Technology, Renewable Resources, andAmerican Crafts

April 1984

NTIS order #PB84-222421

Recommended Citation:Technology, Renewable Resources, and American Crafts: Background Paper (Wash-ington, D. C.: U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, OTA-BP-F-27, May1984).

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 84-601063

For sale by the Superintendent of DocumentsU.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402

Preface

This background paper is part of the Office of Technology Assessment’s (OTA’s)ongoing monitoring of renewable resource/technology issues for Congress. It wasstimulated by discussions with Congressman Sidney R. Yates’ staff. Mr. Yates chairsthe Interior Subcommittee, House Appropriations Committee, the subcommitteewith jurisdiction over the National Endowment for the Arts, which is the majorU.S. fine and folk arts agency, and the Department of the Interior, which is themajor U.S. natural resource management agency.

The paper summarizes technology’s effects on crafts (some of which are folkand fine art) that use renewable resources as raw materials. Technology’s effectson other types of art, such as the performing arts, and on other types of crafts,such as ceramics, also are significant. They are not discussed here, however, becausenonrenewable resource supplies are outside the purview of the OTA Food andRenewable Resources Program.

The OTA exploratory work included staff research and extensive conversa-tions with more than 50 craft and renewable resource specialists. A half-day work-shop involving six Washington experts provided important additional information;its results are summarized separately in appendix A.

This paper was prepared by OTA Project Director Phyllis Windle. OTA wishesto acknowledge the workshop participants, reviewers, and others who providedgenerous assistance.

.,,Ill

TechoIogy, Renewable Resources, and American craftsOTA Workshop, July 12, 1983

Jan HalkettAgricultural Cooperative ServiceU.S. Department of AgricultureWashington, D.C. 20250

Robert HartIndian Arts and Crafts BoardU.S. Department of the InteriorRoom 4004Washington, D.C. 20240

Mary HuffordAmerican Folklife CenterLibrary of CongressWashington, D.C. 20540

Linda McMahanTRAFFIC-U.S.World Wildlife Fund1601 Connecticut Ave., N.W.Washington, D.C. 20009

Robert TeskeFolkarts ProgramNational Endowment for the Arts1100 Pennsylvania Ave., N.W.Washington, D.C. 20506

John ThomasDivision of Law EnforcementU.S. Fish and Wildlife ServiceP.O. Box 28006Washington, D.C. 20005

Additional Reviewers

Each of the participants in the OTA workshop reviewed the draft of this BackgroundPaper and provided comments. The following persons also suggested revisions based ontheir special expertise.

Charles CampState FolkloristMaryland State Arts Council15 West Mulberry St.Baltimore, Md. 21201

W. Hardy EshbaughPresident, The Society for EconomicBotanyDepartment of BotanyMiami UniversityOxford, Ohio 45056

Robert W. GrayDirector EmeritusSouthern Highlands Handicraft GuildP.O. Box 9545Asheville, N.C. 28815

Ann HaasDivision of Law EnforcementU.S. Fish and Wildlife ServiceP.O. Box 28006Washington, D.C. 20005

Francis M. HueberCurator, Department of PaleobiologyNational Museum of Natural HistorySmithsonian InstitutionWashington, D.C. 20560

Thomas McIntyreOffice of Protected Species and

Habitat ConservationNational Marine Fisheries ServiceU.S. Department of CommerceWashington, D.C. 20235

OTA Sfaff on Technology, Renewable Resources and American Crafts

H. David Banta* and Roger Herdman, ** Assistant Director,OTA Health and Life Sciences Division

Walter E. Parham, Program ManagerFood and Renewable Resources Program

Analytical StaffPhyllis N. Windle, Ecologist and Project Director

Administrative StaffPhyllis Balan, Administrative Assistant

Nellie Hammond, Secretary

Carolyn Swann, Secretary

“Until August 1983.**From Dec. 26, 1983.

Contents

Findings. .,... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Crafts and Technology: A History of Tension and Cooperation . . . . . . .Crafts in the United States: A Valued Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Federal Government’s Role in Crafts... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .The Arts Agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .The Natural Resource Agencies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Public Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Technology and the Crafts Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Gathering Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Making the Craft. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Going to Market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

An Inventory of Craft Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Ivory and Tortoiseshell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Feathers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Fibers and Dyes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Wood and Tree Fern Trunks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Shells and Coral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Hides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Appendix A—Summary of the Technology, Renewable Resources, andAmerican Crafts OTA Workshop, July 12, 1983 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Appendix B—Sample Plant List: Plants Used in Crafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Tables

Table No.1. Federal Agencies With Craft Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2. Federal Agencies With

Figure

Figure No.

Resource Protection Roles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1. Relationships Among Crafts, Folk Art, and Fine Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

ix

112

5566

99

1011

13131517182021

23

25

31

33

Page56

Page2

vii

FINDINGS●

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Technology’s effects on craftworkers and craft supplies are variable and some-times inequitable.

Traditional craftspeople more often are adversely affected by technologicalchange; contemporary craftworkers more often benefit.

U.S. concern is increasing about diminishing renewable resource availabilityfor crafts-and the concern appears justified.

Precise data on the types and amount of resources involved are lacking; it maybe several years before better data are available and compiling that data will bedifficult.

Undertaking a full-scale assessment of technology, renewable resources, andcrafts seems unwarranted now.

Development of more consistent Federal policies for managing renewable re-sources while supporting crafts need not await more information.

Craft and natural resource experts identified for OTA a number of importantissues, Agencies exist that have the authority to address these concerns in the ab-sence of further OTA involvement. Congressional action will continue to affectcrafts that depend on renewable resources. The 1984 renewal of the Marine Mam-mal Protection Act is among the more relevant legislation (Buck, 1983), since itcontrols the availability of certain ivory to Alaskan natives and other craftworkers.

Important Issues Affecting the Craft Community

Potential action agency (ies) .- ——.General IssuesHealth hazards of art/craft supplies . . . . . . .

Design theft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Economic contribution of crafts . . . . . . . . . .

Industrial/craft cooperation . .Role of craft cooperatives . . .

Legislative and governmental

Renewable resource issuesIllegal traffic in wildlife . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

review. . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . .Resource supplies needed for crafts . . . . . .Resource losses in developing countries. . .

Education and craft training . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

National Institutes of HealthBureau of StandardsJustice DepartmentNational Endowment for the ArtsGeneral Accounting OfficeInterior, Commerce, Agriculture DepartmentsCommerce, Labor DepartmentsAgriculture DepartmentSmall Business AdministrationInteragency Crafts Committee

Interior, Commerce, State DepartmentsInterior, Agriculture DepartmentsState Department/Agency for International DevelopmentInterior DepartmentNational Endowment for the ArtsNational Science Foundation

SOURCE Off Ice of Technology Assessment

ix

—

INTRODUCTIONCrafts and Technology: A History

of Tension and Cooperation

The relationship of crafts to technology, likethat of art to science, has often been intimatebut never constant. Until the 17th century,many craftworkers and artists also were scien-tists and inventors, and many technical discov-eries evolved from their work. Pioneering re-search by Smith shows that:

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craftworkers are often the first to under-stand the basic properties of their craft ma-terials;the beauty and desirability of craft objectsin some cases has inspired scientific re-search; andthe technical knowledge of artists andcraftworkers has at time; been directly ap-plicable to science (Eklund, 1978).

Abundant examples of these interactionshave been cataloged for ceramics and metal-work (Smith, 1980) but the use of renewableresources by craftspeople and artists also ben-efited early science and industry. The first tex-tile dyes, for example, were derived from plantsand animals. Weavers in Phoenicia, Mesopo-tamia, South America, and Aztec Mexico col-lected or grew herbs, shells, and insects andextracted their dyes. Increasing mechanizationof the European textile industry in the 1700’sstimulated an unprecedented demand for nat-ural dyes. The search for synthetic fixatives fordyes created the first large-scale chemical in-dustry (Rhodes, 1980). The natural dye industryflourished until 1856, when the first substitutewas synthesized. Organic chemistry blossomedas the-search for chemical analogs and replace-ments expanded (Baranyovits, 1978).

Photo credit: Mark Skinner

The skilled hands of Magdalena Ruak weaving a coconut leaf bird in the Mariana Islands

2 ● Technology, Renewable Resources, and American Crafts: Background Paper

The development of medicine and botanyalso was linked closely with arts and crafts.painters, drafters, and engravers recordedplants and animals in intricate detail. As earlyas the 16th century, their work was used totrain medical students in human anatomy. Tra-ditional plant lore was preserved in printedherbals. More recent botanical illustrationswere based on scientific accuracy and visualrealism, traits that persist in the later insect andbird paintings of Maria Merian and John Audu-bon (Rhodes, 1980).

The close partnership between the arts andscience did not last.

“Despite occasional attempts at reconciliation,the separation of science and art was so com-plete by the 20th century that C. P. Snow wasable to define them accurately as two separateworlds” (Meeker, 1978, p. 187).

After World War II, science and technologybegan to change American lives in importantand apparently ever-faster ways. Artists oftenresponded defensively, and their uneasinesswas not lessened by suggestions that the vis-ual arts were irrelevant to technological society(Bornstein, 1981) or that industrial processescould not, by definition, apply to any of thearts.

Some experts feel that the period of greatesttension is past (Meeker, 1978). As evidence,they cite the use of technology by certain fineartists and craftspeople to solve unique prob-lems. These technologies include new methodsto conserve and authenticate works, new toolsand materials, and hundreds of uses for smalland large computers (Hours, 1981; Shore,1982).

Much of the literature of the 1970’s examinedthese changes, often from a theoretical view-point (see Topper and Holloway, 1980). Fewwriters, however, focused explicitly on the roleof technology in crafts. Sometimes generalitieswere obscured by the failure to distinguish be-tween traditional and contemporary crafts (fig.1). Traditional craftworkers, some of whosework can be considered folk art, emphasizeperfecting old forms drawn from their commu-nity. Therefore, technological innovation mayeither be rejected or slowly incorporated.

Figure l.— Relationships Among Crafts,Folk Art, and Fine Art

Folk arts Crafts Fine arts

Traditional Contemporarycrafts crafts

DEFINITIONS:

Craft: An object produced with the help of only such devices as allowthe manual skill of the maker to condition the shape and design ofeach individual product. (Adapted from 25 Code of Federal Regula-tions 308.3a)Traditional draftsperson: A craftworker who accepts and depends ona communal esthetic shaped over time, who perfects older forms, andwho receives information and training by informal means. (Adaptedfrom Teske, 1982-83)Contemporary craftsperson A craftworker who expresses an individ-ual esthetic, who seeks to create new forms, and who has often re-ceived formal education and training. (Adapted from Teske, 1982-83)Tachnology: Equipment (e.g., tools, implements, machines, anddevices) and organizational forms; “hardware” and “software.”

SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment

Contemporary craftspeople are more closelyakin to fine artists. They express an individualesthetic that prizes uniqueness, and often theyhave been formally schooled in advanced tech-nology. Contemporary craftspeople are morelikely to benefit directly from technologicalchange. Both types of craftworkers may bene-fit indirectly from the longing for the hand-made that accompanies “high-tech” societies(Greene, 1980; Paz, 1974). Demand for craftsand craft classes may increase.

Crafts in the United States:A Valued Activity

The U. S. Congress officially encouragedAmerican crafts with the establishment of theIndian Arts and Crafts Board, the National En-dowment for the Arts, and the American Folk-life Center. These actions recognized the im-portance of crafts in U.S. culture. The crafttradition gives meaning to everyday objects,

Introduction ● 3

linking them to history and contemporary life.Crafts may also be “the focal point or gather-ing place for a cluster of ideas which may de-rive from some of the most important philo-sophical perspectives in the experience of agroup of people” (Toelken, 1983). As such,craftwork fills an abiding need to create withthe hands. According to a 1974 Harris poll, 40percent of all Americans engage in craft activ-ities and another 20 percent would like tobecome involved (Glassman, 1975).

American craft traditions also have certaintangible benefits. A large number of people andbusinesses are involved, and their productsmake a substantial contribution to individualand collective economies. The size of a majorannual week-long craft fair, held until 1984 inRhinebeck, N. Y., indicates the magnitude ofthese contributions. At least $6 million of craftswere sold in 1983, a volume triple that of 1976(Greene, 1980), and complementary eventsadded almost another $2 million. Some 3,OOO

wholesale businesses sent buyers to the fair and35,350 retail visitors attended (The Craft Re-port, 1983). Local merchants estimate that theytake in another $3.5 million during the courseof the fair (The Washington Post, 1983).

Crafts have also entered department stores.The Hecht Co., in metropolitan Washington,D. C., sold $42,000 worth of crafts during its 10-day “West Virginia, USA” promotion in 1981.Bloomingdales spent $25 million in 1982 toadd 800 new craftworkers to their “Americathe Beautiful” series (The Washington Post,1982).

Crafts are important to the economies of sev-eral States, especially in the Northeast. Ver-mont crafts have a larger impact on the econ-omy than the maple syrup industry (Halkett,1983). Crafts’ contribution is $10 million to $11million, a figure equalled in New Hampshireand Mississippi (Hart, 1983).

Additional craft-specific information on theeconomic contribution of crafts is difficult toobtain and often relies on crude estimates. Forexample, American quiltmaking is a $50 mil-lion to $100 million business annually, and an-tique quilts bring prices as high as $10,000

(Ricci, 1982). Yet the number of quilters in-volved and their annual income is unknown.Probably each quilter earns less than theminimum wage for long hours of painstakingwork (Ricci, 1982). Industry sources may keepspecific information on individual crafts be-cause they supply large numbers of avocationalcraftworkers with leather kits, dyes, yarns, etc.

Traditional craftspeople sometimes choosenot to market their work, or they may use chan-nels different from those of contemporarycraftspeople. Their contribution, therefore, isnot included in most estimates above. No wayexists to value their products precisely. The In-dian Arts and Crafts Board, for example, esti-mates the annual retail sales of Native Ameri-can arts and crafts is several hundred milliondollars but admits that this estimate is toocrude even for planning purposes (Hart, 1983).

Individual income from craftwork may below but nevertheless vitally important. Craftsprovide a unique source of money for someelderly or housebound people and are especial-ly valuable for individual income in certainareas of high unemployment (Halkett, 1983;Southern Highlands Handicraft Guild, 1975).Consequently, State governments and regionalorganizations use crafts for local development.The Southern Highlands Handicraft Guild andthe States of West Virginia and Kentucky havebeen among the first to do so. They have suc-cessfully promoted their crafts in major nation-al department stores, guild craft centers, andState park gift shops. Economic goals often arecombined with others: preserving traditionalcrafts, encouraging an appreciation of localculture, and providing nonfinancial servicesfor members and citizens.

