Television, Audiences and Cultural Studies

David Morley

Routledge Taylor h Francis Croup

LONDON AND NEW YORK

- Contents

Acknowledgements Introduction

Part I Theoretical frameworks

1 Television audience research: a critical history

2 Psychoanalytic theories: texts, readers and subjects

Part I1 Class, ideology and interpretation

3 Interpreting television: the Nationwide audience

4 The 'Nationwide' Audience: a critical postscript

Part I11 Gender, domestic leisure and viewing practices

5 Research development: from 'decoding' to viewing context

6 The gendered framework of family viewing

7 From Family Television to a sociology of media consumption

Part IV Methodological issues

8 Towards an ethnography of the television audience

Part V Television, technology and consumption

9 Domestic communication: technologies and meanings (with Roger Silverstone)

10 The consumption of television as a commodity

11 Private worlds and gendered technologies

vii 1

vi Contents

Part V1 Between the private and the public 249

12 The construction of everyday life: political communication and domestic media 25 1

13 Where the global meets the local: notes from the sitting-room 270

Notes Bibliography Index

Index

Abercrombie, N. et al.: on 'dominant ideology thesis' 20,24

Abercrombie, N. and Turner, B.: on media studies 7

address: mode of 65-7.84-5, 112, 113, 206

advertising: and metaphor 209 age: as structuring factor 125 Allen, R. : Channels of Discourse 6 Althusser, L. 24, 136; on family/school

couplet 70; influence on cultural studies 7; on interpellation 62; and relative autonomy concept 55; on unconscious nature of ideology 121

Anderson, B.: on nation as 'imagined community' 267-8

Anderson, J.: on family use of time and television viewing 262; on naturalistic perspective 185-6; on rules of family viewing 184

Anderson, J. and Avery, R.: on interpretative research 36

Ang, I.: on context of viewing 184; on Dallas 208; on ethnography 27; in favour of particularization 187-8; on gender 8,15,147; on purpose of empirical study 181; on quantitative research 175, 177, 179; on ratings discourse 175; on role of researcher 31; on viewing and non-viewing 197

Ang, I. and Hermes, J. 169; on dispersion of power 25; on 'gender essentialism' 1-1

Ang, I. and Morley, D.: on context of cultural studies 2

Annan Committee on Broadcasting (1977) 257

anthropology: postmodern 189;

research into consumption 21617; see also ethnography

anti-racism: perspective on cultural studies 8

Appadurai, A. : on 'career' of technology 236; The Social Life of Things 213

Amheim, Rolf: on social consequences of television 289

audience: assumptions made about 84; characterizing relationship to television 206; and citizenship 252-4; definition of 'common sense' terms 98; discourses available to 87,92; as element of mass communications 77-8; ethnography of see ethnography; as a fiction 178; and 'generalised other' 95; granting privileged status to 180; as passive consumers 18; positioning of 84-5; process of interpretationtdecoding see decoding; sub-cultures within 87-90; see also audience research

audience research 6-7; 'hypodermic' model 273; micro- and macro- issues 275-7; and nature of texts 119; 'new revisionism' 22-6; obsolence of 277; problems of quantitative methods 174-7; questioning of 273-5; role of hindsight 2 W

Australia, cultural studies 3 autonomy: and determination 55-7;

relative 55

Baines, S.: on technological 'valences' 230

Bandura, B.: on 'acting-out' 50

Index 313

Barkin, S. and Gurevitch, M.: interpretative research 36

Barratt, Michael94, 106, 108-9 Barrington-Moore, Jr: on cultural

values 37 Barthes, R.: 'Myth today' 28; on status

of author 10; The Pleasures of the Text 122; and structuralism 33; on 'work' and 'text' 27

Bassett, G. and Wiebe, Z.: on resistant readings 39

Baudrillard, J.: on consumption 216 Bausinger, H.: on gender and viewing

behaviour 140, 160; on significance of newspapers 268; on technology and the everyday 239,277-8; on television as escape from domestic interaction 175

BBC: fostering of feeling of community in nation 255-6; view of audience as consumers 218

Bennett, T. and Woollacot, J.: on political and cultural values 8; on textual meaning 267.206

Berelson, B.: on content analysis 49 Beresford, David: on politics of 'being

there' 286 Berger, J.: on significance of space 271 Berkowitz, L.: on 'acting-out' 50 Berland, J.: on 'placelessness' 280 Bernstein, B.: educational sociology

research 55; on elaborated and restricted linguistic codes 265; and screen theory 68-9; on codes and social structures 5; on determination 56

