cleaning raw vegetables, should be isolated from the final food preparation area.
15.5 Storage facilities
A walk-in cold room may permit meat, bread and certain other commodities to be pur-chased in bulk at intervals of a week or more, and so economize in cost and transport.In addition to this, one or more catering-tyTe refrigerators are required and, in hotclimates, water coolers. Stores for vegetables and dry goods should be located near theentrance to the kitchen area, to avoid carrying unprepared goods through the final foodpreparation area. The kitchen should be provided with toilets and washrooms for thestaff, and there should be facilities for them to change from normal clothing into suit-able working clothes, before they commence to handle food.
RECREATION HALL
In most schools, a recreation hall for more active pursuits, such as table tennis orbadminton, is desirable. This Should be a large hall with a roof free of obstructions.In many institutions, it may also have to serve as an assembly hall. In this case itshould have a stage and, if possible, small rooms or waiting areas on either side, witheasy access to the stage. If it has to serve both as a recreation and an assembly hall,adequate storage space will be required for stacking chairs, table tennis tables andother sports equipment, when not in use. If possible, a small separate room for storinga film projector, screen, stand and related equipment should be provided. In some cases,it may be possible to adapt it as a film projection room and instal a permanent screen inthe main hall.-
Toilet facilities of a standard suitable for guests should be incorporated into the
design.
QUARTERS FOR STAFF
17.1 General principles
Though the initial costs are high, and rents charged may not meet routine upkeepcosts, it is desirable that a high proportion of the teaching staff of a residentialinstitution should be housed on the campus. This ensures that they are more freelyavailable to participate in extra-curricular activities. Casual social contacts betweenstudents and staff sharing common facilities lead to better mutual understanding andgenerally, a higher standard of student conduct.
17.2 Grades of accommodation
There is a tendency to grade housing according to the status of the occupant,rather than his particular family needs, and this can cause problems. Therefore, thereshould be some flexibility in allocation, or overlap, between status and house size tomake the best use of the housing stock, and to meet particular domestic needs.
A number of three- or four-bedrpomed houses are normally required for family groups,and a certain number of two-bedroomed houses for more junior staff with younger families.Staff houses should normally provide a living room with a dining annex, as well as thecustomary kitchen and toilet and bathroom facilities. Where appropriate, the kitchenmust be designed to accommodate modern equipment such as an electric oven or refrigerator.It is beneficial to have a small study, preferably with direct access to the outside.This gives the occupant freedom to work without the distraction of other family activities.It also permits students or other staff members to pay a visit without disturbing thefamily.
Simple car-ports or garages are normally regarded as essential features in suchhouses. Whether or not accommodation for servants should be provided depends largelyupon the customs of the particular country, and on the possibilities of finding accommoda-tion for servants either in or near the campus.
54- 54 -
15.5 storage facilities
A walk-in cold room may permit meat, bread and certain other commodities to be purchased in bulk at intervals of a week or more, and so economize in cost and transport. In addition to this, one or more catering-type refrigerators are required and, in hot climates, water coolers. Stores for vegetables and dry goods should be located near the entrance to the kitchen area, to avoid carrying unprepared goods through the final food preparation area. The kitchen should be provided rlith toilets and washrooms for the staff, and there should be faoilities for them to change from normal clothing into suitable working clothes, before they commence to handle food.
16. RECREATION HALL
In most schools, a recreation hall for more active pursuits, such as table tennis or badminton, is desirable. This should be a large hall with a roof free of obstructions. In many institutions, it may also have to serve as an assembly hall. In this case it should have a stage and, if possible, small rooms or waiting areas on either side, with easy access to the stage. If it has to serve both as a recreation and an assembly hall, adequate storage space will be required for stacking chairs, table tennis tables and other sports equipment, when not in use. If possible, a small separate room for storing a film projector, screen, stand and related equipment should be provided. In Borne cases, it may be possible to adapt it as a film projection room and instal a permanent screen in the main hall.·
Toilet facilities of a standard suitable for guests should be incorporated into the design.
17. 'PARTERS FOR STAFF
17.1 General principles
Though the initial costs are high, and rents charged may not meet routine upkeep costs, it i s desirable that a high proportion of the teaching staff of a residential institution should be housed on the campus. This ensures that they are more freely available to participate in extra-curricular activities. casual social contacts between students and staff sharing common facilities lead to better mutual under8tanding and generally, a higher standard of student conduct.
17.2 Grades of accommodation
There is a tendency to grade housing according to the status of the occupant t rather than his particular family needs, and this can cause problems. Therefore, there should be some flexibility in allocation, or overlap, between status and house size to make the best use of the housing stock, and to meet particular domestic needs.
A number of three- or four-bedrqomed houses are normally required for family groups, and a certain number of two-bedroomed houses for more junior staff vii th younger families. Staff houses should normally provide a living room with a dining annex, as well as the customary kitchen and toilet and bathroom facilities. Where appropriate, the kitchen must be designed to accommodate modern equipment such as an electric oven or refrigerator. It is beneficial to have a small study, preferably with direct access to the outside. This gives the occupant freedom to work without the distraction of other family activities. It also permits students or other staff members to pay a visit without disturbing the family.
Simple oar-ports or garages are normally regarded as essential features in such houses. Whether or not accommodation for servants should be provided depends lar~ly upon the customs of the particular country, and on the possibilities of finding accommodation for servants either in or near the campus.
- 55 -
17.3 Location of quarters
Quarters for staff should, whenever possible, be located within walking distance ofthe occupants' main place of work. This avoids the distractions resulting from staffvehicles circulating and parking in the main teaching or administrative area. Generallyspeaking, the use of cars within the campus should be discouraged. It is customary, butnot essential, to locate houses for teaching staff in one area.
17.4 Quarters for non-teaching staff
The extent to which administrative, clerical and ancillary staff should be houseddepends upon the possibility of finding suitable accommodation for them within a reason-able distance of the school site. Certain persons who may be required to work unusualhours are normally housed within the school compound. These include medical personnel,storekeepers, cooks, drivers, and some maintenance workers.
17.5 Standards of housing
The standards of housing offered will normally be influenced by comparable housingstandards outside the school compound. A house should, however, have a useful life of30 to 50 years. Consequently, during the initial construction period, it is necessaryto anticipate future trends in housing improvements, at least for the next 10 years.This will result in a standard which is rather better than normal at the time, but it willprobably still be acceptable 20 years later. Subsequent refurbishings may then extend itsuseful life for another 20 years or more.
Unless there is a strong feeling locally for each house to have its own garden orcompound, the residential accommodation can be developed into an attractive open-plan lay-out, which is both practical and economical to maintain. Housing for junior grades isoften better located in compact groups, or rows, to reduce the cost of services such aswater, electricity and sewage.
17.6 Bachelors' accommodation and mess
Depending upon the size of the teaching and administrative staff, there may be acase for a certain number of small bachelor quarters linked to a common dining room/sitting room. A limited number of guest rooms can be incorporated into the layout.Small houses will be adequate, each consisting of a combined sitting room/study, one bed-room, a bathroom and toilet, and a small store. Facilities for preparing coffee orlit snacks may be provided, but main meals can be supplied, on payment, in the commondining room.
17.7 Furnishings
The extent to which furnishings, including cookers and refrigerators, are suppliedin staff quarters of the various grades, depends largely upon the normal arrangements forthe supply of these items to public servants within a particular country.
For more senior staff, there are often advantages in acquiring such items on apersonal basis as this may avoid a heavy outlay when retirement comes round. For juniorstaff, at least some assistance with furnishing and the provision of a cooker and refri-gerator may be necessary for them to achieve a reasonable standard of living on a modestsalary. A system of charging a reasonable rent for furniture and equipment supplied isoften the best arrangement. This leaves each person free to select and pay for what heconsiders to be his needs.
18. CLINIC/FIRST-AL) ROOM
Depending upon the size of the institution and the accessibility of proper medical
facilities, a clinic, or at least an adequately equipped first-aid room, is highly desir-able. In remote areas a well-stocked clinic, staffed by a trained nurse or para-medicalperson who can treat everyday complaints and issue drugs in common use, is definitedlyneeded. When the availability of proper medical centres nearby makes this unnecessary, at
- 55 -
17.3 Location of quarters
Quarters for staff should, whenever possible, be located within walking distance of the occupants' main place of work. This avoids the distractions resulting from staff vehicles Circulating and parking in the main teaching or administrative area. Generally speaking, the use of cars within the campus should be discouraged. It is customary, but not essential, to locate houses for teaching staff in one area.
17.4 Quarters for non-teaching staff
The extent to which administrative, clerical and ancillary staff should be housed depends upon the possibility of finding suitable acoommodation for them within a reasonable distance of the school site. Certain persons who may be required to work unusual hours are normally housed within the school compound. These include medical personnel, storekeepers, cooks, drivers, and Borne maintenance workers.
17.5 standards of housing
The standards of housing offered will normally be influenced by comparable housing standards outside the school compound. A house should; however, have a useful life of 30 to 50 years. Consequently, during the initial construction period, it is necessary to anticipate future trends in housing improvements, at least for the next 10 years. This will result in a standard which i s rather better than normal at the time, but it will probably still be acceptable 20 years later. Subsequent refurbishinge may then extend its useful life for another 20 years or more.
Unless there is a strong feeling locally for each house to have its own garden or oompound, the residential accommodation can be developed into an attractive open-plan layout, which is both practical and economical to maintain. Housing for junior grades is often better located in compact groups, or rows, to reduce the cost of services such as water, electricity and sewage.
17.6 Bachelors' accommodation and mess
Depending upon the size of the teaohing and administrative staff, there may be a case for a oertain number of small bachelor quarters linked to a common dining room/ sitting room. A limited number of guest rooms can be incorporated into the layout. Small houses will be adequate, each consisting of a combined sitting room/study, one bedroom, a bathroom and toilet, and a small store. Facilities for preparing coffee or light snacks may be provided, but main meals can be supplied, on payment, in the common dining room.
17.7 Furnishings
The extent to which furnishings, including cookers and refrigerators, are supplied in staff quarters of the various grades. depends largely upon the normal arrangements for the supply of these items to public servants within a particular country.
For more senior staff, there are often advantages in acquiring such items on a personal basis as this may avoid a heavy outlay when retirement comes round. For junior staff, at least some assistance with furnishing and the provision of a cooker and refrigerator may be necessary for them to achieve a reasonable standard of living on a modest salary. A system of charging a reasonable rent for furniture and equipment supplied is often the best arrangement. This leaves each person free to select and pay for what he considers to be his needs.
18. CLINIC/FIRST-AID ROOr~
Depending upon the size of the institution and the accessibility of proper medical facilities, a clinic, or at least an adequately equipped first-aid room, is highly desirable. In remote areas a well-stocked clinic, staffed by a trained nurse or para-medical person who can treat everyday complaints and issue drugs in common use , is definitedly needed. When the availability of proper medical centres nearby makes this unnecessary, at
- 56 -
least a first-aid room should be provided. This should be adequately equipped to deal withaccidents and other emergencies, and manned by an employee trained in first-aid procedures.
19. PRACTICE YARD AND UTILIZATION TRAINING AREA
19.1 Location
Depending upon the range of training which is provided, a practice yard may be in-corporated in a general utilization training area. To reduce the amount of time lost byclasses moving between this area and the main teaching block, these facilities must belocated reasonably close to each other. Noise from the practice yard/utilization areacan be reduced by surrounding it with a tall hedge. Outside the hedge, scattered treeswith dense crowns will further help to screen noise.
19.2 Facilities
In addition to a replaceable selection of logs in both vertical and horizontal posi-tions for sawing or axe-work demonstrations, the yard may include an open-sided workshopfor tool maintenance. This may replace some of the facilities suggested in the students'workshop mentioned in 10.2 above.
A combined practice yard/utilization training area may contain a small circular sawbench. This can be used for elementary instruction in sawmilling, but an important sub-sidiary function may be to demonstrate to students, using material from the school forest,how logs can be damaged through bad pruning; by mechanical damage to the bark, and by thebreaking of branches. Students can also see the value of pruning at different ages bythe amount of knot-free timber available.
Timber from the saw bench should discharge into an open dipping tank, before beingused for exercises in stacking. A simple covered stacking shed, with permanent bases forthe stacks, should be located sufficiently close to allow easy manual handling of thetimber output from the saw bench. When dried, the timber may be restacked elsewhereprior to sale, after having been used for exercises in mensuration.
Where appropriate, the utilization area may contain concrete tanks or steel drumsfor sap displacement treatment of timber, and for hot and cold impregnation treatment.This treatment area must be carefully screened to reduce the possibility of accidentalfire spreading throughout the yard.
19.3 Charcoal production
A steel charcoal kiln may be located within the area if space is sufficient both forthe kiln itself and for reasonable stocks of wood during drying. Where permanent brickkilns are commonly used, this tyTe of kiln may be installed for demonstration and practicepurposes. The resulting charcoal can be supplied to the kitchen for cooking purposes and/or sold to the staff members at concessionary ratas.
19.4 Exhibition/demonstration area
Various exhibits of simple joinery products such as roof trusses ,nd door and windowframes can be maintained in this area. A "grave yard" for tests of treated and untreatedtimbers can be useful. The exhibits can also perform a general public relations functionand should be manned by student guides when visitors come to the institution.
19.5 Access
Good access by road to this area is required, but the traffic should be divertedaway from the main teaching and administrative areas to avoid noise. Adequate turningspaces for vehicles should be provided.
- 56 -
least a first-aid room should be provided. This should be adequately equipped to deal with accidents and other emergencies, and manned by an employee trained in first-aid procedures.
19. PRACTICE YARD AND UTILIZATION TRAINING AREA
19.1 Location
Depending upon the range of training which is provided, a practice yard may be incorporated in a general utilization training area. To reduce the amount of time lost by classes moving between this area and the main teaching block, these facilities must be located reasonably close to each other. Noise from the practice yard/utilization area can be reduced by surrounding it with a tall hedge. Outside the hedge, scattered trees with dense crowns will further help to screen noise.
19. 2 Facilities
In addition to a replaceable selection of logs in both vertical and horizontal positions for sawing or axe-work demonstrations, the yard may include an open-sided workshop for tool maintenance. This may replace Bome of the facilities suggested in the students' workshop mentioned in 10.2 above.
A combined practice yard/utilization training area may contain a small circular saw bench. Thi s can be used for elementary instruction in sawmilling, but an important subsidiary function may be to demonstrate to students, using material from the school forest, how logs can bs damaged through bad pruning; by mechanical damage to the bark, and by the breaking of branches. Student s can also see the value of pruning at different ages by the amount of knot-free timber available.
Timber from the saw bench should discharge into an open dipping tank, before being used for exercises in stacking. A simple covered stacking shed, with permanent bases for the stacks, should be located sufficiently close to allow easy manual handling of the timber output from the saw bsnch. When dried, the timber may be restacked elsewhere prior to sale, after having been used for exercises in mensuration.
Where appropriate, the utilization area may contain concrete tanks or steel drums for sap displacement treatment of timber, and for hot and cold impregnation treatment. This treatment area must be carefully screened to reduce the possibility of accidental fire spreading throughout the yard.
19.3 Charcoal production
A steel charcoal kiln may be located within the area if space is sufficient both for the kiln itself and for reasonable stocks of wood during drying. Where permanent brick kilns are commonlJ.' used, this type of kiln may be installed for demonstration and practioe purposes. The resulting charcoal can be supplied to the kitchen for cooking purposes and/ or sold to the staff members at concessionary rates.
19.4 Exhibition/demonstration area
Various exhibits of simple joinery products such as roof trusses Qnd door and window frames can be maintained in this area. A 1tgrave yard" for tests of treated and untreated timbers can be useful. The exhibits can also perform a general public relations function and should be manned by student guides when visitors come to the institution.
19.5 Access
Good access by road to this area is required, but the traffic should be diverted away from the main teaching and administrative areas to avoid noise. Adequate turning spaces for vehicles should be provided.
This topic has already been discussed in Part I, Section 7. It is sufficient toemphasize here that this should contain small but adequate areas of crops of all ages,for demonstration and ab initio training.
When an institution is founded on a "green field" site, it is necessary to allocatesufficient land to achieve this purpose, over a period of, say, 30 to 40 years.Initially, this may involve relatively large areas of land standing unused for forestrypurposes. Therefore, to limit criticism of what may appear to be a waste of valuableland, it may be advisable to establish temporary shortterm crops on those areas whichare not required for tree planting for, say, 20 or more years.
The forest should have good access roads which can also serve for demonstration andinstruction in road maintenance and culvert construction.
FOREST NURSERY
21.1 Size
A necessary adjunct to a school forest is a forest nursery. Depending on thenumber of students and the requirements of the surrounding forests, this should besufficiently large to provide a realistic view of nursery production. In addition,there must be sufficient space to allow students to have individual seed beds and forstaff members to carry out research work. From experience, it has been found that anursery of between 0.5ha and 1ha is normally adequate, over 1ha being too much to handle.
21.2 Layout
In a nursery used for instructional purposes, all paths and roads should be widerthan normal to accommodate groups of students following demonstrations, or earring outpractical work. The layout of water supplies may also be more intensive than normal, toprovide practice in laying and maintaining water pipes. Facilities for compost makingand soil storage Should be provided.
21.3 Working shed
Where plants are raised in polythene pots, a large opensided shed for storing andmixing soil ingredients and filling pots should be provided. A number of large bins, ofseveral cubic metres capacity, should be arranged at one end to hold the ingredients ofthe soil mixture. These can be recharged by a tractor and a trailer from outside theshed.
Near this, a largp concrete mixing floor should be laid, if handmixing is carriedout. If a mechanical mixer is available, the concrete floor area can be reduced.Workers filling pots can be seated on either side of a long table running down the centreof the shed. A steady supply of soil from the mixing area should be arranged. Filledpots can be packed into boxes and transported on narrow trolleys to the bed space in thenursery.
21.4 NUrsery office and store
The nursery should incorporate an office and stores constructed in local materialslikely to be found near a field nursery. It should, however, provide perhaps slightly"idealized" accommodation to indicate the full range of facilities that might be requiredin a largp nursery. The office accommodation, for instance, should provide for a nurseryofficer in overall charge, and for a foreman and storekeeper. Facilities for maintainingall necessary records are essential. In the tool store, racks and shelves should beerected to hold all the equipment which is in use, and a simple work bench for maintainingtools is required. A store for holding materials is also necessary. This should bedivided into two unequal sections. In the larger section, all major stocks of polythenetube and fertilizers, etc. should be held, whilst the smaller one can be used to storeseeds, insecticides and other chemicals. Appropriate measures should be taken to securethe stores, particularly the one containing chemicals.
57
SCHOOL FORTPST
- 57 -
20. SCHOOL FOREST
This topic has already been discussed in Part I, Section 7. It is sufficient to emphasize here that this should contain small but adequate areas of crops of all ages, for demonstration and ~ initio training.
When an institution is founded on a "green field" site, it is necessary to allocate suffioient land to achieve this purpose, over a period of, say, 30 to 40 years. Initially, this may involve relatively large areas of land standing unused for forestry purposes. Therefore, to limit criticism of what may appear to be a waste of valuable land, it may be advisable to establish temporary short-term crops on those areas which are not required for tree planting for , say, 20 or more years.
The forest should have good access roads which can also serve for demonstration and instruction in road maintenance and culvert construction.
21. FOREST NURSERY
21.1 Size
A necessary adjunct to a school forest is a forest nursery. Depending on the number of student s and the requirements of the surrounding forests, this should be Bufficiently large to provide a realistic view of nursery production. In addition, there must be sufficient space to allow students to have individual seed beds and for staff members to carry out research work. From experience, it has been found that a nursery of between 0.5ha and 1ha is normally adequate, over 1ha ·bAing too much to handle.
21.2 Layout
In a nursery used for instructional purposes, all paths and roads should be wider than normal to accommodate groups of students following demonstrations, or carring out practical work. The layout of water supplies may also be more intensive than normal, to provide practice in laying and maintaining water pipes. Facilities for compost making and soil storage should be provided.
21.3 Working shed
Where plants are raised in polythene pots, a large open-sided shed for storing and mixing soil ingredients and filling pots should be provided. A number of large bins, of several cubic metres capacity, shoul d be arranged at one end to hold the ingredients of the soil mixture. These can be recharged by a tractor and a trailer from outside the shed.
Near thiS, a large concrete m~x~ng floor should be laid, if hand-mixing is carried out. If a mechanical mixer is available, the concrete floor area can be reduced. Workers filling pots can be seated on either side of a long table running down the centre of the shed. A steady supply of soil from the mixing e.rea should be arranged. Filled pots can be packed into boxes and transported on narrot·l tro lleys to the bed space in the nursery.
21.4 Nursery office and store
The nursery should incorporate an office and stores constructed in local materials likely to be found near a field nursery. It shoul d, hovlever, provide perhaps slightly "idealized" acoommodation to indicate the full range of facilities that might be required in a lar~ nursery. The office accommodation, for instance, should provide for a nursery officer in overall charge, and for a foreman and storekeeper. Facilities for maintaining all necessary records are essential. In the tool store, racks and shelves should be erected to hold all the equipment which is in use, and a simple work bench for maintaining tools is required. A store for holding materials is also nece ssary. This should be divided into two unequal sections. In the larger section, all major stocks of polythene tube and fertilizers, etc. should be held, whilst the smaller one can be used to store seeds, insecticides and other chemicals. Appropriate measures should be taken to secure the stores, particularly the one containing chemicals .
- 58 -
A well-drained tool washing area should be provided outside the tool store, to enabletools to be cleaned before they are returned to the storekeeper. Simple, but adequate,toilet and washing facilities should be provided for staff and workers, particularly ifany of them spend their lunch break at the nursery. The nursery should have its ownfirst-aid box for treating minor injuries which may not justify an immediate visit to theclinic or first-aid room. Another requirement is a selection of tools for the routinemaintenance of wheelbarrows, trolleys, sprayers and pipe fittings, and these should bekept in the tool store.
METEOROLOGICAL STATION
Ideally, a forestry school should maintain a meteorological station both to maintaincurrent climatological records in support of field operations and to teach appropriateprocedures for reading instruments and recording data. The equipment used should be ofthe same type as is used in government meteorological stations within the country. Thisenables the records to be incorporated in the national climatological data. The layoutof the instruments should also correspond to the approved local pattern and a securityfence is essential.
Initially, the station may start with a few basic instruments, including a standardrain gauge, a Stevenson Screen containing maximum and minimum thermometers as well as wetand dry bulb thermometers, a simple evaborimetera weather-vane and a cup anemometer toenable wind speeds to be calculated. Later on, as more funds become available and theskill of the staff and students in handling instruments increases, more expensive andintricate items can be purchased. These might include a sunshine recorder, recordingrain gauge, recording thermo-hydrograph, evaporation tank, total radiation integrator andsoil thermometers.
Readings, of course, have to be taken throughout the year and this can present diffi-culties in the vacations. As a solution, it is often possible to train one or more ofthe maintenance staff to be permanent observers. They can be used to train students intaking observations during term-time and also be responsible for continuing the readingsduring the holiday periods.
EQVIPMENT
23.1 Teachinl equipment
All classrooms should be equipped with a number of essential items of equipment suchas a chalkboard for writing or displaying notes and diagrams. Ideally, the chalkboardshould be of the roller type with a prepared graph section. This model enables theinstructor to refer back to diagrams or notes presented in the early part of a teachingsession. A screen is also necessary, if films and slides are to be used. The most con-venient type is a spring-loaded roller screen, installed above the chalkboard. The screencan quickly be brought into position and then released when it is no longer required.Similarly, if overhead projectors are used, an angled screen will be required, as mentionedin Part I, Section 9.8. Finally, a clock is an essential item, which should be hung atthe rear of the classroom for the convenience of the instructor.
Some of the equipment used should be permanently allocated to each classroom,e.g. chalkboard. Other expensive items, like a 16mm film projector, can be shared.Appendix 6 gives a list of equipment which should be considered.
23.2 Office equipment
23.2.1 Principal's and instructors' offices
An instructor's office Should be furnished primarily as an office, but should containadditional equipment to make it an efficient work-room for him to cope with his particularduties. In the case of the principal and senior instructors, provision must also be madefor interviewing staff and students and for group meetings.
The range of furniture and equipment suggested is given in Appendix 7.
- 58 -
A well-drained tool washing area should be provided outside the tool store, to enable tools to be cleaned before they are returned to the storekeeper. Simple, but adequate, toilet and washing facilities should be provided for staff and workers, particularly if any of them spend their lunch break at the nursery. The nursery should have its own first-aid box for treating minor injuries which m~ not justify an immediate visit to the clinic or first-aid room. Another requirement is a selection of tools for the routine maintenance of wheelbarrows, trolleys, sprayers and pipe fittings, and these should be kept in the tool store.
22. MEl'EOROLOGICAL STATION
Ideally, a forestry school should maintain a meteorological station both to maintain current olimatological records in support of field operations and to teach appropriate procedures for reading instruments and recording data. The equipment used should be of the same type as is used in gpvernment meteorological stations within the country. This enables the records to be incorporated in the national climatological data. The layout of the instruments should also correspond to the approved local pattern and a security fence is essential.
Initially, the station may start with a few basic instruments, including a standard rain gauge, a Stevenson Screen containing maximum and minimum thermometers as well as wet and dry bulb thermometers, a simple evaporimete~ a weather-vane and a cup anemometer to enable wind speeds to be calculated. Later on, as more funds become available and the skill of the staff and students in handling instruments increases, more expensive and intricate items can be purchased. These might include a sunshine recorder, recording rain gauge, recording thermo-hydrograph, evaporation tank, total radiation integrator and soil thermometers.
Readings, of course, have to be taken throughout the year and this can present difficulties in the vacations. As a solution, it is often possible to train one or more of the maintenance staff to be permanent observers. They can be used to train students in taking observations during term-time and also be responsible for continuing the readings during the holiday periods.
23. EQUIPMENr
2).1 Teaching equipment
All classrooms should be equipped with a number of essential items of equipment such as a chalkboard for writing or displaying notes and diagrams. Ideally, the chalkboard should be of the roller type with a prepared graph section. This model enables the instructor to refer back to diagrams or notes presented in the earl y part of a t eachi ng session. A screen is also necessary, if films and slides are to be used. The most convenient type is a spring-loaded roller screen, installed above the chalkboard. The screen can quickly be brought into position and then released when it is no longer required. Similarly, if overhead projectors are used, an angled screen will be required, as mentioned in Part I, Section 9.8. Finally, a clock is an essential item, which should be hung at the rear of the classroom for the convenience of the instructor.
Some of the e.g. chalkboard. Appendix 6 gives
equipment used should be permanently allocated to each classroom, other expensive items, like a 16mm film projector, can be shared.
a list of equipment which should be considered.
23.2 Office equipment
23.2.1 Principal's and instructors' offices
An instructor's office should be furnished primarily as an office t but should contain additional equipment to make it an efficient work-room for him to cope with his part i cular duties. In the case of the principal and senior instructors, provision must also be made for interviewing staff and students and for group meetings.
The range of furniture and equipment suggested is given in Appendix 7.
- 59 -
23.2.2 Administrative office
An administrative office should be adequately equipped for the number of staff sharingit, with specialized items such as filing cabinets, and a safe, located near the person whois responsible for their use. In hot climates, air conditioning may be considered neces-sary, or otherwise, the use of ceiling fans.
A suggested list of furnishings and equipment is given in Appendix 7.
23.2.3 Typists' office
An office for typists should contain the necessary equipment for the main functionof typing. It may, however, provide reception facilities for visitors to the mainoffice complex and contain a telephone exchange or radio telephone. In addition, it isusual for any document reproduction equipment to be installed in the typists' office.
A suggested list of furnishings and equipment is given in Appendix 7.
23.3 Laboratory equipment
A detailed list of laboratory equipment can only be produced once the full scope ofteaching in the physical and biological sciences has been decided. There may be con-siderable differences between countries in the objectives and scope of the topics dealtwith in the physical sciences, but there is more likely to be a closer agreement on therequirements of the biological sciences.
Some suggestions on suitable items are given in Appendix 8, but it is emphasizedthat detailed "shopping lists" for any particular institution should only be preparedonce the requirements of the curriculum are known. It is preferable to be shortsupplied and forced to use some improvisation in the first year than to order a largequantity of expensive equipment only to find later that some of it is unnecessary.
23.4 Herbarium
The basic equipment for a herbarium can be more clearly defined and a suggested listof standard items is given in Appendix 9.
23.5 Library
The range of equipment required for a library will depend upon a number of factors,including the size of the institution, the importance of the library in its teaching role,and the use made of it by staff for reference or research purposes.
Inevitably, cost factors may prove the greatest constraint in developing a goodlibrary and resource centre, but within reason, the fuller the equipment, the greater theservice it can provide to both students and staff.
Suggested items of equipment for a major library are given in Appendix 10. Thesemay have to be scaled down, if funds are limited, or the full range can be acquired overa period of years. A list of reference books is given in Appendix 11.
23.6 Workshop equipment
A list of desirable workshop equipment could be very lengthy and if acquired withoutcareful consideration would involve considerable expenditure. It is therefore morerealistic to start with a limited rangr of items, such as are indicated in Appendix 12.Additional items can then be acquired as the requirements of the various courses, theschedule of practical exercises and the rangy of maintenance services required are de-fined more precisely. A more comprehensive list of appropriate items can be found inthe International Labour Organization's "Equipment Planning Guide for Vocational and Tech-nical Training and Education Programmes NO.17, Forestry (1981)".
In funding a new institution, it is better to spread the equipment allocation over thefirst 2 to 3 years of operation. It is also a good idea to allow some degree of flexi-bility in the allocation of funds to help relate the equipment supply, both in the range of
- 59 -
23.2.2 Administrative office
An administrative office should be adequately equipped for the number of staff sharing it, with specialized items such as filing cabinets, and a safe, located near the person who is responsible for their use. In hot climates, air conditioning may be considered necessary, or otherwise, the use of ceiling fans.
A suggested list of furnishings and equipment is given in Appendix 7.
23.2.3 Typi sts' office
An office for typists should contain the necessary equipment for the main function of typing. It m~, however, provide reception facilities for visitors to the main office complex and contain a telephone exchange or radio telephone. In addition, it i s usual for any document reproduction equipment to be installed in the typists' office.
A suggested list of furnishings and equipment is given in Appendix 7.
23.3 Laboratory equipment
A detailed list of laboratory equipment can only be produced once the full scope of teaching in the physical and biological sciences has been decided. There may be considerable differences between countries in the objectives and Bcope of the topics dealt with in the physical sciences, but there is more likely to be a closer agreement on the requirements of the biological sciences.
Some suggestions on suitable items are given in Appendix 8, but it is emphasized that detailed "shopping lists" for any particular institution should only be prepared once the requirements of the curriculum are known. It is preferable to be short supplied and forced to use some improvisation in the first year than to order a large quantity of expensive equipment only to find later that some of it is unnecessary.
23.4 Herbarium
The basic equipment for a herbarium can be more clearly defined and a suggested list of standard items is given in Appendix 9.
23.5 Library
The range of equipment required for a library will depend upon a number of factors, including the size of the institution, the importance of the library in its teaching role, and the use made of it by staff for reference or research purposes.
Inevitably, cost factors may prove the greatest constraint in developing a good library and resource centre, but within reason, the fuller the equipment, the greater the service i t can provide to both students and staff.
Suggested items of equipment for a major library are given in Appendix 10. These may have to be scaled down, if funds are limited, or the full ran~ can be acquired over a period of years. A list of reference books is given in Appendix 11.
23.6 Workshop equipment
A list of desirable workshop equipment could be very lengthy and if acquired without careful consideration would involve considerable expenditure. It is therefore more realistic to start with a limited range of items, such as are indicated in Appendix 12. Additional items can then be acquired as the requirements of the various courses, the schedule of practical exercises and the range of maintenance services required are defined more precisely. A more comprehensive list of appropriate items can be found in the International Labour Organi zation' s "Equipment Planning Guide for Vocational and Technical Training and Education Programmes No.n, Forsstry (1981 )".