Negative aspects of the craft business alsoexist. Department stores and wholesalers some-times are insensitive to craftworkers’ problems.The store operators may be unwilling to departfrom high-sales-volume procedures and maystock inexpensive imported crafts in “Ameri-can” displays (Teske, 1983). The effects ofguilds and State craft stores are controversial;their benefits may not be equitably distributedamong all craftworkers and economic improve-

4 ● Technology, Renewable Resources, and American Crafts: Background Paper

ment sometimes may decrease cultural well- ucts may total $10 million annually (The Farm-being (Camp, 1983). ington (N. M.) Daily Times, 1981), and design

Crafts also are part of a large underground pirating is a constant concern of craftworkers

economy. The illegal traffic in wildlife prod- (Halkett, 1983).

THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT’S ROLEIN CRAFTS

The Arts Agencies

Federal Government actions touch on craftsin many ways. In certain cases, these actionsand their effects have not been consistent orkindly. Involvement with Native American andrural communities sometimes has jeopardizedlocal traditions in order to promote local de-velopment and “modernization. ”

One piece of legislation was especially im-portant in seeking to make the role of the Fed-eral Government more benign: the 1976 Ameri-can Folklife Preservation Act (Public Law 94-201). This law created the American FolklifeCenter in the Library of Congress and supple-mented earlier laws that enabled executivebranch agencies to support the crafts. Theseinclude Public Law 74-355, passed in 1935,which created the Indian Arts and Crafts Board

within the Department of the Interior; the Na-tional Historic Preservation Act of 1966; andthe legislation that established the SmithsonianInstitution and, later, the National Endowmentfor the Arts.

These programs, along with economic devel-opment efforts of the Department of Agricul-ture and the avocational craft programs of theDepartment of Defense and the USDA Exten-sion Service, are the most significant Federalcraft activities. Additional related programs arescattered throughout the Government. The bestsummary of these activities is provided by Coe(1977). Recent agency reorganizations and se-vere program and budget cuts, however, havemade significant parts of this information ob-solete. Table 1 provides a summary of the typesof agencies involved in supporting Americanfolkarts and crafts.

Table 1 .—Federal Agencies With Craft Programs

Role(s)

Agency Research a Education b Development c Preservation d Demonstrations e

U.S. Departments:Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x —Commerce. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . —

— —— x

Defense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ——

xHousing and Urban Development . . . . . . . . . . . —

— —— x

Interior. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .—

x x x xLabor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . — x —State/AID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

—x . x x —

Other Federal agencies:East-West Center. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Federal Information Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .National Archives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . .Historic Documents Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . .National Endowment of the Arts . . . . . . . . . . .National Endowment of the Humanities . . . . .National Science Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Smithsonian Institution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Peace Corps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Library of Congress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Historic Preservation Trust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Appalachian Regional Commission . . . . . . . . .

xxx—xxxx—x——

x———xx—x——x—

————————x——x

—xxxx—x—xx

x———x—

———————x—x——

alnclude~ both direct grants t. j~jvjdua)s and Institutions as well as providing 9eneral SUPPOn ‘eWices.41flClUdeS suppofl for institutions such as schools, arl institutes, and museums, and 9rants to studentsClncludes job training program5 and assistance to cooperatives and Individuals

‘Includes collecting, preserwng, and exhibiting all types of crafts‘Include traveling and permanent exhibits as well as interpretive programs at national parks, refu9e5, monuments, ‘orests and other public lands

MAJOR SOURCE Linda C Coe, Fo/k//fe and the Federa/ Government (Washington, D C American Folklife Center, Library of Congress, 1977)

5

6 • Technology, Renewable Resources, and American Crafts: Background Paper

The Natural Resource Agencies

The protection and management of wildlifeand natural areas is relatively centralized. TheDepartment of the Interior, for example, is themajor agency responsible for monitoring en-dangered species, controlling domestic trafficin regulated wildlife products, and protectingresources in national parks and monuments.Both the Bureau of Land Management, withinInterior, and the Forest Service, within the De-partment of Agriculture, are important man-agers of public lands. The annual ConservationDirectory (National Wildlife Federation, 1982)summarizes Federal natural resource roles(table z).

Public Policy

Public policies have important effects oncraftworkers. These vary from policies thateliminate availability of certain craft suppliesto others that relocate people from newly desig-nated public lands. From 1924 to 1936, for ex-ample, the Department of the Interior displaced

a large craft community with the creation ofShenandoah National Park (Martin-Perdue,1983); similar events occurred in the early daysof the Tennessee Valley Authority. Some ofthese craftworkers received Federal assistanceto continue, publicize, and sell their work.

Agency data-collection programs have thepotential for supplying important informationon the craft use of wildlife, but this potentialis largely unrealized. Permits are not requiredfor most small-scale harvesting for “noncom-mercial” purposes in national forests (Bom-beck, 1983). Therefore, little documentation ex-ists for craft uses of these public resources.

Some of the goals of the arts and resourceagencies are not compatible with each other.Resource agencies generally have paid little at-tention to craft supplies. For example, an artsagency may encourage use of traditionalgrasses by basketmakers while a resource agen-cy manages public lands to discourage grassgrowth (Toelken, 1983). Puerto Rico has justbegun a program to replant important wood-working trees, but it has little support fromforesters (Murray, 1983).

Table 2.—Federal Agencies With Resource Protection Roles

Role(s)

Agency Research a Education b Management c Policy d Enforcement e

U.S. Departments:Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x x x x xCommerce. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x x x x xInterior. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x x x x xJustice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . — — — — xLabor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x x — —State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . —

—— x —

Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ——

— — — xTreasury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . — — — — xOther agencies:Council on Environmental Quality . . . . . . . . . . x — —Environmental Protection Agency . . . . . . . . . .

— —x x x x x

Tennessee Valley Authority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x x xNational Science Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

— —x — —

International Convention Advisory Council . . .— —

x — — — —alncludeg internal programs and external 9rant5.blncludeg direct ~rk with farmers and visitors, job training programs, and Preparation of materials.clncludes respon~bility for da~.to.dgy operation of pu~ic Iarlijs and waters as well as handling of wildlife populations and preparation of management plans for private

owners.‘Includes determining U.S. priorities for resource protection.elncludeg regulatiw ~ommerce in ~tentially harmful plants and anlrnals and those organisms that are protected by domestic and international ‘9reements.

MAJOR SOURCE: Conservation Directory 1982, National Wildlife Federation, Washington, D. C., 27th cd., 1982.

The Federal Government’s Role in Crafts ● 7

Making the Connection: A Pioneering Study in the New Jersey Pine Barrens

The American Folklife Center of the Library of Congress, the U.S. Department of the Interior,and several New Jersey State agencies are cooperating in a project that will provide one of thefirst close looks at how traditional technology, natural resources, and culture interact. This proj-ect will document activities such as crafts, folk music, seasonal festivals, and architecture. Also,it will examine traditional ways of naming and using plants and animals.

The study is being done in the new Pinelands National Reserve, a million acres of land witha unique public lands designation and governing body. The importance of this work, though, ex-tends beyond New Jersey. It may, for example, show how arts agencies and resource agencies cancooperate with local citizens to conserve natural resources, historic artifacts, and the living culturaltraditions in a region,

The pine barrens are rich in crafts such as boatbuilding and decoy carving, and local peoplehave developed complex management technologies for conserving their raw materials. The BarnegatBay Sneakboxes (duckboats), for example, are built of Atlantic white cedar that, unlike plywood,can be shaped in compound curves. Cedar-cutting and stand management are often family opera-tions that rely on generations of forestry experiments. Local biologists admit that the cutter’sknowledge is accurate and precise. Folklorists in the area also note the esthetic importance of man-agement; cedar-cutters speak of “cedar music)” created by trees creaking in the wind.

The Pinelands National Reserve study will preserve this type of information in books,photographs, and an archive, Natural resource agencies will have access to local expertise on wildlifeand timber; folklorists will gain information on technology and biology. This is a new synthesis.It may promote the sustainable use of resources in crafts and provide a better understanding ofhow people create meaning in their lives by applying technology to their natural surroundings.

Sol ‘ K(: E:S \f,ir\ liuffor[{, F“c]lkl]fe (;cntcr, I.]hrar} of (;ongress, perwnal ( ommunlcation, IIPC 12, 1983, I,lbrarv of Congress, “ Llbrar}, uf (;ongress Am(~ri[ an f-’u]kl]ft,( ;enter l.aun[ h{,s l-’[el{l Sur\ ey of Pi nrldnds Nat !onal Rcsert e in New Jersey, ” ,N’ews F’rom lhe ~,lbrar~ of C o n g r e s s , PR 83-81, Sc!pt ~, 1983, and H[)rl\L!”(, I nt r,]ul), ‘‘( ;rd nherr} flogs, Tea III A Glass Sense of Pla(.e In Jersey Ptnes, ”’ ,k’st]on~/ Geogr~phlc Soc/et} .\’ew\ F’eafure, N(IL ‘io, IWi3

34-177 0 - 84 - 3

TECHNOLOGY AND THECRAFTS PROCESS

Craftwork can be divided into several proc-esses once the initial design has been devel-oped. These include: obtaining and preparingthe raw materials, making the materials intoa product, and distributing the product. Theseprocesses are common to all craftworkerswhether they use, for example, naturally occur-ring grasses or highly processed leather, wheth-er they keep sales records by pencil or com-puter, and whether they ship items worldwideor pass them along to their families.

Technology has had an important impact onall of these stages—sometimes positive, some-times negative. Its direct or indirect impactsseem to be increasing in all areas of craftwork.The initial design process is not immune,either. Contemporary craftworkers have avail-able computer-assisted design tools (Bell, 1983),and science and technology, by virtue of theirdominance in American culture, help shape thecreative urges of those and the more traditionalcraftspeople.

Gathering Materials

Some craftworkers are concerned aboutmaintaining an assured quantity and quality ofmaterials, and both factors relate to technology.These recent concerns are different for vari-ous craft media. Two major studies identifiedthe availability of unprocessed raw materialsas a problem: the National Crafts PlanningProject (McLean, 1981) and Traditional Craft-manship in America (Camp, 1983). Traditionalcraftworkers are most concerned:

. . . . anxiety about the continued availabilityof craft supplies seems to be on the rise amongAmerican craftworkers, along with a sense thatlittle can be done to improve dim prospects forthe future of a great many craft traditions. . . .The availability of materials for use in tradi-tional craft processes may play a greater rolein the health of particular traditions than anyother factor . . . .“ (Camp, 1983, p. 30)

Craft technology usually does not threatenrenewable resources directly. There are excep-

tions, but information is so scarce that a de-finitive evaluation is not possible. Traditionalcraftworkers may possess a sensitivity to theirenvironment that decreases the chance of theirdestructive use of resources (Toelken, 1983). Orthey may have such a strong cultural need forcertain resources that overuse is inevitable. Theactivities of craftworkers who are new to theirprofession may be harmful to resources, too.Inexperience may lead to misidentification ofplants or animals and rare ones may be usedinadvertently. In addition, their sources of sup-plies may be distant. Therefore, they uninten-tionally may encourage unscrupulous collect-ing by commercial suppliers. Poaching for craftsupplies, by suppliers or craftspeople, can anddoes pose a threat to certain plant and animalpopulations, such as bald eagles, that have beenseverely decreased by other activities.

Industrial technology usually threatens craftresources more directly. Some wildlife, suchas eagles and most whales, have become rareenough that the parts used for crafts are largelyunavailable. This unavailability may be due tothe actual disappearance of plants and animalsor due to government regulation of harvests.Substitutes for these materials can be difficultor impossible to obtain for some craftworkers.Native American crafts commonly have impor-tant religious or symbolic significance, andnew materials are unlikely to be substituted(Camp, 1983).

Loss of plant and animal habitat maybe justas important in altering the availability of craftresources. Several factors, such as changinglandownership patterns, urbanization, and ag-ricultural draining and filling decrease collect-ing areas (Camp, 1983; LaRiche, 1983). Tradi-tional craftworkers who will not or cannotsearch more widely for their materials are mostaffected. Loss of habitat may be the majormethod by which plant and animal speciesbecome extinct (Fosberg, 1983). Therefore, itaffects people locally but may also cause morewidespread and permanant loss of plants andanimals.

9

10 ● Technology, Renewable Resources, and American Crafts: Background paper

Craftworkers in some cases express frustra-tion at not being able to find the right materi-al at an affordable price (Camp, 1983). Forwoodworkers, this may represent the escalat-ing price that results from the increasing scar-city of wood such as black walnut and baldcypress. This results from both the absolutescarcity of these woods due to loss of habitat—e.g., bald cypress in Florida—as well as therelative scarcity when other wood users out-compete craftworkers for supplies.

Technology sometimes can provide substi-tutes when desired materials become less avail-able for whatever reason. Plastic “ivory” allowsscrimshaw to continue despite tight restric-tions on use and trade in natural ivory (Thom-as, 1983). Plastic “ebony” in banjos (Jabbour,1983) replaces a rare, and expensive, wood.And plastic “tortoiseshell” replaces real tor-

toiseshells in jewelry (Dodd, 1983). Some craft-workers have adopted unusual craft supplies—bread wrappers for rag rugs, telephone wirefor baskets—which are often high-tech substi-tutes for materials no longer available to them(Hufford, 1983). In other cases, technology pro-vides a refined or more quickly available prod-uct, such as artificially seasoned wood (Hart,1983). This is an important role for technologybut one that is useful to only certain craft-workers. Substitutions sometimes cannot bemade without irreparably damaging the crafttradition (Camp, 1983).

Making the Craft

While some craftworkers may feel an ambiv-alence about adopting new technology, usuallythey have heartily welcomed those changes

Photo credit U S FIsh and Wildlife Service

Lucreaty Clark making a cotton basket from white oak

Technology and the Crafts Process ● 1 1

that made their work easier, Traditional NativeAmerican basketmakers, for example, may sub-stitute a nail for the traditional cactus spine awl(Barrows, 1900). Many craftworkers have beenquick to adopt power tools for special uses(Teske, 1983). These changes usually are madeafter thoughtful consideration: What is the roleof technology in the craft? Will an importantpart of the craft be lost if machinery takes over?Will new technology enable the worker to bemore or less creative? Often technology isadopted to increase productivity (Ahlborn,1983), certainly an important factor for craft-workers whose incomes are marginal.

Where technology is carefully consideredand integrated into current traditions, its ef-fects are often positive, The adoption of steeltools, for example, by the Haida Indians of theNorthwest Coast, coincided with a surge ofcreativity in architecture and decorative arts(Reid, 1982). Certainly new technology hasbeen adopted enthusiastically by many contem-porary craftworkers. Synthetic dyes, for exam-ple, have replaced natural ones in most fibercrafts, including basketry. Cold-molded andsheet-plywood construction are important newtechnologies for building wooden boats(Wilson, 1982).