Bernstein, R.: on education and cultural values 37

Beynon, H.: on relation of class, culture and consciousness 5

Beynon, H. and Nicholls, T.: on relation of class, culture and consciousness 5

Bhabha, J.: on nation and narration 288

bias, in media 7 Birmingham, Centre for Contemporary

Cultural Studies 75; see also Nationwide study

Blind Date 39 Blumler, J., Gurevitch, M. and Katz,

E.: on gratifications research 24 Bobo, J.: on race and gender 15-16

Boddy, W.: on marketing of new technologies 236

Bough. Frank: presentation of Nationwide 103,110

Bourdieu, P. : analysis of Berber house 222-3; on codes and social structures 5; concept of 'habitus' 19; on consumption 211,216,217; on cultural capital 70; on cultural competence 119,128; on gendered organization of household space 215, 227; on structuring of culture 12, 125; on symbolic value of television 214

Brecht, B.: on crude thinking 162 broadcasting: and rituals of national

life 261; and social organization of time 260-1

Brodie, J. and Stoneman, L.: on gender differences in viewing 153

Browne, N.: on status of text 206; on textual meaning 26-7

Brunel University, HICT research 3 W , 195,23943,275,280

Brunsdon, C.: on audience research 273; on content and meaning 21; on cultural values in television 26; on gender 15, 146, 149; on ideology and construction of texts 30; on status of text 206; on television conventions 129

Brunsdon, C. and Morley, D.: on Nationwide audience analysis 9,22; on women and workings of home as private sphere 225

Brunt, R. and Jordin, M.: on group intemews 17

Bryce, J.: on context of research 203; on family use of time and television viewing 262-5

Budd, B., Entmann, R. and Steinman, C.: on audience power 29-31

Budget, Nationwide coverage of 103, 104-6.109-11

Bulmer, M.: on relation of class, culture and consciousness 5

Bunce, Michael: on Nationwide (BBC TV) 9

Burke, K.: on language 95 Bush, C.G.: on technological

'valences' 230 Butler, J.: on construction of category

'woman' 160

314 Index

cable television 210,222 Camera Obscura: on construdon of

category 'woman' 160 Cardiff, D. and Scannell, P.: on

development of British broadcasting 255-6

Carey, J.: on senses of space and time 266,278-9

Carr, E.H.: on nature of history 179 Carragee, K.: on family-based research

40; on interpretative research 36-7; on resistant readings 38,39

cartoons, implicit social attitudes 82 CBS Home Shopping Club 215-16 censorship 237,257 Centre for Contemporary Cultural

Studies, Birmingham: analysis of Nationwide 4-5.8-9,75; English Studies Group 122n 128, 129; see d o Nationwide study

Centre for Mass Communications Research, Leicester University 51

Chambers, I.: on counter-hegemoilic foras in popular culture 273,274; criticism of structuralism 33

Chaney, D.: on ritual 264; on television as means of national participation 283-4

children: interviewing of on television viewing 159; supervision of viewing 166,241,258

Christmas broadcast by monarch 255, 256

cinema: as experience 157-8, falling attendances 164

Cipolla, C. : on history of clocks 266 citizenship: and audience membership

252-4; and cost of access to information 217-18

class: and available discourses 87; and codes 36; and consciousaess 5; and construction of audience categories 130; and gender differentiation 145; and idaology 55-7.69-70; and interpellation 63; and leisure 225; and mass culture 36, and 'meaning- systems' (ideological frameworks) 88-90; in Nationwide audience project 16, 125-6; and public-service broadcasting 219; and repertoires of discourse 70; and supervision of children's viewing 166

Clifford, J.: on ethnography as fiction 189-90

Clifford, J. and Marcus, G.: on audience research 273; on ethnography 13; ~ n ' t i & Culture 190

Cockburn. C.: on new technology reproducing gender patterns 229

codes: cultural 86-7,88,92; dominant 89,93; negotiated 89.93; appositional 89, 93; and social structures 5; see d o decoding and interpretation

Cohen, P. and Gardner, C.: on racial stemtypes 8

Cohen, P. and Robbins, D.: on youth cultures 127-8

Collet, P. and Lamb, R.: on 'modalities' of television 207-8

Color Purple, The (film) 15-16 commonsense viemint: aca~tance of

communication, vague- in 184-5 communications resuuch:

interpretative paradigm 50-1 communications technology: future of

277-9; individualizing effects 278-9 community: and geography 278-83,

288-9; and ritual 264; transformed by communications technology 280, see d o family; household

computers 201,207; gender differences in attitudes to 230,233-5,246; ownership of 218; power of software designers 32; symbolic value of 214