In funding a new institution, it is better to spread the equipment allocation over the first 2 to 3 years of operation. It is also a goou idea to allow some degree of flexibility in the allocation of funds to help relate the equipment supply, both in the range of
- 60 -
equipment and numbers of items, to the emerging needs of the programme. The alternativeis to have a lengthy preparatory period for establishing the programme, but even this isunlikely to foresee precisely all the needs.
23.7 Field equipment
A very comprehensive list of suitable field equipment can be found in the ILO pub-lication mentioned in paragraph 23.6 above. Additional items of importance are outlinedin Appendix 13. Again, it would be unwise to commit an institution to purchasing a largeamount of equipment in the initial stages, as the full range and numbers of items requiredmay only emerge once the training programme is in operation.
23.8 Camp equipent
The definitive list of camp equipment required for any institution will depend uponthe extent to which camping plays a part in the training programme. It will also dependupon the general views of what a camp should be. In certain areas, this is distinctlyspartan, whilst in others, particularly in the eastern hemisphere, it may be quite luxu-rious. The suggested list of equipment in Appendix 13 aims to fall between these twoextremes and to provide a moderately comfortable standard of camping.
23.9 Catering equipment
Good standards of catering are required at a forestry school, as the students arelikely to be young, extremely fit, and with very healthy appetites. The person in chargeof the kitchen must, therefore, be encouraged to select the right kind of equipment whichwill help to produce well-cooked meals and allow them to be served properly.
The main items requiring close attention are pots and pans and the cooking stoves.The former should be of a heavy duty pattern and sufficiently large to cope with thenumbers being fed. Similarly, if electric or gas ovens are chosen, they should be large-size catering models, with not too many gadgets, as these are liable to go wrong. Inmaking the choice of equipment for cooking and baking purposes, it should be rememberedthat although modern ovens are quick and easy to clean, they are usually very expensive.Likewise, the cost of electricity or gas can be very hign in developing countries. Analternative is to use wood or charcoal cooking stoves, possibly located in an outsidekitchen. Although much slower and more messy, they make use of local fuel supplies.Probably a combination of the two provides the best situation, as the charcoal stovescan be used when there are power cuts or bottled gas is in short supply.
23.10 Fire-fignting equipment
A number of items of fire-fignting equipment have been mentioned earlier in connec-tion with some of the recommended facilities. To be safe, it is suggested that when thefinal plans for a forestry school have been agreed, a review should be made of the pro-visions for fire-fighting and emergency evacuation of staff and students. Whereas firescan start anywhere, the kitchen, laboratories and workshops are likely to be the mosthazardous. Here, large-size inert powder or foam fire extinguishers must be providedtogether with an asbestos blanket. Extinguishers should also be obtained for the class-rooms, offices, dormitories and staff quarters. For these facilities, it may be possibleto locate the appliances in central positions to serve groups of buildings.
All exits from buildings should be kept clear of obstructions and fire exit doorsmust be clearly indicated. Both staff and students should be trained to use fim-fight-ing equipment. Such equipment should be checked annually to make sure it is effective.Fire drills should be held once a term to ensure that everyone knows what to do in caseof a fire.
If there is an existing fire service, either public or private, in the neighbourhood,it will probably be worthwhile contacting the Chief Fire Officer to seek his advice aboutthe school's fire precautions. He may also be able to arrange for his staff to givedemonstrations of different fire-fighting techniques.
- 60 -
equipment and numbers of items, to the emerging needs. of the programme. The alternative is to have a lengthy preparatory period for establishing the programme, but even this is unlikely to foresee precisely all the needs.
23.7 Field equipment
A very comprehensive list of suitable field equipment can be found in the ILO publication mentioned in paragraph 23.6 above. Additional items of importance are outlined in Appendix 13. Again, it would be unwise to commit an institution to purchasing a large amount of equipment in the initial stages, as the full range and numbers of items required mB3 only emerge once the training programme is in operation.
23.8 Camp equipment
The definitive list of camp equipment required for any institution will depend upon the extent to which camping plays a part in the training programme. It will also depend upon the general views of what a camp should be. In certain areas, thiB is distinctly spartan, whil st in others , particularly in the eastern hemisphere, it may be quite luxurious. The suggested list of equipment in Appendix 13 aims to fall between these two extremes and to provide a moderately comfortable standard of oamping.
23.9 Catering equipment
Good standards of catering are required at a forestry school, as the students are likely to be young, extremely fi\ and with very healthy appetites. The person in charge of the kitchen must, therefore, be encouraged to select the right kind of equipment which will help to produce well~ooked meals and allow them to be served properly.
The main items requiring close attention are pots and pans and the cooking stoves. The former should be of a heavy duty pattern and sufficiently large to cope with the numbers being fed. Similarly, if electric or gas ovens are chosen, they should be largesize catering models, with not too many gadgets, as these are liable to go wrong. In making the choice of equipment for cooking and baking purposes, it should be remembered that although modern ovens are quick and easy to clean, they are usually very expensive. Likewise, the cost of electricity or gas can be very high in developing countries. An alternative i s to use wood or charcoal cooking stoves, possibly located in an outside kitchen. Although much slower and more messy, they make use of local fuel supplies. Probably a combination of the two provides the best situation, as the charcoal stoves can be used when there are power cuts or bottled gas is in short supply.
23.10 Fire-fighting equipment
A number of items of fire-fighting equipment have been menti0ned earlier in oonneotion with some of the recommenued f acilities . To be safe, it i s suggested that when the f inal plans for a forestry school have been agreed, a review should be made of the provisions for fire-fighting ani emergency evacuation of staff and students. Whereas fires can start anywhere, the kitchen, laboratories and workshops are likely to be the most hazardous. Here, large-size inert powder or foam fire extinguishers must be provided together with an asbestos blanket. Extinguishers should also be obtained for the classrooms, offices, dormitories and staff quarters. For these facilities, it may be possible to locate the appliances in central pos itions to serve groups of buildings.
All exits from buildings should be kept clear of obstructions and fire exit doors must be clearly indicated. Both staff and students should be trained to use firo-fighting equipment. Such equipment should be checked annually to make sure it is effective. Fire drills should be held once a term to ensure that everyone knows what to do in case of a fire.
If there is an existing fire service, either public or private, in the neighbourhood, it will probably be worthwhile contacting the Chief Fire Officer to seek his advice about the school's fire precautions. He may also be able to arrange for his staff to give demonstrations of different fire-fighting techniques.
- 61 -
24. DESIGN AND SUPERVISION OF BUILDINU PROJECTS
It has been stated that architects, in general, are not very well informed about thespecial requirements of buildingp to be used for technical training in forestry. There-fore, assuming that the staff of a new forestry school have been appointed before thebuildings are constructed, it is essential that they take a great interest in the buildingproject.
If it can be arranged, any staff suggestions should be considered at the design stageand the principal should try to make sure that a set of the draft plans is sent to him forscrutiny. With a certain amount of tact, patience and persuasion, it should be possibleto eliminate the worst design features and ensure that at least some of the ideas of theschool staff are incorporated into the final design.
If the staff are appointed after building construction has commenced, there willstill be opportunities to change things, particularly if a close watch is kept on the site.Normally, a clerk of works will be appointed and good relations should quickly beestablished with him. He can be a very good ally, pointing out problems which havearisen and generally keeping the school wellinformed of developments on the site. It
may even be worthwhile for the principal to appoint a staff member as the "site liaisonofficer". He should be wellacquainted with the plans and be free to spend a lot oftime watching the building operations and working with the site supervisors. If thingpare going wrong, e.g. incorrect siting of buildings, poor workmanship or a need to changethe design of a room, the matter should be reported to the principal. He can then tryto sort things out locally, but if these efforts fail, the issue should be raised immedi-ately with higher authority. It may result in unpleasant interviews or enquiries, butthe principal has a duty to look after the longterm interests of the school. On com-pletion of the buildings, no one will be interested or hame any sympathy if he complainsabout design faults, when it is known that they might have been eliminated through earlieraction. It will be a very satisfying moment when the school buildingp are finally openedand the staff are able to feel that they have made significant contributions to a designwhich works.
- 61 -
24. DE3IGN AND SUPERVISION OF BUILDINJ PROJEX:TS
It hS-!3 been stated that architects, in general, are not very well informed about the special requirements of buildings to be used for technical training in forestry. Therefore, assuming that the staff of a new forestry school have been appointed before the buildings are constructed, it is essential that they take a great interest in the building project.
If it can be arranged, any staff suggestions should be considered at the design stage and the principal should try to make sure that a set of the draft plans is sent to him for scrutiny. With a certain amount of tact, patience and persuasion, it should be possible to eliminate the worst design features and ensure that at least some of the ideas of the school staff are incorporated into the final design.
If the staff are a ppointed after building construction has commenced, there will still be opportunities to change things, particularly if a close watch i s kept on the site. Normally, a clerk of works will be appointed and gnod relations should quickly be established with him. He can be a very good ally, pointing out problems which have arisen and gsnerally keeping the sohool well-informed of developments on the site. It may even be worthwhile for the principal to appoint a staff member as the "site liaison officer". He should be well-acquainted with the plans and be free to spend a lot of time watching the building operations and working with the site supervisors. If things are going wrong, e.g. incorreot siting of buildings, poor workmanship or a need to change the design of a room, the matter should be reported to the principal. He can then try to sort things out locally, but if these efforts fail, the issue should be raised immediately with higher authority. It may result in unpleasant interviews or enquiries, but the principal has a duty to look after the long-term interests of the school. On completion of the buildings, no one will be interested or have any sympathy if he complains about design faults, when it is known that they might have been eliminated through earlier action. It will be a very satisfying moment when the school buildings are finally opened and the staff are able to feel that they have made significant oontributions to a design which works.
- 63 -
APPENDIX 1
ASSESSMMNT OF KNOWLEDGE/SKILLS REQUIRED BY FOREST TECHNICIANS TO PERFORM THEIR DUTIES
NAME: 000000000000000000000000000000000 000000 AGE:
RANK: o eeoc,..* 000 00 00 000000.000000000000000 00 0000 NUMBER OF YEARS
STATION: 00000006000 00000000000 0000000000n00e. 000000 IN ORGANIZATION:
IN PRESENT RANK: .0.-
SUBJECT
C1.1
1-1O,--4Z.H
.--Y `Ol-4W 00 ..-- F-i
CI-) -
. 1-)1 4 a'-p50) CDA-, .--I- H,q 0
A
Ust
1-1r-I-r-44'd
LO eller"----... F-I5 o HCS 4 g " '
Cll Cll
"4 PO
A
rd r-f0 r--I0-H40 ,-Y rd
Cr) CD
.4-",,, F-1
1--I 0 r1C ) 4 g '
. H a) (1)
-P r-4 F-I
(I3r10t A
r-Ir-I- r-I
'CI rdotow0- F..1
itl a) ,--1
.., rtl gH (1) CL)
5r-4 g-4
cl,
0,m
1-I--1
-P H02 .14 'd-Imor-I F-1
c d 0.61 4 g'<L> CO CD
Pi 1-ICO
O
A
1. National language
20 International language
3. Basic mathematics
4. Biology5. Forest Botany
6. Geology/Soils
7. Use of hand tools
8. Use of chain saws
9. Preparation of land
10. Planting
11. Weeding
12. Pruning/Thinning
13. Felling
14. Extraction of timber
15. Measurement of plantations/forest areas
16. Measurement of timber
17. Nursery work
18. Road construction.
19. Building construction
20. Water supplies
21. Work study
22. Surveying
23. Supervisory duties
24. Communication and extension
25. Office administration
26. Report-writing
27. Bee-keeping
28. Maintenance of vehicles
29. First aid
30. Community forestry
- 63 -
APPENDIX 1
ASSESSME:NT OF KNOWLEOClE/ SKILLS REQUIRED BY FOREST TECHNIC lANS TO PERFORM THEm DUTIES
NAME: · ........................................ . AGE:
RANK: · ........................................ . NUMBER OF YEARS
STATION: · ........................................ . IN ORGANIZATION:
IN ffiESENT RANK: ..... .-< .-< 'd'-< .-< .-<
0'-< .-< 0'-< .-< .-<
" ·rI ·rI o ·rI ·rI .p ·rI
M'tJ M'd ""M 'd 'dM'd a>M'd H " Q) " Q) " Q) o a> Q) OM OJ Q)
0'- H ",- " ",- H 0'- H .-< H
SUBJECT ~~.~ S Q) ·rl r-4 Q) .,-t b.O IV ..... '" " .~ Jl~ g. ~ ~ g. t'~ ~ ·8~
.p"" " " .,-1 III Q) " " Q)
~"il M ~ " .p.-< H ".-< H A'-< " '" ~ >~ '" ~ ""] 5 '-<6 ] ,e .B
1. National language
2. Int ernational language
3. Basic mathematics
4. Biology
5. Forest Botany
6. Geology/Soils
7. Use of hand tools
8. Use of chain saws
9. Preparation of land
10. Planting
11. Weeding
12. Pruning/Thinning
13. Felling
14. Extraction of timber
15. Measurement of plantations/forest areas
16. Measurement of timber
17. Nursery work
18. Road construction
19. Building construction
20. water supplies
21. Work study
22. Surveying
23. Supervi aory duties
24. Communication and extension
25. Office administration
26. Report-writing
27. Bee-keeping
28. Maintenance of vehicles
29. First aid
30. Community forestry
64
APPENDIX 2
2.0 CORE CURRICULUM
The curriculum for any particular school must be devised to meet the specific needsthe school is aiming to fulfil. It is, in fact, dangerous to try to adopt, or even modify,the curriculum of any other institutions without first examining critically the preciseneeds of the country.
The suggestions for a core curriculum are, therefore, given more as an indication ofhow this might be prepared than for the specific topics mentioned within. Subjects havebeen given traditional or rather generalized titles. Subdivision of these major blocksof work can easily be done when the circumstances warrant it. The emphasis within thesubject will vary from country to country or from area to area within a country.
Educators must, however, be aware of the dangers of a very wide selection of rela-tively short topics which may fail to form any recognizable pattern in their students'minds, and the difficulties students may have in using knowledge gained in one subject,without guidance, to support work in another.
The two curricula, based on a 2year diploma course, have obvious limitations andconcentrate on providing a sound basic education in technical matters. A suggested curri-culum for a further Iyear course to prepare a candidate with some years of field serviceis also given, but this is of value only as a general guide. The authorities sponsoringsuch a course must, in every case, be able to define more specifically what they requireof members in this higher grade. It is only then that the training institution can devise a course to meet these requirements.
No particular system of course numbering is recommended. This varies considerablyfrom place to place, and it is most logical to adopt a numbering system, should this benecessary, which corresponds to those in use in universities or similar technical insti-tutions in the country.
The alternative 2year curriculum has been suggested to meet the situation where theauthorities require a series of courses in basic studies, not directly related to forestryin order to maintain some degree of uniformity with training in other disciplines. auchcourses, where they are required, weigh heavily on the limited time available and un-doubtedly affect the technical competence of the eventual trainees, although they mayhave some general education benefits.
It is desirable to leave a certain number of hours teaching or practice unallocatedwithin each subject to allow for public holidays, and for unforeseen disruptions in theteaching programme.
2.1 CORE CURRICULUM: TwoYear Diploma Course (excluding Basic Studies Courses)
6 terms of 10 weeks each with 2 weeks of practical exercises and 2 weeks vacationafter the first, second, fourth and fifth terms, and 8 weeks field work and 6 weeks vaca-tion after the third term (or any alternative distribution of practical exercises/fieldwork to suit local conditions).
- 64 -
APPENDIX 2
2.0 CORE CURRICULUM
The curriculum for any particular school must be devised to meet the specific needs the school is aiming to fulfil. It is, in fact, dangerous to try to adopt, or even modify, the curriculum of any other institutions without first examining critically the precise needs of the country.
The suggestions for a core curriculum are, therefore, given more as an indication of how this might be prepared than for the specific topics mentiQled within. Subjects have been given traditional or rather generalized titles. Sub-division of these major blocks of work can easily be done when the circumstances warrant it. The emphasis within the subject will vary from country to country or from area to area within a country.
Educators must, however, be aware of the dangers of a very wide selection of relatively short topics which may fail to form any recognizable pattern in their students' minds, and the difficulties students may have in using knowledge gained in one subject, without guidance, to support work in another.
The two curricula, based on a 2-year diploma course, have obvious limitations and concentrate on providing a sound basic education in technical matters. A suggested curriculum for a further 1-year course to prepare a candidate with some years of field service is also given, but this is of value only as a general guide. The authorities sponsoring such a course must, in every case, be able to define more specifically >that they require of members in this higher grade. It is only then that the training institution can devise a course to meet these requirements.
No particular system of course numbering is recorran_ended. This varies considerably from place to place, and it is most logical to adopt a numbering system, should this be necessary, which corresponds to those in use in universities or similar technical institutions in the count~.
The alternative 2-year curriculum has been suggested to meet the situation where the authorities require a series of courses in basic studies, not directly related to forestry , in order to maintain some degree of uniformity with training in other disciplines. Such courses, where they are required, weigh heavily on the limited time available and undoubtedly affect the technical competence of the eventual trainees, although they may have some general education benefits.
It is desirable to leave a certain number of hours teaching or practice unallocated within each subject to allow for public holi~s, and for unforeseen disruptions in the teaching programme.
2.1 CORE CURRICULUM: Two-Year Diploma Course (excluding Basic Studies Courses)
6 terms of 10 weeks each with 2 weeks of practical exercises and 2 weeks vacation after the first, second, fourth and fifth terms, and 8 weeks field work and 6 weeks vacation after the third term (or any alternative distribution of practical exerCises/field work to suit local conditions).
(Appendix 2, cont.)
YEAR 1
TERM 1.1
BOTANY I
SILVICULTURE I
UTILIZATION I 70 hrs.
SURVEYING I 70 hrs.
FOREST SOILS 60 hrs.
FIRST AID/HEALTHAND SAFETY IN WORK 30 hrs.
Term followed by 2 weeks practical exercises mainly in Silviculture and Utilizationbut with some practice in Surveying and Soils.
TERM 1.2
BOTANY II
SILVICULTURE II
UTILIZATION II
SURVEYING II
FOREST MENSURA-TION I
INTRODUCTORYSTATISTICS
DENDROLOGY
SILVICULTURE III
MENSURATION II
UTILIZATION III
- 65 -
50 hrs. Plant morphology.
70 hrs. Seed production; collection; treatment; and nurserypractice.
Care and use of common handtools and working techniquesin forest operations.
Common surveying instruments and techniques; preparationof simple piano and calculations of area.
Development and structure of forest soils, nutrient statusand soil descriptions.
Simple first-aid procedures; safe working procedures;diet, etc.
60 hrs. Measurement of forest produce and individual trees.
30 hrs. Basic introduction to statistics for foresters.
Term followed by 2 weeks practical exercises in Silviculture, Mensuration and Utili-zation.
TERM 1,3
Review of forest policy in relation to national objectivesand fundamentals of local forest laws and legal procedures.
Effects of trees on climate, water, soil, with referenceto management of water yields, etc.
Term followed by 8 weeks field exercises in silviculture, sampling and inventory tech-niques, tour and visits to forest industries.
70 hrs. Study of forest species and forest types.
70 hrs. Silviculture of indigenous forests and regeneration systems.
70 hrs. Measurement of forests; sampling and inventory techniques.
70 hrs. Wood technology; requirements and processes of forestindustries.
POLICY AND LAW 40 hrs.
FOREST INFLUENCES 30 hrs.
50 hrs. Plant physiology with special relations to trees.
70 hrs. Plantation establishment and maintenance techniques.
70 hrs. Forest operations, harvesting and extraction techniques.
70 hrs. Study of scales; enlargement and reduction of scales;use of topographic maps; simple photogrammetry.
(Appendix 2, cont.)
YEAR
TERM 1.1
BarANY I
SILVICULTURE I
UTILJZATION I
SURVEYINll I
FOREST SOILS
FIRST AID/HEAIiI'H
50 hrs.
70 hrs.
70 hrs.
70 hrs.
60 hrs.
AND SAFE.'l'Y IN WORK 30 hrs.
- 65 -
Plant morphology.
Seed production; collection; treatment; and nursery practice.
Care and use of carmnon hand-tools and working techniques in forest operations.
Common surveying instruments and techniques; preparation of simple plans and calculations of area.
Development and structure of forest soils, nutrient status and Boil desoriptions.
Simple first-aid procedures ; safe working procedures; diet, etc.
Term followed by 2 weeks practical exercises mainly in Silviculture and Utilization but with Borne practice in Surveying and Soils.
TERM 1.2
BOTANY I!
SILVICULTURE I!
UTILJZATION I!
SURVEYING I!
FOREST MENSURATION I
Im'RODUCTORY STATISTICS
50 hrs.
70 hrs.
70 hrs.
70 hrs.
60 hrs.
30 hrs.
Plant physiology with special relations to trees.
Plantation establishment and maintenance techniques.
Forest operations, harvesting and extraction techniques.
Study of scales; enlargement and reduction of scales; use of t opograpbi c maps; simple phot ogrammetr,y.
Measurement of forest produce and individual trees.
Basic introduction to statistics for foresters.
Term followed by 2 weeks practical exercises in Silviculture, Mensuration and Utilization.
TERM 1,3
DENlROLOCY
SILVICULTURE III
MENSURATION I!
UTILJZATION II!
POLICY AND LAW
FOREST INFLUENCES
70 hrs.
70 hrs.
70 hrs.
70 hrs.
40 hrs.
30 hrs.
study of forest species and forest types.
Silviculture of indigenous forests and regeneration systems.
Measurement of forests; sampling and inventory techniques.
\'lood teclmology; requirements and processes of forest industries.
Review of forest policy in relation to national objectives and fundamentals of local forest laws and legal procedures.
Effects of trees on climate, water, soil, with reference to management of water yields, etc.
Term followed by 8 weeks field exercises in Silviculture, sampling and inventory techniques, tour and visits to forest industries.
- 66 -
(Appendix 2, cont.)
YEAR 2
TERM 2,1
FOREST ECOLOGY 70 hrs. Recognition and classification of plant communities;succession; forest structure, etc.
SILVICULTURE IV 60 hrs. Silvicultural techniques in arid, semi-arid and moun-tainous areas.
AGROFORESTRY 60 hrs. Management of forests in conjunction with agriculturalrequirements.
FOREST ECONOMICS 50 hrs. Economics of forest operations; production, conversionand marketing of forest products.
FOREST ENGINEERING 70 hrs. Road alignment and construction; culverts; bridges, etc.
TECHNICAL REPORT-WRITING 40 hrs. Content and format of technical reports.
Term followed by 2 weeks of practical exercises in Ecology, Agroforestry or forestryin semi-arid or mountainous areas,and road alignment and construction.
TERM 2.2
FOREST MANAGEMENT 70 hrs. Forest management techniques; inventory control; datacollection and presentation techniques.
FOREST EXTENSION" AND Extension techniques; investigation, definition andCOMMUNITY FORESTRY 100 hrs. implementation of community projects.
FOREST ENGINEERING 70 hrs. Simple building construction and water supplies.
FOREST TREE Genetic principles and implementation of tree improve-
IMPROVEMENT 60 hrs. ment programmes.
ENTOMOLOGY 50 hrs. Anatomy, physiology and classification of insects; studyof some important orders of insects; prevention andcontrol of insect damage.
Term followed by 2 weeks of practical exercises in Community Forestry and Engineering.
TERM 2.3
FOREST MANAGEMENT 70 hrs. Collection and analysis of data; application of manage-ment systems; preparation of management plans.
ADMINISTRATION 100 hrs. Structure and organization of government and ministriesand forest organization; channels and methods of commu-nication; stores and financial procedures; personnelmanagement.
SILVICULTURAL Organization and administration of research projects;RESEARCH 70 hrs, arboretum; species trials; crop performance trials;
collection and analysis of data.
PATHOLOGY 50 hrs. Important tree diseases and their causes; recognition;prevention; treatment.
WORK STUDY 50 hrs. Work measurement; day work; task work; piece work;setting and achieving targets.
(Appendix 2, cont.)
YEAR 2
TERM 2.1
FOREST J;X;OLOGY
SILVICULTURE IV
AGROFORESTRY
FOREST J;X;ONOMICS
FOREST ENGINEERIRl
TJ;X;HNICAL REPOR'l'-WRITm:l
70 hrs.
60 hrs.
60 hrs.
50 hrs.
70 hrs.
40 hrs.
- 66 -
Recognition and classification of plant communities; succession; forest structure, etc.
Silvicultural techniques in arid, semi-arid and mo~ tainous areas.
Management of forests in conjunction with agricultural requirement s.
Economics of forest operations; product ion, conversion and marketing of forest products.
Road alignment and construct ion; culverts; bridges, etc.
Content and format of technical reports.
Term followed by 2 weeks of practioal exeroises in Ecology, Agroforestry or forestry in semi-arid or mountainous aref'.s, and road alignment and construction.
TERM 2.2
FOREST ~IANAGEMENT
FOREST EX'l'ENSICN AND COOMUNITY FORESTRY
FOREST ENGINEERING
FOREST TREE IMPROVEMENT
ENTOMOLOGY
70 hrs.
100 hrs.
70 hrs.
60 hrs.
50 hrs.
Forest management techniques; inventory control; data collection and presentation techniques.
Extension techniques; investigation, definition and implementation of community projects.
Simple building construction and water supplies.
Genetic principles and implementation of tree improvement programmes.
Anatomy, phySiology and olassification of insects; stu~
of some important orders of insects; prevention and control of insect damage.
Term followed by 2 weeks of practical exercises in Community Forest~ and Engineering.
TERM 2,3
FOREST MANAGEMENT
ADMINISTRATICN
SILVICULTURAL RESEARCH
PATHOLOGY
WORK STUDY
70 hrs.
100 hrs.
70 hrs.
50 hrs.
50 hrs.
Collection and analysis of data; application of management systems; preparation of management plans.
Structure and organization of government and ministries and forest organization; channels and methods of communication; stores and financial procedures; personnel management.
Organization and administration of research projects; arboretum; species trials; crop performance trials; collection and analYSis of data.
Important tree diseases and their causes; recognition; prevention; treatment.
Work measurement; day work; task work; piece work; setting and achieving targets.
(Appendix 2, cont.)
2.2 CORE CURRICULUM; TwoYear Diploma Course (including Basic Studies Courses)
6 terms of 10 weeks each with 2 weeks practical exercises and 2 weeks vacation afterthe first, second, fourth and fifth terms and 8 weeks field work and 6 weeks vacation af-ter the third term (or any alternative distribution of practical exercises/field work tosuit local conditions).
YEAR 1
TERM 1.1
BOTANY I 50 hrs. Plant morphology.
CHEMISTRY 60 hrs. Introduction; measurements and concepts; weight rela-tionships; structure; bonding; gases; solutions;equilibrium; organic chemistry.
MATHEMATICS 60 hrs. Forest calculations and basic statistics.
SILVICULTURE I 60 hrs. Seed production and collection; nursery practice.
UTILIZATION I 50 hrs. Care and use of common forest tools and working techniques.
FOREST SOILS 40 hrs. Development and structure of forest soils.
LANGUAGE STUDIES 30 hrs. Improvement studies in use of official language; corres-pondence.
Term followed by 2 weeks of practical exercises in silviculture and use of commonforest tools.
TERM 1.2
BOTANY II 50 hrs. Plant physiology.
PHYSICS 60 hrs. Vectors and balances; motion; work; energy; power;gases; angular motion; vibratory motion; heat; mass;density; light; electro statics.
SILVICULTURE II 70 hrs. Plantation establishment and maintenance techniques.
UTILIZATION II 70 hrs. Forest operations, harvesting and extraction techniques.
LANGUAGE STUDIES 30 hrs. Technical reportwriting.
FOREST SOILS 40 hrs. Soil nutrients and relations to plants; field soil des-criptions.
FIRST AID AND HEALTH Simple firstaid procedures; safe working procedures;AND SAFETY 30 hrs, diet, etc.
Term followed by 2 weeks practical exercises in plantation establishment and main-tenance techniques and harvesting techniques.
TERM
DENDROLOGY 60 hrs.
SILVICULTURE III 60 hrs.
UTILIZATION III 60 hrs.
- 67 -
Study of species and composition of forest types.
Silviculture of indigenous forests and regenerationsystems.
Wood technology; requirements and processes of forestindustries.
- 67 -
(Appendix 2, cont.)
2.2 CORE CURRICULUM: Two-Year Diploma Course (including Basic Studies Courses)
6 terms of 10 weeks each with 2 weeks practical exercises and 2 weeks vacation after the first, second, fourth and fifth terms and 8 weeks field work and 6 weeks vacation after the third term (or any alternative distribution of practical exercises/field work to suit local conditions).
YEAR 1
Tl!RM 1,1
BOTANY I
CHEMISTRY
MATHEMATICS
SILVICULTURE I
UTILlZATION I
FOREST SOILS
LANGUAGE STUDIES
50 hrs.
60 hrs.
60 hrs.
60 hrs.
50 hrs.
40 hrs.
30 hrs.
Plant morphology.
Introduction; measurements and concepts; tionships; structure; bonding; gases; equilibrium; organic chemistry.
Forest calculations and basic statistics.
weight relasolutions;
Seed production and colleotion; nursery practice.
Care and use of common forest tools and working techniques.
Development and structure of forest soils.
Improvement studies in use of official language; correspondence.
Term followed by 2 weeks of practical exercises in silviculture and use of common forest tools.
Tl!RM 1.2
BOTANY II
PHYSICS
SILVICULTURE II
UTILlZATION II
LANGUAGE STUDIES
FOREST SOILS
FIRST AID AND HEALTH AND SAFETY
50 hrs.
60 hrs.
70 hrs.
70 hrs.
30 hrs.
40 hrs.
30 hrs.
Plant physiology.
Vectors and balances; motion; work; energy; power; gases; angular motion; vibratory moticn; heat; mass; density; light; electro-statics.
Plantation establishment and maintenance techniques.
Forest operations, harvesting and extracticn techniques.
Technical report-writing.
Soil nutrients and relati ons to plants; field soil descriptiOns.
Simple first-aid procedures; safe working procedures; diet, etc.
Term followed by 2 weeks practical exercises in plantation establishment and maintenance techniques and harvesting techniques.
TERM 1.3
DENrnOLOGY
SILVICULTURE III
UTILlZATION III
60 hrs.
60 hrs.
60 hrs.
Stuqy of species and composition of forest types.
Silviculture of indigenous forests and regeneration systems.
Wood technology; requirements and processes of forest industri es.
(Appendix 2, cont.)
(Term 1.3)
SURVEYING I 70 hrs. Common surveying instruments and techniques; preparationof plans and calculation of area.
FOREST MENSURATION I 60 hrs. Measurement of forest produce and individual trees.
POLICY AND LAW 40 hrs.
Term followed by 8 weeks of field exercises in silviculture and mensuration, andvisits to forest industries.
YEAR 2
TM 2.1
FOREST ECOLOGY 50 hrs. Recognition and classification of plant communities, suc-cession, forest structure, etc.
FOREST INDUSTRIES 30 hrs. Effect of trees on climate, water, soil, with referenceto management of water yields.
SILVICULTURE IV 50 hrs. Silviculture techniques in arid, semiarid and mountainousareas.
AGROFORESTRY 40 hrs. Management of forests in conjunction with agriculturalrequirements.
FOREST ECONOMICS 40 hrs. Economics of forest operations; production, conversionand marketing of forest products.
FOREST MENSURA-TION II 70 hrs. Measurement of forests; sampling and inventory techniques.
FOREST ENGINEER-ING I 70 hrs. Road alignment and construction; culverts, bridges, etc.
Term followed by 2 weeks of practical exercises in ecology, inventory techniques andagroforestry or forestry in arid and semiarid areas as appropriate.
Ta?/4 2.2
FOREST MANAGEMENT 70 hrs. Forest management techniques; inventory control; datacollection and presentation techniques.
FOREST EXTENSION AND Extension techniques, investigation, definition and im-COMMUNITY FORESTRY 100 hrs. plementation of community projects.
FOREST ENGINEERING 70 hrs. Simple building construction and water supplies.
FOREST TREEIMPROVEMMNT 60 hrs.