These changes sometimes are painful, espe-cially for traditional craftspeople. They may in-troduce dissension into a family or community.In these cases, change—such as that whichoccurred when Shenandoah basketmakers al-tered the number of splints in the bottom ofwoven baskets—becomes a metaphor for tradi-tion versus adaptation in the group (Martin-Perdue, 1983). In other cases, the introductionof modern technology may add health risks tothe workplace. This is true for many epoxiesand other plastics used in woodworking(McCann, 1981).

Technology plays a large role, both directlyand indirectly, in bringing crafts to market.Modern technology brings the craft traditions

of many ethnic groups and localities to out-siders (Paz, 1974). Television and satelliteradio, for example, bring the traditions ofsouthwest Arizona to New York and 20th cen-tury transportation takes Midwestern vaca-tioners to the Appalachians. This has increasedthe demand for craft materials, craft classes,and crafts themselves and opened new marketsto craftworkers.

Technology also directly affects craft market-ing. Some workers, researchers, and organiza-tions use computers for recordkeeping, word-processing, and communicating among them-selves, The National Crafts Planning Board isundertaking one of the latest of these projects,an information system that will become opera-tional in 1984 (American Craft Council, 1983).Other types of technology also have an impact.For example, new photographic tools and light-weight construction materials help craft-workers prepare for shows. Improved transpor-tation equipment and systems move people,materials, and finished goods.

Many of these technological changes have lit-tle relevance to traditional craftspeople. Some-times they market locally, do not take part inmajor craft shows, and do not join craft organi-zations.

Contemporary craftworkers often face prob-lems more common among fine artists: protec-tion of unique designs. Traditional craft-workers face similar problems when legalsupplies of resources cannot be authenticatedand their own work cannot be distinguishedfrom inexpensive foreign mass-productions.New technology for copyrighting material andidentifying work may solve some of these prob-lems. The Canadian Government, for example,designates authentic native crafts with stick-on labels (Teske, 1983). Some U.S. craft guildsand cooperatives have developed their owntrademarks (Jabbour, 1982). New markingmethods can nondestructively identify ivorythat may be legally sold (McMahan, 1983).

—

AN INVENTORY OF CRAFT RESOURCESNo comprehensive inventory of the natural

resources used in crafts exists in the UnitedStates or elsewhere in the world. Informationis fragmentary, inconsistent, and often unreli-able. Even such a fundamental tool as a floraof the United States does not exist (Jenkins,1983). With such problems, it is impossible toestimate the amount of material in the crafttrade or its economic and ecological signifi-cance. The Organization of American States(OAS) International Meeting of Craft Develop-ment Agencies and Programs (September 1983)made two relevant recommendations:

● that OAS promote development of an in-ventory and registry of natural resourcesused by craftworkers; and

. that a study be conducted, based on thisinventory, of the supplies, conditions, andecology of the resources.

Before such a thorough assessment is made,however, scattered data can be used to piecetogether preliminary evaluations such as thosebelow. These data cannot be considered defini-tive, however, since many rely on intuitivejudgments of experts.

Ivory and Tortoiseshell

Several marine mammals and sea turtles con-tinue to be used for crafts. Ivory from walrustusks, sperm whale teeth, seal skins and guts,and sea turtle skins, leather, and shells aresome of the raw materials involved.

Several of these animal species declined dras-tically due to over-harvesting in the 19th and20th centuries. Therefore, much of their cur-rent harvest is strictly controlled and severalpublic and private groups monitor the results.These groups’ data on legitimate and black-market trade provide an estimate of overall useof the animals. The craft use of such materi-als alone cannot be separated but is probablysubstantial and unique to each species. Sale ofmany of these items is prohibited; therefore,estimates of illegal trafficking, which are oftencrude, provide one way of measuring the mag-nitude of trade.

Illegal trafficking is known to be extensive.Approximately 10,000 lb of walrus ivory wereseized in one Alaskan raid, part of a tradeworth several million dolIars (U.S. Departmentof the Interior, 1981). There are 3,OOO to 4,OOOnarwhale tusks thought to be in storage; 8,000sperm whale teeth were confiscated in 1974-75 (McIntyre, 1983); and an estimated 6,000walrus tusks are illegally traded.

Sea turtles were once a major food in coastalGeorgia and South Carolina (McIntyre, 1983).The mainland United States never had sea tur-tle crafts, but they existed in Puerto Rico, theVirgin Islands, and the Trust Territory of thePacific Islands (Dodd, 1983). The Conventionon International Trade in Endangered Species(CITES), which restricts trade in sea turtles, haseffectively reduced commercial trade. TheUnited States does not now trade in these prod-ucts, but other countries do. Japan, which ap-pears to be the major importer, imported about75,OOO kg of leather, skins, and tortoiseshell in1981. The proportion of the local and interna-tional trade that is craft-related is unknown.

Status of the Resource—All species of ma-rine mammals are protected under the MarineMammal Protection Act and some are also pro-tected by the Endangered Species Act andCITES. “Taking, “ importing, exporting, pos-sessing, and seIIing protected animals are gen-erally prohibited. Exceptions may be made forspecimens obtained before regulation in 1972and for educational/scientific uses. AlaskanNatives are qualified for another important ex-ception. They may take marine mammals forsubsistence or for the production of handi-crafts. Authentic native articles generally maybe sold in interstate commerce (U.S. Depart-ment of the Interior, May 1982, August 1982).

Controversy exists regarding the effect of theNative American marine mammal harvests.Some experts feel that it is large enough tothreaten marine mammal populations and thatit tends to be abused. Others feel that marinemammals can be sustainably harvested if pres-ent guidelines are followed. Still others feel thatthe continued use of marine mammals can be

13

14 • Technology, Renewable Resources, and American Crafts: Background Paper

-.t.

,.'" 'I, .... ~ .. ,

··~.~'1 Photo credit: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Walruses, such as these animals on a beach, are among the marine mammals protected by Federal law. A multi­million dollar trade in illegal ivory continues despite protection. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service confiscated these

items during several years; all are from endangered species

An Inventory of Craft Resources ● 1 5

justified on cultural grounds even if animalpopulations do suffer. The situation is furthercomplicated because marine mammal popula-tions are shared by many nations. Some coun-tries do not control marine mammal harvests;other nations—e.g., Canada—regulate subsist-ence harvest and export quite differently thandoes the United States; and the internationalharvest quotas are subject to political pressure(McIntyre, 1983).

Craft use of marine mammal ivory did notcause the original decline in these species,although it may slow their current recovery.Crafts that used elephant ivory probably didcontribute to the endangerment of that animal(paradise, 1983). Poaching continues to be aproblem because of the high prices that ivorybrings. The price of sperm whale teeth, for ex-amp]e, increased from $20 to almost $1,000 pertooth when it became known as an endangeredspecies (McIntyre, 1983).

The status of the seven species of sea turtlesis so precarious that all are given maximumprotection by CITES. Substantial trade contin-ues, though, and many feel that it threatens thesurvival of these animals. As a result, the WorldConference on Sea Turtle Conservation recom-mended that:

“The trade in tortoise shell should cease inthose countries where it has no special tradi-tional cultural significance. Those countrieswhere tortoise shell has a cultural value (e.g.,in marriage ceremonies) should be encouragedto preserve and recycle antique supplies, topromote the use of synthetic substances, andwith all dispatch to phase out the importationof new material. ” (Mack, 1983, p. 11).Effects on Crafts—Problems in obtaining

marine mammal products for crafts becamechronic, especially for Native Americans inAlaska, with tight regulation (Camp, 1983).Acrimonious debates among craftworkers,hunters, conservationists, and regulatorssometimes occur when quotas for subsistenceharvest are set. Legislation provides for onlyNative American craft use of new ivory sup-plies. Therefore, controversy also arises whenother craftworkers are not allowed access tomaterial.

Some craftworkers prefer to avoid any pos-sibility of using illegal materials. They obtainwhat is known as “pre-act” (Endangered Spe-cies Act and Marine Mammal Protection Act)ivory from suppliers, Questions about the ageof this ivory persist, and much may not be qual-ified for legal trade. The technology for datingmaterial, whiIe developing rapidly, does not yetallow fine distinctions to be made (McIntyre,1983). Other craftspeople have converted tousing caribou bone, especially for sales outsideof Alaska (Hueber, 1983).

Considerable amounts of seized ivory remainin storage, and some advocate releasing it tocraftworkers. Others fear that this will providean incentive for continued illegal taking.

Tortoiseshell has been prized for centuriesand it has important traditional cultural usesin some communities (Mack, 1983). U.S. tor-toiseshell crafts in Puerto Rico probably havedeclined with the virtual elimination of trade,but this is undocumented. Some countries pro-pose either breeding sea turtles in captivity orranching wild populations under the provi-sions of CITES that encourage developing al-ternative supplies. These operations, if suc-cessful, may provide new sources of craftmaterial.

plastics can mimic sperm whale, walrus andelephant ivory, and tortoiseshell. They are in-distinguishable from real ivory without de-structive tests or expensive X-ray analysis. Thisis new technology, and its impacts on craft usesare likely to be substantial. On the one hand,crafts are continuing that would otherwisehave declined along with diminishing re-sources. On the other hand, some jewelry-mak-ers suffered when plastic turquoise becamereadily available. Many retailers stopped car-rying turquoise rather than risk selling imita-tion jewelry (Halkett, 1983). A similar situationmay arise with other plastic substitutes.

Feathers

Feathers have been used extensively in crafts.They were the main supply for Hawaiian feath-ercapes and feathergods (Belshe, 1983). Theyare still used in fly tying (Hornblower, 1983)

34-177 0 - 84 - 4

16 ● Technology, Renewab/e Resources, and American Crafts: Background paper

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An Inventory of Craft Resources ● 1 7

and many Native American crafts such asheaddresses, clubs, kachina dolls, and fans(Stuart, 1981).

Supplies of many species are severely cur-tailed, forcing craftworkers to use substitutes.Estimates of the total use of feathers in craftsdo not exist. A fraction of the use can be iden-tified by legal and illegal demand for eaglefeathers.

Bald and golden eagles are protected underthe Bald Eagle Protection Act, The MigratoryBird Treaty Act protects all wild birds except:1) resident game birds such as pheasant andgrouse, 2) starlings, 3) feral pigeons, and 4) Eng-lish sparrows (U.S. Department of the Interior,undated). The Endangered Species Act alsoprotects a large number of birds (U.S. De-partment of the Interior, May 1982).

Native Americans may use special provisionsof these acts to obtain parts of eagles for re-ligious ceremonies. Therefore, facilities forstoring contraband and accidentally killedeagles were established in Idaho for handlingthis distribution. A long waiting list exists forthese birds (Frederick, 1983).

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has inten-sified its investigation into trafficking in eaglesand other migratory birds and has developedthe forensic skill to identify most bird parts tospecies. Based on its information, a substan-tial number of birds are being used illegally forcrafts. Officials have estimated that illegal tradein bird feathers approaches at least $1 millionannually, about one-tenth of the total trade inillegal wildlife (The Farmington (N. M.) DailyTimes, 1981). For example, enforcement agentsin 1981 seized feathers and craft items worthalmost $500,000 from 35 individuals in NewMexico and Oklahoma and more than 30 busi-nesses in Arizona. This raid included at least4,OOO scissor-tailed flycatchers, 155 eagles, andhundreds of woodpeckers, hawks, owls, andother protected birds (Stuart, 1981). A 1983 raidresulted in arrest warrants in eight States forabout 50 people accused of trafficking in eagleand other bird parts. Officials estimated fromthis evidence that about 100 eagles are killed

annually for the black-market trade in NativeAmerican artifacts (Shabecoff, 1983).

Status of the Resource—The pressure onbird populations from these activities is signif-icant. Parts of Oklahoma that once supportedhundreds of scissor-tailed flycatchers per acrenow have only a few (Stuart, 1981). About 1,200nesting pairs of eagles exist in the contiguousUnited States, but the population rises to morethan 10,000 birds during the winter migrationfrom Alaska and Canada. Experts feel that har-vests of hundreds of birds are cause for con-cern under these conditions.

Though feather crafts alone are not thoughtto have caused the large-scale extinctions oftropical Hawaiian birds in the 1800’s, they mayhave been one factor. The introduction of catsand poultry diseases probably contributedmore to the decimation of Hawaiian bird pop-ulations (Fosberg, 1983).

Effects on Crafts—Some feather crafts arerelegated to history because of the restrictionson obtaining, possessing, and selling feathers.Items such as feathercapes, which requiredfeathers from thousands of tropical birds, prob-ably will not be made again. Controversy ex-ists over displaying these items and whetherrare birds may still be jeopardized by exhibi-tion (Shetler, 1983).

Some people who worked with feathers usedones that are now controlled. Some have sub-stituted new supplies for illegal ones. Kachinadolls, for example, continue to be made andsold but without eagle feathers. Concern existsthat substitutions threaten important tradi-tional aspects of the craft (Camp, 1983). But therole of change in traditional crafts has alwaysbeen subject to lively debate (Ahlborn, 1983),and there is no consensus on whether craftsare permanently damaged by involuntary sub-stitutions.

Fibers and Dyes

A wide variety of plants is used for basketry,fish traps, and dying. Usually these plants arecollected from wild populations. A few, such

18 ● Technology, Renewable Resources, and American Crafts: Background Paper

as pandanus and coconut, are propagated andgrown in the Pacific islands to provide readycraft supplies (Fosberg, 1983). Some of theseplants occur throughout the United States.Others, such as devil’s claw, grow in muchsmaller geographic areas and are vital tounique local crafts. A few of the common nat-ural dyes are imported. Indigo, madder, andfustic are among these. (See app. B for scien-tific names.)

Status of the Resource—Wild plants gener-ally do not seem to be threatened by craft use(Duke, 1983; Soderstrom, 1983). Usually suchlarge amounts are required that only “weedy”plants are used (Hueber, 1983). There are ex-ceptions, however. Appendix B lists almost 600basketry and dye plants, of which 89 are rareenough to be of concern to conservationists(The Nature Conservancy, unpublished infor-mation). Some plants, such as bloodroot, havebeen widely used in traditional crafts and noware rare enough to be protected by State regu-lation (Eshbaugh, 1983).

Lichens have been important sources of nat-ural dyes; they provided both the unique colorsand fragrances of Harris tweeds. They aremore vulnerable to overcollection than mostplants because they grow so slowly. Unscrupu-lous collecting may threaten local lichen col-onies (Hueber, 1983). Like other resources,lichens are threatened more directly by effectsof industrial technology: they are among plantsmost sensitive to air pollution.

Misidentification may pose a problem for thesustainable use of plants in crafts. Certainmembers of large plant groups such as willowsand birches, for example, are uncommon. Onevariety of sweet birch is on the U.S. en-dangered or threatened species list (U.S. De-partment of the Interior, January 1982). Almostone-fourth of the plants in appendix B haveclose relatives that are either listed or underreview for listing as threatened or endangered.Therefore, craftworkers who are not certainabout correct identification of their materialmay collect rare plants along with more com-mon ones.