Connell, I.: on audiences 7; on ideology 20; on I T V and popular taste 219

Conrad, P-: on selling through television 215

consumption: anthropological research on 21617; ethnography of 183; home as unit of 224; increasing privatization of 21&11; and nature of audience 212; television as object of 210-12; of texts 211

context: domestic 13WO. see &o family; household; of film viewing 157-8; importance of I-, influence on decoding 100, 135; of television-viewing 165-8; of viewing 13%4, 184-6

Index 315

Corner, J.: on act of reading 21; on audience research 18-19; on

contextual issues 15; on ethnographic research 39-40, on media influence 20

Coronation Sfreet 150,151 Comgan, P.: on context of film

viewing 158 Comgan, P. and Willis, P.: on popular

culture 130 Counihan, M.: on content and

meaning 21; on mass wmmunications research 78-9

Cowan, R.: on women and leisure 225 Coward, R.: on relative autonomy 55 Coyne, Tom, as Nationwide presekrer

108 Crossroadr 208 Cubitt, S.: on family viewing 1 3 W cultural capital, and familylschool

wuplet 70 cultural competence 128, 129-30 cultural identity, relationship to social

relationships and technological innovation 1%

cultural imperialism 127 cultural studies: implications of 2-5;

new revisionist/interpretivist perspective 11; and publishing economics 3 4 , 6 ; relation of class, culture and consciousness 5; research methods 206,219; and semiology 24-5; and social sciences 4-5.24

cultural values: analysis of 37; and educational achievement 37-8

culture: and consumption 216-17; 'national' 21S20; youth 127-8

Curran, J. : on 'new revisionism' 22-6 Curran, J. and Gurevitch, M.: Mass

Communication and Society 25 current affairs programmes 85, 129; see

also Nationwide; Panorama

Daily Telegraph 105, 112 Dallas 150. 151,208,219; study

(Liebes and Katz) 37,38 Dayan, D. and Katz, E.: and

'diasporic ceremony' 287; on participation and 'being there' 286-7; on presentation of royal wedding 285,287

de Certeau, M.: on consumption 216,

217; on strategies of powerful and tactics of weak 29,31,275

de Gaulle, General: on television and government 285

decoding 8,27,29,29-30,5576, 85-7,767; comprehension, incomprehension dimension 136-7; dominant 89.99, 115-16, 1267; gender differences 101; and genre theory 127-30; influence of direct experience 100; and intentionality 120-1; interplay of textual and social variables 119-20; and meaning systems 126-7; mechanisms of forming discourses 90; negotiated 89,99400,112, 113, 11617,126-7; oppositional89,99, 112.11617, 1267, 134,135; pattern of 117-18; relevancelirrelevance dimension 136-7; reworking of model 126-30, as set of processes 121; and television as 'conveyor-belt' 120, 121; sec also codes

deep structures, and cultural practice 136

deregulation of television, and quality of programmes 26,218-19

Desmond, J.: on 'Home Shopping Club' 215-16

determinism, and decoding and interpretation 89-90, 118

Deutscher, I.: on definition of 'obvious' terms 98; on language %

discourse: dominant 65; educational 113-14; effectivity of 70; formation 90; methodology of analysis 97-8; polysemy of 65

dishwashers 237 Docherty, D. et al.: on viewing of films

164 Donald, J.: on nation as effect of

cultural technologies 288; on subjectivity 162

Donzelot, J.: analysis of family 257; on organization of domestic space 237; on status of family 226

Douglas, M. and Isherwood, B.: on consumption 211-12,214,216

Downing, J.: on uses and gratifications approach 52-3

Dreitzel, H.: on semiotics and codes 33 Durkheim, E.: on individualism 17,20 Dyer, R.: on decoding model 126-7;

316 Index

on deep structures and cultural practice 136

Dynasty 151,155

Eagleton, Terry: on socialist criticism 34,35

Eco, Umberto: on research methods 92

educational achievement: and 'constant TV' households 169; and orientations to time 264-5

election campaigns 286 Elliott, P. 53; on uses and

gratifications approach 52; The Making of a Television Serics 51

Ellis, J.: on determination 55-6; on national nature of television 7,267

Ellis, J. and Ang, I.: on tekvision's mode of address 206

embourgeoiscment thesis 216,224 employment, and power within family 148

encoding and decoding see decoding Ericson, S.: on audience research 273 Emi, J.: on obsolence of audience

rtsearch 277 essentialism 15-18 ethnicity, and cultural studies 3 ethnography 3941; in approach to

audiences 13-15; of consumption 183; and diversity 27; fashion for 186; and imperialism 189; narrowing of in media studies 13-15, 196; and Nationwide survey 14; politics of 177431; postmodern 1914; potential contribution to audience research 173; problems of 1&91; and 'realism' 189