-68-
Review of forest policy in relation to national objectivesand fundamentals of local forest laws and legal procedures.
Genetic principles and implementation of tree improve-ment programmes.
ENTOMOLOGY 50 hrs. Anatomy, physiology and classification of insects; studyof some important orders of insects; prevention andcontrol of insect damage.
Term followed by 2 weeks of practical exercises in Community Forestry and Engineering.
TERM 2.3
FOREST MANAGEMENT 70 hrs. Collection and analysis of data; application of manage-ment systems; preparation of management plans.
(Appendix 2, cont.)
(Term 1.3)
SURVEYING I 70 hrs.
FOREST ~TION I 60 hrs.
POLICY AND LAW 40 hrs.
Term followed by 8 weeks visits to forest industries.
YEAR 2
TERM 2.1
FOREST EXlOLOOY 50 hrs.
FOREST INDUSTRIES 30 hrs.
SILVICULTURE IV 50 hrs.
AGROFORESTRY 40 hrs.
FOREST EXlONOMICS 40 hrs.
FOREST MENSURA-TION II 70 hrs.
FOREST ENGINEER-ING I 70 hrs.
of
-68-
Common surveying instruments and techniques; preparation of plans and calculation of area.
Measurement of forest produce and individual trees.
Review of forest policy in relation to national objectives and fundamentals of local forest laws and legal procedures.
field exercises in silviculture and mensuration, and
Recognition and classification of plant communities, succession, forest structure, etc.
Effect of trees On climate, water, soil, with referenoe to management of water yields.
Silviculture techniques in arid, semi-arid and mountainous areas.
~lanagement of forests in conjunction with a,sricultural requirements.
Economics of forest operations; production, conversion and marketing of forest products.
Measurement of forests; sampling and inventory techniques.
Road alignment and construction; culverts, bridges, etc.
Term follow"ed by 2 weeks of practical exercises in ecology, inventory techniques and agroforestry or forest~ in arid and semi-arid areas as appropriate.
TERM 2.2
FOREST MANAGEMENT
FOREST EXTENSION AND COMMUNITY FORESTRY
FOREST ENGINEERING
FOREST TREE IMPROvmENl'
ENTOMOLCGY
70 hrs.
100 hrs.
70 hrs.
60 hrs.
50 hrs.
Forest management techniques; inventory control; data collection and presentation techniques.
Extension techniques, investigation, definition and implementation of community projects.
Simple building construction and water supplies.
Genetic prinCiples and implementation of tree improvement programmes.
Anatomy, physiology and classification of insects; study of some important orders of insects; prevention and control of insect damage.
Term followed by 2 weeks of practical exercises in Community Forestr,y and Engineering.
TERM 2.3
FOREST MANAGEMENT 70 hrs. Collect ion and analysiS of data; application of management systems; preparation of ~~agement plans.
ADVANCED SILVICUL-TURE
SILVICULTURERESEARCH
2.3 CORE CURRICULUM: OneYear Senior Technicians' Course (following service in thefield as a Junior Technician)
3 terms of 10 weeks each with 2 week.s of tours or practical exercises and 2 weeksvacation after the first and second terms and 6 weeks tour or field study programme afterthe third term.
HEALTH AND SAFETY/ERGONOMICS ANDWORK EniaCIENCY 40 hrs.
PRIVATE STUDY 30 hrs.
Term followed by 2 weeks study tour of selected forest areas to see examples of re-cent developments studied in class.
TERM 2
- 69 -
Structure and organization of government and ministriesand forest organization; channels and methods of com-munication; stores and financial procedures; personnelmanagement.
Organization and administration of research projects;arboretum; species trials; crop performance trials;collection and analysis of data.
Important tree diseases and their causes; recognition;prevention and treatment.
Work measurement; day work; task work; piece work;setting and achieving targets.
Review of recent developments in techniques in planta-tions and natural forest silviculture; organization andplanning of silvicultural operations; records.
Review of recent developments in working techniques andextraction methods; new and developing forest indus-tries; requirements of material; planning operationsto meet requirements of industry;
Review of standard procedures; improved instruments;costs; operating procedures, etc. Introduction toprecise surveying and levelling.
Review of recent developments in techniques and equip-ment; planning and organizing inventories to achievestandards of accuracy.
Review of recent developments; review of work practicesto improve efficiency.
Reading or initial investigation of a topic for privateinvestigation and report.
Review of existing silvicultural techniques in certain70 hrs. selected areas. Evaluation of results in relation to
cost and personnel requirements; study of possiblevariations in objectives or techniques; study of pos-sible amended )rocedures for monitoring success.
Planning and layout of experiments; assessment tech-70 hrs. niques; checking and verification of data; maintenance
of records; formulation of proposals for additionalresearch.
TERM 1
SILVICULTURE 70 hrs.
UTILIZATICN 70 hrs.
SURVEYING 70 hrs.
MENSURATION 70 hrs.
(Appendix 2, cont.)
(Term 2.3)
ADMINISTRATION 100 hrs.
SILVICULTURALRESEARCH 70 hrs.
PATHOLOGY 50 hrs.
WORK STUDY 50 hrs.
(Appendix 2, cont.)
(Term 2.3)
ADMINISTRATION
SILVICULTURAL RESEARCH
PATHOLOOY
WORK STUDY
100 hrs.
70 hrs.
50 hrs.
50 hrs.
- 69 -
Structure and organization of government and ministries and forest organization; channels and methods of communication; stores and financial procedures; personnel management.
Organization and administration of research projects; arboretum; species trials; crop performance trials; collection and analysis of data.
Important tree diseases and their causes; recognition; prevention and treatment.
Work measurement; day work; task work; piece work; setting and aohieving targets.
2.3 CORE CURRICULUl>I: One-Year Senior Technicians t Course (following service in the field as a Junior Technician)
3 terms of 10 weeks each with 2 weeks of tours or practical exercises and 2 weeks vacation after the first and second terms and 6 '-leeks tour or field study progranune after t he third term.
Tl'RI~ 1
SILVICULTURE
UTILIZATI<l1
SURVEYING
MENSURATION
HEALTH AND SAPFJrY/ l'RGONmIICS AND WORK EFFICIENCY
PRIVATE STUDY
70 hrs.
70 hrs.
70 hrs.
70 hrs.
40 hrs.
30 hrs.
Review of recent developments in techniques in plantations and natural forest Silviculture; organization ar.d planning of silvicultural operations; records.
Review of recent developments in working techniques and extraction methods; new and developing forest industries; requirements of material; planning operations to meet requirements of industry;
Review of standard procedures ; improved instruments; costs; operating procedures, etc. Introduction to precise surveying and levelling.
RevisH of recent developments in techniques and equipment; planning and organizing inventories to achieve standards of accuracy.
Revier1 of recent developments; review of work practices to imp~ove efficiency.
Reading or initial investigation of a topic for private investigation and report.
Term followed by 2 weeks study tour of selected forest areas to see examples of recent developments studied in class.
TERM 2
ADVANCED SILVICULTURE
SILVICULTURE R.SSEARCH
70 hrs.
70 hrs.
Review of existing silvicultural techniques in certain selected areas . Evaluation of results in relation to cost and personnel requirements; study of possible variat ions in objectives or techniquesj study of possible amended )rocedures for monitoring success.
Planning and lay- out of experiments; niques; checking and verification of of records ; fonnulation of proposals research.
assessment techdatai maintenance for additional
(Appendix 2, cont.)
(Term 2)
FOREST MANAGEMENT
ADVANCED UTILIZATIONAND ENGINEERING 70 hrs.
PRIVATE STUDY
Term followed by 2 weeks detailed field study of major silviculturall management,utilization or research area, to gain experience in new techniques.
TERM 3
ADMINISTRATION. 100 hrs. Review of processes of administration within the organi-zation; review of administrative procedures outside thepublic sector; critical examination of any apparentweaknesses; proposals for improved procedures.
Study of improved budgeting techniques and expendi-ture control; presentation of data in tabular and gra-phic form.
Case studies in stores and personnel problems;assessment of performance and personnel report-writing.
EXTENSION/COMMUNITY Case studies of some existing projects; Evaluation ofFORESTRY 100 hrs, results in relation to costs; definition of problems;
formulation of alternative targets or methods of approach.
OPTIONAL COURSES
- 70 -
70 hrs Detailed study of selected ongoing management plans;review of proposals and achievements to date; presenta-tion of data in tabular and graphic forms; review ofstaffing, finance and equipment in relation to objec-tives; revision of at least one selected plan.
Review of new equipment available; evaluation of anypossible cost benefits in purchasing it. Preparationof training programes for staff in new techniques/tools;efficiency/productivity tests to quantify benefits.
70 hrs. Reading; field study; collection of data on a specifictopic of relevance to the student's work.
Public relations techniques for public organizations.
Presentation of documents, etc. for legal action.
Map production; visual presentation of data.
Familiarization with office machines in current use.
Reading, field study; collection of data on a specifictopic of relevance to the student's work. Continuationof previous term's work. Continuation of previous termlswork or new topic.
Term followed by 6 weeks field study programme. 3-4 weeks tailored to students' par-ticular interests in technical matters with at least 2 weeks study of administrative pro-cedures in regional or central offices.
PUBLIC RELATIONSOR 40 hrs.
LEGAL PROCEDURES
MAPPING AND PRESEN-TATION OF DATA
OR 40 hrs.USE OF OLIPICE MA-CHINES AND EQUIPMENT
PRIVATE STUDY 70 hrs.
(Appendix 2, cont.)
(Term 2)
FOREsr MANAGEf4:ENT 70 hrs
ADVANCED UTILIZATION AND ENGINEERING 70 hrs.
PRIVATE STUDY 70 hrs.
- 70 -
Detailed study of selected ongoing managernent plans; review of proposals and achievements to date; presentation of data in tabular and graphic forms; review of staffi ng, finance and equipment in relation to objectives; revision of at least one selected plan.
Review of new equipment available; evaluation of a~ possible cost benefits in purchasing it. Preparation of traini~ programmes for staff in new techniques/tools; efficiency/productivity tests to quantify benefits.
Reading; field stu~; collection of data on a specific topic of relevance to the student's work.
TerJU followed by 2 weeks detailed field study of major silvicultural, mans,gement, utilization or research area, to gain experience in new techniques.
TERM 3
ADMINIsrRATION ' 100 hrs.
ExrENSION/COMMUNITY FORESTRY 100 hrs.
OPl'IONAl COURSES
PUBLIC RELATIONS OR 40 hrs.
LEGAL PROCEDURES
MAPPING AND PRESENTATION OF DATA
OR 40 hrs. USE OF OFFICE lolACHINES AND EQUI PMENT
PRIVATE STUDY 70 hrs.
Review of processes of administration within the organization; review of administrative procedures outside the public sector; critical examination of any apparent weaknesses; proposals for improved procedures.
study of ture control; proc form.
improved budgeting techniques and expen<lipresentation of data in tabular and gra-
Case studies in stores and personnel problems; assessment of performance and personnel report-writing.
Case studies of some existing projects; evaluation of results in relation to costs; definition of problems; formulation of alternative targets or methods of approach.
Public relations techniques for public organizations.
Presentation of documents, etc. for legal action.
Map production; visual presentation of data.
F~liarization with office machines in current use.
Reading, field study; collection of data on a specific topic of relevance to the student1s work. Continuation of previ ous term1s work. Continuation of previous term~s work or nel" t opic.
Term followed by 6 weeks field study programme. 3-4 weeks tailored to students' particular interests in technical matters with at least 2 weeks stuqy of administrative procedures in regional or central offices.
1
71
APPENDIX 3
COURSE : SILVICULTURE C.100
SECTION: PLANTATIONS C.111
COURSE OBJECTIVES
Po teach the standard procedures adopted in establishing and tending plantations ofsoftwoods and other fastgrowing species within the country.
ACHIEVEMENT TARGETS
After completing the course a student should be able to:
Verify that a si-te is suitable for the species and objectives of the plantation;
prepare the site for planting;
carry out the liningout, hole digging and planting operations required;
carry out all weeding and tending operations prescribed, including pruning;
calculate the number of trees to be marked at each thinning by the method prescribed;
select trees to be thinned on proper silvicultural grounds and carry out the thinning.
CLASSWORK
111.0 Plantations
Introduction; reasons for establishment.
1.1 Choice of site; objects; available sites; transport.
1.2 Choice of species; objects of plantations; site factors.
2.0 Preparations for Planting
2.1 Water control; clearing in grassland, forest, swamps.
2.2 Preparation of ground; spot and strip hoeing; strip ploughing;clean hoeing; complete ploughing; disc harrowing.
2.3 Spacing; silvicultural and economic considerations.
2.4 Liningout on flat sites; on steep hills.
3.0 Planting Operations
3.1 Lifting, transporting and distributing plants; time of planting;methods; stock check; survivor count; beating up; use of insecti-cides.
4.0 Weed Control
Objects of weed control.
4.1 Methods; clean hoeing; harrowing; strip and spot hoeing; slashing andtrampling; chemical weed control; use of cover crops; climber cutting.
4
5
2
2
Ref. TOPIC Hours
- 71 -
APPENDIX 3
COURSE: SILVICULTURE - C.100
SECTION: PLANTATIONS C.111
COORSE ON ECT IVES
To teach the standard procedures adopted in establishing and tending plantations of softwoods and other fast-growing species within the country.
ACHIEVEMENT TARGETS
After completing the courSe a student should be able to:
(1) Verify that a site is suitable for the species and objectives of the plantation;
(2) prepare the site for planting ;
(3) carry out the lining-out, hole digging and planting operations required;
(4) carry out all weeding and tending operations prescribed, including pruning;
(5) calculate the number of trees to be marked at each thinning by the method prescribed;
(6) select trees to be thinned on proper silvicultural grounds and carry out the thinning.
CLASSI,ORK
Ref. TOPIC
111.0 Plantations
Introduction; reasons for establishment .
1.1 Choice of site; objects; available 61 tes; transport.
1.2 Choice of species; objects of plantations; site factors.
2.0 Preparations for Planting
2.1 Water control; clearing in grassland, forest, swamps.
2.2 Preparation of ground; spot and strip hoeing; strip ploughing; clean hoeing; complete ploughing; disc harrowing.
2.3 Spacing; silvicultural and economic considerations.
2.4 Lining-out on flat sites; on steep hills.
Hours
4
5
3.0 Planting Operations 2
3.1 Lifting, transporting and di stributing plants; time of planting; methods; stock check; survivor count; beating up; use of insecticides.
4.0 Weed Control
Objects of weed control.
Methods; clean hoeing; harrowing; trampling; chemical weed control;
strip and spot hoeing; slashing and USe of cover crops; climber cutting.
2
(Appendix 3, cont.)
5.0 Pruning
Definition and objects of pruning.
5.1 Types of pruning; rodent/climber pruning; access; 1st and and highprunings; method; season; pruning schedules for softwoods; pruninghardwoods.
6.0 Thinning
Definition and objects; silvicultural and mechanical thinning.
6.1 Basic ideas; classification of trees; principles; degree of thinning;cycle; dangers of over or underthinning; yield.
6.2 Selection of thinmings in plantations; small plot method; calculations;selection and marking in the field; selection for 2nd and 3rd thinnings,stock check before 3rd thinning; rate of work; felling.
7.0 Eucalyptus Pole, Fuelwood and Timber Plantations
Economic considerations.
7.1 Choice of site; ground preparation; spacing; weeding; pruning andthinning; eucalyptus timber crops.
8.0 Hardwood Plantations
Past efforts.
Unallocated
72
DEMONSTRATIONS AND PRACTICAL EXERCISES
FULLDAY PRACTICAL EXERCISES
2
6
2
1
3
Ref. TOPIC Hours
Ref. TOPIC Hours
2.1 Clearing before planting 2
2.2 Liningout on flat sites and steep slopes 6
4.1 Weed control, methods of weeding 2
5.1 Pruning, demonstration 46.2 Selection of thinnings by small plot method 4
Ref. TOPIC Days
2.1 Clearing in grassland 4
2.2 Preparation of ground, ploughing2.4 Liningout on flat sites and steep slopes 10
3.1 Planting, stockchecking4.1 Weed control, climber cutting5.1 All types of pruning 3601 Thinning selection7.1 Eucalyptus planting
- 72 -
(Appendix 3, cont.)
Ref. TOPIC
5.0 Pruning
Definition and objects of pruning.
Types of pruning; prunings; method; hardwoods.
rodent/climber pruning; access; 1st and 2nd high season; pruning schedules for softwoods; pruning
6.0 Thinning
Definition and objects; silvicultural and mechanical thinning.
6.1 Basic ideas; classification of trees; principles; degree of thinning; cycle; dangers of over- or underthinning; yield.
6.2 Selection of thinnings in plantations; small plot method; oalculations; selection and marking in the field; selection for 2nd and 3rd thinnings, stock check before 3rd thinning; rate of work; felling.
7.0 Eucalyptus Pole. Fuelwood and Timber Plantations
Economic considerations.
7.1 Choioe of site; ground preparation; spacing; weeding; pruning and thinning; eucalyptus timber crops.
B.o Hardwood Plantations
Past efforts.
Unallocated
DEMONSTRATIONS AND PRACTICAL EXERCISES
Ref. TOPIC
2.1 Clearing before planting 2.2 Lining-out on flat sites and steep slopes 4.1 Weed control, methods of weeding 5.1 Pruning, demonstration 6.2 Selection of thinnings by small plot method
FULL-DAY PRACTICAL EXERCISES
Ref. TOPIC
2.1 Clearing in grassland 2.2 Preparation of ground, ploughing 2.4 Lining-out on flat sites and steep slopes 3.1 Planting, stock-checking 4.1 Weed control, climber cutting 5.1 All types of pruning 6 0 1 Thinning selection 7.1 Eucalyptus planting
Hours
2
6
2
3
Hours
2 6 2 4 4
Days
4
10
3
- 73 -
APPENDIX 4
METHODOLOGY FOR ASSESSING TRAINED MANPOWER REQUIREMENTSFOR FORESTRY AND RELATOD INDUSTRIES
Manpower planning may be described as a systematic attempt aimed at maintaining andimproving the ability of an organization to achieve its stated objectives through the de-velopment of strategies designed to enhance the contribution of manpower at all times andin the foreseeable future. It is of vital importance for the formulation of sensible edu-cation and training policies. It is also a valuable management tool for career development,promotion, setting forth a realistic recruitment policy and establishing sound labour re-lations.
The quantitative aspect of manpower planning has three main components: (1) deter-mination of the numbers of trained people actually employed, (2) assessment of trainedmanpower requirements in the light of clearly defined development targets for the sectorand (3) translation of requirements into educational and training needs.
Determining the demand for trained manpower is the most difficult as well as the mostimportant step. The needs can be estimated fairly accurately over time, given certainbasic data. However, the actual demand, especially in the public forestry sector, which,in developing countries, is always the largest employer of trained forestry manpower, de-pends also on other factors, mainly financial ones. Ultimately, it is finance which de-termines what is possible rather than desirable for effective operation.
The particular characteristics of forestry and forest industries that influence man-power needs of this sector have been fully described by Professor S.D. Richardson 1/ in
his original work in this field. These special features can be summarized as follows:
Forestry is involved in several sectors of the economy, notably the industrialand service sectors, as well as the rural sector.
Forestry shows a wide range of capital/labour ratios, from labourintensive fo-rest establishment and management to capitalintensive industries, such asmodern paper mills and automated fibreboard plants.
The essential feature of forestry is its longterm nature. This gives it a re-latively poor competitive status for finance in the absence of quick returns.Also, forests are not movable assets in that their location is determined by thephysical and biological environment. These features increase the difficultiesof finding and applying any really universal norms for manpower requirements forforest production.
In contrast to agriculture, where rising labourforce numbers frequently limitthe production structure adopted, forestry can usually operate according toeconomic criteria and capital output ratios. In these conditions, manpower re-quirements can be linked to productivity per unit area or per forest product unit,provided the necessary basic data are available.
The changing nature and concepts of forestry production in the world are havingsignificant effects on the presentday role and training of foresters, as wellas on the structure of forestry administrations.
1/ Richardson, S.D.: "Manpower and Training Requirements in Forestry DevelopmentPlanning". FAO, Rome.
- 73 -
APPENDIX 4
MErHODOLCGY FOR ASSESSn~ TRATNED MANPOWER REQUIREMENTS FOR FOREsrRY AND RELATED INDUSTRIES
Manpower planning may be described as a systematic attempt aimed at maintaining and improving the ability of an organization to achieve its stated objectives through the development of strategies designed to enhance the contribution of manpower at all times and in the foreseeable fUture. It is of vital importance for the formulation of sensible education and training policies. It is also a valuable management tool for career development, promotion, setting forth a realistic recruitment policy and establishing sound labour relations.
The quantitative aspect of manpower planning has three main components: (1) determination of the numbers of trained people actually employed, (2) assessment of trained manpower requirements in the light of clearly defined development targets for the sector and (3) translation of requirements into educational and training needs.
Determining the demand for trained manpower is the most difficult as well as the most important step. The needs can be estimated fairly accurately over time, given certain basic data. Bowever, the actual demand, espeoially in the public forestry sector, which, in developing countries, is alw~s the largest employer of trained forestry manpower, depends also on other factors, mainly financial ones. Ultimately, it is finance which determines ,"That is possible rather than desirable for effective operation.
The particular charaoteristics of forestry and forest industries that influenoe manpower needs of this sector have been fully described by Professor S.D. Richardson 11 in his original work in this field. These special features can be summarized as f ollows:
1. Forestry is involved in several sectors of the econo~, notably the industrial and service sectors, as well as the rural sector.
2. Forestry shm'1s a ,"ride range of capital/labour ratios, from labour-intensive forest establishment and management to capital-intensive industries, such as modern paper mills and automated fibreboard plants.
3. The essential feature of forestry is its long-term nature. This gives it a relatively poor competitive status for finance in the absence of quick returns. Also, forests are not movable assets in that their location is determined by the physical and biological environment. These features increase the difficulties of finding and applying any really universal norms for manpower requirements for forest production.
4. In contrast to agriculture, where rising labour-force numbers frequently limit the production structure adopted, forestry can usually operate according to economic criteria and capit al output ratios. In these conditions, manpower requirements can be linked to productivity per unit area or per forest product unit, provided the necessary basic data are available.
5. The changing nature and concepts of forestry production in the world are having significant effects on the present~ role and training of foresters, as well as on the structure of forestry administrations.
11 Richardson, S.D.: "Manpower and Training Requirements in Forestry Development Plarmingll. FAO, Rome.
- 74 -
(Appendix 4, cont.)
6. Forestry education and training covers many aspects, e.g. wildlife management,erosion control, inventory and surveying, sawmill engineering, produce processing,as well as tree crop production. This creates a difficulty in attempting totranslate numerical manpower requirements into a meaningful occupational classi-fication, and the need for flexibility in forestry training programmes.
Classification of forestry Operations
Because of the diversity of forestry activities, some broad classification is neces-sary as a preliminary step in making an assessment of manpower requirements. Details ofsuch a classification may well vary from country to country, depending on the range oftheir forestry and related operations.
A widely used classification is that evolved by H.A. Hilmi precisely for this purpose.This has the following groupings:
Plantations: covering a) establishment of new forest plantations and relatedoperations; b) management of existing plantations.
Natural forests: management for production only. It is considered that manage-ment costs on extensive areas of variable tropical forests would not be justi-fied except for identifiable benefits (see under multipleuse forestry below).
Industrial wood supply: felling, logging and transport operations to supplyall major forest industries, but also including fuelwood production and bambooproduction.
Forest industries: usually subdivided into a) sawmilling; b) woodbased panelindustries; c) wood pulp industry, depending on what exists or is planned.
y) Multipleuse forestry: including the needs of torrent control, soil and waterconservation in mountain areas; protection against encroachment, fire, pestsand diseases; forestry aspects of shifting cultivation (agroforestry); naturereserves, national parks, recreation, game reserves and wildlife management 1/.
vi) Ancillary activities: covering a variety of activities not readily quantifiablein terms of manpower requirements; e.g. forest administration, servicing andplanning; research, development and extension; education and training; otheroperations not covered above in items i) v).
Having established a suitable breakdown of the overall pattern of forestry operationsin any one country, the next step is to quantify, as far as possible, each in appropriateunits of area, volume or weight. Essential for this purpose as a means of estimating man-power requirements is the existence of a forestry development plan which should establishproduction targets for 15-20 years ahead. The more realistic and detailed the plan, themore accurate the manpower estimates are likely to be.
Method for estimating trained manpower requirements for forestry
Where there is wide diversity and intensity of manual operations to cater for in man-power planning work of this kind, the logical approach is to determine first the workforcerequirements or labour norms for each forestry operation, and then to apply practicablesupervision ratios to assess the numbers of trained personnel needed at each level. This,together with the inclusion of labour productivity factors, was the basis of the forestrymanpower methodology evolved by Richardson. Unfortunately, few countries have yet accumu-lated the time series of statistical data needed, so simpler methods have had to be em-ployed meantime.
1/ A new methodology is now being developed for assessing trained manpower requirementsfor wildlife and national parks management.
- 74 -
(Appendix 4, cont.)
6. Forestr,y education and training COVers many aspects, e.g. wildlife management, erosion control, inventory and surveying, sawmill engineering, produce processing, as well as tree crop production. This creates a difficulty in attempting to translate numerical manpower requirements into a meaningful occupational classification, and the need for flexibility in forestr,y training programmes.
Classification of forestrY 9perations
Because of the diversity of forestry activities, some broad classification is necess~ as a preliminary step in making an assessment of manpower requirements. Details of such a classification may well vary from country to country, depending on the range of their forestry and related operations.
A widely used classification is that evolved by H.A. Hilmi precisely for this purpose. This has the following groupings:
i) Plantations: covering a) establishment of new forest plantations and related operations; b) management of existing plantations.
ii) Natural forests: management for production only. It is considered that management costs on extensive areas of variable tropical forests would not be justified except for identifiable benefits (see under multiple-use forestry below).
iii) Industrial wood supply: felling, logging and transport operations to supply
iV)
all major forest industries, but also including fUelwood productio? and bamboo production.
Forest industries: usually sub-divided into a) sawmdlling; industries; c) wood pulp industry, depending on what exists
b) wood-based panel or is planned.
v) Multiple-use forestry. including the needs of torrent control, soil and water conservation in mountain areas; protection against encroachment, fire, pests and diseases; forestry aspects of shifting cultivation (agroforestry); nature reserves, national parks, recreation, game reserves and wildlife management 1/.
vi) Ancillary activities: covering a variety of activities not readily quantifiable in terms of manpower requirements; e.g. forest administration, servicing and planning; research, development and extension; education and training; other operations not covered above in items i) - v).
Having .established a sui table breakdown of the overall pattern of forestry operations in any one country, the next step is to quantify, as far as possible, each in appropriate units of area, volume or weight. Essential for this purpose as a means of estimating manpower requirements is the existence of a forestry development plan which should establish production targets for 15-20 years ahead. The more realistic and detailed the plan, the more accurate the manpower estimates are likely to be.
Method for estimating trained manpower requirements for forestry
Where there is wide diversity and intensity of manual operations to cater for in manpower planning work of this kind, the logical approach is to determine first the workforce requirements - or labour norms - for each forestry operation, and then to apply practicable supervision ratios to asseSs the numbers of trained personnel needed at each level. This, together with the inclusion of labour productivity factors, waS the basis of the forestry manpower methodology evolved by Richardson. Unfortunately, few countries have yet accumulated the time series of statistical data needed, so simpler methods have had to be employed meantime.
11 A new methodology is now being developed for asseSSing trained manpower requirements for wildlife and national parks management.
75
(Appendix 4, cont.)
To fill the gap, Hilmi devised a series of empirical norms for technicallevel per-sonnel, based on forest area or forest products. The numbers of professional personnelwere estimated by applying empirical ratios to the numbers of technical personnel. Thesenorms and supervision ratios are reproduced in full below. They are based largely on datadrawn from countries of the Asian region and considered to be workable averages for broadmanpower planning purposes. In the present context, however, their use is mainly illus-trative, so that the figures given should be revised where necessary by and for each in-dividual country in the light of experience and to accommodate technological advances andchanging socioeconomic conditions.
Proposed work norms for forestry technicians
a) Plantations
Establishment of new plantations (including related operations):1 technician per 200 ha.
Management of existing plantations:1 technician per 1,000 ha.
b) Natural forests
Take the total number of technicians estimated for all five norms of item c)below (industrial wood supply) and multiply this number by the percentage ofindustrial wood production from natural forests. This proportion is taken asindicating the level of management intensity required, as well as being thefactor from which to derive the numbers of technicians needed.
c) Industrial wood supply (felling, logging and transport)
0 For log production (sawlogs, logs for plywood, veneer, sleepers):1 technician per 10,000 mi of roundwood removals per annum. 2/
ii) For production of other industrial wood (pulpwood, poles, pitprops, for pro-duction of boards,1 technician per 30,000 m3 of roundwood removals per annum.
iii) Fuelwood production:1 technician per 100,000 m3 per year of industrial fuelwood.2/
1 technician per 1,000,000 m3 peryear3
of nonindustrial fuelwood.(The figure may be as low as 500,000 m in some localities.) A/
1/ "Needs and Problems of Forestry Education in Asia". FAO/APFC, 8th Session, Seoul,Republic of Korea.
2/ A higher figure of 15,000 m3 per technician was adopted, for example, in the case ofMalaysia and the Philippines because of considerably higher stocking per unit areaof forests as well as higher volume outturn per tree.
,1/ Industrial fuelwood consists of fuelwood used in industries of all kinds, steamboats,railway locomotives, factories, power stations, charcoal kilns, etc. and, generally,fuelwood used for urban consumption or disposed of commercially and requiringstricter supervision and control as opposed to A/ below.
A/ Nonindustrial fuelwood, generally of noncommercial nature or for rural consumption.For example, villages situated close to forests, whether classified as reserve orunclassed public forests, have direct and free access to local forest products, par-ticularly fuelwood, to which the villagers help themselves. This now requires littleor no supervision and control, but such control is expected to increase considerablyin the future.
- 7<; -
(Appendix 4, cont.)
To fill the gap, Hilmi devised a series of empirical norms for technical-level personnel, based on forest area or forest products. The numbers of professional personnel were estimated by applying empirical ratios to the numbers of technical personnel. These norms and supervision ratios are reproduced in full below. They are based largely on data drawn from oountries of the Asian region and considered to be workable averages for broad m~power planning purposes. In the present context, however, their use is mainly illustrative, 80 that the figures given should be revised where necessary by and for each individual country in the light of experience and to accorrunodate teclmological advances and changing Geoio-economic cendi tiona.
f f lm"" j} Proposed work norms or orestry tee lClans
a) Plantations
i) Establishment of new plantations (including related operations)s 1 teclmician per 200 ha.
ii) Management of existing plantations: 1 teclmician per 1 ,000 ha.
b) Natural forests
Take the total number of technicians estimated for all five norms of item c) below (industrial wood supply) and multiply this number by the percentage of industrial wood production from natural forests. This proportion is taken as indicating the level of management intensity required, as well as being the factor from which to derive the numbers of teohnicians needed.
c) Industrial wood supply (felling, logging and transport)
i) For log production (sawlogs, logs for plywood, veneer, sleepers): 1 technician per 10,000 m5 of roundwood removals per annum. £I
ii)
iii)
For produotion of other industrial wood (pulpwood, poles, pitprops, duction of boards, etc.)'3 1 technician per 30,000 m of roundwood removals per annum.
Fuelwood production, 3 'l/ 1 technician per 100,000 m per year of industrial fuelwood • .v 1 teohnioian per 1,000,000 m3 per year
30f non-industrial fuelwood.
(The figure may be as low as 500,000 m in some localities.) &I
for pro-
j} "Needs and Problems of Forestry Education in Asia". FAO/APFG, 8th Session, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
g( A higher figure of 15,000 m3 per technician was adopted, for example, in the case of MalaYSia and the Philippines because of considerably higher stocking per unit area of forests as well as higher volume Qutturn per tree.