Effects on Crafts—Craftworkers face fewlegal restrictions in obtaining plants. They mayface limitations imposed by other factors. Theloss of wetlands eliminates some basketryplants (LaRiche, 1983). So much indigo is re-quired for denim that craftworkers have beenessentially excluded from the market (Hueber,1983).

Dying with plants has decreased dramatical-ly with the availability of commercial dyes.Naturally dyed items generally still commandhigher prices, as much as 80 percent higher forNavaho rugs (Eshbaugh, 1983). Concern exists,however, that the dyer’s botanical knowledgeis slipping away (Eshbaugh, 1983; Hueber,1983). Protection of information maybe just asimportant as protection of the resource in thiscase.

Wood and Tree Fern Trunks

Native and imported woods supply buildersand makers of musical instruments, boats, andfurniture. Some records exist of U.S. forest re-sources, but they do not provide a good indica-tion of the amount of wood used in crafts. TheU.S. Forest Service, for example, maintainsrecords of forest stock and annual timber har-vests on Federal lands. Only certain importantwoodworking trees are included in their fig-ures. Some, such as black walnut, are specif-ically excluded because of their rarity. Forthese reasons, only local, comprehensive State,or private woodlot records are likely to showchanges in craft wood availability and use.Such records have not been compiled yet, andtheir synthesis would be a formidable task.

Status of the Resource—Little concern ex-ists that commercially important continentalAmerican trees are endangered, although thereare a few exceptions. In some cases, the spe-cialty woods used by craftworkers are beinglost as native forests are replaced by pine plan-tations (McMahan, 1983). Tree ferns are amongthe few rare plants in international trade thatare included under CITES (McBride, 1983).Their trunks are used in the commercial green-

house industry and a smaller number are usedin crafts. In 1982, 2,770 bags of fiber and 40cubic meters of other material were importedfrom Guatemala, and 6,000 kg of pieces of“wood” came from New Zealand. These im-ports probably are a fraction of the total vol-ume (McMahan, 1983).

Commercial use of tree ferns is too recent tohave depleted their populations. Much of thematerial comes from forests already destroyed;in other cases, people are selectively removingthe tree ferns. It should be noted, however, thatthe commercial greenhouse market for treeferns developed largeIy due to the increasingscarcity of Osmunda ferns that were over-harvested for the same use. Many tropical for-ests are being rapidly destroyed (Office of

Technology Assessment, 1984) and tree fernsare among the potential victims.

Effects on Crafts—Craftworkers are notic-ing the depletion of local woodworking sup-plies., This may indicate the beginning of newproblems. Makers of kachina dolls, for exam-ple, are forced to travel longer distances to findsuitable cottonwood (Eshbaugh, 1983). A 50-year-old splint basketmaker has seen a decreasein the local availability of different oaks (Camp,1983).

Woodworkers, more than other craftspeople,are concerned about the availability of goodsupplies and rising prices when they are avail-able (Nickerson, undated). These concerns can-not be documented with readily accessible

20 ● Technology, Renewable Resources, and American Crafts: Background Paper

data. Concern seems warranted, however,based on cases where wood availabilitychanged sharply and craft traditions and localeconomies suffered substantially. This hap-pened on a regional scale in the 1920’s whenthe chestnut blight destroyed much of the econ-omy of the Shenandoah Mountains (Reeder,1978).

Woodworkers are also concerned aboutwood quality, a trait more difficult to docu-ment. Some boatbuilders note the decliningquality of marine plywood (Phillips, 1983).Others have turned to curing their own wood,since commercial curing may not produce suit-able wood for boatbuilding or making finemusical instruments. In other cases, lumbermay be cut too short for some craftworkers, ineffect making it unavailable.

Shells and Coral

Shells and skeletons of marine, freshwater,and terrestrial invertebrates are used in largeamounts in crafts. Many are used whole as or-namentals; others are ground into a variety ofproducts including pottery glazes. There areabout 5,OOO kinds of shells that are largeenough for sale. Few of these now come fromU.S. waters, but this may change as interna-tional trade is more strictly regulated byCITES.

The vast majority of shell imports enters theUnited States through Florida, California, NewYork, and Oregon. The United States is one ofthe largest importers of ornamental shells, andimports have escalated in the last few years.About 4 million kg of shells and 500,000 kg ofcoral are imported annually, worth about $11million. These amounts comprise only a smallpercentage of the world shell population. Themajor use of shellfish, but not of coral, is forfood, and harvest for ornamental shells repre-sents a fraction of the food catch (Abbott, 1980;Wells, 1981).

Status of the Resource–Industrial tech-nology threatens some of these invertebrates.Some coral reefs are dynamited for fishing and

for construction material (Wells, 1981). Thecontinuing destruction of tropical forests hascaused the extinction of a number of tree snailsin Hawaii and Asia. Spills of toxic materialssimilarly have eliminated freshwater shells incertain places in the United States and else-where. Such destruction of habitat can elimi-nate populations that cannot be depleted by in-tensive collecting.

Marine biologists generally agree that thecraft and souvenir trade does not pose a similarthreat (Abbott, 1980), but increasingly tighterregulation reflects continuing concern. There-fore, conservationists urge caution in exploit-ing shells and coral. It is particularly appropri-ate in harvesting coral. Both white and blackcoral populations are thought to be threatened,but pink, or precious, corals probably are not.Coral grows very slowly; collecting could de-stroy reefs weakened by dredging, pollution,and siltation. Deep sea fishing technology isdeveloping rapidly and greater accessibilitymakes overcollection more probable. Sustain-able management of shell populations remainsan elusive goal (Wells, 1981), especially intropical waters where fishing for craft pur-poses is prominent.

Effects on Crafts—Shell collecting is regu-lated in some places, such as Florida, to pro-tect shells that were previously overcollected.Few countries provide similar protection forpurely ornamental species, although most con-trol harvest of edible mollusks (Wells, 1981).Some expect that shell regulation will increaseas more countries become parties to CITES andadditional species are added to its appendedlists of controlled species, Two species of giantclams, for example, recently have been addedto Appendix 2 of CITES, since craft and dec-orative uses of their shells have been increas-ing (McIntyre, 1983). No evidence exists onhow these changes are affecting craftspeople.The situation is analogous to marine mammalregulation in some ways; so the future may seesimilar substitutions, illegal trade, and confu-sion. Some crafts may face economic endan-germent if retailers fear selling illegal products.

An Inventory of Craft Resources Ž 21

Hides

The United States produces large numbersof cow, calf, goat, and sheep hides from thelivestock industry, Smaller numbers of alli-gator, snake, frog, lizard, and turtle skins alsoare used to produce leather. Louisiana has alegal alligator hunting season and about 16,000to 20,000 alligators are killed annually (Cook,1980). Few hides are processed in the UnitedStates; most are shipped to Europe or Japan forcuring and, often, finishing. In 1980, almost 24million animal hides and skins were exported(U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1981). Theproportion of these hides used in crafts is notknown.

Status of the Resource—Alligators are pro-tected by the Endangered Species Act in sev-eral States, and the Lacey Act precludes thetransportation of illegally taken specimens ininterstate or foreign commerce, Poaching re-mains a problem, but officials feel that currentregulations are effectively protecting alligators(Cook, 1980), Too little is known about leatherfrom snakes, frogs, and lizards to evaluate theirstatus.

Effects on Crafts—Most U.S. leatherworkersturn to jobbers for their supplies, with varying

results, Some face problems obtaining high-quality hides. Others find that the diversity ofleather curing processes used, especially inEurope, makes available to them a very broadrange of products,

Hide supplies can be unstable. Alligators inthe Southeast have been overhunted, thenstrictly protected, then hunted again in the lastdecades. Management of most natural popula-tions must be this dynamic, but craftwork isdifficult when supplies cannot be ensured, Onegoal of CITES is development of alternativesupplies. Plans for alligator and sea turtleranches or breeding programs may stabilizesupplies.

Leatherworkers are vulnerable to large pricefluctuations; prices have as much as tripled inone year (Ahlborn, 1983). This is due tochanges in the international hide market, TheUnited States imports a large number of hides—at least 10 million in 1980 (U.S. Departmentof Agriculture, 1981). Officials would like to en-courage more American leatherwork to avoidthe high “value added” that these hides ofteninclude,

SuMMARYTechnology rapidly is changing some aspects

of the craft process. Only some craftworkerswant or are able to take advantage of thesechanges. This is cause for concern, since thetraditional crafts usually are more negativelyaffected by technological change.

Natural resource supplies for crafts varygreatly in their availability, quality, and sus-tainability. Many craftworkers face problemsin obtaining enough high-quality raw materi-als at affordable prices, These problems arelikely to increase. The reliability of such an .assessment is decreased, however, by the lackof information on U.S. and worldwide use ofrenewable resources, An inventory of the kinds

and amounts of organisms used in crafts isurgently needed. Resources in developingcountries need priority appraisal, since theyare being depleted more quickly.

The Federal Government plays an importantrole in supporting American crafts, protectingrenewable resources, and developing tech-nology. The connections among these activi-ties have not been made explicit, however, andineffective policies sometimes result, The in-tentional and the inadvertent results of activi-ties in these three arenas have been examinedin only a general way. A more rigorous exam-ination is needed,

23

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BIBLIOGRAPHYAbbot, R. Tucker, “The Shell Trade in Florida.

Status, Trade and Legislation” (Washington,D. C.: TRAFFIC (U.S.A.), World Wildlife Fund-U. S., 1980).

Ahlborn, Richard, Division of Community Life,Museum of American History, Smithsonian In-stitution, personal communication, June 17, 1983.

American Craft Council, “In Brief,” AmericanCraft 43(5):95, October/November 1983.

Baranyovits, F. L. C., “Cocineal Carmine: An An-cient Dye With a Modern Role, ” Endeavor2(2):85-92, 1978.

Barrows, D. P., Ethno-botany of the Coahuilla In-dians of Southern California (Chicago: Univer-sity of Chicago Press, 1900).

Bell, John, “Designers Get the Picture,” New Scien-tist 97:815-819, Mar. 24, 1983.

Belshe, Morilla Monti, sculptor and papermaker,personal communication, Mar. 24, 1983.

Bombeck, Rex, Office of Timber Management, For-est Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, per-sonal communication, June 17, 1983.

Bornstein, Marc H., “A Commentary on the BookVisual Art, Mathematics and Computers, Selec-tions from the Journal Leonardo, ” Leonardo 14:28-30, 1981.

Buck, Eugene H., “Marine Mammal Issues: 98thCongress Overview, ” Issue Brief NumberIB81131 (Washington, D. C.: Congressional Re-search Service, Library of Congress, Sept. 30,1983).

Camp, Charles (cd,), Traditional Craftsmanship inAmerica (Washington, D. C.: National Councilfor the Traditional Arts, 1983).

Camp, Charles, Maryland State Arts Council, per-sonal communication, June 14 and Nov. 15,1983.

Coe, Linda C., Folklife and the Federal Govern-ment. A Guide to Activities, Resources, Fundsand Services (Washington, D. C.: AmericanFolklife Center, Library of Congress, 1977).

Cook, Mike, “Alligator Season. Louisiana Trappersin Business Thursday; Poachers Out, ” The BatonRouge Morning Advocate, Aug. 25, 1980.

The Crafts Report, “Rhinebeck Fair Winds UpTenth (and Final) Year With Record $6 MillionSales Volume, ” 9(94):1, 14, September 1983.

Dodd, Kenneth, Office of Endangered Species, US.Department of the Interior, personal com-munication, May 15, 1983.

Duke, James A., Economic Botany Laboratory, U.S.Department of Agriculture, personal com-munication, June 2, 1983.

Eklund, Jon B., “Art Opens Way for Science, ”

Chemical and Engineering News, June 5, 1978,pp. 25-31,

Eshbaugh, Hardy, National Science Foundation,personal communication, June 9, 1983.

The Farmington Daily Times, “Wildlife AgentsRaid ‘Bird Feathers’ Dealers, ” Farmington,N. Mex., Feb. 22, 1981.

Fosberg, Raymond, Botany Department, NationalMuseum of Natural History, Smithsonian In-stitution, personal communication, June 17,1983.

Frederick, Keith, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,Department of the Interior, Albuquerque, N.Mex., personal communication, June 9, 1983.

Glassman, Judith, National Guide to Craft Supplies(New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1975),p. 5.

Green, Archie, “Introduction” in Folklife and theFederal Government. A Guide to Activities, Re-sources, Funds and Services, Linda C. Coe (ed.](Washington, D. C.: American Folklife Center, Li-brary of Congress, 1977), p. 9.

Greene, Adele S., “Forum. How Will the Age ofTechnology Affect American Crafts?” AmericanArt 44:18, 92, December 1980.

Halkett, Jan, Agricultural Cooperative Service, U.S.Department of Agricul ture, personal com-munication, July 12 and Oct. 26, 1983.

Hart, Robert, Indian Arts and Crafts Board, U.S.Department of the Interior, personal com-munication, May 23, July 6, July 12, and Oct. 19,1983.

Hornblower, Malabar, “The Compleat Fly Tier, ”American Craft 43(2):27-31, April/May 1983.

Hours, Madeleine, “Science in the Service of Art, ”Unesco Courier No. 3, p. 5, March, 1981.

Hueber, Francis, Paleobiology Department, Na-tional Museum of Natural History, SmithsonianInstitution, personal communication, June 16and Oct. 24, 1983.

Hufford, Mary, American Folklife Center, Libraryof Congress, personal communication, July 12,1983,

Jabbour, Alan, “Director’s Column, ” Folklife Cen-ter News 5(2):2-4, 1982.

Jabbour, Alan, Director, American Folklife Center,Library of Congress, personal communication,May 25, 1983.

Jenkins, Robert, The Nature Conservancy, person-al communication, May 26, 1983.

LaRiche, Jeffrey, Festival of American Folklife,Smithsonian Institution, personal communica-tion, May 24, 1983.

Mack, David, “Worldwide Trade in Wild Sea Tur-

25

26 ● Technology, Renewable Resources, and American Crafts: Background Paper

tle Products: An Update,” Marine Turtle News-letter, No. 24, March 1983. ,

Martin-Perdue, Nancy J., “Case Study. On Eaton’sTrail: A Genealogical Study of Virginia Basket-makers, ” in Traditional Craftsmanship in Ameri-ca, Charles Camp (cd.) (Washington, D. C.: Na-tional Council for the Traditional Arts, 1983), pp.79-1oo.

McBride, Bruce, Office of Endangered Species,Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Department of theInterior, personal communication, June 15, 1983.

McCann, Michael, Health Hazards Manual for Ar-tists (New York: Foundation for the Communityof Artists, 1981).

McClean, John (cd.), National Crafts Planning Proj-ect. A Report on the Project and Congress,(Washington, D. C.: National Endowment for theArts, 1981).

McIntyre, Thomas, Office of Protected Species, Na-tional Marine Fisheries Service, U.S. Departmentof Commerce, personal communication, June 16and Oct. 27, 1983.