Evans, W.: on audience research 18; on gratifications research 24; on 'interpretivist' tradition of audience research 29; on interpretivists 31; on 'new revisionism' 22; on appositional readings 38-9

Everyday Tekviswn: 'Nationwide' 92, 123,124,225,255

Ewige l&, Der 65-6

family: areas closed to researcher 186, assumptions about 84; demographic changes in 1434; distinguished from household 203; fragm.entation of 221; gender differences in decoding

101; idealized portrayal of 107, 115; national audience as 255-6; privatization of 221; regulatory discourses 256-60; role of television discourses 226-7; significance of multi-W ownership 254-5; state intervention in 257-8; status of 226; traditional image of 163-4,25&7; types of rules on television-viewing 142-3; see also household

Family Television project 15, 133, 134, 137,228,274,275; criticism of 161, 168; shortcomings 159

family viewing 106; nature of 76-7; need for diiect investigation of 138; regulation of 257; research project, design 143; methodology 143-4; sample design 144-5

Feher, M. and Kwinter, S.: on integration of environment and action 183

feminism: film practice 68; perspective on cultural studies 8

Ferguson, M.: on technology and timelspace differences 281

Feuer, J.: on audience research 179-80,273; on 'implied spectator* for television 162; on 'speculative method' I S 1

film theory: and feminism 68; on importance of context 15743; and position of spectator 180

FisLe, J. : on ethnography 189, Madonna study 38-9; on Nationwide audience analysis 10, 11; on non- existence of 'the television audience' 178; on 'reader's liberation move- ment' 273,274; on role of researcher 32; on 'semiotic democracy' 26-9; theory of reading 28-9

Fontaine, J.S.: on domestic and political life 225; on public and private spheres 223

Forgacs, D.: on subjectivity l34 form: and ideological meaning 123-5;

and interdiscursive connections 128 Foucault, M.: on communications and

geography 40,41; and dispersion of power 25-6; on social organization of home 258; on space and time 270, 271,272

Fowler, Trew et al.: on form and function 124

framing devices 82,84, 123 Frankfurt School, mass society thesis

45-6 Fraser, Ian, interviewed on Nationwide

103, 110 Fremlin, Celia: on news-watching as

ritual 269 Frith, S.: on ideology and reception of

texts 30; on significance of radio for family life 25-

Frow , J. : on 'Nationwide' Audience book 10-11; on role of researcher 31

functional analysis, and communications research 49

Gardener's World 84 Garmanikow, E. aqd Purvis, J.: on

public and private spheres 223,231, 280

Geertz, C.: on audience research 25; on ethnography as fiction 1924; on facts and explication 182; on 'moral hypochondria' in ethnography 191 ; on task of cultural analysis 188-9, 190; on thin and 'thick' descriptions 194

Gell, A.: on symbolic value of television 214

gender: and power 141-2; representation in soap operas 8; as structuring factor 125

gender differences: in attitudes to introduction of radio 233, 235-6; and construction of audience categories 130; and cultural competence 129; danger in making too easy an explanation 169; and differential decodings 101; discussion of 15, 16; in discussion of television 150-2; and 'gender essentialism' 160-2; and leisure 225; and monochronic/ polychronic orientations to time 264; and organization of household space 227-8; in popular culture 233; in styles of viewing 162; in technological competence 163, 227-35,267; in use of computers 230,23>5; in use of video recorders 228-9; in young people's use of technology 245-6

gender relations: and household space 223; and public and private spheres

Index 317

223; and viewing behaviour 1416, 148-9; and workings of home as private sphere 225

Generation Game, The 84 genre theory, and decoding 127-30 Gerbner, G.: on proposition analysis

98 Gershuny, J.: on mass consumption

210 Gewertz, D. and Emngton, E.: on

postmodern ethnography 192 Giddens, A.: on standardization of

time 265; on 'stnrcturation' 18, 19 Giglioli, P.: on codes and social

structures 5; on context 169; on language, class and code 56

Gillespie, M.: on seating patterns for television viewing 165; on video and cultural identity 288