J! Industrial fuelwood consists of fuelwood used in industries of all kinds, steamboats, railw~ locomotives, factories, power stations, charcoal kilns, etc. and, generally, fuelwood used for urban consumption or disposed of commercially - and requiring stricter supervision and control - as opposed to AI below.
4/ Non-industrial fuelwQod, generally of non-commercial nature or for rural consumption. For example, villages situated close to forests, whether classified as reserve or unclassed public forests, have direct and free access to local forest products, particularly fuelwood, to which the villagers help themselves. This now requires little or no supervision and control, but such control is expected to increase considerably in the future.
i) Sawmilling:
- 76 -
(Appendix 4, cont.)
iv) Bamboo production1 technician per 30,000 metric tons per annum.
a) Forest industries
1 technician per 25,000 m3 annual input.
Woodbased panel industries:1 technician per 12,500 m3 annual input.
Pulp industry:1 technician per 3,500 metric tons annual output.
Multiple-use forestry
Subjective estimates based on the importance to the country of the fieldsindicated in the classification of forestry operations, item v). In alater manpower study of the same region, Lantican 2/ used a ratio of 1 pro-fessional + 3 technicians for every 40,000 ha. of multiple-use forest.Where agroforestry is a significant feature, special provision may be neededfor forestry extension manpower on a population basis similar to that usedfor agricultural extension work.
Ancillary activities
Add 15 percent of the estimated total personnel employed under a) to e) fordevelopment and extension, research, education and training.
Table 1.- Forestry Personnel - Summary of Supervision Ratios
1/ Bamboos are managed both in plantations and natural forests. In view of their increas-ing importance in the rural economy and as raw material for pulp and paper mills inthe region, more and more skilled personnel will be required.
2/ Lantican, D.M. (1978): "Reappraisal of Forestry Education and Training Needs inSelected Countries in Asia and the Far East". FAO, Rome.
ActivityRatio
Professional/Technical
a) Plantations
1
1
:
:
76
Establishmentii Management
b) Natural forests
Management for production
c) Industrial and wood supply
1 : 8
All types
d) Forest industries
1
1
:
:
8
5i) Sawmillingii) Wood-based panel industries 1 : 3
iii) Pulp industry 1 : 3
e) Multiple-use forestry 4
f) Ancillary activities 1 : 3
- 76 -
(Appendix 4, cant.)
iV) Bamboo production 11 1 technician per 30,000 metric tons per annum. 1
d) Forest industries
i) Sawmilling: 3 1 technician per 25,000 m annual input.
ii) ~'lood-based panel industries: 1 technician per 12,500 m3 annual input.
iii) Pulp industry: 1 teolmician per 3,500 metric tons annual output.
e) Multiple-use forestry
SUbjective estimates based on the importance to the country of the fields indicated in the classification of forestry operations, item v). In a later manpower stuqy of the same region, Lantican g/ used a ratio of 1 professional + 3 technicians for every 40,000 ha. of multiple-use forest. tfhere agroforestry is a significant feature, special provision may be needed for forestry extension manpower on a population basis similar to that used for agricultural extension work.
f) Ancillary activities
Add 15 percent of the estimated total personnel employed under a) to e) for development and extension, research, education and training.
Table 1.- Forestry Personnel - Summary of Supervision Ratios
Activity Ratio Professi~Teohnical
a) Plan:tations
i~~ Establishment 1 7 l.w.nagement 1 6
b) Natural forests
Management for product ion : 8
0) Industrial and wood sU2121;:(
All types 1 8
d) Forest industries
i) Sa'rmi lling 1 5
i~~~ Wood-based panel industries 1 3 Pulp industry 1 3
e) Multiple-use forestry 1 4
f) Ancillary activities 1 3
11 Bamboos are managed both in plantations and natural forests. In view of their increasing importance in the rural economy and as raw material for pulp and paper mi lIs in the region, more and more skilled personnel Hill be required.
£! Lant i can , D.M. (1978): "Reappraisal of Forestry Education and Training Needs in Selected CotL'I1tries in Asia and the Far East ". FAO, Rome.
- 77 -
(Appendix 4, cont.)
Forestry manpower training levels
Planning of trained personnel for forestry development is concerned mainly with threelevels in the operational field of forestry and forest industries: vocational, technicaland professional. A wide diversity of employee nomenclature is used which, because itoften relates more to duties and rank, may confuse the issues for the manpower planner.Richardson, therefore, in giving the following definitions, makes it clear that the termsrefer primarily to levels of training rather than to types of training or kinds of employ-ment, as recommended by the FAO Advisory Committee on Forestry Education.
Vocational: Personnel concerned mainly with the direction of manual labour; theymay have received a formal training of less than six months, or may have been promotedfrom the labour force and given ad hoc short-course training. Such personnel hold a va-riety of ranks and designations in forestry services.
Technical: Formal full-time training is usually for two years, but may range fromone to three years, in a recognized technical institution at below university level.Technicians should be capable of organizing and supervising work in forests and industrialplants and carrying out the instructions of professional foresters, administrators, plantoverseers and research officers. They carry a wide range of designations and duties.Depite these differences in the extent and depth of training and in the variety of workperformed, the usual practice in manpower planning work is to treat technicians as a singlecategory. In some countries, however, there are two distinct technical training levels.For broad planning purposes in such cases, the total estimates of technicians requiredcan be split accordingto t1-1 ratio of 25% "senior" and 75% "junior" levels. This, ofcourse, should be modified to meet the actual availability and utilization patterns foundin any one country.
Professional: University graduates who have completed a minimum of three years' full-time study, or its equivalent, in forestry or related disciplines. This includes holdersof degrees in pure science and in specialist fields, who may be employed in forestry andits industries, e.g. zoologists, botanists, chemists, economists, civil engineers, etc.The denominations of professionals in the forest services are as varied as those for tech-nical personnel. They characterize personnel that should be capable of policy-making orplanning, as a whole or in part, the working of a forest area and, at the highest level,of the national forests of a country or of a specific forest or wood-using industry; andafter proper specialization if necessary, planning and research of all kinds for the pro-motion of forestry and on methods employed by the lumber and wood-using industries.
s.a_tang,ffi ratios
As will be seen from the supervision ratios quoted, Hilmi covers only the professio-nal and technical categories. Lantican, in his later study of the same region, includesa vocational group (forest guards) in his data for actual forestry manpower employed in1977, and a fourth group, skilled labourers, in his estimated requirements. The compara-tive staffing ratios calculated from the figures given in his paper, for each of the sixcountries involved, are shown in the following table.
Table 2 - Asia Pacific Region: Comparative forestry staffing ratios in 1977
1/ Derived from D.4. Lantican, a) refers to actual manpower employed,b) refers to estimated manpower employed.
CategoriesF
a) Actual RatiosP
b) Estimated RatiosT V T V Sk. Lab,
Burma 1 1.98 2.55 1 2.33 6.37 6.62Indonesia 1 1.95 2.83 1 2.96 5.05 7.41Malaysia 1 6.84 9.43 1 2.56 3.76 6.41Philippines 1 1.76 1.26 1 3.10 2.77 7.74Sri Lanka 1 7.09 13.22 1 1.93 2.87 4.82Thailand 1 3.25 0.13 1 2.78 3.62 6.94
1 2.43 1.94 1 2.84 4.61 7.09
- 77 -
(Appendix 4, cont.)
Forestry manpower training levels
Planning of trained personnel for forest~ development is concerned mainly with three levels in the operational field of forest~ and forest industries: vocational, technical and professional. A wide diversity of employee nomenclature is used which, because it often relates more to duties and rank, may confuse the issues for the manpower planner. Richardson, therefore, in giving the following definitions, makes it clear that the terms refer primarily to levels of training rather than to types of training or kinds of employment, as recommended by the FAD Advisory Committee on Forestry Education.
Vocational: Personnel concerned mainly with the direction of manual labour; they may have received a formal training of less than six months, or may have been promoted from the · labour force and given ~ ~ short-course training. Such personnel hold a variety of ranks and designations in forestry services.
Technical: Formal fUll-time training is usually for two years, but may range from one to three years, in a recognized technical institution at below university level. Technicians should be capable of organizing and superviSing work in forests and industrial plants and carrying out the instructions of professional foresters, administrators, plant overseers and research officers. They carry a wide range of designations and duties. Depi te these differences in the extent and depth of training and in the variety of work performed, the usual practice in manpower planning work is to treat technicians as a single category. In some countries, however, there are two distinct technical training levels. For broad planning purposes in such cases, the total estimates of technicians required can be split according to tli, ratio of 25% "senior" and 75% "junior" levels. This, of course, should be modified to meet the actual availability and utilization patterns found in any one country.
Professional: UniverSity graduates who have completed a minimum of three years' fulltime study, or its equivalent, in forestry or related disciplines. This includes holders of degrees in pure science and in specialist fields, who may be employed in forestry and its industries, e.g. zoologists, botanists, chemists, economists, civil engineers, etc. The denominations of professionals in the forest services are as varied as those for technical personnel. They characterize personnel that should be capable of policy-making or planning, as a whole or in part, the working of a forest area and, at the highest level, of the national forests of a country or of a specific forest or wood-using industry; and after proper specialization if necessary, planning and research of all kinds for the promotion of forestry and on methods employed by the lumber and wood-using industries.
Forestry staffing ratios
As will be seen from the supervision ratios quoted, Hilmi covers only the professional and technical categories. Lant i can, in his later stu~ of the same region, includes a vocational group (forest guards) in his data for actual forestry manpower employed in 1977, and a fourth group, skilled labourers, in his estimated requirements. The comparative staffing ratios calculated from the figures given in his paper, for each of the six countries involved, are shown in the following table.
Table 2 - ASia/Pacific Region: Comparative forestry staffing ratios in 1977 11
Categories a) Actual Ratios b) Estimated Ratios
p '" V P '" v Sk Lab.
Burma 1 1.98 2.55 1 2.33 6.37 6. 62 Indonesia 1 1.95 2.83 1 2.96 5 .05 7 .41 MalaYSia 1 6. 84 9 . 43 1 2.56 3.76 6.41 Philippines 1 1.76 1.26 1 3.10 2. 77 7.74 Sri Lanka 1 7 . 09 13.22 1 1.93 2.87 4.82 Thailand 1 3.25 0.13 -I 2.78 3.62 6.94
1 2. 43 1.94 1 2.84 4.61 7.09
11 Derived from D.M. Lantican. a) refers to actual manpower employed, b) refers to estimated manpower employed .
78
(Appendix 4, cont.)
Such national or sectoral ratios, even those derived from estimated requirements,are only a reflection of the trained forestry manpower situation and structure in eachcountry and provide no explanation of the wide variations shown. The ratios in b) aboveare particularly useful as general guidelines for the manpower planner, but obviouslynone should be used without thorough preliminary investigation as to their suitability.
To illustrate the more detailed breakdown of such countrywide ratios, an analysisof the estimated manpower requirements for forestry development in Nigeria 1/ in 1985shows the following staffing ratios for the various groups of forestry operations. Thesecompare with an overall ratio in the forestry public sector for 1975 of: 1 professional:0,84 senior technical, 2.05 junior technical, 6.72 vocational personnel actually employed.
Table 3 Nigeria: ForeRtiffing ratios from estimated requirements for 1985
Forest industries personnel. An important point for the manpower planner to bearin mind and check when considering the needs of forest industries is that only a fractionof the professional and technical personnel employed may be graduates of forestry train-ing institutions as such. Much of the work is more related to mechanical engineeringand industrial processing than to forestry. Accordingly, in the Nigerian Country ProfileStudy, for example, it was assumed that only 10-15 percent of the estimated manpowerneeds in forest industries would require any formal forestry training. The bulk of thetrained personnel would come from Engineering Faculties and trade schools.
Forestry extension personnel. In many developing countries, agrisilviculture is afeature of the tropical forest areas. Where these operations are fully controlled byforestry departments, the system has proved economically and socially beneficial becauseof the better rates of return and the employment creation effects. Where agrisilvicul-ture is important, special extension personnel should be provided to train and assistfarmers/workers in the purpose and methods of agrisilviculture or agroforestry.
Trained manpower needs for this type of forestry extension work can be estimatedusing similar criteria and ratios to those for agricultural extension work in the samecountry. In the case of Nigeria 1/, the basis adopted was one technical (agroforestry)assistant to 1,000 agroforestry farmers, and an overall staffing ratio of 1 professional:2 senior technicians, 5 junior technicians, 6 vocational personnel. The location of suchforestry extension personnel within the organizational structure of extension servicesis a matter for careful consideration if the most effective impact is to be achieved.
1/ Nigeria: Country Profile Study Agricultural Manpower Planning, Training andUtilization. Technical Report. UNDP/FAO (AG:DP/NIR/73/001). FAO,Rome, 1978.
Subsector Prof. Sen. Techn. Jr. Techn. Voc.
Forest management 1 1.86 5.29
_
11.31Logging (low variant) 1 1.00 3.03 6.12Plantations (low variant) 1 0.77 2.32 13.03Forest industries 1 4.67 14.00 4.67Wildlife 1 0.60 1.00 10.00Research, training 1 1.50 1.00 1.00Planning, coordination 1 1.50 2.00 2.00
Overall 1 1.43 3.27 8.11
-78-
(Appendix 4, cont.)
Such national or sectoral ratios, even those derived from estimated requirements, are only a reflection of the trained forestry manpower situation and structure in each country and provide no explanation of the wide variations shown. The ratios in b) above are particularly useful as general guidelines for the manpower planner, but obviously none should be used without thorough preliminary investigation as to their suitability.
To illustrate the more detailed breakdown of such country-wide ratios, an analysis of the estimated manpower requirements for forestry development in Nigeria 11 in 1985 shows the following staffing ratios for the various groups of forestr.y operations. These compare with an overall ratio in the forestr.y public sector for 1975 of: 1 professional: 0,84 senior technical, 2.05 junior technical, 6.72 vocational personnel actually employed.
Table 3 Nigeria: Forestry staffing ratios from estimated requirements for 1985
Sub-sector Prof. Sen. Techn. Jr. Techn. Voc.
Forest management 1 1.86 5.29 11.31
Logging (low variant) 1 1.00 3.03 6.12
Plantations (low variant) 1 0.77 2.32 13.03
Forest industries 1 4.67 14.00 4.67
Wildlife 1 0.60 1.00 10.00
Research, training 1 1.50 1.00 1.00
Planning, coordination 1 1.50 2.00 2.00
Overall 1 1.43 3.27 8.11
Forest industries personnel. An important point for the manpower planner to bear in mind and check when considering the needs of forest industries is that only a fraction of the professional and technical personnel employed may be graduates of forestry training institutions as such. Much of the work is more related to mechanical engineering and industrial processing than to forestry. Accordingly, in the Nigerian Country Profile Study, for example, it was assumed that only 10-15 percent of the estimated manpower needs in forest industries would require any formal forestry training. The bulk of the trained personnel would come from Engineering Faculties and trade schools.
Forestry extension personnel. In many developing countries, agrisilviculture is a feature of the tropical forest areas. Where these operations are fUlly controlled by forestry departments, the system has proved economically and socially beneficial because of the better rates of return and the employment creation effects. Where agrisilviculture is important, special extension personnel should be provided to train and assist farmers/workers in the purpose and methods of agrisilviculture or agroforestry.
Trained manpower needs for this type of forestry extension work can be estimated using similar criteria and ratios to those for agricultural extension work in the same country. In the case of Nigeria 1/, the basis adopted was one technical (agroforeetry) assistant to 1,000 agroforestry farmers, and an overall staffing ratio of 1 professional: 2 senior technicians, 5 junior technicians, 6 vocational personnel. The location of such forestry extension personnel within the organizational structure of extension services is a matter for careful consideration if the most effective impact is to be achieved.
11 Nigeria: Country Profile Stu~ - Agricultural Manpower Planning, .Training and Utilization. - Technical Report. UNDP/FAO (AG:DP/NIR/73/001). FAD, Rome, 1978.
79
(Appendix 4, cont.)
Forestry personnel wastage rates
In manpower planning an essential factor to be measured is the annual staff wastagerate. This covers losses from deaths, retirements and transfers. In addition, allowancemust be made for staff turnover due to factors such as unsatisfactory conditions of ser--v-ice, lack of career opportunities within the service, and attractive employment oppor-tunities elsewhere. Where full employment exists, particularly for highly trained per-sonnel during the early years of development, forestry often fares badly in competitionwith many other occupations offering higher salaries and better amenities. In the absenceof locally discernible time trends, the following graduated series of wastage factors maybe used as percentages of projected annual employment intake to allow for replacements.
Table 4 Staff wastage: rate of annual replacement needed (percentages)
Special wastage factors may apply to female personnel. In general, wastage ratesaMong women will tend to be higher than for men. Much will depend on attitudes to un-married women occupying certain posts, and on conditions of service for married women,such as transfers with the husband, maternity leave, and so on.
To avoid high unit training costs, it is essential to monitor the situation closelyand to obtain accurate data on the nature and extent of annual losses of trained per-sonnel in the forestry sector.
Technological change in forestry
Where trained manpower requirements are based primarily on production criteria, asin the case of forestry and its industries, the effects of technological changes ontraining needs are likely to be much greater than where manpower is directly related torural population or human factors. This is something which both the manpower and educa-tional planners have to try to foresee. For example, many governments are putting moreemphasis on total rural development, on reforestation of denuded lands, especially water-sheds, on wildlife management and on local processing of timber into finished products.Theseand many related changes are being reflected in forestry education and trainingprogrammes, particularly in such fields as forest economics, extension, engineering, anddevelopment planning, as well as in the broadening range of trained manpower now neededin the forestry sector.
Level/Period First 5 years Second 5 years Third/fourth 5 years
Professional 25 20 15
Technical 20 20 15
Vocational 15 10 10
- 79 -
(Appendix 4, cont.)
Forestry personnel wastage rates
In manpower planning an essential factor to be measured is the annual staff wastage rate. This covers losses from deaths, retirements and transfers. In addition, allowance must be made for staff turnover due to factors such as unsatisfactory conditions of service, lack of career opportunities within the service, and attractive employment opportunities elsewhere. Where full employment exists, particularly for highly trained personnel during the early years of development, forestry often fares badly in competition with many other occupations offering higher salaries and better amenities. In the absence of locally discernible time trends, the following graduated series of wastage factors may be used as percentages of projected annual employment intake to allow for replacements.
Table 4 - Staff wastage: rate of annual replacement needed (percentages)
Level/Period First 5 years Second 5 years Third/fourth 5 years
Professional 25 20 15
Technical 20 20 15
Vocational 15 10 10
Special wastage factors may apply ·to female personnel. In general, wastage rates among women will tend to be higher than for men. Much will depend on attitudes to unmarried women occupying certain posts, and on conditions of service for married women, such as transfers with the husband, maternity leave, and 60 on.
To avoid high unit training costs, it is essential to monitor the situation closely and to obtain accurate data on the nature and extent of annual losses of trained personnel in the forestry sector.
Technological change in forestrY
Where trained manpower requirements are based primarily on production criteria, as in the case of forestry and its industries, the effects of technological changes on training needs are likely to be much greater than where manpower is directly related to rural popUlation or human factors. This is something which both the manpower and edncational planners h~e to try to foresee. For example, maqy governments are putting more " emphasis on total rural development, on reforestation of denuded lands, especially wate~ sheds, on wildlife management and on local processing of timber into finished products. These and many relat ed changes are being reflected in forestry educati on and training programmes, particularly in such fields as forest economics, extension, engineering, and development planning, as well as in the broadening range of trained manpower now needed in the forestry sector.
Storage and Service Rooms:
Drawing offices 10% addition
Non-advanced science lab. 15%
Workshops 15%
A more detailed set of World Bank "Guidelines on the Construction of EducationalBuildings", issued in February 1967, may still be available in some countries. Thisgives extremely precise suggestions and layouts for use at the detailed design stageof buildings.
The cost estimates, however, are now only of historic interest.
- 80 -
APPENDIX 5
Accommodation Standards for Educational Buildings(Revised Edition, April 1977)
Building Research Establishment,Department of the Environment, London, England
STANDARDS FOR COLLEGES OF FURTHER EDUCATION
Usable area perworking space
Teaching rooms with demonstration 2.50 m2
Drawing offices (asing Al or smaller boards) 3.70 m2
Drawing offices (using AO or larger boards) 4.60 m2
Laboratories: non-advanced science and engineering 4.60 m2
Workshops: crafts requiring work benches and smaller-scalemachines and equipment 5.60 m2
- 80 -
APPENDIX 5
Accommodation Standards for Educational Buildings (Revised Edition, April 1977)
Building Research Establishment, Department of the Environment, London, England
STANDARDS FOR COLLEX:lES OF ruRTHER EDUCATION
Teaching rooms with demonstration
Drawing offices (using A1 or smaller boards)
Drawing offices (using AO or larger boards)
Laboratories: non-advanoed science and engineering
Workshops: orafts requiring work benches and smaller-scale machines and equipment
Storage and Service Rooms.
Drawing offices
Non-advanced science lab.
Workshops
10% addition
15% "
15% "
Usable area per working space
2.50 2
m
3.70 2
m
4.60 2
m
4.60 2
m
5.60 2
m
A more detailed set of World Bank "Guidelines on the Construction of Educational Buildings", issued in February 1967, may still be available in some countries. This gives extremely precise suggestions and layouts for use at the detailed design stage of buildings.
The cost estimates, however, are now only of historic interest.
-81
APFENDIX 6
6.0 TEACHING EQUIPMENT
A classroom should normally be equipped with as many of the following items as cir-cumstances, space and finance allow:
A CHALKBOARD with a set of suitable drawing instruments
CHALKBOARD CLEANERS and DUSTERS
A YELTBOARD and/or a MAGNETIC BOARD, as preferred. (This should, if possible, besuspended from an overhead track to allow it to be moved to different pointsalong the wall as required.)
HOOKS for hanging flipcharts
A PROJECTOR SCREEN: either a "pull down" screen fixed centrally or a rigid screenrunning on an overhead track shared with the feltboard/magnetic board
WALLBOARDS or NOTICEBOARDS, feltcovered, at convenient places around the room
A WALL CLOCK
WASTE PAPER BINE, one or more
STUDENTS' TABLES and CHAIRS.
Depending on available funds and the degree of utilization, the following items maybe shared between two or more classrooms:
An OVERHEAD PROJECTOR
A SLIDE PROTECTOR with, if possible, back projection facilities
A 16 mm SOUND PROJECTOR
An EPIDIASCOPE.
Where these items are installed on mobile trolleys, they can be moved reasonablyconveniently between classrooms on the sane floor as required.
Items which may be located in a specific room but used on loan in other rooms, ifrequired, are:
SCIENTIFIC CALCULATORS
PRINTING/ADDING/LISTING MACHINES
INTERVAL TIMERS
STOP WATCHES.
The teaching desk in each classroom should be equipped with drawers or aupboardsholding:
WHITE and COLOURED CHALKS
WRITING PAPERS of various types and sizes
SPARE PENCILS, PENS, ERASERS, PENCIL SHARPENERS, etc.
FILES for teaching notes and handouts in current use.
- 81 -
APPENDIX 6
6.0 TEACHING EQUIPMENT
A classroom should normally be equipped with as many of the following items as circumstances, space and finance allow:
A CHALKBOARD with a s.et of sui table drawing instruments
CHALKBOARD CLEANmS and DUSTDlS
A FELT-BOARD and/or a MAGNETIC BOARD, as preferred. (Tbis should, if possible, be suspended from an overhead track to allow it to be moved to different points along the wall as required.)
HOOKS for hanging flip-chart s
A PROJroTOR SCREEN: ei ther a "pull down" screen fixed centrally or a rigid screen running on an overhead track shared with the felt-board/magnetic board
WALL-BOARDS or NOTICE-BOARDS, felt-covered, at convenient places arcund the room
A WALL CLOCK
WASTE PAPDl BINS, one or more
STUDENTS' TABLES and CHAIRS.
Depending on available funds and the degree of utilization, the following items may be shared between two or more classrooms:
An OVERHEAD PROJECTOR
A SLIDE PROJECTOR with, if possible, back projection facilities
A 16 nun SOUND PROJECTOR
An EPmIASCOPE.
Where these items are installed on mobile trolleys, they can be moved reasonably conveniently between classrooms on the same floor as required.
Items whioh may be located in a specific room but used on loan in other rooms, if required, are:
SCIENTIFIC CALCULATORS
PRINTING/ADDING/LISTING MACHINES
INTERVAL TIMERS
STOP WATCHES.
The teaching desk in each classroom should be equipped with drawers or cupboards holding:
WHITE and COLOURED CHALKS
WRITING PAPERS of various types and sizes
SPARE PENCILS, PENS, mASERS, PENCIL SHARPENERS, etc.
FILES for teaching notes and hand-outs in current use.
82
(Appendix 61 cont.)
A classroom which also serves as a drawing office should have facilities for storing:
DRAWING BOARDS and STANDS for each student
Sets of DRAWING INSTRUMENTS and SCALES
LIGBT TABLES and adjustable DESK LAMPS.
-82-
(Appendix 6, cont.)
A classroom which also serves as a drawing office should have facilities for storing:
DRAWING BOARDS and STANDS for each student
Sets of DRAWING INSTRUMENTS and SCALES
LIGHT TABLES and adjustable DESK LAMPS.
83
APPENDIX 7
7.0 OFFICE EQUIPMENT
7.1 INSTRUCTOR'S OFFICE
OFFICE DESK, standard, with cupboard and drawers
DESK CHAIR, preferably on castors
VISITORS' CHAIRS, two or more
TELEPHONE EXTENSION and/or an EgTERCOM TERMINAL as appropriate
DESK FURNISHINGS, such as letter trays, pen trays, paper punch, stapler, pencilsharpener, desk lamp, etc.
BLOTTING PAD
WASTE PAPER BIN
WALL CLOCK
SIDE TABLE, suitable for extending the desk during meetings
FILING CABINET, of an appropriate size
BOOK SHELVES
CUPBOARD for stationery
ROOF or DESK FAN, if climatic conditions warrant it
TAPE WRITER
CALCULATOR and/or an ADDING LISTING MACHINE, as appropriate
PORTABLE TYPEWRITER.
A senior instructor's office might also have the following items if space and funds permit:
COFFEE TABLE
ARMCHAIRS, 2 or
7.2 PRINCIPAL'S OFFICE
The principal's office shauld contain the equipment set out in 7.1 Instructor'soffice, but a larger desk may be required, with more drawers. Additional equipment mightinclude the following items if space permits:
LARGE TABLE, 4-6 persons, for holding staff meetings
CHAIRS, 4-6
COFFEE TABLE, for entertaining visitors
ARMCHAIRS, 2 or 3
SAFE, for the secure storage of important documents.
- 83 -
APPENDIX 7
7.0 OFFICE EQUIPMENT
7.1 INSTRUCTOR'S OFFICE
OFFICE DESK, steniard, with cupboard and drawers
DESK CHAIR, preferably on castors
VISITORS' CHAIRS, two or more
TELEPHONE EXTENSION and/or an INTERCOM TERMINAL as appropriate
DESK FURNISHINGS, such as letter trays, pen trays, paper punch, stapler, pencil sharpener, desk lamp, etc.
BLOTTING PAD
WASTE PAPER BIN
WALL CLOCK
SIDE TABLE, sui table for extending the desk during meetings
FILING CABINET, of an appropriate size
BOOK SBELVES
CUPBOARD for stationery
ROOF or DESK FAN, if climatic conditions warrant it
TAPE WRITER
CALCULATOR and/or an ADDING LISTING MACHINE, as appropriate
PORTABLE TYPEWRITER.
A senior instructor's office might also have the following items if space and funds permit:
COFFEE TABLE
ARMCHAIRS, 2 or 3.
7. 2 PRINCIPAL'S OFFICE
The prinoipal's office should contain the equipment set out in 7.1 Instructor's office, but a larger desk may be required, with more drawers. Additional equi pment might include the following items if space permits:
LARGE TABLE, 4-6 persons, for holding staff meetings
CHAIRS, 4-6
COFFEE TABLE, for entertaining visitors
ARMCHAIRS, 2 or 3
SAFE, for the secure storage of important documents.
(Appendix 7, cont.)
7.3 ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICE
DESKS, standard, with cupboards and drawers for staff, as required
DESK CHAIRS, preferably on castors, for each desk
VISITORS' CHAIRS, one or more per desk
ACCESS TO a TELEPHONE EXTENSION, usually shared, and/or an INTERCOM TERMINAL
DESK FURNISHINGS, as in 7.1
BLOTTING PADS
WASTE PAPER BINS, as required
WALL CLOCK
SIDE TABLES, possibly linking desks to permit the easy flow of documents
CUPBOARDS, shared, for stationery and documents
FILING CABINETS, shared
BOOK SHELVES, as required
FANS, roof or desk, if conditions warrant it
CALCULATORS or ADDINGLISTING MACHINES as appropriate
SAFE, at least one, for cash and/or documents.
7.4 TYPISTS' OFFICE
TYPIST'S DESK, for each typist, or a combined receptionist/typist's desk
TYPISTS' CHAIRS
TYPEWRITERS, as required (at least one with a long carriage)
TELEPHONE EXTENSION or INTERCOM TERMINAL (It is probable that the telephone ex-change cr intercom control unit will be located in this room.)
PAPER RACKS
CUPBOARDS, for stationery and documents
DESK FURNISHINGS, as in 7.1
WASTE PAPER BINS
HALL CLOCK
FANS, roof or desk, if conditions warrant it
WAX STENCIL DUPLICATOR
SPIRIT DUPLICATOR (for some teaching requirements)
PHOTOCOPIER (preferably with facilities to produce overhead projector transparencies).
In large institutions, these reproduction facilities may be located in a separatePrint Room and be augmented by an OFFSE1! PRINTING MACHINE and equipment to produce alu-minium plates, if substantial amounts of teaching material are required to be producedlocally.
- 8~ -
(Appendix 7, cont.)
7.3 ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICE
DESKS, standard, with cupboards and drawers for staff, as required
DESK CHAIRS, preferably on castors, for each desk
VISITORS' CHAIRS, one or more per desk
ACCESS TO a TELEPHONE EXTENSION, usually shared, and/or an INTERCOM TERMINAL
DESK FURNISHINGS, as in 7.1
BLOTTING PADS
WASTE PAPER BINS, as required
WALL CLOCK
SIDE TABLES, possibly linking desks to permit the easy flow of documents
CUPBOARDS, shared, for stationery and documents
FILING CABINETS, shared
BOOK SHELVES, as required
FANS, roof or desk, if conditions warrant it
CALCULATORS or ADDING-LISTING MACHINES as appropriate
SAFE, at least one, for cash and/or documents.
7.4 TYPISTS' OFFICE
TYPIST'S DESK, for each typist, or a combined receptionist/typist's desk
TYPISTS' CHAIRS
TYPEWRITERS, as required (at least one with a long carriage)
TELEPHONE EXTENSION or INTERCOM TERMINAL (It is probable that the telephone exchange or intercom control unit will be located in this room.)
PAPER HACKS
CUPBOARDS, for stationery and documents
DESK FURNISHINGS, as in 7.1
WASTE PAPER BINS
WALL CLOCK
FANS, roof or desk, if conditions warrant it
WAX STENCIL DUPLICATOR
SPIRIT WPLICATOR (for some teaching requir ement s)
PHOTOCOPIER (preferably with facilities to produce overhead projector transparencies).
In large institutions, these reproduction facilities may be located in a separate Print Room and be augmented by an OFFSET PRINTING MACHINE and equipment to produce aluminium plates, if sUbstantial amounts of teaching material are required to be nroduced locally.
8.0
8.1 BCTANIcAL/BIOLOGICAL EQVIPMENT
MICROSCOPES for students
MICROSCOFE SLIDES
COVER SLIPS
HAND MICROTOMES
STAINS
DISSECTING STANDS
HAND LENSES
DISSECTING INSTRUMENTS, set of
MICROPROJEOTOR and SCREEN
PREPARED SLIDES, set of
SLIDE BOXES
PLANT PRESSES
PITH
PEERI DISHES,
8.2 SOIL EQUIPMENT
SOIL SIEVES, sets of
PESTLES and MORTARS
GAS JARS
GLASS TUBING
pH TESTING KITS
pH MEPERS
SOIL TEST KITS
SOIL MOISTURE METERS
TENSIOMETERS
BALANCES
DR/ING OVEN
SOIL AUGERS
WATER DEIONISERS.