McMahan, Linda, TRAFFIC-U S., World WildlifeFund-U. S., personal communication, July 12 andOct. 31, 1983.

Meeker, Joseph W., “The Imminent Alliance: NewConnections Among Art, Science, and Technol-ogy,” Technology and Culture 19(2):187-198,1978.

Murray Chiesa, Walter, Director de la Oficina deDesa r ro l l o Ar t e sana l , Admin i s t r a t i on deFomento Economico, San Juan, Puerto Rico, per-sonal communication, Sept. 20, 1983.

National Wildlife Federation, Conservation Direc-tory 1982, Washington, D.C.

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Paradise, John, Office of Endangered Species, Fishand Wildlife Service, U.S. Department of the In-terior, personal communication, June 15, 1983.

Paz, Octavio, “Use and Contemplation,” In Praiseof Hands (McClelland and Steward, Ltd., 1974),pp. 17-24.

Phillips, Angus, “Of Beer and Wooden Boats,” TheWashington Post, 1983.

Reeder, C., and Reeder J., Shenandoah Heritage(Washington, D. C.: Potomac Appalachian TrailClub, 1978).

Reid, Bill, Canadian artist, personal communica-tion, Sept. 25, 1982.

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Ricci, Claudia, “Homespun Madness: Crazy QuiltsNow Fetch Crazy Prices; Heirlooms and NewCreations Become Fit for a King After Bicenten-nial Revival, ” The Wall Street Journal, Oct. 11,1982, p. l(W), p. l(E).

Shabecoff, Philip, “Warrants Issued for Slayers ofEagles Over Eight States,” The New York Times,June 16, 1983, p. 8.

Shetler, Stanwyn, Botany Department, NationalMuseum of Natural History, Smithsonian Insti-tution, personal communication, May 24, 1983.

Shore, Herbert, “The Arts and the TechnologicalChallenge,” Design 83(6):31-36, September/Octo-ber 1982.

Smith, Cyril Stanley, From Art to Science. Seventy-Two Objects Illustrating the Nature of Discovery(Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 1980).

Soderstrom, Thomas, Botany Department, NationalMuseum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institu-tion, personal communication, June 17, 1983.

Southern Highlands Handicraft Guild, Crafts in theSouthern Highlands, Asheville, N. C., 1975.

Stuart, Hans, “Raids Dent Feather Market,” NewMexico Wildlife 26(4):16-19, July/August 1981.

Teske, Robert T., “what is Folk Art?” El Palacio88(4):34-38, winter 1982-83.

Teske, Robert, Folkarts Program, National Endow-ment for the Arts, personal communication, July12 and Oct. 23, 1983.

Thomas, John, Division of Law Enforcement, Fishand Wildlife Service, U.S. Department of the In-terior, personal communication, July 12, 1983.

Topper, David R., and Holloway, John H., “Inter-relationships Between the Visual Arts, Scienceand Technology: A Bibliography, ” Leonardo13:29-33, 1980.,

Toelken, Barre, “The Basket Imperative,” in PacificBasketmakers. A Living Tradition, Suzi Jones(cd.), (Fairbanks, Alaska: University of AlaskaMuseum, 1983), pp. 25-36.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Sta-tistics 1981 (Washington, D. C.: U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office, 1981), pp. 352-353.

U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and WildlifeService, “Feathers and Federal Law,” Fact Sheet,undated.

U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and WildlifeService, “Endangered and Threatened Wildlifeand Plants: Review of Plant Taxa for Listing asEndangered or Threatened Species,” Federal

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U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and WildlifeService, “FWS Agents Carry Out Five-StateInvestigation of Illegal Trade in Walrus Ivory, ”press release, Anchorage, Alaska, Feb. 5, 1981.

U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and WildlifeService, “Endangered and Threatened Wildlifeand Plants, ” 50 CFR 17.11, 17.12, Jan. 1, 1982.

U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and WildlifeService, “The U.S. Endangered Species Act, ”Fish and Wildlife Facts, FWS-F-O1O, May 1982.

U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and WildlifeService, “Marine Mammals,” Fish and WildlifeFacts, FWS-F-016, August 1982.

The Washington Post, “A New Generation inAmerican Style,” Washington Home Section, pp.10-14, 15, Nov. 11, 1982.

The Washington Post, “Crafted in Rhinebeckand Beyond, ” p, E3, June 19, 1983.

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Wilson, Jon, “The Future of Wooden Boats, ”Wooden Boat, An Appreciation of the Craft,Wooden Boat Magazine (eds.) (Reading, Mass.:Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1982), pp.307-308.

Appendixes

Appendix A

Summary of the Technology,Renewable Resources, and

American Crafts OTA Workshop,July 12, 1983

American crafts play important economic andcultural roles. The economic impact is difficult todocument, but several hundred thousand peopleare directly involved, and retail sales are known tototal about $10 million in each of several States. Forsome people, including isolated elderly workers,the unemployed, and the underemployed, craft-work provides an irreplaceable source of income.For others, it is more important culturally thaneconomically. Crafts symbolize important commu-nity values, distinguish among traditions, and in-itiate newcomers into a common heritage.

Many crafts—for example, scrimshaw, wood-working, basketry , and leatherworking—userenewable natural resources for raw materials. Thetotal amount of materials used or needed largelyis unknown, but some craftworkers increasingly ex-press concern about decreasing material availa-bility, A variety of factors affect availability: legalrestrictions, changing technology, destruction ofwild plant and animal habitat, and demand forother products.

Technology’s role usually has not been analyzed,but in some cases it is significant, Small-scalebuyers, such as craftspeople, may be unable to in-fluence technology when changes are geared to ma-jor buyers, such as new lumber processing for theconstruction industry. These technological changesmay be beneficial or detrimental to craftspeople.In either case, craftworkers such as makers ofmusical instruments and boatbuilders must choose

to substitute new materials, adapt to new tech-nology, or stop practicing their craft. Technologyhas also been important in protecting naturalpopulations. Synthetic materials are replacing ivoryin some crafts; improved marking systems allowlegitimate sources of ivory to be used; and interna-tional management systems have been developedto limit illegal traffic.

Legislative remedies have been applied to prob-lems such as these. Demand for items such as ivory,feathers, and coral is high enough to create a blackmarket and deplete natural populations. Illegal traf-fic in animal products may reach $2o million an-nually. The popularity of American crafts has othernegative aspects: craft income may be intentionallyunderreported, design theft may take place, and in-expensive foreign reproductions may be mass-produced and marketed.

A large number of areas remain for clarificationand analysis and many have relevance to public pol-icies. These include:

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

●

health hazards of craft materials;industrial/craft cooperation;potential for craft cooperatives in economic de-velopment;review of legislation;renewable resource needs of craftworkers;technologies to protect craft designs;future of technology in crafts; andimpacts of crafts in America.

31

Appendix B

Sample Plant List: Plants Used in Crafts

These trees, shrubs, and other plants are used in crafts according to published sources. No effort hasbeen made to identify or eliminate scientific synonyms or to locate all sources. (Source numbers are keyedto attached bibliography.)

Scientific name/common name Plant part(s) used Craft use Source

Abronia spp.Wild-four o’clock

Abutilon hybridumRed flowering maple

Acacia baileyanaAcacia

A. catechuCutch

Acacia spp.Acacia

Acer macrophyllumBig-leaf maple

A. palmatumJapanese maple

A. platanoidesNorway maple

A. rubrumRed maple

Acer spp.Maple

Achillea lanulosaYarrow

A. millefoliumYarrow

Actinea gaillardiaSingle-flowered actinea

A. leptocladaSeveral-flowered actinea

Adiantum pedatumMaidenhair fern

Adiantum spp.Maidenhair fern

Agave desertiiDesert agave

A. ixtliSisal hemp, henequen

Aesculus spp.Buckeye

Agaricus silvaticusMushroom

Agrimonia eupatoriaAgrimony

A. odorataFragrant agrimony

Agyrophora lyngeiLichen

Alectoria ochrileucaGreenbeard lichen

plants brown/yellow dyes

petals blue dye

pods, bark dye

wood, pods brown dye

flowers, stems yellow dye

stem, wood, bark basket warp, woof, wrap

leaves

wood

—

plants

flowers

leaves

plant

stemsstemsstems

leaves

—

—

—

plants

plants

—

blue dye

brown dye

gray/green dyes

colonial dye

yellow/brown/green

yellow/green dyes

Navajo yellow dye

Navajo yellow dye

Yurok basket weftCalif. Indian basketCalif, Indian basket

Calif. Indian baskets

ropes

basketry

dye

yellow dye

yellow dye

dye

dye

dyes

designdesign

1

4

6

6, 13

4

9

8

13

8

6

1

4

14

14

1099

9

5

5

12

13

13

8

8

33

34 ● Technology, Renewable Resources, and American Crafts: Background Paper

Scientific name/common name Plant part(s) used Craft use Source

A. sarmentosaLichen

Allium cepaOnion

Allium spp.Yellow onionRed onion

Alnus glutinosaBlack alder

A. incana var. virescensBlack alder

A. oreganaRed alder

A. rhombifoliaWhite alder

A. rubraRed alder

A. tenuifoliaAlderMountain alder

Alnus spp.Alder

Althea roseaHollyhock

Amanita muscariaAmaranths retroflexus

Redroot pigweedAmaranths spp.

PigweedAmbrosia tomentosa

PovertyweedA. trifida

Giant ragweedAmbrosia spp.

RagweedAnaphalis margaritacea

Pearly everlastingAnchusa tinctoria

AlkanetAndropogon virginicus

Broom sedgeAnemone spp.

Blue anemoneAnthemis cotula

Fetid chamomile, stinkweedA. nobilis

ChamomileA. tinctoria

Golden MargueriteAnthemis spp.Antirrhinum majus

SnapdragonArbutus menziesii

MadroneArceuthobium spp.

Mistletoe

—

skins

—skinsskinsbark

bark

roots

barkbarkroot

barktwigs, leaves, fruit——

petals

—plants

plants

plants

—

plants

—

roots

—

flowers

—

flowers

—

—flowers

bark

plants

green-yellow dye

yellow dye

yellow dyeyellow/orange dyesdyeblack and dark dyes

Navajo red dye

Yurok basket weft

Yurok basket weft dyeCalif. Indian basketsCalif. Indian baskets

Navajo brown dyebrown/yellow/green dyesdyeShasta brown dyeEuropean black and dark dyeIndian dyepurple/black/brown dyes

dyeyellow/grey dyes

green dye

green dye

brown/yellow/green

yellow/green dyes

yellow dye

red dye

dyeyellow dyeblue/green dye

gold dye

yellow dye

yellow dye

dyegreen/gold dyes

brown dye

yellow/brown dyes

dyes

6

13

644

6, 13

11

10

1099

1418567

4, 6, 8

121

4

1

1

1, 8

4

6, 13

68, 13

4

4

4, 6

6

84

4

1

App. B—Sample Plant List: Plants Listed in Crafts ● 3 5

Scientific name/common name Plant part(s) used Craft use Source

Arctium minusBurdock

Arctostaphylos alpinaA. uva-ursi

KinnikinnickArctostaphylos spp.

ManzanitaArctotis spp.

African daisyAreca catechu

CutchArgemone polyanthemos

Prickle poppyArtemisia frigida

SageA. ludoviciana

WormwoodA. tilesia

WormwoodA. tridentata

Basin sagebrushArundinaria macrosperma

CaneAsclepias speciosa

Showy milkweedA. tuberosa

Butterfly weedAsparagus officinalis

AsparagusAsperula odorata

Sweet woodruffAster porteri

White asterAster spp.

Purple asterAstragalus alpinusA triplex canescens

Saltbush

Baphia nitidaBarwood

Baptisia tinctoriaWild indigo

Berberis aquifoliumOregon grape

B. fremontiiBarberry

B. nervosaOregon grape

B. vu]garisAmerican barberry

Berberis spp.Barberry

Betula glandulosaGround birch

B. lentaSweet birch

plants yellow/brown/green dyes

— dyeplants yellow/green/brown dyesplants dyeleaves, wood brown dye

Calif. Indian black dve. awl

1

818494

6

1

1

9

8

1, 14

6

416

1

4

1

1

814

7

6

1497

9

6, 13

4

8

6

.flowers

wood, pods

green dye

brown dye

green dyeplants

yellow/green dyes

Calif. Indian baskets

leaves

stems

dye—

leaves, twigs Navajo yellow/green dyes

iyes

dyes

dye

lye

dye—

green dyeyellow/brown/greenyellow-brown dye

plantsplants—

yellow/green dyesplants

plants green/brown dyes

plants

plants

yellow dye

yellow/green/orange

dyeNavajo yellow dye

—plants

wood commercial red dye

leaves dye

Navajo yellow dyeCalif. Indian basketpurple Indian dye

root—berries

bark

d

dCalif. Indian basket

yellow/brown dyes

leaves, stems green/brown dyes

dye

brown/black dyes

36 . Technology, Renewable Resources, and American Crafts: Background Paper

Scientific name/common name plant part(s) used Craft use Source

B. luteaYellow birch

B. papyriferaPaper birch

B. pendula (B. populifolia ?)Silver Birch

Betula spp.Bixa orellana

AnnatoBoletus edulis

King boletusB, eastwoodiiB. elegansBrassica oleracea var. capitata

Purple cabbageBrickellia grandiflora

Tassel-flowerBrome]ia sylvestris

Silkgrass, pitaBryum cryophilum

MossBuddlejia davidii

Butterfly bushBulgaria inquinansCactaceae

Caesalpinia echinataBrazilwood

Calamus spp.East Indian rattan

Calceolaria angustifoliaYellow lady’s purse

Callistemon spp.Bottle-brush

Callistephus chinensisChina aster

Caltha palustrisMarsh marigold

Calluna vulgarisHeather

Calluna spp.Heather

Calycanthus occidentalsSpice-bush

Camellia japonicaCamellia

Camellia spp.Camellia

Campanula mediumCanterbury bells

C. rapunculoidesCreeping harebell

Cantharellus (?) clavatusPig ears

Canthareulus (?) cibariusC. infundiduliformis

——bark, leaves

—seeds

——leaves

stems

flowers/leaves/stems

——

wood

—

flowers

flowers, leaves

—

petals

leaves, stems

flowers, stems, bark

leavesflowersflowers

plants

——

brown/black dyes

brown/black dyesdyeyellow dye

colonial dyeyellow/orange dyes

dye

dyedyeblue dye

yellow/brown dyes

basketry

dye

green/brown dyes

dye

Papago rope, carved dolls,Indian basketry awlsred dye

basketry

yellow/orange dyes

brown dye

dye

yellow dye

dye

dye

brown dyeCalif. Indian basketsdye

dyegray dyegreen/blue dyes

brown dye

dye

dyedye

6

6813

67

12

12124

1

5

8

4

12

33, 104

5

4

4

6

6

8

6

498

644

1

12

1212

App. B—Sample Plant List: Plants Used in Crafts • 37

Scientific name/common name Plant part(s) used Craft use Source

Cardamine pratensis var. angustifoliaBittercress

Carduus nutansMusk thistle

Cartharnus tinctoriusSafflower

Carex barbaraeSlough grass

C. mendocinoensisSedge

Carex spp.Sedge

Carya tomentosaMockernut

Carya illinoensisPecan

Cassiope tetragonaArctic white heather

Castanea dentataChestnut

Castilleja integraIndian paintbrush

C. miniataIndian paintbrush

Ceanothus americanusNew Jersey tea

C. integerrimusDeer brush

Ceanothus spp.California lilac

Centaurea cyanusCornflower

C. repensKnapweed

Cercis occidentalsRedbud

Cercocarpus betulifoliusMountain mahogany

C. breviflorus var eximiusMountain mahogany

C. montanusMountain mahogany

C. parviflorusMountain mahogany

Ceropteris triangularisGoldenback fern

Cetraria cucullataCaribou lichen

C. glaucaLichen

C. nivilisCaribou lichen

C. tilesiiYellow lichen

—

flowers

flowers

root, bark

root

plants

bark

bark

—

—

flowers, plants, roots

plants

roots, leaves

stems

flowers

petals

plants

bark

root

—root, barkstems

—

dye

brown/yellow/green dyes

red/yellow dyes

Porno basket weftCalif. Indian basket woofPorno basketsCalif. Indian basket wrappinggreen/brown/yellow dyes

yellow/brown dye

yellow/brown dye

dye

dye

Navajo tan/yellow dyes

yellow/green dyes

dye

Calif. Indian basketfoundation, warp

green dye

blue dye

yellow dye

Porno basket weftwaterproof basketsCalif. Indian basket warp

woof, wrap, foundationNavaho basket weft, dye

dye

Navaho brown dyebrown dyeIndian dyeNavajo brown dyeCalif. Indian basket design

dye

yellow dye

dye

dye

8

1

7, 13

109591

6, 13

6

8

8

7, 14

1

6

9

4

6

1

1059

10

2

1417119

8

6

8

8

38 ● Technology, Renewable Resources, and American Crafts: Background Paper

Scientific name/common name Plant Part(s) used Craft use Source

Chenopodium spp.Green goosefootWhite goosefoot

Chlorogalum pomeridianumSoaproot

Chlorophora tinctoriasee Morus tinctoria

Chondrus crispusIrish moss

Chrysanthemum frutescentParis daisy

C. integrifoliumChrysanthemum

Chrysanthemum spp.Chrysanthemum

Chrysopsis villosaGolden wooly aster

Chrysosplenium alternifoliumvar. tetrandrumGolden saxifrage

Chrysothamnus bigeloviiSmall rabbitbrush

C. latisquameusBig rabbitbrush

Chrysothamnus spp.Rabbitbrush

Cichorium intybusChicory

Cinna macroura(Epicampes rigens californica?)

Cirriphyllum cirrosumCirsium arvense

Canadian thistleCladium mariscus (Carex spp. ?)

CladiumCladonia impexa

LichenClarkia spp.

GoditiaClavaria (Clauria ?) aureaClematis ligusticifolia

White clematisCleome serrulata

Rocky mountain bee plantClutia tranvancorica

CorallineConvallaria arvensis

Lily-of-the-valleyC. majalis

Lily-of-the-valleyConvolvulus arvensis

BindweedConyza canadensis

HorsetailCoprinus comatus

Shaggy maneCoreopsis auriculata

Coreopsis

plantsplantsplantsjuice

flowers

leaves, flowers

plants

—

—

flowers, twigs

flowers

plants

stems

—plants

roots

flowers

—plants

wood

leaves—plants

stems, leaves

—

—

green dyegreen dyeyellow dyeCalif. Indian baskets

dye

gold/green dyes

dye

dye

yellow dye

dye

Navajo yellow dye

Navajo yellow dye

dyeorange dyeyellow/green dyesyellow dye

Calif. Indian basket

dyebrown dye

Calif. Indian basket

pink dye

gold/gray dyes

dyeyellow/brown/green

Navajo yellow dye

orange/brown dyes

green dye

yellow dyedyegold/green dyes

green/yellow dyes

dye

orange dye

foundation

wrap

dyes

4119

8

4

8

4, 6

1

8

14

14

24

1, 71

9

81

9

13

4

121

1, 14

4

4

1381

1

12

4

App. B—Sample Plant List: Plants Used in Crafts ● 3 9

Scientific name/common name Plant part(s) used Craft use Source

C. calliopsideaCoreopsis

C. cardaminifolia

— orange dye 4

7

4

6, 8134

8

681

4

4

1210

9

6

11

14

4

6

4

1

13

13

7

1, 4

6813

8

4

6, 8, 134

red Indian dyeflowersCoreopsis

C. giganteaCoreopsis

C. tinctoria (C.Calliopsis

Coreopsis spp.Coreopsis

orange dye—

flowers—flowers, seeds

dyeyellow dyeorange/brown dyes

marmorata)

Cornicularia divergensBlackboard lichen

Corn us floridaFlowering dogwood

Coronilla variaCrownvetch

Cotoneaster spp.Cotoneaster

Cotula coronopifoliaBrass-buttons

Cortinarius spp.Corylus californica

HazelnutC. rostrata californica

HazelCotinus coggygria

Smoke treeCowania mexicana

CliffroseC. stansburiana

Cliff roseCrataegus spp.

HawthornCrocus sativus

SaffronC. vernus

Purple crocusCryptantha virgata

Miner’s candleCupressus lawsoniana

(Chamaecyparis lawsonia)Cypress

Curcuma longaTurmeric powder

Curcuma spp.Turmeric

Cuscuta spp.Dodder

Cytisus scopariusScotch broom

Cytisus spp.Dactylina ramulosa

LichenDahlia pinnatua

Yellow dahliaDahlia spp.

Dahlia

dye—

bark, root—plants

red/violet dyesdyebrown/yellow dyes

berries tan dye

gold dye

dyeYurok basket warp

——

Calif. Indian basketwoof, foundation

yellow-orange dye

stems warp,

root, stems

Navajo brown dyeleaves, stems

Navajo gold dyetwigs, leaves

flowers green/brown dyes

flowers yellow dye

flowers blue/green dyes

plants green dye

brown dyecones

yellow dye—

roots

plants

—

Asian yellow dye

yellow dye

yellow dyedyeyellow dye

dye

——

flowers

flowers

yellow/brown dyes

dyeorange dye

40 . Technology, Renewable Resources, and American Crafts: Background Paper

Scientific name/common name P l a n t p a r t ( s ) u s e d –

Dalea emoryi stems(Parosela emery?)

Daucus carota —Queen Anne’s lace

Delphinium ajacis —Larkspur

D, consolida —D. scaposum petals, stems, leaves

Wild purple larkspurDelphinium spp. flowersDescurainia sophides —

Tansy mustardDicranum elongatum —

Lamp mossDigitalis purpurea flowers

Purple foxgloveDipsacus sylvestris plants

TeaselDondia suffrutescens stems

(Sueda suffrutescens?)Sea-blight

Draba glabella flowersMustard

Dryas integrifolia flowersMountain aven

Craft use

Calif. Indian basketyellow dyedye

Source

9

6, 8

blue dye 6

dyeNavajo gray/yellow dyes

a11,14

Indian blue dyedye

78

dye 8

green dye 4

green/yellow dyes 1

Calif. Indian basket dye 9

dye

dye

8

8

Echinocactus polycephalusDevil’s pincushion

Echinochloa crusgalliWatergrass

Empetrum nigrumCrowberry

Enteromorpha spp.Sea grass

Ephedra viridisMormon tea

Epicampes rigensCalifornia grass

Epilobium angustifoliumFireweed

E. /atifoliumBroad-leaved willow

Epiphyllum spp.Red-flowered orchid cactus

Equisetum arvenseScouring rush

Equisetum spp.Horsetail

Erica spp.Heather

Erigeron speciosusShowy daisy

Eriogonum umbellaturnSulfur flower

Eriophyllum staechadifoliumSeaside woolyaster

spines

plants

berries

—

Panamint basketry needlesCalif. Indian basket awlsbrown/green dye

591

dye 8

dye 8

twigs, leaves

stems

plants

Navajo tan dyegray/brown dyesCalif. Indian basket foundation

1419

yellow/green/brown dyes 1

dye 8

red dye 4—

stems

shoots

shoots

plants

stems, flowers

flowers

yellow dye 1

dyegreen dyeyellow dyedyegreen/yellow dyes

6, 8131381

gold dye 1

gold/brown dyes 4

App. B—Sample Plant List: Plants Used in Crafts ● 4 1

Scientific name/common name Plant part(s) used Craft use Source

Erodium spp.Filaree

Eschscholtzia spp.California poppy

Eucalyptus cocciferaTasmanian snow-gum

E. globulusBlue-gum

E. leucoxylonWhite-iron bark eucalyptus

E. polyanthemosSilver dollar

Eucalyptus spp.Euphorbia esula

Leafy spurgeE. marginata

Snow-on-the-mountainE. pulcherrima

PoinsettiaEvernia prunastri

Staghorn lichenE. vulpina

Wolf moss

Fagus sylvaticaBeech

Festuca baffinensisGrass

Filipendula ulmariaMeadowsweet

Foeniculum vulgareFennel

Forestiera neomexicanaIronwood

Fraxinus americanaAsh

Fucus Spp.

Rockweed

Gaillardia aristataGaillardia

Galium borealeLady’s bedstraw

Galium spp.Bedstraw

Garrya ellipticaSilk-tassel shrub

Gaultheria shallonSalal

Gaylussacia baccataBlack huckleberry

Genista tinctoriaDyer’s broom

Geranium robertianumWild geranium

G. tiscosissimumSticky geranium

Gnaphalium spp.Cudweed

plants

—

leaves

bark, leaves, shoots

leaves, pods

—

——

plants

leaves

—

plants

—

shoots

roots

berries

—

plants

plant, root

—

fruits

berries

berries

plants

plants

plants

—

green dye

dye

gold/green dyes

green/brown dyes

orange dye

red dye

gold dyeyellow/brown dyes

yellow/brown dyes

brown dye

brown/purple dyesdyeCalif. Indian basket

dye

purple dye

black dye

yellow/brown dyes

Navajo gray dye

dye

dye

yellow dye

dye

yellow/green/brown dyesred/yellow dyesdye

gray dye

blue/green dyes

purple dye

yellow dye

yellow/brown dyes

yellow/brown dyes

yellow/green dyes

4

6

4

4

4

4

61

1

4

1389

8

8

13

4

14

8

8

1

1138

4

4

13

6134

1

4

42 ● Technology, Renewable Resources, and American Crafts: Background Paper

Scientific name/common name Plant part(s) used Craft use Source

Gomphidius glutinousGomphus fluccosusGossypium hopi

Hopi cottonGossypium spp.

CottonGrevillea robusta

Silk oakGrindelia sqarrosa

GumweedGrindelia spp.

Gum plantGutierrezia sarothrae

MatchbrushGymnogramma triangularis

(Ceropteris triangularis?)Goldenback fern

Gymnopilus junonium(Pholiota spectabilis ?)

Haematomma lapponicumPopcorn lichen

Haematoxylon campechianumLogwood

Haplopappus spinulosusSpiny goldenweed

Hedera helixIvy

Helenium hoopesiiOwl’s claw

Helenium spp.Helianthus annuus

SunflowerH. uniflora

Aspen sunflowerHelianthus spp.

SunflowerHelichrysum petiolatum

Cudweed everlastingHemerocallis spp.

Day lilyHemizonia luzulaefolia

TarweedHeracleum lanatum

Cow parsnipHeteromeles arbutifolia

Christmas berryHeuchera americana

Alum plantH. bracteata

Navajo teaH. cylindrical

Alum plantH. micrantha

Alum plantHibiscus rosa-sinensis

Hibiscus

———

flowers

leaves

plants

flowers, pods

plants

stems

—

—

wood

plants

berries

plants, flowers

—seed oilflowersflowers

seeds

leaves, flowers

flowers

plant

—

leaves, stems, berries

root

stems

root

root

—

dyedyeweaving

yellow dye

yellow/green dyes

yellow/green dyes

yellow dye

yellow/brown dyes

Calif. Indian basket

dye

dye

design

red/blue/purple/brown dyes

brown/yellow dyes

green/gray dyes

Navajo yellow dye

dyeyellow dyegreen/brown/yellowyellow/brown dyes

Hopi dye

yellow/brown/green

yellow dye

yellow/green dyes

green/yellow/brown

dyes

dyes

dyes

brown/green/black dyes

alum mordant

Navajo dye

alum mordant

Porno mordant

dye

and dye

12122

13

4

1

4

1

9

12

8

4, 6, 13

1

13

11, 14

6611

2

4

6, 13

4

1

4

4

11

4

4

8

App. B—Sample Plant List: Plants Used in Crafts • 43

Scientific name/common name Plant part(s) used Craft use Source

H. syriacusRose-of-Sharon

Hibiscus spp.Rose mallow, red hibiscus

Hierochloe odorataSweetgrass

Hyacinths orientalismBlue hyacinth

Hyacinths spp.Hyacinth

Hydrastis canadensisGoldenseal

Hygrophorus coccineumH. conicus

Parrot mushroomH. hypotheiusH. miniatusH. puniceusHymenoxys metcalfei

RubberplantHypericum calycinum

Saint-John’ s-wortH. perforatum

Klamath weedHypericum spp.

Saint-John’ s-wortHypogymnia psychodes

(Parmelia psychodes)Shield lichen

Ilex spp.Holly

Indigofera ZeptosepalaIndigo

1. tinctoriaIndigo

Inodes palmettoPalmetto

Iris germanicaPurple iris

I. pseudacorusYellow flag iris

Iris spp.Iris

Isatis tinctoriaWoad

Zva xanthifoliaMarshelder

Jug]ans cinereaButternut

J. majorWild walnut

J. nigraBlack walnut

J, regiaEnglish walnut

Jug@;u;pp.

flowers

flowers

flowers

flowers

roots

leaves/stems/flowers

flowers

shoots

plants

leaves

leaves

flowers

—

flowersleavesleaves

stems, leaves

hulls, leaves

twigs, shells, leaves

leaves, flowers

shells, twigs

blue dye

blue/green dyes

baskets

blue d)~e

blue dye

yellow Indian dye

dyedye

dyedyedyeNavajo yellow dye

orange dye

dyegold dyeyellow dye

brown dyedye

dye

blue Indian dye

dye

La. Indian baskets

blue dye

black dye

blue/purple dyesIndian basket foundationblue dye

brown/yellow dyes

brown dye

Navajo brown

Navajo brown

brown dye

Navajo brown

dye

dye

dye

4

4

10

4

4

7

1212

12121214

4

6, 8413

138

8

7

6, 13

10

4

13

49

4, 7

1

6, 7

14

4

4, 13

11

44 ● Technology, iRenewab/e Resources, and American Crafts: Background Paper

Scientific name/common name plant part(s) used Craft use Source

Juncus acutusRush

J. bahicusWiregrass

J. effususRush

J. Iesenerii (J. acutus?)Reed grassJ. mertensianus (J. acutus?)

RushJ. robustus (J. acutus?]Tule grassJ. textilis

Basket rushJuncus Spp.