85
APPENDIX 8
LABORATORY EQUIPMENT
- 85 -
APPENDIX 8
8.0 LABORATORY EQUIPMENT
8.1 BarANICAL(BIOLOOICAL EQUIPMENT
MICROSCOPES for students
MICROSCOPE SLIDES
covm SLIPS
HAND MICRarC!olES
STAINS
DISSECTING STANDS
HAND LENSES
DISSECTOO INSTRUMENTS, Bet of
MICRo-PROJ ECTOR and SCREE:N
PREPARED SLIDES, set of
SLIDE BOXES
PLANl' PRESSES
PITH
PETRI DISHES.
8.2 SOIL EQUIPMENT
SOIL SIEVES, sets of
PESTLES and MORTARS
GAS JARS
GLASS TUBIID
pH TESTOO KITS
pH METERS
SOIL TEST KITS
SOIL MOISTURE METERS
TENSIOMNl'ERS
BALANCES
IRYINO OVEN
SOIL AUGERS
WATER DEl-IONISERS.
- 86 -
(Appendix 8, cont.)
8.3 CHEMISTRY (BASIC STUDIES COURSE)
BALANCES (direct reading)
BUNSEN BURNERS
TRIPOD STANDS
GAUZES
PIPE CLAY TRIANGLES
TONGS
REAGENT BOTTLES (various sizes and types)
GLASS RODS
GLASS TUBES (various bores)
GLASS TUBE CUTTERS
FILES
BEAKERS (Soda and hard glass)
FLASKS (VarioUS types)
PIPETTES and RACKS
BURETTES and STANDS
TEST TUBES and STANDS
TEST TUBE HOLDERS
FIDPER FUNNELS and STANDS
FIDDER PAPERS
GAS JARS and COVERS
EVAPORATING BASINS
CRUCIBLES and LEDS
STANDARD REAGENTS
RUBBER TUBING
CLIPS
THERMOMETERS
CLEANING CLOTHS
FIRST-AID BOX
FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
FIRE BLANKET.
(Appendix 8, cont.)
8.3 CJIDlISTRY (BASIC STUDIES COURSE)
BALANCES (direct reading)
BUNSEN BllRIDRS
TRIPOD ffi'ANDS
GAUZES
PIPE ClAY TRIANGLES
TONGS
- 86 -
REAGENT BOTTIES (various sizes and types)
GlASS RODS
GLASS TUBES (various bores)
GLASS TUBE CUTTERS
FILES
BEAKERS (Soda and hard glass)
FLASKS (various types)
PlPEl'TES and RACKS
BURETTES and STANDS
TEffi' TUBES and STANDS
TEffi' TUBE HOLDERS
FILTER FUNNELS and ffi'ANDS
FILTER PAIIDlli
GAS JARS and COVERS
EVAPORATING BASINS
CRUCIBLES and LIDS
STANDARD REAGENTS
RUBBER TUBING
CLIPS
THERMOMEll'ERS
CLEANING CLOTHS
FIRST-AID BOX
FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
FIRE BLANKElr.
87
APPENDIX 9
9.0 HERBARIUM EQUIPMENT
A small herbarium for teaching and reference purposes in a training institutions shouldhave the following furniture and equipment:
WORK TABLES for examining and preparing specimens
CHAIRS, as required for the work tables provided
SHELVES or CUPBOARDS for storing specimens
FUMIGATING FACILITIES for specimens
HAND LENSES
LENSES on flexible stands or dissecting stands
Sets of BOTANICAL INSTRUMENTS (SCISSORS, SCALPELS, NEEDLES, TWEEZERS, etc.)
MOUNTING SHEETS
GLUE
SPECIMEN LABELS
SPECIMEN FILE JACKETS, with labels
HAND PRESSES
DRYING OVENS (either in the herbarium or in an adjacent lab.)
DESKS and CHAIRS for staff
CUPBOARDS for storing materials and equipment
DEHUMIDIFIERS (if necessary)
CLEANING EQUIPMENT (e.g. an industrial vacuum cleaner).
If timber specimens are to be prepared and examined in the room, the following itemsmay be required:
WORK BENCH
SAWS, KNIVES, CHISELS PLANES, RASPS, etc.
- 87 -
APPENDIX 9
HERBARIUM EQUIPMENl'
A small herbarium for teaching and reference purposes in a training institutions should have the following furniture and equipment:
WORK TABLES for examining and preparing specimens
CHAIRS, as required for the work tables provided
SHELVES or CUPBOARDS for storing specimens
FUMIGATING FACILITIES for specimens
HAND LENSES
LENSES on flexible stands or dissecting stands
Sets of BOTANICAL INSTRUMENTS (SCISSORS, SCALPELS, NEEDLES, TWEEZERS, etc.)
MOUNTING SHEETS
GLUE
SPECIMEN LABELS
SPECIMEN FILE JACKETS, with labels
HAND PRESSES
DRYING OVENS (either in the herbarium or in an adjacent lab.)
DESKS and CHAIRS for staff
CUPBOARDS for storing materials and equipment
DEHUMIDIFIERS (if necessary)
CLEANING EQUIPMENT (e.g. an industrial vacuum cleaner).
If timber specimens are to be prepared and examined in the room, the follOwing items may be required:
WORK BENCH
SAWS, KNIVES, CHISELS,' PLANES, RASPS, etc.
- 88 -
APPENDIX 10
10.0 LIBRARY EQUIPMENT
10.1 LIBRARIAN'S ObliICE AND ISSUE DESK
DESKS as required
DESK CHAIRS
VISITORS' CHAIRS
TELEPHONE EXTENSION and/or INTERCOM TERMINAL as appropriate
DESK FURNISHINGS/ as at 7.1
BLOTTING PADS
WASTE PAPER BIN
WALL CLOCK
FILING CABINET
BOOK SHELVES for reference books and catalogues
FAN, roof or desk, if climatic conditions warrant it
ISSUE DESK or counter
RACKS for storing borrower's cards
PHOTOCOPIER (in a large library).
10.2 REFERENCE AREA
FILING CABINETS for subject and authors' index cards
SHELVES for reference books
RACKS for displaying recent publications
READING TABLES
CHAIRS
MICROFILM READER and COPIER (if required)
MICROFILM STORAGE CABINET
CABINETS for storing coloured transparencies and photographs suitably indexed
VIEWERS for reviewing sheets of coloured transparencies.
10.3 STACK
BOOK SHELVES, preferably with shelves of adjustable height
READING TABLES
CHAIRS
CHESTS for maps or posters
TABLES or SLOPING RACKS for studying maps or posters
DEHUMIDIFIER (if conditions required this)
HUMIDITY RECORDER.
- 88 -
APPENDIX 10
10.0 LIBRARY EQUIPMENT
10.1 LIBRARIAN'S OFFICE AND ISSUE DESK
DESKS as required
DESK CHAIRS
VISITORS' CHAIRS
TELEPHONE EXTENSION and/or INTERCOM TERMINAL as appropriate
DESK FURNISHINGS, as at 7.1
BLOTTING PADS
WASTE PAPER BIN
WALL CLOCK
FILING CABINET
BOOK SHELVES for reference books and catalogues
FAN, roof or desk, if climatic conditions warrant it
ISSUE DESK or count er
RACKS for storing borrowerls cards
PHOTOCOPIER (in a large library).
10.2 REFERENCE AREA
FILING CABINETS for subject and authors' index cards
SHELVES for reference books
HACKS for displaying recent publications
READING TABLES
CHAIRS
MICRO-FILM READER and COPIER (if required)
MICRO-FILM STOHAGE CABINET
CABINETS for storing coloured transparencies and photographs suitably indexed
VIEWERS for reviewing sheets of coloured transparencies.
10.3 .§T!QK
BOOK SHELVES, preferably with shelves of adjustable height
READING TABLES
CHAIRS
CHESTS for maps or posters
TABLES or SLOPING RACKS for studying maps or posters
DEHUIHDIFIER (if conditions required this)
HUMIDITY RECORDER.
89
(Appendix 10, cont.)
10.4 GENERAL READING AREA
READING DESKS
CHAIRS
READING LAMPS.
10.5 EXHIBITION AREA
NOTICEBOARDS, large size
DISPLAY CABINETS
STANDS.
10.6 WORK ROOM
WORK TABLE
CHAIRS or STOOLS
CUPBOARD for storing materials
SCISSORS, KNIVES, etc.
TAPE, INKS, etc. for labelling books
REGISTER OF ACQUISITIONS
LABELS and STAMP for identifying ownership
POCKETS POR CARDS
TYPEMRITER.
- 89 -
(Appendix 10, cont.)
10.4
10.5
10.6
GENERAL READING AREA
READING DESKS
CHAIRS
READING LAMPS.
EXHIBITION AREA
NOTICEBOARDS, large
DISPLAY CABINEI'S
STANDS.
WORK ROOM
WORK TABLE
CHAIRS or STOOLS
size
CUPBOARD for storing materials
SCISSORS, KNIVES, etc.
TAPE, INKS, etc. for labelling books
REGISTER OF ACQUISITIONS
LABELS and STAMP for identifying ownership
POCKETS FOR CARDS
TYPEWRITER •
Betts, P.W.1980
Currie, R.M.
1964
- 90 -
APPENDIX 11
BOOKS FOR TECHNICAL FORESTRY SCHOOL LIBRARIES
The function of a library in a technical training institution is, firstly, to supportthe courses offered and, secondly, to provide wider reference material for teaching staffor for students who have the interest and aptitude to explore beyond the strict limits oftheir course.
A choice of books must be closely related to the courses offered and to their content.Firm recommendations are, therefore, extremely difficult to make, as the range of courseswill vary considerably from institution to institution. Moreover, there are very few textsspecifically aimed at technical-level students. They tend to fall between the level ofhigher secondary education texts, which are very general, and academic texts for university-level courses, which often are strong on theory and scientific discussions, but cannot dealwith specific techniques which are of greater interest to a technician. Texts, especiallyat the university level, are now extremely expensive and a library can absorb a very con-siderable part of the equipment/supplies budget, if not managed with great care. Initially,what may be of the greatest value are multiple copies of a few texts on which instructorscan base parts of their courses.
A list of books which may be of use as references to staff,and in son e cases for rea-ding by students,is given below. A range of publishers' catalogues can usually be con-sulted in a major university or public library to obtain information on supplementary ma-terial. A selection of standard periodiodls may also prove a useful guide to literature,as lists of texts cited in some of the articles may indicate material it might be usefulto acquire.
11.1 ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT
Anon. Business management for sawmill operators. Proceedings of the Business Manage-
1979 ment Clinic for Sawmill Operators, Portland, Oregon, U.S.A. Miller FreemanPublications Inc., San Francisco, CA, U.S.A.
Adeyoju, K.S. A study on forest administration problems in six selected African coun-1976 tries. FO:MISC/76/21. FAO, Rome.
Supervisory studies. MacDonald & Evans Ltd., London.
Work Study. Pitman & Sons Ltd., London.
FAO Report of the FAO SIDA Consultation on Forest Administration for Development.1983 FO:GCP/INT/295 SWE. Rome.
Flippo, E.B. Principles of personnel management. McGraw-Hill Kogakusha Ltd., Tokyo.1979
Fraser, J.M. Psychology: General/industrial/social. Pitman Paperbacks, London.1967
Graham, H.T. Human resources management. MacDonald & Evans Ltd., London.1980
Macklin, R.R. The logging business management handbook. Miller Freeman Publications
1983 Inc., San Francisco, CA, U.S.A.
- 90 -
APPENDIX 11
BOOKS FOR TECHNICAL FORESTRY SCHOOL LIBRARIES
The function of a library in a technical training institution is, firstly, to support the courses offered and, secondly, to provide "rider reference material for teaching staff or for students who have the interest and aptitude to explore beyond the strict limits of their course.
A choice of books must be closely related to the courses offered and to their content. Firm recommendations are, therefore, extremely difficult to make, as the range of courSes will vary considerably from institution to institut i on. Moreover, there are very few texts specifically aimed at technical-level students. They tend to fall between the l evel of higher secondary education texts, which are very general, and academic texts for universitylevel courses, which often are strong on theory and scientific discussions, but cannot deal wi th specific techniques 'rlhich are of greater interest to a technician. Texts, especially at the university level, are now extremely expensive and a library can absorb a very considerable part of the equipment/supplies budget, if not managed with great care. Initially, what may be of the greatest value are multiple copies of a few texts on which instructors can base parts of their courses.
A list of books which may be of use as references to staf~ and in some cases for reading by students, is given below. A range of publishers' catalogues can usually be consulted in a major university or public ~~brary to obtain information on supplementary material. A selection of standard periodiQals 'may also prove a useful guide to literature , as lists of texts cited in some of the articles may indicate material it might be useful to acquire.
11.1 ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT
Anon. Business management for sawmill operators. Proceedings of the Business Manage-1979 ment Clinic for Sawmill Operators, Portland, Oregon, U.S.A. Miller Freeman
Publications Inc., San Francisco, CA, U.S.A.
Adeyoju, K. S. 1976 tries.
Betts, P.W. 1980
Currie, R.M. 1964
A study on forest administration problems in six selected African counFO:MISC/76/21. FAO, Rome.
Supervisory studies. MacDonald & Evans Ltd . , London.
Work Study. Pitman & Sons Ltd., London .
FAO 1983
Report of the FAO/SIDA Consultation on Forest Fa: GCP/INT/295/SWE. Rome.
Administration for Development.
Flippo, E.B. Principles of personnel management. McGraw-Hill Kogakusha Ltd., TOkyo. 1979
Fraser, J.M. Psychology: General/industrial/social. Pitman Paperbacks, London. 1967
Graham, H.T. Human resources management. MacDonald & Evans Ltd., London . 1980
Macklin, R.R. The logging busi ness management handbook. Miller Freeman Publications 1983 Inc., San FranCiSCO, GA, U.S.A.
Palin, D. Management of development forestry A comparative study of public forestry1980 administrations in the AsiaPacific region. GCP/RAS 46 (SWE). FAO, Rome.
Prats Llaurad6, J. and Speidel, G. Public forestry administrations in Latin America.1981 FAO Forestry Paper No. 25. FAO, Rome.
SchmithUsen, F. Forest utilization contracts on public land. FAO Forestry Paper No. 1,1977 FAO, Rome.
SOdahl, L.1966
UN Strengthening public administration and finance for development in the 1980s:1978 Issues and approaches. ST/ESA/SER. E/13. Department of International Economic
and Social Affairs, New York.
UN Handbook on the improvement of administrative management in public administration.
1979 ST/ESA/SER. E/19. UN Department of Technical Cooperation for Development, NewYork.
van Horne, I.C. Financial management and policy. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs,1980 NJ, U.S.A.
Worrell, A.C.1970
11.2 ACROFORESTRY
Davies, J.W.
1975
91
Elementary industrial psychology. Logmans, Green and Co. Ltd., London.
Principles of forest policy. McGrawHill, Maidenhead, Berks., U.K.
Mulching effects on plant climate and yield. WMO Report No. 388.
Eckholm, E.P. Losing ground. Environmental stress and world food prospects. W.W. Norton,
1976 New York.
FAO China: Forestry support for agriculture. FAO Forestry Paper No. 12. Rome.
1978
FAO Village forestry development in the Republic of Korea. A case study. FAO Forestry
1982 for Local Community Development Programme. GCP/INT/347/SWE. Rome.
FAO Fruitbearing forest trees. FAO Forestry Paper No. 34. Rome.
1982
Felker, P. et al. Screening prosopis (mesquite) species for biofuel production on semi-
1981 arid lands. U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, D.C.
Filius, A.M. Economic aspects of agroforestry. In: Wiersum, K.F. (ed.) "Viewpoints on
1981 agroforestry". Agricultural University Wageningen, Netherlands.
Houerou, Le H.N. Anatomy and physiology of a browsing trial: A methodological appr:ach
1982 to fodder shrub evaluation. FAO, Rome.
Howes, K.M.W. and Rummery, R.A. (eds.) Integrating agriculture and forestry. CSIRO,
1982 Division of Land Resource Management, Perth, Australia.
Klee, G.A. (ed.) World systems of traditional resource management. Edward Arnold
1980 Publishers Ltd., London.
Maghembe, J.A. and Redhead, J.F. Agroforestry: preliminary results of intercropping
1980 acacia, LUcalyptus and Leucaena with maize and beans. Division of Forestry,
University of Dar es Salaam, Morogoro, Tanzania.
- 91 -
Palin, D. Management of development forestr,y - A comparative stu~ of public forestry 1980 administrations in the Asia-Pacific region. GCP/RAS 46 (SWE). FAO, Rome.
Prats Llaurad6, J. and Speidel, G. Public forestry administrations in Latin America. 1981 FAO Forestry Paper No. 25. FAO, Rome.
Schmit hUsen , F. Forest utilization contracts on public land. FAD Forestry Paper No.1, 1977 FAO, Rome.
Sj1ldahl, L. 1966
Elementary industrial psychology. Logmans, Green and Co. Ltd., London.
UN 1978
UN 1979
Strengthening public administration and finance for development in the 1980s: Issues and approaches. ST/ESA/ SER. E/13. Department of International Economic and Social Affairs, New York.
Handbook on the improvement of administrative management in public administration. ST/ESA/SER. E/19. UN Department of Technical Cooperation for Development, New York.
van Horne, I.C. Financial management and policy. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, 1980 NJ, U.S.A.
Worrell, A.C. 1970
Principles of forest policy. McGraw-Hill, Maidenhead, Berks., U.K.
11 .2 AGROFORESTRY
Davies, J .W. Mulching effects on plant climate and yield. WMO Report No. 388. 1975
Eckholm, E.P. Losing ground. Environmental stress and world food prospects. W.Vl. Norton, 1976 New York.
FAO 1978
FAO 1982
FAO 1982
China: Forestry support for agriculture. FAO Forestry Paper No. 12. Rome.
Village forestry development in the Republic of Korea. A case study. FAO Forestry for Local Community Development Programme. GCP/INT/347/SI-IE. Rome.
Fruit- bearing forest trees. FAO Forestry Paper No. 34. Rome.
Felker, P. et ~ Screening prosopis (mesquite) species for biofuel production on semiU.S. Department of Energy, Washington, D.C. 1981 arid lands.
FiliUS, A.M. Economic aspects of agroforestry. In: Wiersum, K.F. (ed.) "Viewpoints on 1981 agroforestry". Agricultural Uni versi ty rlageningen, Netherlands.
Houerou , Le H.N. Anatomy and physiology of a brm"sing trial: A methodological appr -,ach 1982 to fodder shrub evaluation. FAO, Rome.
Howes, K.M.W. and Rummery, R.A. (eds.) Integrating agriculture and forestry. CSIRO, 1982 Division of Land Resource Management, Perth, Australia.
Klee, G.A. (ed.) World systems of traditional resource management. Edward Arnold 1980 Publishers Ltd., London.
Maghembe, 1980
J.A. and Redhead, J.F. Agroforestry: preliminary results of intercropping Acacia, Eucalyptus and Leucaena \-, ith maize and beans. Division of Forestry, University of Dar es Salaam, Morogoro, Tanzania.
Hudak, J.1980
92
(Appendix 11, cont.)
(11.2)
Nair, P.K.R. Agroforestry species: A crop sheets manual. ICRAF, Nairobi, Kenya.1980
National Academy of Sciences. Leucaena. Promising forage and tree crop for the tropics.1977 NAS, Washington, D.C.
National Academy of Sciences. Firewood crops: shrub and tree species for energy pro-1980 auction. NAS, Washington, D.C.
Phillips, J. The development of agriculture and forestry in the tropics. Patterns,1961 problems and promise. Faber & Faber Ltd., London.
Prothero, R.M. People and land in Africa south of the Sahara. Readings in Social1972 Geography. Oxford University Press, New York.
Ruthenberg, H. Farming systems in the tropics (3rd ed.). Clarendon Press, Oxford.1980
Unesco Management of natural resources in Africa: Traditional strategies and modern1978 decision making. MAB, Technical Notes No. 9, Paris,
Vergara, N.T. Economic evaluation of agroforestry. Working Group on Agroforestry,1982 Environment and Policy Institute, EastWest Centre, Hawaii.
Watters, R.F. Shifting cultivation in Latin America. FAO Forestry Development Paper1971 No. 17.
Wiersum, K.F. (ed.) Viewpoints on agroforestry: A syllabus of a lecture series on1981 agroforestry. Department of Forest Management, Agricultural University Wage-
ningen, Netherlands.
11.3 ARBORICULTURE
Arnold, H.F. Trees in urban design. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. Ltd., Wokingham,1980 Berks., U.K.
Bridgeman, P. Trees for town and country. A practical guide to planting and care.1979 David & Charles, Newton Abbot, U.K.
Clouston, B. and Stansfield, K. (eds.) Trees in towns: Maintenance and management.1981 Architectural Press, London.
Trees for every purpose. McGrawHill Book Co., London.
James, N.D.G. The arboriculturalist's companion. Basil Blackwell, Oxford, U.K.1982
11.4 BOTANY
Bower, F.O. Botany of the living plant. Hafner Publications, New York.1969
Brimble, L.J.F. Intermediate botany. MacMillan Press Ltd., Tokyo.1980
Burnett, J.H. Fundamentals of mycology. Edward Arnold Publishers Ltd., London.1P7
- 92 -
(Appendix 11, oont.)
(11.2)
Nair, P.K.R. Agroforest~ species: A crop sheets manual. ICRAF, Nairobi, Kenya. 1980
National Academy of Sciences. Leucaena. Promising forage and tree crop for the tropics. 1977 NAS, Washington, D.C.
National Academy of Scienoes. Firewood crops: shrub and tree species for energy pro-1980 duct ion. NAS, Washington, D.C.
Phillip_, J. The development of agriculture and forestry in the tropios. Patterns, 1961 problems and promise. Faber & Faber Ltd., London.
Prothero, R.M. People and land in Africa south of the Sahara. Readings in Social 1972 Geography. Oxford University Press, New York.
Ruthenberg, H. 1980
Farming systems in the tropios (3rd ed.). Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Unesco 1978
Management of natural resources in Africa: Traditional strategies and modern decision making. MAE, Technical Notes No.9. Paris.
Vergara, N.T. Economic evaluation of agroforestry. Working Group on Agroforestry, 1982 Environment and Polioy Institute, East-West Centre, Hawaii.
Watters, R.F. Shifting cultivation in Latin Amerioa. FAO Forestry Development Paper 1971 No. 17.
Wiersum, 1981
K.F. (ed.) Viewpoints on agroforestry: A syllabus of a lecture series on agroforestry. Department of Forest Management, Agricultural University Wageningen, Netherlands.
1 1.3 ARBORICULTPRE
Arnold, H.F. Trees in ur.ban design. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. Ltd., Wokingham, 1980 Berks., U.K.
Bridgeman, P. Trees for town and country. A practical guide to planting and care. 1979 David & Charles, Newton Abbot, U.K.
Clouston, B. and Stansfield, K. (eds. ) 1981 Arohiteotural Press, London.
Trees in towns: Maintenance and management.
Hudak, J. 1980
James, N .D.G. 1982
11.4 BOTANY
Bower, F.D. 1969
Brimble, L.J .F. 1980
Burnett, J .H. 1971>
Trees for every purpose. McGraw-Hill Book Co., London.
The arboriculturalist's oompanion. Basil Blaokwell, Oxford, U.K.
Botany of the living plant. Hafner Publioations, New York.
Intermediate bot~y. MacMillan Press Ltd., TOkyo.
Fundamentals of myoology. Edward Arnold Publishers Ltd., London.
(Appendix 11, cont.)
(i14)
Cramer, J.1976
93
The taxonomy of flowering plants. The Century Company, New York.
Cutting, C.V. and Luckwill, C.C.1970 London.
Physiology of tree crops. Academic Press Ltd.,
Davis, P.H. and Cullen, J. Identification of flowering plant families. Cambridge1979 University Press, London.
FAO Plant collection and herbarium development. FAO Plant Production and Protection1981 Paper No. 33. Rome.
Fogg, G.E. Photosynthesis. Hodder & Stoughton, London.
1979
Hall, M.A. (ed.) Plant structure, function and adaptation. MacMillan Press Ltd.,1978 London.
Harley, J.L. Mycorrhiza. Oxford University Press, London.1971
Heywood, V.H. Plant taxonomy. Edward Arnold PUblishers Ltd., London.1976
Hcoker, H.W., Jr. Introduction to forest biology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.1979
Jamieson, B.G.M. Tropical plant types. Pergamon Press, Oxford.1979
Kramer, P.J. and Kozlowski, T.T. Physiology of woody plants. Academic Press Ltd.,
1979 London.
Macura, P. Elsevier's dictionary of botany. I. Plant names. Elsevier Scientific1979 Publishing Company, Amsterdam,
Meyer, B. et al. Introduction to plant psychology. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. Ltd.,1973 Wokingham, Berks., U.K.
Peel, A.J.1974
Pryor, L.D.1979
Swartz, D.1971
Transport of nutrients in plants. Butterworth Group, London.
Biology of eucalypts. Edward Arnold Publishers Ltd., London.
Rendle, A.B. The classification of flowering plants. Vols. I and II. Cambridge1976 University Press, London,
Skellern, C. and Rogers, P. Basic botany. MacDonald & Evans Ltd., London.1977
Simon, E.W. et al. Textbook of botany. University Tutorial Press, London,1980
Collegiate dictionary of botany. Ronald Press Co., New York.
- 93 -
(Appendix 11, cont.)
Cramer, J. The taxono~ of flowering plants. The Century Company, New York. 1976
CUtting, C.V. and Luckwill, C.C. Physiology of tree crops. Academic Press Ltd., 1970 London.
Davis, P.H. and CUllen, J. Identification of flowering plant families. Cambridge 1979 University Press, London.
FAO Plant collection and herbarium development. FAO Plant Production and Protection 1981 Paper No. 33. Rome.
Fogg, G.E. 1979
Photosynthesis. Hodder & Stoughton, London.
Hall, M.A. (ed.) Plant structure, function and adaptation. MacMillan Press Ltd., 1978 London.
Harley, J .L. 1971
MYcorrhiza. Oxford University Press, London.
Heywood, V.H. 1976
Plant taxono~. Edward Arnold Publishers Ltd., London.
Heaker, H.W., Jr. Introduction to forest biology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York. 1979
Jamieson, B.G.M. 1979
Tropical plant types. Pergamon Press, Oxford.
Kramer, P.J. and Kozlowski, T.T. Physiology of woody plants. Academic Press Ltd., 1979 London.
Macura, P. Elsevier's dictionary of botany. 1.- Plant names. Elsevier Scientific 1979 Publishing Company, Amsterdam.
Meyer, B. ~. Introduction to plant psychology. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. Ltd., 1973 Wokingham, Berks., U.K.
Peel, A.J. 1974
Transport of nutrients in plants. Butterworth Group, London .
Pryor, L.D. 1979
Biology of eucalypts. Edward Arnold Publishers Ltd., London.
Rendle, A.B. The classification of flovlering plants. Valse I and II. Cambridge 1976 University Press, London.
Skellem, C. and Rogers, P. 1977
Basic botany. MacDonald & Evans Ltd., London.
Simon, E.W. ~ al. 1980
Textbook of botany. UniverSity Tutorial Press, London.
Swartz, D. 1971
Colleg iate dictionary of botany. Ronald Press Co., New York.
(Appendix 11, cont.)
(11.4)
Talbot, F.H.B. Principles of fungal taxonomy. MacMillan Press Ltd., London.1976
Thomas, M. et al. Plant physiology (5th edition). Longman Group Ltd., London.
1973
Wareing, P.F. and Phillips, I.D.J. The control of growth and differentiation in plants.1978 Pergamon Press, New York.
Weier, T.E. et al. Botany. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York,
1974
Willis, J.C. A dictionary of flowering plants and ferns. Cambridge University Press,1973 London.
Wilson, C.L. Botany. Holt, Reinhart & Winston, New York.1971
11.5 CLIMATOLOGY
94
Flohn, H.1969
General climatology. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co., Amsterdam.
Griffiths, J.F. Applied climatology. Oxford University Press, London.1976
Money, D.C. Climate, soils and vegetation. University Tutorial Press, London.1978
Nieuwolt, S. Tropical climatology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York,1977
Stringer, E.T. Foundations of climatology. W.H. Freeman & Co., San Francisco, U.S.A.1972
Trewartha, G.T. and Horn, L.H. An introduction to climate. McGrawHill Book Co.,1980 Tokyo.
11..6 COMMUNITY FCRESTRY
Anon. Community trees and shrubs: Selection, use and care. USA Extension Service,1982 University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, U.S.A.
Digby, M. and Edwardson, T.E. The organization of forestry co-operatives. Plunkett
1976 Foundation for Co-operative Studies, London.
Esman, M.J. and Uphof, T.M. Local organization and rural development: Rural Develop-1982 ment Committee, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.
FAO Forestry for rural communities. Rome.1978
FAO Forestry for local community development. FAO Forestry Paper No. 7, Rome.1978
FAO Report of the FAO/SIDA Seminar on Forestry Extension, Semarang, Indonesia, 18-301982 January 1982. Rome.
- 94 -
(Appendix 11, cont.)
Talbot, P.H.B. 1976
Thomas, M. et ale 1973
Principles of fungal taxonomy. MacMillan Press Ltd., London.
Plant physiology (5th edition). Longman Group Ltd., London.
Wareing, P.F. and Phillips, I.D.J. The control of growth and differentiation in plants. 1978 Pergamon Press, New York.
Weier, T.E. £i 21. 1974
Botany. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.
Willis, J .C. A dictionary of flowering plants and ferns. Cambridge University Press, 1973 London.
Wilson, G.L. 1971
Botany. Holt, Reinhart & l-linston, New York.
11.5 CLIMATOLOGY
Flohn, H. 1969
General climatology. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co., Amsterdam.
Griffiths, J .F. 1976
Money, D.C. 1978
Nieuwolt, s. 1977
Stringer, E.T. 1972
Applied climatology. Oxford University Press, London.
Climate, soils and vegetation. University Tutorial Press, London.
Tropical climatology. J ohn Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.
Foundations of climatology. li.R. Freeman &: Co., San Francisco, U.S.A.
Trewartha, G.T. and Horn, L.H. An introduction to climate. McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1980 TOkyo.
11.6 COMMUNITY FQlEm'RY
Anon. 1982
Communi ty trees and shrubs: Selection, use and care. USA ExtenSion Service, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, U.S.A.
Digby, M. and Edwardson, T.E. The organization of forestry co-operatives. Plunkett 1976 Foundation for Co-operative Studies, London.
Esman, M.J. and Uphof, T.M. Local organization and rural development: Rural Develop-1982 ment Committee, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.
FAO Forestry for rural communities. Rome. 1978
FAO Forestry for local community development. FAO Forestry Paper No.7. Rome. 1978
FAO Report of the FAO/SIDA Seminar on Forestry Extension, Semarang, Indonesia, 18-30 1982 January 1982. Rome.
(Appendix 11, cont.)
(11.6)
Lele, U. The design of rural development: Lessons from Africa. John Hopkins University1975 Press, Baltimore, U.S.A.
Montalembert, M.R. de and Clément, J. Fuelwood supplies in the developing countries.1983 FAO Forestry Paper No. 42. Rome.
Savile, A.H. Extension in rural communities. A manual for agricultural and home exten-
1978 sion workers. Oxford University Press, London.
11.7 CONSERVATION
Allen, R.1980
Bradshaw, A.D. and Chadwick, M.J. The restoration of land: The ecology and reclamation1980 of derelict and degraded land. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford.
Curry-Lindahl, K. Conservation for survival. Victor Gollancz Ltd., London.1973
Davis, K.P.1976
Haw, R.C.1980
- 95 -
How to save the world: Strategy for world conservation. Kogan Page, London.
Land use. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.
Duffey, E. and Watt, A.S. The scientific management of animal and plant communities1972 for conservation. British Ecological Society Symposium No. 11. Blackwell Scien-
tific Publications, Oxford.