Juniperus monospermaOne-sided juniper

J. occidentals

JuniperJ. virginiana

CedarKalmia latifolia

Mountain laurelKalmia spp.Kochia scoparia

Kochia

Laccaria amethystimaLactarius deliciousLactuca pulchella

Blue-flowered lettuceL. scariola

Prickly lettuceLaminaria spp.

KelpLarix spp.

Larch needlesLathyrus spp.

Sweet peaLedum decumens

Labrador teaL. greonlandicum

Labrador teaLepidium virginicum

PepperweedLepista nudaLeptospermum scoparium

New Zealand tea treeLetharia vulpina

Staghorn mossLiatris spp.

BlazingstarLigustrum vulgare

PrivetLigustrum spp.

Privet

leaves

stems, leaves

leaves

leaves

leaves

roots, leaves

leaves

leaves

needle ashesberriesroot, bark

stems, leaves—

leaves

——

———

—

—

—

flowers, stems

—

—

plants

—flowers, leaves, stemsstems—

stems

twigs, leaves, fruits

berries, leaves

Calif. Indian basket warpwoof, wrap, design

yellow/green dyesCalif. Indian basketsCalif. Indian basket warp,woofCalif, Indian basket woof

Calif. Indian basket warp,woof, wrap, foundation

Calif. basketsCalif. Indian basket designCalif. Indian basket wrap

Calif. Indian basket wrap,pattern

Navajo mordant, dye,tan dye

Calif. Indian basketwarp, woof

Navajo brown dyepurple dye

dyeyellow/gray dyesdyebrown dye

dyedyebrown/green/yellow

yellow/green dyes

dye

brown dyesdyeyellow/brown dyes

dye

dye

yellow/brown/green

dyegreen/black dyes

yellow dye

yellow/green/brown

dye

green/yellow dyes

dyes

dyes

dyes

9

199

9

9

599

9

14149

118

61381

12121

1

8

1381

8

8

1

124

4

1

6, 8, 13

4

App. B—Sample Plant List: Plants Used in Crafts ● 45

Scientific name/common name Plant part(s) used Craft use Source

Linaria vulgarisButter-and-eggs

Lobaria pulmonaria(Stroba pulmonaria)Lungwort lichen

Lobelia erinusBlue lobelia

Lonicera interruptaHoneysuckle

L. involucrataTwinberry

Lupinus arboreusYellow bush lupine

L. kingiiBlue-flowered lupine

Lupinus spp.Lupine

Lycoperdon spp.Puffball

L. caelatumLycopodium spp.Lysimachia spp.

Yellow loosestrife

Maclura pomiferaOsage orange

Mahonia aquifoliumGrape holly

Mahonia spp.Grape holly

Malus spp.Apple

Malva neglectaMallow

Malva spp.Tree mallow

Marrubium vulgareCommon horehound

Martynia frangrans

M. louisiana(M. proboscidea?)Devil’s horns

M. parvifloraDevil’s claw

M. proboscideaUnicorn plant

Martynia spp.Devil’s horn

Matthiola incanaPurple stock

Matricaria ambiguaWild chamomile

Medicago sativaAlfalfa

plants

——

flowers, stems

stems

berries

flowers

plants

flowers

——flowers

wood

root, fruit

fruit, leaves, rootsfruitbarkbarkflowers, leaves

flowers, plants

stems, leaves

—

pods

pods

pods

pods

flowers

yellow/green/brown dyes

brown dyedye

green dye

Calif. Indian basketfoundations

gray dye

yellow dye

Navajo yellow

green dye

dye

yellow/brown/green dyesdyedye

dyealum mordantyellow/brown dyes

yellow/orange dyes

yellow dyeyellow/purple dyesblue/green dyesbrown/green dyesyellow dyedyeyellow/green/brown dyes

blue/green dyes

green/brown dyes

Pima basket weftPapago basket weftCalif. Indian basket

patternblack

Papago basket weft;rare from collecting

Panamint basketsCalif. Indian basket black

patternCalif. Indian basket black

patternblue dye

dye

Navajo blue dyegreen dye

1

138

4

9

4

4

14

418

12

1241

413613411381

4

1

10109

3

59

9

4

8

111

46 ● Technology, Renewable Resources, and American Crafts: Background Paper

Scientific name/common name Plant part(s) used Craft use Source

Melandrium apetalumvar. arcticumBladder campion

Melilotus oflicinalisYellow sweetclover

Menegussia pertusaLichen

Mentha piperitaPeppermint

Mentzelia decapetalaEveningstar

Mercurialis perennisDog’s mercury

Mertensia ciliataBluebell

Monarda menthaefoliaHorsemint

Morus mesozygiaCanary wood

M. nigraBlack mulberry

M. tinctoriaor Chlorophora tinctoriaFustic

Myrica californicaWax-myrtle

M. galeBog myrtle

M. pensylvanicaBayberry

Naemato]oma fascicu]are(Hypholoma?)Sulphur tuft mushroom

Narcissus pseudo-narcissusDaffodil

Neowashingtonia filamentosa(Washingtonian filamentosa?)

Nephrona expallidumLichen

Nerium oleanderOleander

Nicotiana spp.Maroon nicotiana

Nolina microcarpaBeargrass

Nymphaea albaWater lily

N. polysepalaWater lily

Ochrolechia parella(Lecanora parella)Crawfish lichen

O. tartarea(Lecanora tartarea)Cudbear lichen

plants

—

plants

plants

plants

stems

plants

wood

berries, leaves

berries

leaves

leaves, bark, stem

flowers

leaves

flowers

flowers

seed coat

—

dye

yellow/brown dyes

yellow/pink dyes

green/brown dyes

brown dye

yellow dye

yellow/brown dyes

yellow/brown/gray dyes

yellow/orange dyes

purple/green dyes

commercial yellowimported dyeBrazil, Jamaicagray dye

yellow dye

red dye

dye

yellow/gold dyes

Calif. Indian basket wrap

dye

green dye

green dye

Papago basket warp

brown dye

Calif. Indian basketblack dye

red dye

red dyedye

8

1

13

1

1

13

1

1

4

4

6

4

13

6

12

4

9

8

4

4

3

8

9

13

138

App. B—Sample Plant List: Plants Used in Crafts . 47

Scientific name/common name Plant part(s) used Craft use Source

Ocotillo spp.Oenothera strigosa

Evening primroseOlea europaea

OliveOpuntia missouriensisO. polycantha

Prickly pearO. rubustaOpuntia spp.

OpuntiaOrthocarpus spp,

Owl’s cloverOxalis corniculata

Wood sorrelOxyria digyna

Mountain sorrelOxytropis arctobia0. maydelliana

Locoweed

Papaver nudicauleIceland poppy

P. radicatumArctic poppy

Parmelia caperataLichen

P. centrifugalLichen

P. conspersaLichen

P. disjunctaBlack sunburst lichen

P. fraudensLichen

P. fur furacerLichen

P. infumataRock lichen

P. mollusculaGround lichen

P. omphalodesLichen

P. perlataLichen

P. saxatilisLichen

P. sulcataLichen

P. saxati]isLichens

Parosela emoryiParosela

Pectis angustifoliaFetid marigold

Pedicularis arcticaWooly lousewort

. Papago basket warpyellow/brown dyes

31

4

plants

fruit, skins,leaves

fruitfruit

red/purple/green/black/yellow dyes

Navajo red dyeNavajo red dye

1113. 14

red dyeNavajo red dyeCalif. Indian basket awlyellow dye

4794

fruitspinesplants

flowers yellow/orange dyes 4

dye 8

dyedye

88—

petals, pods red/brown/yellow dyes 4

dye 8

yellow dyedyered-brown dye

1386

brown dye 8

dye 8

dye 8—

dye 13

dye 8

plants Navajo orange/tan dyes 14

brown dyered-brown dye; Harris tweeddyedye

6138

4, 13

—

—

dye 8

dye 4, 8

red-brown dyeHarris tweedCalif. Indian basket dye

6139

—

—

Hopi dye 2

8

—

dye—

48 ● Technology, Renewable Resources, and American Crafts: Background Paper

Scientific name/common name Plant part(s) used Craft use Source

P. capitataLousewort

P. lanataLousewort

Pelargonium hortorumRed geranium

Peltigera caninaDog’s tooth lichen

P. leucoplebiaLichen

Penstemon spp.Penstemon

Pertusaria coriaceaLichen

P. dactylinaLichen

Petunia spp.Petunia

Phaeolus schweinitziiPolyporus

Phaseolus vulgarisBlue kidney beanRed bean

Philadelphus gordonianusSyringa

Phoradendrom flavescensMistletoe

Phormium tenaxNew Zealand flax

Phragmites vulgarisReed

Physica caesia (PhysiaLichen

Phytolacca americanaPokeweed

Picea sitchensisLowland spruce

Pinus cembroidesPinyon pine

P. edulisPinyon pine

P. lambertinanaSugar pine

P. monophyllaOne-leaf pine

P. palustrisLong-leaf pine

P. ponderosaPonderosa pine

P. sabinianaDigger pine

Pinus spp.Pine

Pisolithus tinctorius

caesia?j

—

—

flowers, leaves

—

—

flowers

—

—

flowers

—

—

stems

—

flowers, pods

stems

—

berries

roots

pitch

pitch

root

sap

needles

root

root

needles, root

dye

dye

brown/purple dyes

yellow dye

dye

brown dye

dye

dye

green dye

dye

Hopi dyebrown dyeCalif. Indian basket warp

green dye

brown dye

Calif. Indian basket warp/woof/design

dye

red dye

Calif. Indian basket woof

black Indian dye

Hopi dyeNavajo black/gray dyesYurok basket weftCalif. Indian basket woofCalif. Indian baskets

basketry

Yurok basket weftbrown dyeCalif. Indian basket woof,

foundation, wrapCalif. Indian basket woof,

warp, wrapgreen dyeCalif. Indian basket woofdye

8

8

4

13

8

4

8

8

4

12

249

8

4

9

8

13

9

7

2141099

5

1019

9

4912

App. B—Sample Plant List: Plants Used in Crafts ● 49

Scientific name/common name Plant part(s) used Craft use Source

Pittosporum crassifoliumPittosporum

Plantago lanceolataPlantain

Plantago spp.Plantain

Pluteus cervinusPolygonum aviculare

KnotweedP. hydropiper

SmartweedPolygonum spp.

LadysthumbPolyporus sulphureus

Polypor mushroomPopulus nigra

Lombardy poplarP. tremuloides

Quaking aspenP. trichocarpa

Black cottonwoodPopulus Spp.

Cottonwood

Portulaca oleraceaPurslane

Potentilla vahlianaCinquefoil

Potentilla spp.Cinquefoil

Primula spp.Primrose

Prosopis junifloraMesquite

Prosopis spp.Mesquite

Prunella vulgarisHeal-all

Prunus americanaWild plum

P, demissa

P. melanocarpaChokecherry

P. padusEuropean bird cherry

P. persicaPeach

P. salicinaJapanese plum

P. serotinaWild cherry

P. spinosaBlackthorn

Prunus spp.Green plumRed plum

seeds blue dye

— brown dye

plants green/yellow dyes

— dyeplants yellow dye

green/brG-wn/orange dyes

4

4

1

12416

131

12

6, 13

1

9

10181

8

1

4

9

3

4

14

5

14113

6

8

6, 8

13

44

plants

plants

dycyellow dyebrown dye

dye—

leaves green dye

leaves, twigs yellow/brown/green dyes

woofCalif, Indian basketroots

branchesleaves, twigs

plants

Plains Indiansyellow/brown dyesdyebrown/gray dyes

dye—

plants yellow/green/black dyes

petals

bark

sap

flowers, stems

yellow dye

Calif. Indian basket woof

Papago pottery dye

green dye

Navajo purple dyeroots

Cascade Indian basketdecoration

Navajo brown dyeyellow/brown/orange dyespink dye

—

bark, rootstwigs, leavesbark

yellow dye—

dye—

bark, leaves red/gray/green dyes

berries pink dye

leavesfruit, leaves

green dyepurple/green dyes

50 ● Technology, Renewable Resources, and American Crafts: Background Paper

Scientific name/common name plant part(s) used Craft use Source

Pseudocymopterus montanusWild celery

Pseudotsuga mucronataRed fir

P. taxifoliaDouglas spruce

Psilostrophe tagetinaMouse-leaf

Psoralea macrostachyaLeather root

P. tenuifloraScurf pea

Pteridium aquilinumBracken fern

Pteris aquilinaBrake fern

Pterocarpus dalbergioidesPadauk

P. santalinusSanders

Pterocarpus spp.Camwood

Pterospora andromedeaPinedropPunica granatum

PomegranatePurshia tridentata

BitterbrushPyracantha angustifolia

FirethornPyrus spp.

Pear

Quercus albaWhite oak

Q. borealisRed oak

Q. gambeliiGambel’s oak

Q. lobataWhite oak

Q. pungensScrub oak galls

Q. roburEnglish oak

Q. rubraRed oak

Q. sinuosaOak

Q. velutinaBlack oak

Quercus Spp.

Ranunculus acrisButtercup

R. nivalisSnow buttercup

plant

root

roots

flowers

roots

plants

shoots

root

wood

wood

wood

plant

flowers, skins, seeds

—

bark

bark

bark

bark

bark

bark

—

bark

—

—

bark

bark

—

—

Navajo yellow dye

Calif. Indian basket woof

Calif. Indian basket woof

yellow Indian dye

Calif. Indian basketyellow dyeyellow/green dyes

dyeyellow dyeCalif, Indian basket design

red dye

commercial Asian red dye

commercial African red dye

Navajo tan dye

brown/orange dyes

yellow dye

yellow/brown dyes

yellow dye

yellow/brown dyes

yellow/brown dyes

Navajo tan dye

Calif. Indian basket dye

Navajo gold/tan dyes

yellow/brown dyes

dye

dye

yellow dyecommercial dyecolonial dye

dye

dye

14

9

9

7

9

1

6139

4

7

7

14

4

1

13

13

13

13

14

9

14

13

8

8

676

8

8

App. B—Sample Plant List: Plants Used in Crafts • 51

Scientific name/common name Plant part(s) used Craft use Source

Raphia viniferaRaffia

Raphiolepis indicaIndia-hawthorn

Raphis spp.Rattan

Reseda luteolaWeld

Rhacomitrium lanuginosumMoss

Rhamnus carolinianaBuckthorn

R. catharticBuckthorn

R. infectoriusRhamnus spp.Rhododendron lapponicum

Lapland rosebayRhododendron spp.

RhododendronRhodymenia spp.

AlgaRhus aromatica

SumacR. coriaria

Dyer’s sumacR. diversiloba

Poison oakR. glabra

SumacR. trilobata

Three-leaved sumac

R. typhinaStaghorn sumac

Rhus Spp.

Aromatic sumac

Sumac

Ribes nigrumBlack currant

Ribes spp.Currant

Roccella fuciformisLichen

R. tinctoriaLichen

Rosa spp.Wild rose

Rosmarinus officinalisRosemary

—

fruit

—

plants

bark, berries, twigs

bark, berries, twigs

berries——

leaves

—

berries

stem, sap

—

twigs, berries leaves,

—

twigs, leaves, berries

berries

berries

twigs, leaves

—

—

plants

plants

basketry

blue/purple dyes

b a s k e t r y

commercial yellow dye

dye

yellow dye

brown dye

yellow European dyedyedye

dyegreen dyedye

Calif. baskets

yellow-green dye

Calif. Indian basket warp,woof, dye, foundation

brown/slate/yellow dyes

Navaho basket warp, weftPanamint basketsHopi mordantNavajo black/brown dyesyellow/green/brown dyesCalif. Indian basket warp,

woof, foundationbrown dye

Navaho black dyeCalif. basketsbrown/yellow dyesred Indian dyedyepurple dye

brown/yellow dyes

dye

dyedyegreen/yellow/brown dyes

green dye

5

4

5

4, 7, 8

8

13

13

788

6, 848

5

13

9

6

1052

1419

13

115178

13

1

8

1381

4

52 ● Technology, Renewable Resources, and American Crafts: Background Paper

Scientific name/common name plant part(s) used Craft use Source

Rubia tinctorumMadder

Rubus vitifoliusBlackberry

R. Spp.

BlackberryRudbeckia triloba

ConeflowerRudbeckia spp.

Black-eyed Susan

Rumex crispusCurly dock

R. hymenosepalusCanaigre

Rumex obtusifoliusDock

Rumex spp.Dock

Sabal palmettoS. adansoni

Dwarf palmettoSalicornia spp.

PickleweedSalix amygdalina

Almond-leafed willowS. argophylla

WillowS. argyrophylla

WillowS. fluviatilis argyro-

phylla (S. argophylla?)S. hindsiana

Sandbar willowS. lasiandra

Yellow willowS. nigra

Black willow

S. reticulateWillow

S. sitchensisVelvet willow

S. vitellinaGolden willow, osier

Salix spp.Willow

Salsola kaliRussian thistle

roots

berries

leaves, twigs, shootsberriesroots, flowers

—flowers

leaves, stems, seeds

roots

roots

roots

—plants

plants

stems

stems

leaves, stems, bark

stems

stem, bark

stem

———twigs, leavesstems, root

plants

commercial imported red dye

Calif. Indian basket dye

dyepurple dyegreen/yellow dyesdyedyegreen dyeyellow/green dyesbrown/green/orange dyes

Hopi dyered Indian dyeNavajo brown/

yellow-orangedye

gold/green dyesdye

basketrybasketry

yellow dye

basketry

dyes

Calif. Indian basket warp

Porno basket warp

Calif. Indian basket warp

yellow dyeCalif. Indian basket warpPanamint basketsCalif. Indian basket warpPima basket weftPapago basketCalif. Indian basket woofbrown dyed y e

Calif. Indian basket warp,woof

basketry

Yurok basket warp, weftPapago basket weft (rare)Havasupai basketsyellow/green dyesCalif. Indian basket woof

warf, foundation, designgreen/brown/yellow dyes

4, 6

9

6, 134, 81386411

27

11, 14

6

48

55

4

5

9

10

9

49591039138

9

5

103519

1

App. B—Sample Plant List: Plants Used in Crafts ● 5 3

Scientific name/common name Plant part(s) used Craft use Source

S. pestiferRussian thistle

Salvia officinalisSage

Sambucus canadensisElderberry

S. mexicanaElderberry

S. nigraElder

Sam bucus spp.Elderberry

Sanguinaria canadensisBloodroot

Santolina chamaecyparissusSantolina

Saponaria officinalisSoapwort

Sassafras albidumSassafras

Saxifraga cernuaNodding saxifrage

S. hirculus var. propinquaYellow marsh saxifrage

S. oppositifoliaPurple saxifrage

S. tricuspidataPrickly saxifrage

Scabiosa atmpurpureaPincushion flower

Scirpus acutusBulrush

S. lacustrisS. lacustris occidentals

TuleS. maritimus (S. robustus?)

BulrushS. paificus

BullrushS, robustus

BulrushS. tatora

TuleScirpus spp.

Bulrush, tuleSenecio aureus

Golden ragwortS. cruentus

Florist’s cinerariaS. douglasiiS. hybridus

Florist’s cinerariaS. jacobaea

RagwortS. triangularis

Arrowleaf senecio

plant

oil

leaves, berries, bark

stems

leaves, berries, bark

bark, leaves, berriesberry, stems

roots

blossoms

bark

flowers

plants

—leaves, roots

root

stems

—

root, stem

—

petals

stems, flowers, leavespetals

flowers

—

Navajo green dyes

yellow dye

yellow/purple/gray dyes

Calif. Indian basket dye

yellow/purple/gray dyesdyeblack/green/blue dyesdyesCalif. Indian basket dyered dyered Indian dye; threatenedgreen/brown dyes

yellow/green dyes

orange-brown dye

dye

dye

dye

dye

green dye

green/brown dyes

basketryCalif. Indian basket warp,

woof, designCalif. Indian basket design

Porno basket weft (scarce)

Calif. Indian basket warp,woof, foundation

basketry

basketryCalif. Indian basketsdye

green/blue dyes

Navajo weavinggreen/blue dyes

yellow dye

green/yellow dyes

14

6

13

9

138649674

1

4, 6

8

8

8

7, 8

4

1

59

9

10

9

5

598

4

114

4

1

54 ● Technology, Renewable Resources, and American Crafts: Background Paper

Scientific name/common name Plant part(s) used Craft use Source

Sequoia sempervirensCoastal redwood

Sequoia spp.Redwood

Sisymbrium altissimumTumble mustard

Smilax californicaGreenbriar

S. pseudochinaBull-brier

Solarium spp.Nightshade

Solidago bigloviaGoldenrod

S. canadensisGoldenrod

Solidago spp.Goldenrod

roots Calif. Indian basket woof 9

bark brown dye 4

plants yellow/green/brown dyes 1

stems Calif. Indian basket design 9

— basketry

plants yellow dye

plants Navajo yellow

— yellow dye

flowers Hopi dye

5

4

dye 11

6, 13

2yellow/green dyesdyeyellow/brown/green dyes

181Sonchus oleraceous

Sow-thistleSpartium spp.

BroomSporobolus spp.

(Epicampes rigenscalifornica ?)

GrassStachys spp.

Hedg-met t leStereocaulon alpinum

LichenStropharia ambiguaSueada diffusa

(Suaeda suffrutescens?]Sea blight

S. suffrutescensSea blight

Symphoricarpos albusSnowberry

Symplocos spp.Syringa spp.

Purple lilacTagetes erecta

MarigoldsTagetes micrantha

BitterballTagetes spp.

MarigoldTanacetum vulgare

TansyTaraxacum officinaiis

Dandelion

plants

yellow dye 13

stems Calif. Indian basketfoundation

9

green dye 4—

dye 8

dyeCalif. Indian basket dye

129

—stems

plants

berries

Calif. Indian basket dye 9

yellow dye 13

mordantgreen/yellow dyes

44

—flowers, twigs

dye 6

plant

flowers

flowers

rootsplants

Navajo yellow dye 14

gold/green dyesdyeyellow dye

4, 13813

dyebrown/yellow dyesdyeyellow dye

6184Thalictrum polycarpum

Meadow rueThea sinensis

Black tealeaves dye 4

App. B—Sample Plant List: Plants Used in Crafts ● 55

Scientific name/common name Plant part(s) used Craft use Source

Thelesperma gracilisNavajo tea

T. megapotamicumT. subnudum

Navaho teaThermopsis montana

False lupineThuidium abietinum

MossTorreya californica

California nutmegTragopogon pratensis

SalsifyTricholoma rutilansTrifolium spp.

Trefoil cloverTriticum spp.

WheatTsuga canadensis

HemlockT. caroliniania

Southern hemlockT. giganta

HemlockT. heterophylla

Western hemlockTumion californicum

(Torrya californica?)California nutmeg

Typha angustifoliaCattail

T. latifoliaCattail

Ulex europaeusGorse

Umbellularia californicaCalifornia laurel

U. pustulataRock tripe lichen

Umbilicaria papulosaLichen

U. proboscideaLichen

U. velleaRock tripe

U. virginisLichen

Umbilicaria spp.Brown rock lichen

Uncaria gambirCutch

Urceolaria calareaLichen

Urtica breweriNettle

plants

plants

root

“plants

—plants

—

bark

bark

—

bark

roots

leaves

flowers

fruit

—

—

—

—

—

—

leaves, twigs

—

bark

Navajo orange dye

Hopi dyeHopi dye

yellow dye

dye

Calif. Indian basket

brown/yellow dyes

dyebrown/yellow dyes

Papago baskets

red/brown dyedyebrown dye

Indian baskets

brown dye

Calif. Indian basket

Pima basket warp

woof

woof

Papago basket warpgreen/brown dyeCalif. Indian basket warp,

woof, design

orange dye

green/brown dyes

red dye

red dye

dye

dye

dye

dye

imported brown dye

purple dye

Calif. Indian basket woof

14

22

1

8

9

1

121

3

6, 138

13

5

13

9

10319

4

4

13

8

8

8

8

4

6

8

9

56 . Technology, Renewable Resources, and American Crafts: Background Paper

Scientific name/common name Plant part(s) used Craft use Source

U. dioicaNettle

Urtica spp.Nettle, Dwarf nettle

Usnea barbataOld man’s beard lichen

U. lirtaLichen

Usnea spp.Vaccinium myrtilloides

Velvetleaf blueberryV. uliginosum

var. alpinumTundra bilberry

V. vitis-idaea var. minusLingonberry

Vaccinium spp.Blueberry

Variolaria orcinaLichen

Verbascum thapsusMullein

Verbascum spp.Mullein

Vicia benghalensisVetch

Vilfa rigensVilfa spp.

(Epicampes rigens californica?)Grass

Viola tricolorPansy

Vitis californicaWild grape

V. lambruscanaGrape

Vitis spp.Grape

Washingtonia filiferaDesert palm

Woodwardia radicans(W. spinulosa?)

Giant fernW. spinulosa

Giant chain fern

Xanthium italicumCocklebur

Xanthoria elegansRed lichen

X. parietinaYellow wall lichen

Xanthorhiza spp.Yellow root

Xerophyllum tenaxSourgrass

shoots

leavesberries

leaves

flowers

flowers

stems, roots

flowers

stems, roots

skins

leavesfruit

leaves

stem

stem

—

—

roots

leaves

dyegreen dyedye

yellow dye

purple dye

purple dye

blue dye

dye

dye

brown/green/yellow dyespurple dyepurple dye

yellow dye

yellow dye

green dye

Calif. basketsCalif. Indian basket

foundation, design

green dye

Calif. Indian basket woof,warp

blue dye

yellow dyepurple dye

Calif. Indian basket wrap

Calif. Indian basket design

Yurok basket weftCalif. Indian basket design

green/brown dyes

blue dye

yellow dyeblue dyeyellow Indian dye; threatened

Yurok basket weftCalif. Indian basket design

6138

41313

88

8

8

1138

1, 4

6

4

59

4

9

4

4139

9

1091

8

1387

105, 9

App. B—Sample Plant List: Plants Used in Crafts ● 5 7

Scientific name/common name

Yucca arborescens(Y. brevifolia?)

Tree yuccaY. arizonicaY. angustifoliaY. baccata

Wide-leaved soapweedY. brevifolia

Joshua treeY. elataY. glauca

Narrow-leaved soapweedY. mohavensis

Spanish bayonetYucca spp.

Soapweed

Plant part(s) used Craft use

roots Calif. Indian basket design

rootsroots

roots

——

leaves

——roots

Papago basket weftHopi wool soapNavajo soap

Panamint basketCalif. Indian basket designPapago basket weftNavajo soapyellow/green/brown dyeCalif. Indian basket

foundationPlains Indians basketsHopi basketsNavajo yarn soap

Source

9

3214

5931419

105

11

Zea mays — Iroquois basket warp, weft 10Corn husk Cayuses, Umatillas, Nez 5

Perces, Wascos basketsPurple Indian corn purple dye 4

Z. mays amylacea corncob Hopi dyes 2Purple corn

Zinnia elegans — dye 6, 8Zinnia

Zostera spp. — basketry 5

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7,

Bibliography

Bliss, Anne, Rocky Mountain Dye Wants(Boulder, Colo.: Johnson Publishing Co., 1976).Colton, Mary-Russell Ferrell, Hopi Dyes (Flag-staff, Ariz.: Museum of Northern Arizona Press,1965).DeWald, Terry, The Papago Indians and TheirBasketry, Tucson, Ariz., 1979.Grae, Ida, Nature’s Colors: Dyes From Plants(New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc.,1974).James, George Wharton, Indian Basketry andHow To Make Indian and Other Baskets (Glori-eta, N. Mex.: The Rio Grande Press, Inc., 1903),3d cd., 1970.Kramer, Jack, Natural Dyes. Plants and Proc-esses (New York: Charles Scribners Sons,1972).Krochmal, Arnold and Connie, The CompleteIllustrated Book of Dyes From Natural Sources[Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday & Co., Inc.,1974).

8.

9<

10.

11,

12.

13.

14.

McGrath, Judy Waldner, Dyes From Lichensand Plants (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold,1977).Merrill, Ruth E., Plants Used in Basketry by theCalifornia Indians, University of CaliforniaPublications in American Archeology and Eth-nology 20:213-242, 1923. Reprinted under sametitle (Ramona, Calif.: Acoma Books, 1970).Newman, Sandra C., Indian Basket Weaving(Flagstaff, Ariz.: Northland Press, 1974).Reichard, Gladys A., Navajo Shepherd andWeaver (New York: J. J. Augustin Publisher,1936). Reprinted (Glorieta, N. Mex,: Rio GrandePress, 1968),Rice, Miriam C., Let’s Try Mushrooms for Color[Santa Rosa, Calif.: Thresh Publications, 1974).Robertson, Seonaid M., Dyes From Plants (NewYork: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1973).Young, Stella, Navajo Native Dyes, Their Prep-aration and Use, U.S. Office of Indian Affairs,1979, reprint of Chilocco Agricultural School,No. 2, Indian Handicrafts, 1940.

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