FAO Hydrological techniques for upstream conservation. FAO Conservation Guide No. 2.1976 Rome.
FAO Guidelines for watershed management. FAO Conservation Guide No. 1. Rome.1977
FAO Conservation in arid and semi-arid zones. FAO Conservation Guide No. 3. Rome.1977
FAO Special readings in conservation. FAO Conservation Guide No, 4. Rome.1977
FAO Forest influences, FAO Forestry Series No. 9. Forestry and Forest Products1978 Studies No. 15. Rome.
FAO Torrent control terminology. FAO Conservation Guide No. 6. Rome.1981
FAO Environmental impact on forestry. FAO Conservation Guide No. 7. Rome.1982
FAO Management of upland watersheds: Participation of the mountain communities.1983 FAO Conservation Guide No. 8. Rome.
Green, B. Countryside conservation: The protection and management of amenity eco-1981 systems. George Allen & Unwin, London.
The conservation of natural resources. Faber & Faber Ltd., London.
Hedberg, Inge and Olav. Conservation of vegetation in Africa south of the Sahara.Almquist & Wiksells Boktrychen AB, Uppsala, Sweden.
- 95 -
(Appendix 11, cont.)
(11.6)
Lele, U. 1975
The design of rural development: Lessons from Africa. John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, U.S.A.
Montalembert, M.R. de and Cl6ment, J. Fuelwood supplies in the developing countries. 1983 FAO Forestry Paper No. 42. Rome.
Savile, A.H. Extension in rural communities. A manual for agricultural and home exten-1978 sion workers. Oxford University Press, London.
11.7 CONSERVATION
Allen, R. 1980
How to save the world: Strat$gy for world conservation. Kogan Page, London.
Bradshaw, A.D. and Chadwick, M.J. The restoration of land. The ecology and reclamation 1980 of derelict and degraded land. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford.
CUrry-Lindahl, K. 1973
Conservation for survival. Victor Gollancz Ltd., London.
Davis, K.F. 1976
Land use. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.
Duffey, 1972
FAO 1976
E. and Watt, A.S. The soientific management of animal and plant communities for conservation. British Ecological SOCiety Symposium No. 11. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford.
Hydrological techniques for upstream oonservation. FAD Conservation Guide No.2. Rome.
FAO Guidelines for watershed management. FAO Conservation Guide No.1. Rome. 1977
PAO 1977
Conservation in arid and semi-arid zonee. FAD Conservation Guide No.3. Rome.
FAD Special readings in conservation. FAD Conservation Guide No.4. Rome. 1977
FAO 1978
Forest influences, Studies No. 15.
FAO Forestry Series No.9. Forestry and Forest Products Rome.
FAO Torrent control terminology. FAO Conservation Guide No.6. Rome. 1981
FAO 1982
Environmental impact on forestry. FAO Conservation Guide No.7. Rome.
FAO Management of upland watersheds. Par~icipation of the mountain communities. 1983 FAO Conservation Guide No.8. Rome.
Green, B. 1981
Haw, R.C. 1980
Countryside conservation: The protection and management of amenity ecosystems. George Allen & Unwin, London.
The conservation of natural resources. Faber & Faber Ltd., London.
Hedberg, Inga and Olav. Conservation of vegetation in Africa south of the Sahara. Almquist & Wiksells Boktrychen AB, Uppsala, Sweden.
(Appendix 11, cont.)
(11.7)
Lee, R.1980
Logginov, B.I. Principles of field protective forestation. I.P.S.T., Jerusalem,
1964
Pereira, H.C. Land use and water resources in temperate and tropical clima-tes.
1973 Cambridge University Press, London.
Peterken, G.F. Woodland conservation and management. Chapman & Hall Ltd., London.
1981
Poore, D. and GrynAmbroes, P. Nature conservation in northern and western Europe.
1980 International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources,
Gland, Switzerland.
11.8 ECOLOGY
Ashby, M.
1971
Bannister, P. Introduction to physiological plant ecology. Blackwell Scientific1976 Publishers Ltd., Oxford.
Batten, M. The tropical forests (ants, animals and plants). Faber & Faber Ltd.,
1976 London.
Clare, R.1978
Colinvaux, P.A. Introduction to ecology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.1976
Collinson, A.S.1978
Cousens, J.1974
Duffey, E. et al.1974 London.
Eyre, S.R.1975
- 96 -
Forest hydrology. Columbia University Press, New York.
Introduction to plant ecology (3rd ed.). MacMillan Press Ltd., London.
Tropical forests. Edward Arnold Publishers, Ltd., London.
Introduction to world vegetation. George Allen & Unwin, London.
An introduction to woodland ecology. Oliver & Boyd, Glasgow, U.K.
Daubenmire, R. Plant communities: A textbook of plant synecology. Harper and Row1968 Publications, New York,
Duffey, E. The forest world. The ecology of the temperate woodlands. Orbis Publish-19460 ing, London.
Grassland ecology and wildlife management. Chapman & Hall Ltd.,
Ewusie, J.Y. Elements of tropical ecology, with reference to the African, Asian,1980 Pacific and New World Tropics. Heinemann Educational Books Ltd., London.
Vegetation and soils. E. Arnold Publishers Ltd., London.
- 96 -
(Appendix 11, cont.)
Lee, R. Forest hydrology. Columbia University Press, New York. 1980
Logginov, B.I. 1964
Principles of f i e l d protective forestat ion. r.p.S.T., Jerusalem.
Pereira, H.C. Land use and water resources in temperate and tropical climates. 1973 Cambri dge University Press, London.
Pet erken , G.F. 1981
Woodland conservation and management. Chapman & Hall Ltd., London.
Poore, D. 1980
and Gryn-Ambroes, P. International Union for Gland, Switzerland.
11.8 ECOLOGY
Nature conservation in northern and western Europe. the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources,
Ashby, M. 1971
Introduction to plant ecology (3rd ed.). MacMillan Press Ltd., London.
Bannister, P. Introduotion to physiological plant eoology. Blackwell Scientific 1976 Publishers Ltd., Oxford.
Batten, M. The tropical forests (ants, animals and plants). Faber & Faber Ltd . , 1976 London.
Clare, R. 1978
Tropical forests. Edward Arnold Publishers, Ltd., London.
Colinvaux, P.A. 1976
Introduction to ecolOgy. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.
Colli nson, A.S. Introduction to world vegetation. George Allen & Unwi n, London. 1978
Cousens, J. An introduction to woodland ecology. Oliver & Boyd, Glasgow, U.K. 1974
llaubenmire, R. Plant cOll1lllW1itiesl A textbook of plant syneoology. Harper and Row 1968 Publications, New York.
Duffey, E. The forest world. The ecology of the temperate woodlands. Orbis Publish-19bO ing, London.
Duffey, E. ~ Al,.. 1974 London.
Grassland ecology and wildlife management. Chapman & Hall Ltd.,
Ewusie, J.Y. Elements of tropical ecology, with reference to the African, Asian, 1980 Pacific and New World Tropics. Heinemann Educational Books Ltd., London.
:&'yre, S.R. Vegetation and soils. E. Arnold Publishers Ltd., London . 1975
- 97 -
(Appendix 11, cont.)
(11.8)
FAO Forest influences: An introduction to ecological forestry. Rome.1978
Graham, V.1976
The ecology of rain forests. F. Watts, London.
Hall, J.B. and Swaine, M.D. Distribution and ecology of vascular plants in -a tropical1981 rain forest. Forest vegetation in Ghana. Dr. W. Junk Publishers, The Hague,
Netherlands.
Holdridge, L.R. Life zone ecology (revised edition). Tropical Science Center, San1967 Josg, Costa Rica.
Holdridge, L.R. et al. Forest environments in tropical life zones. Pergamon Press,1971 Oxford,
Hopkins, B. Forest and savanna. Heinemann Educational Books Ltd., London.1979
Howard, J.A. Aerial photoecology. Faber & Faber Ltd., London.1970
Janzen, D.H. Ecology of plants in the tropics. Edward Arnold Publishers Ltd., London,1975
Lind, E.M. and Morrison, M.E.S. East African vegetation. Longman Group, London,1974
Longman, K.A. and Jenik, J. Tropical forest and its environment. Longman Group,1974 London.
Monteith, J.L. Vegetation and the atmosphere. Academic Press Ltd., London.1975
Poore, D. Ecological guidelines for development in tropical rain forests. IUCN Books,
1976 Morges, Switzerland.
Richards, P.W. The tropical rain forest. Cambridge University Press, London.
1979
Southwick, C.H. Ecology and quality of our environment. Van Nostrand Reinhold1976 Co. Ltd., New York.
Spurr, S.H. and Barnes, B.V. Forest ecology. John Wiley & Sons Inc.. New York.1980
Unesco International classification and mapping of vegetation. Ecology and Conserva-
1973 tion No. 6. Paris,
Walter, H. Ecology of tropical and subtropical vegetation. Oliver c% Boyd, Edinburgh,1971 U.K.
Whitmore, T.C. Tropical rain forest of the Far East, Oxford University Press, London.1975
- 97 -
(Appendix 11, cont.)
( 11.8)
FAD Forest influences: An int~oduction to ecological forestry. Rome. 1978
Graham, V. 1976
The ecology of rain forests. ~. Watts, London.
Hall, 1981
J .B. and Swaine, rain forest. Netherlands.
M.D. Distribution and ecology of vascular plants in ~ tropical Forest vegetation in Ghana. Dr. W. Junk Publishers, The Hague,
Holdridge, L.R. Life zone ecology (revised edition). Tropical Science Center, San 1967 Jos~, Costa Rica.
Holdridge, L.R. et al. Forest environments in tropical life zones, Pergamon Press, 1971 Oxford.
Hopkins, B. Forest and savanna. Heinemann Educational Books Ltd" London. 1979
Howard, J.A. Aerial photo-ecology, Faber & Faber Ltd., London. 1970
Janzen, D.H. Ecology of plants in the tropics. Edward Arnold Publishers Ltd., London. 1975
Lind, E.M. and Morrison, M.E.S. 1974
Longman, K.A. and J enik, J. 1974 London.
East African vegetation. Longman Group, London.
Tropical forest and its environment. Longman Group,
Monteith, J .L. 1975
Vegetation and the atmosphere. Aoademio Press Ltd., London.
Poore, D. Ecological guidelines for development in tropical rain forests. mCN Books, 1976 Marges, Switzerland.
Richards, P.W. 1979
The tropioal rain forest. Cambridge University Press, London.
Southwiok, · C.H. Ecology and quality of our environment. Van Nostrand Reinhold 1976 Co. Ltd., New York.
Spurr, S.H. and Barnes, B.V. 1980
Forest ecolOgy. John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York.
Unesoo 1973
International olassification and mapping of vegetation. Ecology and Conservation No.6. Paris.
Walter, H. Ecology of tropical and sub-tropical vegetation. Oliver & Boyd, Edinburgh, 1971 U.K.
Whitmore, T.O. 1975
Tropioal rain forest of the Far East. Oxford University Press, London.
(Appendix 11, cont.)
11.9 ECONOMICS
Duerr, W.A.1960
Earl, D.E.1975
Gray, J.A. Forest revenue systems in developing countries: Their role in income1983 generation and forest management strategies. FAO, Rome.
Gregerson, H.M. and Contreras, A.H. Economic analysis of forestry projects.
1979 FAO Forestry Paper No. 17. Sup. 1 - Economic analysis of forestry projects:case studies, 1979; Sup. 2 - Economic analysis of forestry projects: readings,1980.
Samuelson, P.A. Economics. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Tokyo.1980
Schumacher, E.F. Small is beautiful. Blond & Briggs Ltd., London.1978
11.10 FOREST ENGINEERING
Brady, G.S. and Clauser, H.R. Materials hand book. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.1972
Cranfield, E.F. Design,construction and maintenance of earth dams and excavated ponds.1971 Forestry Commission, Forest Record No. 75. H.M.S.O., London.
Dolan, J.A. Motor vehicle technology and practical work. Heinemann Educational Books1971 Ltd., London.
FAO Cable logging systems. FAO Forestry Paper No. 24. Rome.1981
Heinrich, R. (ed.) Logging of mountain forests. FAO Forestry Paper No. 330 Rome.
1982
Hudson, N.W. Field engineering for agricultural development. Clarendon Press,
1975 Oxford.
Illston, J.M. et al. Concrete, timber and metals. The nature and behaviour of struc-
1979 tural materials. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. Ltd., Wokingham, Berks. U.K.
Nagy, M.M., Trebett, J.T. and Wellburn, G.V. Log bridge construction handbook. FERIC,
1980 201 W. Broadway, Vancouver, B.C., Canada.
Nash, F.C.1969
11.11 FOREST MANAGEMENT
Davis, K.P.1966
- 98 -
Fundamentals of forestry economics. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.
Forest energy and economic development. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Automotive fundamentals. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.
Forest management. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.
Erfurth, T. and Rusche, H. The marketing of tropical wood. FAO, Rome.
1976
- 98 -
(Appendix 11, cont.)
11 .9 ECONOMICS
Duerr, W.A. Fundamentals of forestry economics. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York. 1960
Earl, D.E. 1975
Forest energy and economic development. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Gray, J .A. Forest revenue systems in developing countries: Their role in income 1983 generation and forest management strategies. FAO, Rome.
Gregerson, H.M. and Contreras, A.H. 1979 FAO Forestry Paper No. 17.
case studies, 1979; SUp. 2 1980.
Economic analysis of forestr,y projects. Sup. 1 - Economic analysis of forestry projects:
- Economio analysis of forestry projects: readings,
Samuelson, P.A. 1980
Economics. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Tokyo.
Schumacher, E.F. 1978
Small is beautiful. Blond & Briggs Ltd., London.
11.10 FOREST ENGINEEllING
Brady, G.S. and Clauser, H.R. 1972
Materials hand book. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.
Cranfield, E.F. Design, construction and maintenance of earth dams and excavated ponds. 1971 Forestry Commission, Forest Record No. 75. H.M.S.O., London.
Dolan, J .A. Motor vehicle technology and practical work. Heinemann Educational Books 1971 Ltd., London.
FAO Cable logging systems. FAO Forestry Paper No. 24. Rome. 1981
Heinrich, R. (ed.) 1982
Logging of mountain forests. FAO Forestry Pa.per No. 33. Rome.
Hudson, N.W. Field engineering for agricultural development. Clarendon Press, 1975 Oxford.
Iliston, J.M. !1 ~ Concrete, timber and metals. The nature and behaviour of struc-1979 tural materials. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. Ltd., Wokingham, Berks. U.K.
Nagy, M.M., Trebett, J .T. and Well burn, G. V. Log bridge construction handbook. FERIC, 1980 201 W. Broadway, Vancouver, B.C., Canada.
Nash, F.C. 1969
Automotive fundamentals. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.
11 • 11 FOREST MANAGEMENl'
Davis, K.P. 1966
Forest management. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.
Erfurth, T. and Rusche, H. 1976
The marketing of tropical wood. FAO, Rome.
- 99 -
(Appendix 11, cont.)
(11.11)
FAO An introduction to planning forestry development. Rome.
1974
FAO Management and utilization of mangroves in Asia and the Pacific. FAO Environment1982 Paper No. 3. Rome.
Guise, C.H.1960
Johnston, D.R. et al.1967
Meyer, H.A. et al.1961
The management of farm woodlands. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.
Forest planning. Faber & Faber Ltd., London.
Forest management. John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York,
Watt, G.R. The planning and evaluation of forestry projects. Commonwealth Forestry1973 Institute, Oxford.
Williams, M.R.W. Decision-making in forestry management. Research Studies Press,1981 Letchworth, U.K.
11.12 FOREST TREE IMPROVEMENT
Allard, R.W.1960
Burley, J. and Nickles, D.G. Selection and breeding to improve some tropical conifers.1973 Commonwealth Forestry Institute, Oxford, and Oxford University Press, London,
Burley, J. and Nickles,1979 co-operation.
Burley, J. and Styles, B1976 Academic Press
Principles of plant breeding. John Wiley, New York.
D.G. Tropical provenance and progeny research and internationalCommonwealth Forestry Institute, Oxford.
.T. Tropical trees (variation, breeding and conservation).Ltd., London,
Burley, J. and Wood, P.J. A manual on species and provenance research, with particular1976 reference to the tropics. Tropical Forestry Paper No. 10. Commonwealth Fores-
try Institute, Oxford.
Cannel, M.G.R. and Last, F.T. Tree physiology and yield improvement. Academic Press1976 Ltd., London.
FAO The methodology of conservation of forest genetic resources. Rome.
1974
FAO Forest tree and seed directory. Rome.1975
Faulkner, R. (ed.) Seed orchards. Forestry Commission Bulletin 54. H.M.S.O., London.1975
Gerhold, H.D. et al. Breeding pest resistant trees. Pergamon Press, Oxford.1966Herbert, R.B. Development of glass house techniques for early progeny test procedures1971 in forest tree breeding. H.M.S.O., London.
Lawrence, W.J.C. Plant breeding. Forest Record No. 74, Forestry Commission. Edward1977 Arnold Publishers Ltd., London.
- 99 -
(Appendix 11, cont.)
(11.11)
FAa 1974
An introduction to planning forestry development. Rome.
FAa 1982
Management and utilization of mangroves in Asia and the Pacific. FAO Environment Paper No.3. Rome.
Guise, C.H. 1960
The management of farm woodlandS. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.
Johnston, D.R. et ~ Forest planning. Faber & Faber Ltd., London. 1967
Meyer, H.A. et ~ Forest management. John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York. 1961
Watt, G.R. The planning and evaluation of forestry projects. Commonwealth Forestry 1973 Institute, Oxford.
Williams, M. R.W. Decision-making in forestry management. Research Studies Press, 1981 Letchworth, U.K.
11 • 1 2 FORrnT TREE IMPROVEMENT
Allard, R.W. 1960
Principles of plant breeding. John Wiley, New York.
Burley, J. and Nickles, D.O. Seleotion and breeding to improve some tropical conifers. 1973 Commonwealth Forestry Institute, Oxford, and Oxford University Press, London.
Burley, J. and Nickles, D.G. Tropical provenance and progeny research and international 1979 co-operation. Commonwealth Forestry Institute, Oxford.
Burley, J. and Styles, B.T. Tropical trees (variation, breeding and conservation). 1976 Academic Press Ltd., London.
Burley, 1976
J. and Wood, P.J. A manual on speCies and provenance research, with particular reference to the tropics. Tropical ForeBt~ Paper No. 10. Commonwealth Forestry Institute, Oxford.
Cannel, M.G.R. and Last, F.T. Tree physiology and yield improvement. Academic Press 1976 Ltd., London.
FAO The methodology of conservation of forest genetic resources. Rome. 1974
FAD Forest tree and seed directory. Rome. 1975
Faulkner, R. (ed. ) 1975
Seed orchards. Forestry Commission Bulletin 54. H.M.S.C., London.
Gerhold, H.D. et ~ 1966
Breeding pest resistant trees. Pergamon Press, Oxford.
Herbert, R.B . Development of glass house techniques for early progeny test procedures 1971 in forest tree breeding. H.M.S.O., London.
Lawrence, W.J.C. Plant breedi ng. Forest Record No. 74, Forestry Commission. Edward 1977 Arnold PubliBhers Ltd., London.
(Appendix 11, cont.)
(11.12)
Sinnott, E.W. and Dunn, L.C. Principles of genetics. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Tokyo.1958
Sinnott, E.W., Dunn, L.C. and Dobzhansky, T. Principles of Genetics. McGraw-Hill Book1958 Co. Inc., New York, London, and McGraw-Hill Kogakusha Ltd., Tokyo.
Stern, K. and Roche, L. Genetics of forest ecosystems. Ecological Studies No. 6.1974 Chapman and Hall Ltd., London.
- 100-
Wright, J.W.1976
Baldwin, R.F.1981
Introduction to forest genetics. Academic Press, New York.
Yeatman, C.W. and Nieman, T.C. Safe tree climbing in forest management. Forestry1978 Technical Report No, 24. Petawa Forest Experiment Station, Chalk River, Ontario,
Canada.
11.13 FOREST UTILIZATION
Anon. Nomenclature of commercial timbersincluding sources of supply. British Standards1974 Institute, London.
Bachrich, J.L. Dry kiln handbook. H.A. Simons (International) Ltd., Vancouver, Canada,1980
Plywood manufacturing practices. World Wood, San Francisco, U.S.A.
Brown, T.D. (ed.) Quality control in lumber manufacturing. Miller Freeman Publica-1982 tions Inc., San Francisco, U.S.A.
Cartwright, K.S.G. and Findlay, W.P.K. Decay of timber and its prevention. H.M.S.O.,1958 London.
Conway, Steve Timber cutting practices. World Wood, San Francisco, U.S.A.1978
Conway, Steve Logging practices: Principles of timber harvesting systems. Miller1982 Freeman Publications Inc., San Francisco, U.S.A.
Core, H. et al.- Wood structure and identification. Syracuse University Press,1979 Syracuse, NY, U.S.A.
Crowther, R.E. and Toulmin-Rothe, I. Felling and converting thinnings by hand.1963 Forestry Commission Booklet No. 9. H.M.S.O., London.
Desch, H.E. and Dinwoodie, J.M. Timber: its structure, properties and utilisation.1981 MacMillan Press Ltd., London.
Dinwoodie, J.M. Timber, its nature and behaviour.1981 New York, London,
FAO Heat stress in forest work. Rome.
1974
Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. Ltd.,
FAO A manual on logging and transport in eucalyptus plantations. Rome.1974
FAO Logging and transport in tropical high forest. Rome.
1974
- 100 -
(Appendix 11, cont.)
(11.12)
Sinnott, E.W. and Dunn, L.C. 1958
Principles of genetics. McGraw-Hill Book Co., TOkyo.
Sinnott, E.W., Dunn, L.C. and Dobzhansky, T. Principles of Genetics. >lcGraw-Hill Book 1958 Co. Inc., New York, London, and McGraw-Hill Kogakusha Ltd., TOkyo.
Stern, K. and Roche, L. Genetics of forest ecosystems. Ecological Studies No.6. 1974 Chapman and Hall Ltd., London.
Wright, J.W. 1976
Introduction to forest genetics. Academic Press, New York.
Yeatman, C.W. and Nieman, T.e. 1978 Technioal Report No . 24.
Safe tree climbing in forest management. Forestry Petawa Forest Experiment Station, Chalk River, Ontario,
Canada.
11.13 FOREST UTILIZATION
Anon. 1974
Nomenclature of commercial' timbers including sources of supply. British Standards Institute, London.
Baohrich, J .L. 1980
Dry kiln handbook. H.A. Simons (International) Ltd., Vanoouver, Cenada.
Baldwin, R.F. 1981
Plywood manufacturing practices. World Wood, San Francisco, U.S.A.
Brown, T.D. (ed.) Quality control in lumber manufacturing. Miller Freeman Publica-1'982 tiona Inc., San Francisoo, U.S.A.
Cartwright, K.S.G. and Findlay, W.P.K. Dec~ of timber and its prevention. H.M.S.a., 1958 London.
Conway, Steve 1978
Timber cutting practices. World Wood, San FranciSCO, U.S.A.
Conway, Steve Logging practices, Prinoiples of timber harvesting systems. Miller 1982 Freeman Publications Inc., San Francisco, U.S.A.
Core, H. et al.- Wood structure and identification. Syracuse University Press, 1979 -SY;;-cuse, NY, U.S.A.
Crowther, R.E. and Toulmin-Rothe, I. Felling and converting thinnings by hand. 1963 Forestry Commission Booklet No.9. H.M.S.O., London.
Desch, H.E. and Dinwoodie, J.M. Timber: its structure, properties and utilisation. 1981 MacMillan Press Ltd., London.
Dinwoodie, J.M. Timber, its nature and behaviour. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. Ltd., 1981 New York, London.
FAD Heat stress in forest work. Rome. 1974
FAD A manual on logging and transport in eucalyptus plantations. Rome. 1974
FAD Logging and transport in tropical high forest. Rome. 1974
(Appendix 11, cont.)
(11.13)
FAO Harvesting manmade forests in developing countries. Rome.1976
FAO Planning forest roads and harvesting systems. Rome.1977
FAO Guide for planning pulp and paper enterprises. Rome.1977
FAO Mountain forest roads and harvesting. Rome.1979
FAO Pulp and papermaking properties of fastgrowing plantation wood species.1980 Vols. I and II. Rome.
FAO Frame saw manual. FAO Forestry Paper No. 39. Rome.1982
FAO Appropriate technology in forestry. FAO Forestry Paper No. 31. Rome.1982
FAO Basic technology in forest operations. FAO Forestry Paper No. 36. Rome.1983
FAO Simple technologies for charcoal making. FAO Forestry Paper No. 41. Rome.1983
FAO Circular saw manual. FAO Forestry Paper No. 40. Rome.1983
FAO/ILO Chainsaws in tropical forests. FAO Training Series No. 2. Rome.1980
Farmer, R.H. Handbook of hardwoods. H.M.S.O., London.1972
Findlay, W.P.K. Timber: properties and uses. Granada Publishing Ltd., St. Albans,1975 Herts., U.K.
Gislerud, Clay and Wibstad, Kjell. Integrating forest operations with smallscale1981 industrial activities, including energy conversion. Norwegian Forest Research
Institute/FAO.
Hampton, Charles M. Dry land log handling and sorting. Miller Freemann Publications1981 Inc., San Francisco, U.S.A.
Hardie, A.D.K. An elementary manual of timber utilization. International Forest1980 Science Consultancy. Penicaik,
101
Harris, P.1973
Hickin, N.E.1973
Mechanics of sawing. H.M.S.O., London.
Wood preservation. Hutchinson & Co. Ltd., London.
Hoadley, R.B. Understanding wood: A craftman's guide to wood technology. The Taunton
1980 Press Inc., New York.
- 101 -
(Appendix 11, cont.)
(11.13)
FAO 1976
Harvesting man-made forests in developing countries. Rome.
FAD Planning forest roads and harvesting systems. Rome. 1977
FAO Guide for planning pulp and paper enterprises. Rome. 1977
FAG Mountain forest roads and harvesting. Rome. 1979
FAO Pulp and paper-making properties of fast-gro1ring plantation 1;Qod species. 1980 Vols. I and II. Rome.
FAO Frame saw manual. FAO Forestry Paper No. 39. Rome. 1982
FAO Appropriate technology in forestry. FAO Forestry Paper No. 31. Rome. 1982
FAO Basic technology in forest operations. FAO Forestry Paper No. 36. Rome. 1983
FAO Simple technologies for charcoal making. FAO Forestry Paper No. 41. Rome. 1983
FAG Circular saw manual. FAG Forestry Paper No. 40. Rome. 1983
FAO/ILO 1980
Farmer, R.H. 1972
Chainsaws in tropical forests. FAG Training Series No.2. Roroo.
Handbook of hard1"lOods. H.l~. S.O., London.
Findlay, W.P.K. Timber: properties and uses. Granada Publishing Ltd., St. Albans, 1975 Herts., U.K.
Gislerud, 1981
Olav and Wibstad, Kjell. Integrating forest operations with small-scale industrial activities, including energy conversion. Norwegian Forest Research Institute/FAO.
Hampton, Charles M. Dry land log handling and sorting. Miller Freemann Publications 1981 Inc., San FranciSCO, U.S.A.
Hardie, A.D.K. An elementary manual of timber utilization. International Forest 1980 Science Consultancy. Penic~ik, U.1:.
Harris, P. 1973
Mechanics of sawing. H.1-1.S.0., London.
Hickin, N.E. 1973
"'ood preservation. Hutchinson & Co. Ltd., London.
Hoadley, R.B. Understanding wood: A craftman's guide to wood technolOgy. The Taunton 1980 Press Inc., New York.
(Appendix 11, cont.)
(11.13)
Kollman, F.F.P. Principles of wood science and technology. Springer Verlag, Berlin.1968
Maloney, Thomas M. Modern particleboard and dry-process fiberboard manufacturing.1977 Miller Freeman Publications Inc., San Francisco, U.S.A.
Nilsson, M. The farm tractor in the forest. The National Board of Forestry, Jbnkbping,1982 Sweden.
Oldeman, R.A.A. Tropical hardwood utilization: Practice and prospects. Martinus1982 Nijhoff/Dr. W. Junk Publications, The Hague, Netherlands.
Panshin, A.J. et al.1962
Panshin, A.J. and Zeeuw, D.E.C.1964 New York.
Pearce, J.K. ana Stenzel, G.1972 York.
Williston, E.M.1976
Chapman, H.H. and Meyer, W.H.
1949
- 102-
Forest products. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.
Textbook of wood technology.
Logging and pulpwood production.
Lumber manufacturing. World Wood, San Francisco, U.S.A.
McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
Ronald Press Co., New
Rendle, B.J. The growth and structure of wood. Forest Products Research Bulletin1971 No. 56, H.M.S.O., London.
Sutton, A. and Sawyer, T.R. Loading and unloading timber lorries. Forest Record No. 78,1971 Forestry Commission. H.M.S.O., London.
Tillman, D.A. Wood as an energy source. Academic Press Inc., New York.1978
Titmuss, F.H. Commercial timbers of the world.. Technical Press, London.1971
Williston, E.M. Saws: Design, selection, operation, maintenance. World Wood, San1978 Francisco, U.S.A.
Williston, E.M. Small log sawmills. World Wood, San Francisco, U.S.A.1981
Wittering, W.O. Hydrostatic skidder. Forestry Commission Leaflet No. 59. H.M.S.O.,1974 London.
11.14 MENSURATION AND ENVENPORY
Forest mensuration. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.
Everard, J.E. Metric conversion tables and factors for forestry. Forestry Commission1971 Booklet No. 30. H.M.S.O., London.
(Appendix 11, cont.)
(11.13)
Kollman, F.F.P. 1968
- 102 -
Principles of wood science and technology. Springer Verlag, Berlin.
Maloney, Thomas M. Modern particleboard and dry-process fiberboard manufacturing. 1977 Miller Freeman Publications Inc., San Francisco, U.S.A.
Nilsson, M. The farm tractor in the forest. The National Board of Forestry, J\ln1c\lping, 1982 Sweden.
Oldeman, R.A.A. Tropical hardwood utilfzationl Practice and prospects. Martinus 1982 Nijhoff/nr. w. Junk Publications, The Hague, Netherlands.
Panshin, A.J. et al. 1962
Forest products, McGraw-Hill Book Co" New York.
Panshin, A.J. and Zeeuw, D.E.C. Textbook of wood technology. McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1964 New York.
Pearce, J.K. an~ Stenzel, G. Logging and pulpwood production. Ronald Press Co., New 1972 York.
Rendle, B.J. The growth and structure of wood. Forest Products Research Bulletin 1971 No. 56, H.M.S.O., London.
Sutton, A. and Sawyer, T.R. 1971 Forestry Commission.
Loading and unloading timber lorries. Forest Record No. 78, H.M.S.O., London.
Tillman, D.A. 1978
Wood as an energy source. Academic Press Inc., New York.
Titmuss, F.H. 1971
Commercial timbers of the world. Technical Press, London.
Williston, E.M. 1976
Lumber manufacturing. World Wood, San Francisco, U.S.A.
Williston, E.M. Saws: DeSign, selection, operation, maintenance . liorld Wood, San 1978 Francisco, U.S.A.
Wi lliston, E.M. 1981
Small log sawmills. World Wood, San Francisco, U.S.A.
Wittering, W.O. Hydrostatic skidder. Forestry Commission Leaflet No. 59. H.M.S.O., 1974 London.
11.14 MENSURATION AND INVENTORY
Chapman, H.H. and Meyer, W.H. 1949
Forest mensuration. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.
Everard, J.E. Metric conversion tables and factors for forestry. Forestry Commission 1971 Booklet No. 30. H.M.S.O., London.
(Appendix 11, cont.)
(11.14)
FAO Manual of forest inventory. Rome.1973
FAO Second FAO/SIDA Training Course on Forest Inventory. Rome.1975
FAO Forest volume estimation and yield prediction. Rome.1980
Freese, F. Elementary forest sampling. USDA Agriculture Handbook 232. USDA Forest1976 Service, Washington, D.C.
Hamilton, G.J. Forest mensuration handbook. Forestry Commission Booklet No. 39.1975 H.M.S.O., London.
103
Husch, B.
1971
Boyce, J.S.1961
Planning forest inventory. FAO, Rome.
Husch, B., Miller, C.I. and Beers, T.W. Forest mensuration. John Wiley & Sons Inc.,1972 New York.
Loetsch, F. and Haller, K.E. Forest inventory, Vol. 1. BLV Verlagsgesellschaft1964 MUnchen,'Basel Wien
Loetsch, F., Tarer, F. and Haller, K.E. Forest inventory, Vol. 2. BLV Verlagsgesell-1973 schaft MUnchen Basel Wien.
Wiant, H.V., Jr. Elementary timber measurements. Vandalia Press, Morgantown, wv,1979 U.S.A.
11.15 PROTECTION (incl. ENTOMOLOGY and PATHOLOGY)
Anderson, R.F. Forest and shade tree entomology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.1960
Askew, R.R. Parasitic insects. Heinemann Educational Books Ltd., London.1971
Bach, P. De Biological control by natural enemies. Cambridge University Press, London,
1974
Forest pathology. McGrawHill Book Co., New York,
Brown, A.A. and Davis, K.P. Forest fire control and use. McGrawHill Book Co.,
1973 New York.
Browne, F.G. Pests and diseases of forest plantation trees. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
1966
Clark, L.R. et al. The ecology of insect populations in theory and practice.1978 Methuen & Co. Ltd., London.
Comstock, J.H. An introduction to entomology. Comstock PUblishing Co., London.1972
Cooper, J.I. Virus diseases of trees and shrubs. Institute of Terrestrial Ecology,1979 Oxford.
- 103 -
(Appendix 11, cont.)
(11.14)
FAO Manual of forest inventory. Rome. 1973
FAO Second FAO/SmA Training Course on Forest Inventory. Rome. 1975
FAO Forest volume estimation and yield prediction. Rome. 1980
Freese, F. Elementary forest sampling. USDA Agriculture Handbook 232. USDA Forest 1976 Servioe, Washington, D.C.
Hamilton, G.J. Forest mensuration handbook. Forestry Commission Booklet No. 39. 1975 H.M.S.O., London.
Rusch, B. 1971
Planning forest inventory. FAO, Rome.
Husoh, B., Miller, C.I. and Beers, T.W. Forest mensuraticn. JaM Wiley & Sons Inc., 1972 New York.
Loet sch, F. and Haller, K.E. Forest inventory, Vol. 1. BLV Verlagsgesellschaft 1964 MI1nchen , - "Basel - Wien
Laetsch, F., Z~hrer, F. and Haller, K.E. 1973 schaft MI1nchen - Basel - \o/ien.
Forest inventory, Vol. 2. BLV Verlagsgesell-
Wiant, R.V., Jr. 1979 U.S.A.
Elementary timber measurements. Vandalia Press, Morgantown, WV,
11.15 PRDrECTION (incl. ENTOMOLOOY and PATHOLOOY)
Anderson, R.F. 1960
Askew, R.R. 1971
Bach, P. De 1974
Boyce, J.3. 1961
Forest and shade tree entomology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.
Parasitic insects. Heinemann Educational Books Ltd., London.
Biological control by natural enemies. Cambridge University Press, London.
Forest pathology. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.
Brown, A.A. and Davis, K.F. Forest fire control and use. McGral'l-Hill Book Co., 1973 New York.
Browne, F.G. Pests and diseases of forest plantation trees. Clarendon Press, Oxford. 1961)
Clark, L.R. ~ al. The ecology of insect populations in theory and practice. 1978 Methuen & Co. Ltd., London.
Comstock, J .H. 1972
An introduction to entomology. Comstock Publishing Co., London.
Cooper, J.I. Virus diseases of trees and shrubs. Insti tute of Terrestrial Ecology, 1979 Oxford.
(Appendix 11, cont.)
(11.15)
Davidson, G.1974
104
Gene-tic control of insect pests. Academic Press Ltd., London.
Emden, H.F. van Pest control and its ecology. Edward Arnold Publishers Ltd., London.1974
FAO Fire protection in industrial plantations. Forest Industries Feasibility Study.1971 Rome.
Florida Division of Forestry. Forest fire suppression tactics. Florida Division of1973 Forestry, U.S.A.
Florida Division of Forestry. Fire fighter's guide. Florida Division of Forestry,1973 U.S.A.
Ghani, M.A. and Cheema, M.A. Biology, ecology and behaviour of principal natural
1974 enemies of major insect pests of forest trees in Pakistan. Commonwealth Agri-aultural Bureau, Farnham Royal, Slough, U.K.
Gibson, I.A.S. '
Diseases of forest trees widely planted as exotics in the tropics and1962 southern hemisphere (2nd edition). Government Printer, Nairobi.
Hawley, R.C. Forest protection (2nd edition). John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.
1953
Hickin, N.E. The insect factor in wood decay. Hutchinson & Co. Ltd., London.
1975
Imms, A.D. General text book of entomology. Chapman & Hall Ltd., London.
1977
Khan, A.H. Pathology of trees, Vol. I. University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Paki -
1980 stan.
Luke, R.H. and MacArthur, A.G. Bush fires in Australia. Australian Government
1978 Pdblishing Service, Canberra.
Manion, P.D. Tree disease concepts in relation to forest and urban tree management
1981 practice. Prentice-Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, 137, U.S.A.
Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources. Forest fire fighting. Nicosia, Cyprus,1968
Newton, M. and Knight, F.B. Handbook of weed and insect control chemicals for forest1981 resource managers. Timber Press, Forest Grove, OR, U.S.A.
Oldroyd, H. Collecting, preserving and studying insects. Hutchinson & Co: Ltd.,1958 London,
Partridge, A.D. et al. Forest pathology outline. Forest, Wildlife and Range Experi-
1977 ment Station Contribution No. 49, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, U.S.A.
Pepper, H.W. and Tee, L.A. Forest fencing. Forestry Commission, Forest Record No. 80.1972 H.M.S.O., London.
Peterson, A. A manual of entomological techniques (8th ed.). Ohio State University,1955 Columbus, U.S.A.
Pinkey, E.1968
Introduction to insect study in Africa. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
- 104 -
(Appendix 11, cont.)
(11.15)
Davidson, G. Genetic control of insect pests. Academic Press Ltd., London. 1974
Emden, R.F. van Pest control and its ecology. Edward Arnold Publishers Ltd., London. 1974
FAD Fire protection in industrial plantations. Forest Industries Feasibility Study. 1971 Rome.
Florida Division of Forestry. Forest fire suppression tactics. Florida Division of 1973 Forestry, U.S.A.
Florida Division of Forestry. Fire fighter's guide. Florida Division of Forestry, 1973 U.S.A.
Ghani, M.A. and Cheema, !<i.A. Biology, ecology and behaviour of principal natural 1974 enemies of major insect pests of forest trees in Pakistan. Commonwealth Agri
cultural Bureau, Farnham Royal, Slough, U.K.
Gibson, I.A.S.' Diseases of forest trees widely planted as exotics in the tropics and 1962 southern hemisphere (2nd edition). Government Printer, Nairobi.
Hawley, R.O. 1953
Forest protection (2nd edition). John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.
Hickin, N.E. The insect factor in wood decay. Hutchinson & Co. Ltd., London. 1975
lnuns, A.D. General text book of entomology. Chapman & Hall Ltd., London. 1977
Khan, A.H. Pathology of trees, Vol. I. University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Paki-1980 stan.
Luke, H.R. and MacArthur, A.G. Bush fires in Australia. Australian Government 1978 Publishing Service, Canberra.
Manion, P.D. Tree disease concepts in relation to forest and urban tree management 1981 practice. Prentice-Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ, U.S.A.
Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources. 1968
Forest fire fighting. Nicosia, Cyprus.
Newton, M. and Knight, F.B. 1981 resource managers.
Handbook of weed and insect control chemicals for forest Timber Prees, Forest Grove, OR, U.S.A.
Oldroyd, H. Collecting, preserving and studying insects. Hutchinson &: Co. Ltd., 1958 London.
Partridge, A.D. ~ ~ Foreet pathology outline. Forest, Wildlife and Range Experi-1977 ment Station Contribution No. 49, University of Idaho, Moscoli, ID, U.S.A.
Pepper, H.W. and Tee, L.A. Forest fencing. Forestry Commission, Forest Record No. 80. 1972 H.M.S.G., London.
Peterson, A. A manual of entomological techniques (8th ed.). Ohio State University, 1955 Columbus, U.S.A.
Pinkey, E. 1968
Introduction to insect stu~ in Africa. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
105
(Appendix 11, cont.)
(11.15)
Pyenson, L.L. and Harvey, E.B. Laboratory manual for entomology and plant pathology.
1978 West Port, Cr, U.S.A.
Roberts, H. Forest insects of Nigeria. Commonwealth Forestry Institute Paper No. 44,
1969 Oxford.
Ross, H.H.1965
Text book of entomology. John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York.
Rudinsky, J.A. (ed.) Forest insect survey and control. OSU Book Stores Inc., Corvallis,
1979 U.S.A.
Scopes, N. and Ledieu, M. (eds.) Pest and disease control handbook. BCPC Publications,
1979 Croydon, U.K.
Shaw, S.B. and Clarke, B. Forest fire control. FAO, Rome.
1973
Sweeney, R.C.H. Insect life in East and Central Africa. Longman Group, London.
1976
Wheeler, B.E.J. Control of plant diseases. Oxford University Press, London.
1975
Wheeler, B.E.J. An introduction to plant diseases. John Wiley & Sons Ltd., London.
1976
Wigglesworth, V.B. The principles of tnsect physiology. Chapman & Hall Ltd., London.1972
Worthing, C.R. and Martin, H. Insecticide and fungicide hand book of crop protection1976 (5th ed.). Blackwell Scientific Publications Ltd., Oxford.
11.16 SILVICULTURE
Aldhous, J.R. Weed control in forest nurseries. Forestry Commission Research Branch1968 Paper No. 24. H.M.S.O., London.
Aldhous, J.R. Nursery practicé. Forestry Commission Bulletin No. 43. H.M.S.O.,1972 London.
Ayensu, E.S. and Schultes, R.E. Under-exploited tropical plants with promising eco-
1975 nomic value. N.A.S., Washington, D.C.
Baker, F.S.1950
Brown, G.E.1977
Principles of silviculture. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.
Black, M. Control processes in germination and dormancy. Oxford University Press,1972 London.
Boland, D.J. et al. Eucalyptus seed. CSIRO, Canberra, Australia,1980
The pruning of trees, shrubs and conifers. Faber & Faber Ltd., London.
Brown, R.M. Cold storage of forest plants. Forest Record No. 88, Forestry Commission.1973 H.M.S.O., London.
- 105 -
(Appendix 11, cont.)
(11.15)
Pyenson, L.L. and Harvey, E.B. Laboratory manual for entcmology and plant pathology. 1978 West Port, CT, U.S.A.
Roberts, H. Forest insects of Nigeria. Commonwealth Forestry Institute Paper No. 44, 1969 Oxford.
Ross, H .. H. Text book of entomology. John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York. 1965
Rudinsky, J .A. (ed.) Forest insect survey and control. 050 Book Stores Inc., Corvallis, 1979 U.S.A.
Scopes, N. and Ledieu, M. (eds.) Pest and disease control handbook. BCPC Publications, 1979 Croydon, U.K.
Shaw, S.E. and Clarke, B. 1973
Forest fire control. FAG, Rome.
Sweeney, R.C .H. 1976
Wheeler, B.E.J. 1975
Wheeler, B.E.J. 1976
Wigglesworth, V.B. 1972
Insect life in East and Central Africa. Longman Group, London.
Control of plant diseases. Oxford University Press, London.
An introduction to plant diseases. John Wiley & Sons Ltd., London.
The principles of insect physiology. Chapman & Hall Ltd., London.
Worthing, C.R. and Martin, H. Insecticide and fungicide hand book of crop protection 1976 (5th ed.). Blackwell Scientific Publications Ltd., Oxford.
11.16 SILVICULTURE
Aldhous, J.R. Weed control in forest nurseries. Forest~ Commission Research Branch 1968 Paper No. 24. H.M.S.O., London.
Aldhous, J.R. Nuree~ practic~. Forestry COmrrUBsion Bulletin No. 43. H.M.S.O., 1972 London.
Ayensu, E.S. and Schultes, R.E. Under-exploited tropical plants with promising eco-1975 nomic value. N.A.S., Washington, D.C.
Baker, F.S. 1950
Principles of silviculture. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.
Black, M. Control processes in germination and dormancy. Oxford University Press, 1972 London.
Boland, D.J. ~ !!:h. 1980
Eucalyptus seed. CSIRO, Canberra, Australia.
BroWl'l, G.E. The pruning of trees, shrubs and conifers. Faber & Faber Ltd., London. 1977
Brown, R.M. Cold storage of forest plants. Forest Record No. 88, Forestry Commission. 1973 H.M.S.O., London.
(Appendix 11, cont.)
(11.16)
Brown, R.M. Chemical control of weeds in the forest. Forestry Commission Booklet1975 No. 40. H.M.S.O., London.
Chapman, A.G. and Wray, R.D. Christmas trees for pleasure and profit. Rutgers Uni-1979 versity Press, New Brunswick, NJ, U.S.A.
Chapman, G.W. and Allan, T.G. Establishment techniques for forest plantations. FAO1978 Forestry Paper No. 8. Rome.
Collins, B.M. and White, F.M. Elementary forestry. Reston Publishing Co., VA, U.S.A.1981
Crowther, R.E. Guide lines to forest weed control. Forestry Commission Leaflet No. 66.1976 H.M.S.O., London.
Dale, I.R. and Greenway, P.J. Kenya trees and shrubs. Hatchards, London.1961
Douglas, J.S. and Hart, R.A. De J. Forest farming: Towards a solution to problems of1980 world hunger and conservation. Watkins and Robinson Books Ltd., London.
Evans, J.1982
James, N.D.G.1982
- 106-
Plantation forestry in the tropics. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Everett, T.H. Living trees of the world. Doubleday & Co. Inc., New York.
FAO Poplars in forestry and land use. Rome.
1965
FAO Savanna afforestation in Africa. FAO Forestry Paper No. 11. Rome.1978
FAO Poplars and willows. Rome1979
Fryer, J.D. and Makepeace, R.J. Weed control handbook, Vol. I. Blackwell Scientific1977 Publications Ltd., Oxford.
Ghosh, R.C. Handbook on afforestation techniques. Controller of Publications, Delhi,1977 India.
Goor, A.Y. and Barney, C.W. Forest tree planting in arid zones. Ronald Press Co.,1976 New York.
Hamilton, G.J. Aspects of thinning. Forestry Commission Bulletin No, 55. H.M.S.O.,1976 London.
Hartmann, H.T. and Kester, D.E. Plant propagation. Principles and practices. Prentice-1976 Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, Nj, U.S.A.
Hora, F.B. et al. (eds.) The Oxford Encyclopaedia of Trees in the World. Oxford1981 University Press, Oxford.
Jacobs, M.R. Eucalypts for planting. FAO Forestry Series No. 11. FAO, Rome.1979
The forester companion. Basil Blackwell, Oxford.
Kelly, S. et al. Eucalypts, Vols. I and II. Thomas Nelson, Melbourne, Australia.1977
- 106 -
(Appendix 11, cont.)
(11.16)
Brown, R.M. Chemical control of weeds in the forest. Forestry Commission Booklet 1975 No. 40. H.M.S.O., London.
Chapman, A.G. and Wray, R.D. Christmas trees for pleasure and profit. Rutgers Uni-1979 versity Press, New Brunswick, NJ, U.S.A.
Chapman, G.W. and Allan, T.G. Establishment techniques for forest plantations. FAO 1978 Forestry Paper No.8. Rome.
Collins, B.M. and White, F.M. 1981
Elementary forestry . Reston Publishing Co . , VA, U.S.A.
Crowther, R.E. Guide lines to forest weed control. Forestry COmnUssion Leaflet No. 66. 1976 H.M.S.O., London.
Dale, I.R. and Greenway, P.J. 1961
Kenya trees and shrubs. Hat chards , London .
Douglas, J .S. and Hart, R.A. De J . Forest farming: Towards a solution to problems of 1980 world hunger and conservation. Watkins and Robinson Books Ltd., London.
Evans, J. 1982
Plantation forestry in the tropics. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Everett, T .H. Living trees of the world. Doubleday & Co. Inc., New York.
FAO Poplars in forestry and land use. Rome. 1965
FAO Savanna afforestation in Africa. FAO Forestry Paper No . 11 . Rome. 1978
FAO Poplars and willows . Rome 1979
Fryer, J.D. and Makepeace, R.J. Weed control handbook, Vol. I. Blackwell Scientific 1977 Publications Ltd. , Oxford.
Ghosh, R.C. Handbook on afforestation techniques. Controller of Publications, Delhi, 1977 India.
Goor, A.Y. and Barne,y, C.W. Forest tree planting in arid zones. Ronald Press Co., 1976 New York.
Hamilton, G.J. Aspects of thinning. Forestry Commission Bulletin No. 55. H.M.S.O., 1976 London.
Hartmann, H.T. and Kester, D.E. Plant propagation. Principle s and practices. Prentice-1976 Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ, U.S.A.
Hora, F.B. ~ ~ (eds.) The Oxford Encyclopaedia of Trees in the World. Oxford 1981 University Press, Oxford.
Jacobe, M.R. 1979
James, N.D.G. 1982
Kelly, S • .tl ill. 1977
Eucalypts for planting. FAO Forestry Series No. 11. FAO, Rome.
The forest er companion. Basil Blackwell, Oxford •.
Eucalypts, Vols. I and II. Thomas Nelson, Melbourne, Australia.
107
(Appendix 11, cont.)
(11.16)
Kozlowski, T.T. Tree growth. Ronald Press Co. Ltd., New York.
1962
Lamb, A.F.A. and Ntima, 0.0. Terminalia ivorensis. Fast growing timber trees of the
1971 lowland tropics No. 5. Commonwealth Forestry Institute, Oxford.
Lamb, J.G.D. et al. Nursery stock manual. Grower Books, London.
1975
Low, A.J. and Oakley, J.S. Tubed seedlings. Forestry Commission Leaflet No. 61.1975 H.M.S.O., London.
McMillan Browse, P.D.A. Hardy wood plants from seed. Grower Books, London.
1979
Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. Water for irrigation. H.M.S.O., London.1977
Morey, P.R. How trees grow. Institute of Biology. Studies in Biology No. 39.1973 Edward Arnold Publishers Ltd., London.
National Academy of Sciences. Tropical legumes: Resources for the future. N.A.S.,1979 Washington, D.C.
National Academy of Sciences. Firewood crops; shrub and tree species for energy1980 production. N.A.S., Washington, D.C.
Paul, D.K. A handbook of nursery practice for Pinus caribaea var. hondnrensis and1975 other conifers in West Malaysia. FAO, Rome.
Pillsbury, A.F. Sprinkler irrigation. FAO, Rome.1975
Pione, P.P.1979
Richards, P.W.1952 Pross,
Smith, D.M.1962
Taylor, C.J.1962
Tree maintenance. Oxford University Press, London.
The tropical rain forest: Ecological study. Cambridge UniversityCambridge.
Rogers, E.V. Ultra low volume herbicide spraying. Forestry Commission Leaflet No. 62.1975 H.M.S.O., London.
Sharpe, G.W. et al. Introduction to forestry. 4th ed. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.1976
The practice of silviculture. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., London.
Sutton, R.F. Form and development of conifer root systems. Commonwealth Agricultural1969 Bureau, Farnham Royal, Bucks., U.K.
Tropical forestry. Oxford University Press, London.
Teskey, B.J.E. and Shoemaker, J.S. Tree fruit production. 3rd ed. Avi Publishing1978 Co., Westport, Connecticut, U.S.A.
- .107 -
(Appendix 11, cont.)
(11.16)
Kozlowski, T.T. 1962
Tree growth. Ronald Press Co. Ltd., New York.
Lamb, A.F.A. and Ntima, 0.0. 1971 lowland tropics No.5.
Terminalia ivorensis. Fast growing timber trees of the Commonwealth Forestry Institute, Oxford.
Lamb, J .G.D. tl ~ 1975
Nursery stock manual. Grower Books, London.
Low, A.J. and Oakley, J.S. TUbed seedlings. Forestry Commission Leaflet No. 61. 1975 H.M.S.O., London.
McMillan Browse, P.D.A. 1979
Hardy wood plants from seed. Grower Books, London.
Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. 1977
Water for irrigation. H.M.S.O., London.
Morey, P.R. How trees grow. Institute of Biology. Studies in Biology No. 39. 1973 Edward Arnold Publishers Ltd., London.
National Academy of Sciences. Tropical legumes: Resources for the future. N.A.S., 1979 Washington, D.C.
National Acade~ of Sciences. Firewood crops; shrub and tree species for energy 1980 production. N.A.S., Washington, D.C.
Paul, D.K. A handbook of nursery practice for Pinus caribaea var. hmdurensis and 1975 other conifers in West Malaysia. FAO, Rome.
Pillsbury, A.F. 1915
Pione, P.P. 1979
Sprinkler irrigation. FAC, Rome.
Tree maintenance. Oxford University Press, London.
Richards, P.W. The tropical rain forest: Ecological study. Cambridge UniverSity 1952 Pr~ss, Cambridge.
Rogers, E.V. Ultra low volume herbicide spraying. Forestry Commission Leaflet No. 62. 1975 H.M.S.O., London.
Sharpe, G.W. et l!b. 1976
Introduction to forestry. 4th ed. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.
Smith, D.M. 1962
The practice of silviculture. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., London.
sutton, R.F. Form and development of conifer root systems. Commonwealth Agricultural 1969 Bureau, Farnham Royal, Bucks., U.K.
Taylor, c..r. 1962
Tropical forestry. Oxford University Press, London.
Teskey, B.J.E. and Shoemaker, J.S. Tree fruit production. 3rd ed. Avi Publishing 1978 Co., Westport, Connecticut, U.S.A.
(Appendix 11, cont.)
(11.16)
Tomlinson, P.B. and Zimmermann, M.H. (eds.) Tropical trees as living systems. Cambridge1978 University Press, Cambridge.
Troup, R.S.1952
Viart, M. (ed.) Poplars and willows in wood production and land use. FAO Forestry1979 Series No. 12. Rome.
Weber, F.R. Reforestation in arid lands. Volunteers in Technical Assistance (VITA)1977 Publications, Mt. Rainier, MD, U.S.A.
Williams, C.N. et al. Tree and field crops of the wetter regions of the tropics.1980 Longman Group, London.
Withers, B. and Vipond, S. Irrigation: Design and practice. B.T. Batsford Ltd.,1974 London.
Wittering, W.O. Weeding in the forest. Forestry Commission Bulletin No, 48.1974 H.M.S.O., London.
Wormald, G.J. Pinus patula. Tropical Forestry Papers No. 7. Commonwealth Forestry1975 Institute, Oxford.
Wright, R.C.M. Handbook of plant propagation. Ward Lock Ltd., London.1973
11.17 SOILS
Brady, N.C. The nature and properties of soils. MacMillan Press Ltd., New York.1974
Bridges, E.M. World soils. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.1979
Buringh, P. Introduction to the study of soils in tropical and subtropical regions.Wageningen Centre for Agricultural Publishing and Documentation, Netherlands
'3utler, B.E.980
Clarke, G.R,
1971
108
Silvicultural systems (2nd edition). Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Soil classification for soil survey. Clarendon Press, London.
The study of the soil in the field. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Cooke, G.W. The control of soil fertility. English Language Book Soc. & Crosby,1974 London.
Eden, T. Elements of tropical soil science. MacMillan Press Ltd., London.
1 979
FAO Shifting cultivation and soil conservation in Africa. Rome.1973
FAO Soil conservation for developing countries. Soils Bulleting No. 30. Rome.1977
FAO Soil conservation and management in developing countries. Soils Bulletin No. 33.1977 Rome,
- 108 -
(Appendix 11, oont.)
(11.16)
Tomlinson, P.B. and Zimmermann, M.H. (ede.) Tropical trees as living systems. Cambridge 1978 University Press, Cambridge.
Troup, R.S. Silvicultural systems (2nd edition). Clarendon Press, Oxford. 1952
Viart, M. 1979
(ed.) Poplars and willows in wood production and land use. FAO Forestry Series No. 12. Rome.
Weber, F.R. Reforestation in arid lands. Volunteers in Technical Assistance (VITA) 1977 Publications, Mt. Rainier, MD, U.S.A.
Williams, C.N. et ale Tree and field crops of the wetter regions of the tropics. 1980 Longman Group, London.
Withers, B. and Vipond, S. Irrigation: Design and practice. B.T. Batsford Ltd., 1974 London.
Wittering, W.O. vleeding in the forest. Forestry Commission Bulletin No. 48. 1974 H.M.S.O., London.
Wormald, G.J. Pinus patula. Tropical Forestry Papers No.7. Commonwealth Forestry 1975 Institute, Oxford.
Wright, R.C.M. 1973
11 • 17 .§.Qll2
Brady, N.C. 1974
Bridges, E.l~.
1979
Handbook of plant propagation. l~ard Lock Ltd., London.
The nature and properties of soils. MacMillan Press Ltd., New York.
World soils. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Buringh, P. Introduction to the study of soils in tropical and sub-tropical regions. Wageningen Centre for Agricultural Publishing and Documentation, Netherlands
'rutler, B.E. 980
Soil classification for soil survey. Clarendon Press, London.
Clarke, G.R. 1971
The study of the soil in the field. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Cooke, G.W. The control of soil fertility. English Language Book Soc. & Crosby, 1974 London.
Eden, T. Elements of tropical soil science. MacMillan Press Ltd., London. 1979
FAO Shifting cultivation and soil conservation in Africa. Rome. 1973
FAO Soil conservation for developing countries. Soils Bulleting No. 30. Rome. 1977
FAO Soil conservation and management in developing countries. Soils Bulletin No. 33. 1977 Rome o
(Appendix 11, cont.)
(11.17)
FAO Organic recycling in Asia. Rome.1978
FAO Effects of intensive fertilizer use on the human environment. Rome.1978
FAO Improved use of plant nutrients. Rome.1978
FAO Impact on soils of fastgrowing species in woodland and humid tropics. Rome.1980
FAO Keeping the land alive: Soil erosion its causes and cures. FAO Soils Bulletin1983 No. 50. Rome.
FAO/Unesco Soil map of the world. Rome.1977
109
Fitzpatrick, E.A.1975
Foster, A.B. Approved practices in soil conservation. Interstate Printers and Publi-1973 shers, Inc., Danville, IL, U.S.A.
Foth, H.D.1978
An introduction to soil science. Oliver & Boyd, Edinburgh, U.K.
Fundamentals of soil science. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.
Golley, F.B. et al. Mineral cycling in a tropical moist forest ecosystem. University1975 of Georgia Press, Athens, U.S.A.
Gray, T.R.G. and Williams, S.T. Soil micro organisms. Longman Group, London.1975
Greenland, D.J. and Lal, R. Soil conservation and management in the humid tropics.1975 John Wiley & Sons L±d., London.
Kohnke, H. and Bertrand, A.R. Soil Conservation. McGrawHill Book Co., New York.1959
Lambe, T.W. and Whitman, R.V. Soil mechanics. John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York.
1979
Lundgren, B. Soil conditions and nutrient cycling under natural and plantation forests1978 in Tanzanian highlands. Department of Soils, Swedish University of Agricultural
Sciences. Uppsala.
Pearl, R.M.1955
How to know minerals and rocks. McGrawHill Book Co., New York.
Pritchett, W.L. Properties and management of forest soils. John Wiley & Sons Inc.,
1979 New York.
Richards, B.N.1974
Tlitroduction to the soil ecosystem. Longman, London.
Russell, E.W. Soil conditions and plant growth. t.ongman Group, London.
1973
Sanchez, P.A. Properties and management of soils 7.- lae tropics John Wiley & Sons,1976 Inc,, New York.
(Appendix 11, cont.)
(11.17)
FAD 1978
Organic recycling in Asia. Rome.
- 109 -
FAO Effects of intensive fertilizer use on the human environment. Rome. 1978
FAO Improved use of plant nutrients. Rome. 1978
FAD 1980
Impact on soils of fast-growing species in woodland and humid tropics. Rome.
FAD Keeping the land alive: Soil erosion - its causes and cures. FAD Soils Bulletin 1983 No. 50. Rome.
FAO/Unesco 1977
Soil map of the world. Rome.
Fitzpatrick, E.A. 1975
An introduction to soil science. Oliver & Boyd, Edinburgh, U.K.
Foster, A.B. Approved practices in soil conservation. Interstate Printers and Publi-1973 shers, Inc., Danville, IL, U.S.A.
Foth, H.D. 1978
Fundamentals of soil science. John Wiley 4 Sons, Ince, New York.
Galley, F.B. £t 21. Mineral cycling in a tropical moist forest ecosystem. University 1975 of Georgia Press, Athens, U.S.A.
Gray, T.R.G. and Williams, S.T. 1975
Soil micro organisms. Longman Group, London.
Greenland, D.J. and Lal, R. Soil conservation and management in the humid tropics. 1975 John Wiley & Sons L'd., London.
Kohnke, H. and Bertrand, A.R. 1959
Lambe, T.W. and Whitman, R.V. 1979
Soil Conservation. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.
Soil mechanics. John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York.
Lundgren, 1978
B. Soil conditions and nutrient cycling under natural and plantation foreets in Tanzanian highlands. Department of Soils, Swedish University of Agricultural Sci ences TJppsala.
Pearl, R.M. How to know minerals and rocks. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York. 1955
Pritchett, W.L. Properties and management of forest soils. John Wiley & Sons Inc., 1979 New York.
Richards, B.lI. 1974
Russell, E.W. 1973
T~troduction to the soil ecosystem. Longman, London.
Soil conditions and plant growth. I·ongman Group, London.
Sanchez, P.A. Properties and management of soils i be tropics John Wiley & Sons, 1976 Inc., New York .
(Appendix 11, cont.)
(11.17)
Smith, M.J.1978
Townsend, W.N. An introduction to the scientific study of the soil. Edward Arnold1977 Publishers Ltd., London,
White, R.E. Introduction to the principles and practices of soil science. Blackwell1979 Scientific Publications.Ltd., Oxford.
Young, A.1976
11.18 STATISTICS Am) COMPUTERS
Anderson, D.M.1966 U.S.A.
Chacko, V.J.1965 tions
Cochran, W.G.1977
Dawkins, H.C. STATFORMS Formats for elementary statistical aalculation. Institute1968 Paper No. 41. Commonwealth Forestry Institute, Oxford,
Draper, N.R. and Smith, H. Applied regression analysis. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,1980 New York,
FAO Forest inventory, data processing system: Programmer's guide. Rome.1983
FAO Forest inventory, data processing system: Introductory guide. Rome.1983
Fisher, R.A. and Yates, F. Statistical tables for biological, agricultural and medi-1978 cal research. Longman Group Ltd., London.
Prayer, E., Wilson, W., Peters, R. and Bickford, C.A. "FINSYS", an efficient data1968 processing system for large forest inventories. Journal of Forestry, Vol. 66,
No. 12.
Freese, F. Linear regression methods for forest research. USDA Forest Service Re-1964 search Paper, FPL 17, Washington, D.C.
Freese, F. Elementary statistical methods for foresters. USDA Forest Service,1967 Washington, D.C.
Grundy, A. An introduction to management statistics. English University Press.
Hansen, M.H. et al. Sample uurvey methods and theory. Vol. I Methods and applica-1953 tions; Vol. II Theory. John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York.
Hayslett, H.T. Statistics made simple. W.H. Allen & Co. Ltd., London.1978
Mather, K.1972
110
Soil mechanics. MacDonald & Evans Ltd., London.
Tropical soil and soil survey. Oxford University Press, London.
Computer Programming FORTRAN IV, PrenticeHall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ,
A manual on sampling techniques for forest surveys. Manager of Publica-Government of India, New Delhi.
Sampling techniques (3rd edition). John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.
Statistical analysis in biology. Chapman & Hall Ltd., London.
- 110 -
(Appendix 11, cont.)
(11.17)
Smith, M.J. 1978
Soil mechanics. macDonald & Evans Ltd., London.
Townsend, W.N. An introduction to the scientific stu~ of the soil. Edward Arnold 1977 Publishers Ltd., London.
White, R.E. Introduction to the principles and practices of soil science. Blackwell 1979 Scientific Publications . Ltd., Oxford.
Young, A. 1976
Tropical Boil and Boil survey. Oxford University Press, London.
11.18 STATISTICS AND COMPUTF1tS
Anderson, D.M. 1966 U.S.A.
Computer Prograllllling FOR'lRAN IV. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ,
Chacko, V.J. A manual on sampling techniques for forest surveys. Manager of Publica-1965 tions, Government of India, New Delhi.
Cochran. W.G. 1977
Sampling techniques ()l'.d. edition). John Wiley'" Sons, Inc., New York.
Dawkins, H.C. STATFORMS - Formats for elementary statistical calculation. Institute 1968 Paper No. 41. Commonwealth Forestry Institute, Oxford.
Draper, N.R. and Smith, H. 1980 New York.
Applied regression analysiS. John Wiley &: Sons, Inc.,
FAD Forest inventor,y, data processing system: Programmer's guide. Rome. 1983
FAa Forest inventory, data processing system: Introductory guide. Rome. 1983
Fisher, R.A. and Yates, F. Statistical tables for biological, agricultural and medi-1978 cal research. Longman Group Ltd., London.
Frayer, 1968
E., Wilson, W., reters, R. and Bickford, C.A. processing system for large forest inventories. No. 12.
"FINSYS", an efficient data Journal of Forestry, Vol. 66,
Freese, F. Linear regression methods for forest research. USDA Forest Service He-1964 search Paper, FPL 17, Washington, D.C.
Freese, F. Elementary statistical methods for foresters. USDA Forest Service, 1967 Washington, D.C.
Grundy, A. An introduction to management statistics. English University Press.
Hansen, M.H. et ale Sample survey methods and theory. Vol. I - Methods and applica-1953 tions;--Vol. II - Theory. John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York.
Hayslett, H.T. 1978
Mather, K. 1972
Statistics made simple. W.H. Allen & Co. Ltd., London.
Statistical analysis in biology. Chapman & Hall Ltd., London.
(Appendix 11, cont.)
(11.18)
McCracken, D.D. Digital computer programming. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York/1963 London.
Prodan, M. Forest biometrics (English translation by S. Gardiner of "Forstliche Bio-1968 metrie"). Pergamon Press, Oxford,
Schumacher, F.X. and Chapman, R.A. Sampling methods in forestry and range management
1954 (revised). Bulletin No. 7, Dúke University, Durham, NC, U.S.A.
Sukhatme, P.V. and Sukhatme, B.V. Sampling theory of surveys with application.1970 Iowa State College Press, Ames, Iowa, U.S.A.
Yates, F.1981
Sampling methods for censuses and surveys. Griffin, London.
11.19 SURVEYING AND REMOTE SENSING
Anon. Manual of Remote Sensing (2nd ed.). American Society of Photogrammetry, Falls1983 Church, VA, U.S.A.
Avery, T.E. Forester's guide to aerial photointerpretation. USDA Agriculture Hand-1966 book No. 308, USDA Forest Service, Washington, D.C.
Clendinning, J. and 011iver, J.G. Principles and use of surveying instruments. Van1972 Nostrand Reinhold Co. Ltd., London,
Clendinning, J. and 011iver, J.G.
1978 Co. Ltd., London,
Davis, J.A.1971
Principles of surveying. Van Nostrand Reinhold
Elementary survey analysis. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, U.S.A.
Davis, R.E. and Kelly, J.W. Elementary plane surveying. McGrawHill Book Co., New1967 York.
Davis, R.E. et al. Surveying: Theory and practice. McGrawHill Book Co., New York.1981
Dickinson, G.C. Maps and air photographs. Edward Arnold Publishers Ltd., London,
1979
FAO Manual of forest inventory. FAO Forestry Paper No. 27. Rome.1981
FAO Training course on application of new remote sensing techniques to forest re-1982 source surveys. Rome.
Hart, K.M. Practical surveying. Technical Press Ltd., London.
1973
Higgins, A.L. Elementary surveying. Longman Group, London.1970
Kilford, W.K. Elementary air survey. Pitman Publishing Ltd., London,1979
Kissam, P. Surveying: instruments and methods. McGrawHill BoOk Co., New York1956
- 111 -
(Appendix 11, cont.)
(11.18)
~lcCracken, D.D. 1963 London.
Digital computer programming. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York/
Prodan, M. Forest biometrics (English translation by S. Gardiner of "Forstliche Bie-1968 metrie"). Pergamon Press, Oxford.
Schumacher, F.X. and Chapman, R.A. Sampling methods in forestry and range management 1954 (revised). Bulletin No.7, Duke University, Durham, NC, U.S.A.
Sukhatme, P.V. and Sukhatme, B.V. Sampling theory of surveys with application. 1970 Iowa State College Press, Ames, Iowa, U.S.A.
Yates, F. 1981
Sampling methods for censuses and surveys. Griffin, London.
11.19 SURVEYING AND REMOTE SENSING
Anon. 1983
Manual of Remote SenSing (2nd ed . ). American Society of Photogrammetry, Falls Church, VA, U.S.A.
Avery, T.E. Forester's guide to aerial photointerpretation. USDA Agriculture Hand-1966 book No. 308. USDA Forest Service, Washington, D.C.
Clendinning, J. and Olliver, J .G. Principles and use of surveying instruments. Van 1972 Nostrand Reinhold Co. Ltd., London.
Cl9ndinning, J. and Olliver, J.O. Principles of surveying. Van Nostrand Reinhold 1978 Co. Ltd., London.
Davis, J .A. 1971
Elementary survey analysis. Prentice-Hall, ~lewood Cliffs, NJ, U.S .A.
Davis, R.E. and Kelly, J.W. Elementary plane surveying. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New 1967 York.
Davis, R.E. II ~ 1981
Surveying: Theory and practice. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.
Dickinson, G.C. 1979
Maps and air photographs. Edward Arnold Publishers Ltd. , London.
FAD Manual of forest inventory. FAD Forestry Paper No. 27. Rome. 1981
FAO Training course on application of new remote sensing techniques to forest re-1982 source surveys. Rome.
Hart, K.M. 1973
Higgins, A.Loc 1970
Kilford, W.K. 1979
Kissam, P. 1956
Practical surveying. Technical Press Ltd., London.
Elementary surveying. Longman Group, London.
Elementary air survey. Pitman Publishing Ltd., London.
Surveying: instruments and methods. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York
(Appendix 11, cont.)
(11.19)
Kissam, P.1978
Lillesand, T.M. and Kiefer, R.W.1979 & Sons Inc., New York.
Malcolm, J.1976
- 112-
Surveying practice. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.
Elementary surveying. University Tutorial Press, London .
Mueller-Dombois, D. and Ellenberg, H.1975 Wiley & Sons, Chichester, U.K.
Murchison, D.E. Surveying and photogrammetry.1977
Namboodiri, K. (ed.)1978 York.
Richason, B.F., Jr. Introduction to remote sensing1978 Publishing Company, Dubuque, IA, U.S.A.
Richie, W. et al. Mapping for field scientists: A
1977 & Charles, Newton Abbot, U.K.
Ripa, L.C.1968
Remote sensing and image interpretation. John Wiley
Aims and methods of vegetation ecology. John
Survey, sampling and measurement. Academic Press Inc., New
Surveying manual. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.
Newnes-Butterworths, London.
of the environment. Kendall/Hunt
problem solving approach. David
Slama, C.C. et al. (eds.) Manual of photogrammetry (Ath ed.). American Society of1980 Photogrammetry, Falls Church, VA, U.S.A.
Spurr, S.H. Photogrammetry and photointerpretation (with a section on application to1960 forestry)(2nd ed.). The Ronald Press Co. Ltd., New York.
Stellingwerf, D.A. Practical applications of aerial photography in forestry and other1968 vegetation studies. International Training Centre for Aerial Survey. I.T.C.
Publications, Series B, Nos. 36, 37, 38, 46, 47, 48.
11.20 WILDL1Fh AND NATIONAL PARKS MANAGEMENT
Burger, G.V. Practical wildlife management. Winchester Press, Pulsa, OK, U.S.A.,1973
Crandall, L.S. The management of wild mammals in captivity. University of Chicago1964 Press, Chicago, USA.
Dasmann, R.F. Wildlife biology. Wiley, Chichester, U.K.1981
IUCN Proceedings of the Second World Conference on National Parks, Yellowstone and1974 Grand Teten National Parks, USA, 18-27 September 1972, International Union
for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Morges, Switzerland.
IUCN The Convention of International Trade of Endangered Species of Wildlife and1974 Fauna. International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resour-
ces, Morges, Switzerland.
IUCN The IUCN Mammal Red Data Book, Part 1. International Union for the Conservation1981 of Nature and Natural Resources, Gland, Switzerland.
- 112 -
(Appendix 11, cont.)
(11.19)
Kissam, P. Surveying practice. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York. 1978
Lillesand, T.M. and Kiefer, R.W. 1979 & Sons Inc., New York.
Hernoie sensing and image interpretation. John Wiley
Malcolm, J. 1976
Elementary surveying. University Tutorial Press, London •
Mueller-Dombois, D. and Ellenberg, H. Aims and methods of vegetation ecology. John 1975 Wiley & Sons, Chichester, U.K.
Murchison, D.E. SUrveying and photogrammetry. Newnes-Butterworths, London. 1977
Namboodiri, K. (ed.) Survey, sampling and measurement. Academic Press Inc., New 1978 York.
Richason, B.F., Jr. Introduction to remote sensing of the environment. Kendall/Runt 1978 Publishing Company, Dubuque, IA, U.S.A.
Richie, W. ~ ~ Mapping for field scientists: A problem solving approach. David 1977 & Charles, Newton Abbot, U.K.
Ripa, L.O. 1968
Surveying manual. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.
Slama, C.C. et al. (eds.) Manual of photogrammetry (4th ed.). American Society of 1980 Photogrammetry, Falls Church, VA, U.S.A.
Spurr, S.R. Photogrammetry and photointerpretation (with a section on application to 1960 forestry)(2nd ed.). The Ronald Press Co. Ltd., New York.
Stellingwerf, D.A. Practical applications of aerial photography in forestry and other 1968 vegetation studies. International Training Centre for Aerial Survey. I.T.C.
Publications, Series B, Nos. 36, 37, 38, 46, 47, 48.
11 .20 WILDLIFE AND NATIONAL PARKS MANAGEMENX
Burger, a.v. 1973
Practical wildlife management. Winchester Press, Tulsa, OK, U.S.A.
Crandall, L.S. The management of wild mammals in captivity. University of Chicago 1964 Press, Chicago, USA.
Dasmann, R.F. Wildlife biology. Wiley, Chichester, U.K. 1981
IUCN 1974
roCN 1974
roCN 1981
Proceedings of the Second World Conference on National Parks, Yellowstone and Grand Teton National Parks, USA, 18-27 September 1972. International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Morges, Switzerland.
The Convention of International Trade of Endangered Species of Wildlife and Fauna. International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Morges, Switzerland.
The IUCN Mammal Red Data Book, Part 1. International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Gland, Switzerland.
(Appendix 11, cont.)
(11.20)
rOCN/UNTP/WWF World conservation strategy. International Union for the Conservation1980 of Nature and Natural Resources, Gland, Switzerland.
Miller, K.R. Planning national parks for ecodevelopment - methods and cases from
1978 Latin America, Vols. I and II. Instituto de la Caza Fotográfica y Ciencias dela Naturaleza, Centro Iberoamericano de Cooperación, Madrid, Spain.
Moseley, J., Thelen, K. and Miller, K. National parks planning. A manual with anno-1976 tated examples. FAO Forestry Paper No. 6. Rome,
Schemnitz, S.D. Wildlife management techniques manual (4th ed.). Wildlife Society,1980 Washington.
Trefethen, J.B. Wildlife management and conservation. D.C. Heath & Co.
11.21 GENERAL
Darrow, K. Appropriate technology source book, Vols. I and II. Appropriate Technolo-1978 gy Project, Volunteers in Asia, Stanford. U.S.A.
FAO Forests, food and people. Rome.
1968
FAO AGRIS Forestry: Catalogue of information and documentation services. FAO Fores -
1979 try Paper No. 15. Rome.
FAO World List of Forestry Schools. FAO Forestry Paper No, 3, Rev. 1, Rome.1981
FAO Plant collection and herbarium development. FAO Plant Production and Protection1981 Paper No. 33. Rome.
Fuglesang, A.1982
Morrish, I.1976
- 113 -
About understanding. Dag Hammerskjbld Foundation, Uppsala, Sweden.
Aspects of educational change. George Allen & Unwin Ltd., London.
- 'In -
(Appendix 11, cont.)
(11.20)
IUCN/UNEP/WWF World conservation strategy. International Union for the Conservation 1980 of Nature and Natural Resources, Gland, Switzerland.
Miller, K.R. Planning national parks for ecodevelopment - methods and cases from 1978 Latin America, Vols. I and II. Instituto de la Caza Fotogrdfica y Ciencias de
la Natura!eza, Centro Iberoamericano de Cooperaci6n, Madrid, Spain.
Moseley, J., Thelen, K. and Miller, K. National parks planning. A manual with anno-1976 tated examples. FAO Forestry Paper No.6. Rome.
Schemnitz, S.D. Wildlife management techniques manual (4th ed.). Wildlife Society, 1980 Washington.
Trefethen, J .B. Wildlife management and conservation. D.C. Heath & Co.
11 .21 GENERAL
Darrow, K. Appropriate technology source book, Vols. I and II. APpropriate Technolo-1978 gy Project, Volunteers in Asia, Stanford. U.S.A.
FAD Forests, food and people, Rome. 1968
FAO AGRIS Forestry: Catalogue of information and documentation services. FAO Fores-1979 try Paper No. 15. Rome.
FAO World List of Forestry Schools. FAO Forestry Paper No.3, Rev. 1, Rome. 1981
FAO Plant collection and herbarium development. FAO Plant Production and Protection 1981 Paper No. 33. Rome.
Fuglesang, A. 1982
Morrish, I. 1976
About understanding. nag Hammerskj~ld Foundation, Uppsala, Sweden.
Aspects of educational clwnge. George Allen & Unwin Ltd., London.
114
APPENDIX 12
12.0 WORKSHOP EQUIPMENT
12.1 STUDENTSI WORKSHOP
12.1.1 FCR MAKING AND FITTING TOOL HANDLES
WORK BENCHES, preferably wooden, fitted with carpenters' vices
RIP SAWS
CROSSCUT SAWS
TENON SAWS
SPOKESHAVES
RASPS or SURFORM PLANES
CARPENTER'S CHISELS (Various sizes)
CARPENTER'S MALLETS
CLAW HAMMERS
WOOD and METAL WEDGES, small.
12.1.2 FOR MAINTENANCE OF HAND SAWS
FILING VICES
FILES, flat, single cut
DEPTH GAUGES/RAKER GAUGES
SETTING GAUGES
SETTING ANVIL and HAMMER
WIRE BRUSH
SETTING PLIERS for bow saws and hand saws.
12.1.3 FOR MAINTENANCE OF POWER SAWS
MECHANICS TOOLS, set of, for servicing motors
FILING CLAMPS
FILING GUIDES
FILES, round and flat
RIVETING SEi
CENTRE PUNCH
BALLPEIN HAMMER.
- 114 -
APPENDIX 12
12.0 WORKSHOP EQUIPMENT
12.1 STUDENTS' WORKSHOP
1 2.1 .1 FOR MA.KING AND FlTT np TOOL HANDLES
WORK BENCHES, preferably wooden, fitted with carpenters' vices
RIP SAWS
CROSs-ctlT SAWS
TENON SAWS
SPOKESHAVES
RASPS or SURFORM PLANES
CARPENTER'S CHISELS (Various sizes)
CARPENTER'S MALLETS
CLAW HAMMERS
WOOD and METAL WEDGES, small.
12.1 .2 FOR MAINl'ENANCE OF HAND SAWS
FILING VICES
FILES, flat, single cut
DEPTH GAUGES!RAJCER GAUGES
SEl'l'ING GAUGES
SEl'l'ING ANVIL and HAMMER
WIRE BRUSH
SEl'l'ING PLIERS for bow saws and hand saws.
12.1.3 FOR . MAINTENANCE OF POWER SAWS
MECHANICS TOOLS, set of, for servicing motors
FILING CLAMPS
FILING GUIDES
FILES, round and flat
RIVETING SET
CENTRE PUNCH
BALLPEIN HAMMER.
- 115-
(Appendix 12, cont.)
12.1.4 FOR SHARPENING CUTTING TOOLS
GRIND STONES
WHET STONES
AXE GAUGES
FILES.
12.1.5 FOR WATER SUPPLIES
PIPE FITTING VICE
PIPE FITTING DIES
PIPE WRENCHES
HACKSAWS
FILES.
12.2 MAINTENANCE WORKSHOP
12.2.1 FOR WOODWORK, etc.
WORK BENCHES with carpenter's vices
aARPENTER'S TOOL KIT
BANDSAW, small
UNIVERSAL WOODWORKING MACHINE
TURNING LATHE, small
DISC SANDER, portable
GLUE POT and HEATER
CLAMPS
PAINT BRUSHES.
12.2.2 FOR METAL WORK
METAL WORK BENCHES with engineer's vices
MECBANIC'S TOOL KIT in lockable cabinet
HACKSAWS
METAL SHEARS
PIPE BENDER
WELDING EQUIPMENT, gas and electric
SAFETY EQUIPMENT (GLOVES: EYESHIELDS, etc.)
PORTABLE DRILL and STAND
SMALL TURNING LATEE
GRIND STONES (electric).
(Appendix 12, cont.)
12.1.4 FOR SHARPENING CU'I'l'ING TOOLS
GRIND srONES
WHET STONES
AXE GAUGES
FILES.
12.1.5 FOR WATER SUPPLIES
PIPE FITTING VICE
PIPE FITTING DIES
PIPE lfflENCHES
HACKSAWS
FILES.
12.2 MAINTENANCE WORKSHOP
12.2.1 FOR WOODWORK. etc.
- 115 -
WORK BENCHES with carpenter'e vices
CARPENTER'S TOOL KIT
BANDSAW, small
UNIVERSAL WOODWORKING MACHINE
TURNING LATHE, small
DISC SANDER, portable
GWE POT and HEATER
CLAMPS
PAINT BRUSHES.
12.2.2 FOR METAL WORK
METAL WORK BENCHES with engine er' s vi ces
MEX:HANIC'S TOOL KIT in lockable cabinet
HACKSAWS
METAL SHEARS
PIPE BENDER
WELDING EQUIPKE:NT, gas and electric
SAFETY EQUIPMEllT (GLOVES: EYESHIELDS, etc.)
PORTABLE mILL and srAND
·SMALL TURNING LATHE
GRIND srONES (electric).
-116-
(Appendix 12, cont.)
12.2.3 FOR BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
MASON Is LINES
PLUMB BOBS
MASON'S LEVELS
MASON'S AXE
STEEL TROWELS
STEEL FLOATS
MORTAR PANS.
12.3 VEHICLE WORKSHOP
WORK BENCHES as required
ENGINEERS' VICES
VEHICLE MAINTENANCE TOOLS, comprehensive set of, in a secure metal cabinet
ELECTRIC GRINDER
PORTABLE ELECTRIC DRILL with vertical stand
DRILLS, sets of
DIE STOCK SET
SCREW EXTRACTORS
PUNCH SET
JACK (screw or hydraulic type)
TROLLEY JACK
PARTS TRAY
COMPRESSOR
SPRAY GUNS (for oil; air; paint)
TIRE PUMP with pressure gauge
WELDING PLANT, electric (if not available in maintenance workshop)
WELDING PLANT, gas do.
BATTERY CHARGER
ACID CARBOYS
HYGROMETER
SPARK PLUG CUANER
ELECTRONIC ENGINE TUNER.
(Appendix 12, cont.)
12.2.3 FOR BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
MASON'S LINES
PLUMB BOBS
MASON'S LEVELS
MASON'S AXE
STEEL TROWELS
STEEL FLOATS
MORTAR PANS.
12.3 VEHICLE WORKSHOP
WORK BENCHES as required
ENGINEERS ' VICES
- 116 -
VEHICLE MAINTENANCE TOOLS, comprehensive set of, in a secure metal cabinet
ELECTRIC GRINDER
PORTABLE ELECTRIC DRILL with verti cal stand
DRILLS, sets of
DIE STOCK SET
SCREW EXTRACTORS
PUNCH SEI'
JACK (screw or hydraulic type)
TROLLEY JACK
PARTS TRAY
COMPHESSOR
SPRAY GUNS (for oil; air; paint)
TYRE PUMP with pressure gauge
WELDING PLANT, electric (if not available in maintenance workshop)
WELDING PLANT, gas (
BATTERY CHARGER
ACID CARBOYS
HYGROMEl'ER
SPARK PLUG CLEANER
ELECTRONIC ENGINE TUNER.
- do. - )
117
APPENDIX 13
13.0 FIELD EQUIPMENT
13.1 NURSERY EQUIPMENT
PICKS
SPADES
DIGGING FORKS
SHOVELS (round and square mouthed)
GARDEN LINE
CARPENTER'S TOOLS for making frames and shades
WATERING CANS (fine and coarse roses)
WATER HOSE
JETS FOR HOSE, variable
SPRINKLERS
SPRAYERS, hand or backpack (insecticide and herbicide)
HAND FORKS
TROWELS
SECATEURS
HEDGE TRIMMERS
KNIVES
SIEVES
SPRING BALANCE for weighing insecticides and herbicides)
CONCRETE (SOIL) MIXER
SOIL SHREDDER
WHEEL BARROWS
TROLLEYS
PLANT BOXES,
13.2 IfELLING AND CLEARING EQUIPMENT
IIELLING AXES
SPLITTING AXES
CROSSCUT SAWS (Raker tooth/Peg tooth)
BOW SAWS with spare blades
POWER SAWS
POCKET WEDGES
COMPOSITE WEDGES
BREAKING BARS
TREE PUSHERS
- 117 -
APPENDIX 13
13.0 FIELD EQUIPMENT
13.1 NURSERY EOUIPKEm
PICKS
SPADES
DIGGING FORKS
SHOVELS (round and square mouthed)
GARDEN LINE
CARPENTER'S TOOLS for making frames and shades
WATERING CANS (fine and coarse roses)
WATER HOSE
JETS FOR HOSE, variable
SPRINKLERS
SPRAYERS, hand or backpack (insecticide and herbicide)
HAND FORKS
TROWELS
SEX:!ATEURS
HEDGE TRIMMERS
KNIVES
SIEVES
SPRING BALANCE for weighing insecticides and herbicides)
CONCRErE (SOIL) MIXffi
SOIL SHREDDER
WHEEL BARROWS
TROLLEYS
PLANT BOXES.
13.2 FELLING AND CLEARING EOUIPMENT
FELLING AXES
SPLITTING AXES
CROSSCUT SAWS (Raker tooth/Peg tooth)
BOW SAWS with spare blades
POWER SAWS
POCKET WEDGES
COMPOSITE WEDGES
BREAKING BARS
TREE PUSHERS
118
(Appendix 13, cont.)
(13.2)
PORTABLE WINCHES
BUSH KNIVES (Machetes).
SHARPENING STONES, Hand
LOGGER'S TAPES
DIAMETER TAPES
CALIPERS
EXTRACT ION SULKIES
HANG-UP SULKIES
SAFETY HELMETS Idth visors and ear protectors, if appropriate
FIRST-AID KITS.
13.3 PLANTATION AND SILVICULTURAL OPERATIONS
PICK AXES
HOES
MATTOCKS (various types)
WEEDING HOOKS
SLASHERS
SPRAYERS, Backpack
PLANTING TROWELS
PLANT BOXES
PRUNING SAWS
LADDERS (rope and aluminium)
HATCHETS.
13.4 FIRE PREVENTION EQUIPMENT
BACK-PACK PUMPS
WATER TRAILERS
MOTOR PUMPS with hoses and jets
FIRE BEATERS
FIRE SHOVELS
FIRE RAKES
FIRE BRUSHES
FIRE AXES
FIRE MATTCCKS (Polaskis)
WATER CARRIERS
DRAG TORCHES
FIRST-AD) KIT.
(Appendix 13, cont.)
PORTABLE WINCHES
BUSH KNIVES (Machet es) .
SHARPENING STONES, Hand
LOOG:rn' STAPES
DIAMET:rn TAPES
CALIPERS
EXTRACTION SULKIES
HANG-UP SULKIES
- 118 -
SAFETY HELMETS with visors and ear protectors, if appropriate
FffiST-AID KITS.
13.3 PLANTATION AND SILVICUL'IDRAL OPERATIONS
PICK AXES
HOES
MATTOCKS (various types)
WEEDING HOOKS
SLASH:rnS
SPRAYERS, Backpaok
PLANTING TROWELS
PLANT BOXES
PRUNING SAWS
LADD:rnS (rope and aluminium)
HATCHETS.
13.4 FIRE I'REVENTION EOOIPMENT
BACK-PACK PUMPS
WATER TRAILERS
MOTOR PUMPS with hoses and jets
FIRE BEAT:rnS
FIRE SHOVELS
FIRE RAKES
FIRE BRUSHES
FIRE AXES
FIRE MATTOCKS (Polaskis)
WATER CARRIERS
DRAG TORCHES
FIRST-AID KIT.
119
(Appendix 13, cont.)
13.5 SURVEY/MENSURATION EQUIPMENT
PRISMATIC COMPASSES and TRIPODS
HAND COMPASSES (various types)
STEEL MEASURING ROPES
THEODOLITES
PLANE TABLES (with alidades and plumb bobs)
STEEL MEASURING TAPES
FIBREGLASS or PLASTIC TAPES
RANGING RODS
SURVEYOR'S ARROWS
OPTICAL SQUARES
CLINOMETERS (degree and percent)
ABNEY LEVELS and TARGETS
ALTIMETERS (Barometric)
PRECISE LEVELS
LEVELLING STAFFS
FIELD BOOKS
HYPSOMETERS
HAGA ALTIMETERS and TARGETS
BLUME LEISS ALTIMETERS and TARGEPS
RELASCOPES (simple)
RELASCOPES (Spiegel)
DIAMETER TAPES
CALIPERS
BARK GAUGES
INCREMNT BORERS
CLIP BOARDS.
13.6 ENGINEERING EQUIPMENT
SURVEY and FELLING EQUIPMENT from appropriate lists
PICKS
SHOVELS
CROWBARS
GRUBBING AXES
WHEEL BARROWS
MASON'S LEVELS
HAND WINCH.
(Appendix 13, cont.)
13.5 SURVEY/MENSURATION EQUIPMENT
PRISMATIC COMPASSES and TRIPODS
HAND COMPASSES (various types)
STEEL MEASURING ROPES
THEODOLITES
- 119 -
PLANE TABLES (with alidades and plumb bobs)
STEEL MEASURING TAPES
FIBREllLASS or PLAsrrc TAPES
RANGING RODS
SURVEYOR' S ARROWS
OPTICAL SQUARES
CLINOMErERS (degree and percent)
ABNEY LEVELS and TARGEll'S
ALTIMErERS (Barometric)
PRECISE LEVELS
LEVELLING srAFFS
FIELD BOOKS
HYPSOMErERS
RAGA ALTIMErERS and TARGEl'S
BLUME LEISS ALTIMErERS and TARGEl'S
RELASCOPES (simple)
RELASCOPES (Spiegel)
DIAMErER TAPES
CALIPERS
BARK GAUGES
INCREKE:NT BORERS
CLIP BOARDS.
13.6 ENGINEERING EQUIPMENT
SURVEY and FELLING EQUIPMENT from appropriate lists
PICKS
SHOVELS
CROWBARS
GRUBBING AXES
WHE:E!L BARROWS
MASON'S LEVELS
HAND WINCH.
120
(Appendix 13, cont.)
13.7 DRAWING OFFICE EQUIPMENT
DRAWING and TRACING PAPERS of various types and sizes
LEAD HOLDERS and LEADS
ERASERS
DRAWING INSTRUMENTS, sets of, in boxes
SCALE RULES
CIRCULAR PROTRACTORS
Shi SQUARES (450 and 60°)
PARALLEL RULES
PROPORTIONAL DIVIDERS
PANTOGRAPHS
PRICKERS
AREA GRIDS
DOT COUNTERS
PLANIMETERS
DRAWING BOARDS
DRAWING BOARD CLIPS
TSQUARES.
13.8 CAMPING EQUIPMENT
TENTS, Staff, complete with groundsheets
TENTS, Students, complete with groundsheets
COOK'S and STORE TENTS
MESS TENT
CAMP BEDS
CAMP BEM MATRESSES
SLEEPING BAGS
MOSQUITO NETS
HOLDALLS
LAMPS (kerosene or L.P.G.)
WATER CARRIERS
WATER FILTERS
METAL GRILL for cooking fire or camp stove
COOK'S BOX containing POTS, PANS, COOKING UTENSILS, KNIVES, SPOONS, etc.
BASINS/BUCKETS for washing up
PLASTIC PLATES and MUGS
CUTLERY
BOXES for transporting plates, autlery, etc.
BATH SCREENS
PORTABLE TOILETS
- 120 -
(Appendix 13, oont.)
13.1 IRAWING OFFICE EQUIPMENT
IRAWING and TRAcrm PAPERS of various types and sizes
LEAD HOLDERS and LEADS
lllAs:El!S
DRAWING INSTRUMENTS, sets of, in boxes
SCALE RULES
CIRCULAR PRO'ffiACTORS
SET S~ARES (450 and 600)
PARALLEL HULES
PROPORTIONAL DIVIDERS
PANTOGRA.PIIS
PRICKERS
AREA GRIDS
DOT COUNTERS
PLANIMElI'ERS
DRAWING BOARDS
IRAWING BOARD CLIPS
T-S~ARES.
13.8 CAMPING EWIPMENT
TENTS, Staff, complete with groundsheets
TENTS, Students, oomplete with groundsheets
COOK'S and Sl'OHE TENTS
MESS TENT
CAMP BEDS
CAMP BED MATRESSES
SLEEPING BAGS
MOSQUITO NEl'S
HOLDALLS
LAMPS (kerosene or L.P.G.)
WATER CARRIERS
WATER FILTERS
MErAL GRILL for COOking fire or camp stove
COOK'S BOX oontaining POTS, PANS, COOKING UTENSILS, KNIVES, SPOONS, etc.
BASINS/BUCKETS for washing up
PLASl'IC PLATES and MUGS
CUTLERY
BOXES for transporting plates, cutlery, etc.
BATH SCREENS
PORTABLE TOILETS
- 121 -
(Appendix 13, cont.)
(13.8)
PICKS/HOES
SPATIFS
FIRS2 -AID KIT
MEDICINE CHEST.
13.9 TRANSPORT
4-WHEEL DRIVE BAGGAGE LORRY
4-WHEEL DRIVE LORRY converted for passenger-carrying
BUS
4-WHEEL DRIVE STATION WAGON
4-WHEEL DRIVE PICK-UP
LIGHT TRUCK, for food supplies and general duties
STATION WAGONS for staff use
MOTOR-CYCLES for use within campus.
- 121 -
(Appendix 13, cont.)
(13.8)
PICKS/HOES
SPADES
FIRST-AID KIT
MEDICINE CHEST.
13 .9 TRANSPORl'
4-WHEEL DRIVE BAGGAGE LORRY
4-WHEEL DRIVE LORRY oonverted for passengeI'-carrying
BUS
4-WHEEL WIVE STATION WAGON
4-WHEEL WIVE PICK-llP
LIGHT TRUCK, for food supplies and general duties
STATION WAGONS for staff use
MOTOR-<:YCLES for use within campus.