Glasgow Media Group 7 Gledhill, C.: on fixing of identities 28;

on language and society 178-9; on 'negotiation' of meanings 19; on psychoanalytic and historical subject 67

Golding, P.: on consumption 216; on economic access to information 217-18; on economic reasons for television viewing 168

Goldthorpe, J. and Lockwood, D.; on embourgeoisement thesis 224; The AfPuent Worker 5

Goodman, I.: on television and family behaviour 142-3

Gramsci, A.: influence on cultural studies 7, 24; on tradition 64

gratifications see uses and gratifications model

Gray, A.: on subjectivity of researcher 190; on women and video technology 153, 187,229

Greenfield: on differences in types of media 207

Gripsrud, J.: on audience research 273; on content and meaning 21; on 'readers' rights' 29; on role of researcher 32

Groombridge, B. : on alienated situation of audience 253

Grossberg, L.: on cultural studies 12; on postmodern ethnography 192; on status of text 206; on textual meaning 27

318 Index

Gunter, B. and Svennevig, M.: on multi-tv households 254; on 'pure' viewing 176

Haddon, L.: on male attitudes to computers 233-4

Hall, S.: on cultural studies 3, 4-5,6, 7; on encoding and decoding of television 8, 12, 29,86, 211; on ethnicity and cultural studies 3; on nature of ideology 121; on negotiated codes 117; on openness of message 52; 'preferred reading' model 21; on semiotics and codes 33; on universalist concepts 60

Hall, T.: on orientations to time 263 Halloran, J.: on audience sub-cultures

54; Demonstrations and Cornmuni- cations 51; on 'filtering' by viewer 51; on television and violence 50

Hammersley, M.: on ethnography 1&7

Hammersley, M. and Atkinson, P.: on audience research 174-5

Haralovich, M.: on women in situation comedy 2 2 6 7

Hardy, P., Johnston, C. and Willemen, P.: on real and constructed readers 67,68

Hanis, N.: on relation of class, culture and consciousness 5

Hartley, J.: on audience research 273; on national role of newspapers 268; on television and construction of nation 26; on 'the television audience' as a fiction 17

Hartmann, P. and Husband, C.: on influence of media 70; on race and media 80

Harvey, D. 40; on prioritizing of time and history 270-1

Heath, S. and Sk~rrow, G.: on television 7

Hebdige, D.: on consumption 216; on cultural studies 12; on 'national culture' 219; on popular culture 8; on 'uncertainty principle' 283

hegemony 121-2; and meaning- construction 91

H e m s , J. : on importance of everyday interactions 161

Hill, J.: on interaction of text and users 87

Hirst, P.: on determination 55-6 history, role of 23 Hobson, D. : on Crossroads 208; on

gender and current affairs 129-30; on gender identities 8, 15; on television viewing by women 228

Hodges, J. and Hussain, A.: on state intervention into family life 257; on status of family 226

home: gender differences in attitudes to 146; see also family; household

homeworking, and technology 222 homology, in rhetoric of television 208 Horton, D. and Wohl, R.: on para-

social interaction 279; on television as interaction 208

household: as context of television meaning 202-3; distinguished from family 203; as unit of television consumption 215; see also family; space, household

Household Uses of Information & Communications Technology (HICT) project 28,3940, 195, 23948,275

Hoyles, M.: on act of reading 21 Hurtado, A.: on race and public and

private spheres 223 Hymes, D. : on codes and social

structures 5; on cultural competence 119; on different uses of language 96; on 'ethnography of speaking' 130

'hypodermic model', in mass communications research 45-6,48, 59,78-9,83,273

identification: failures of m; in rhetoric of television 208-9

identity, fixing of 28 ideology, influence of 20 implicit messages: methodology for

analysing 82; semiological analysis 83; see also hypodermic model

individualism, and group interviews 17-18

information gap model 218 intentionality: in encodingldecoding

model 120-1; see also decoding interdiscourse 60-1,76-7, 195; extra-

discursive 70; and interpellation 61-5 internationalization of television

219-20

interpellation: contradictory 6 3 4 ; and interdiscourse 61-5

interpretation, group 97 intertextuality 27 interviewing methods, defence of

180-1

Jameson, F.: on significance of space 271 -

Jennings and Madge: on mediated participation in Coronation (1937) 284

Jensen, K.B.: on wntextualization of research findings 176; on oppositional decodings 31; on significance of everyday experience 185

Jensen, K.B. and Rosengren, K.: on 'convergence' in audience research 25

Jewel in the Crown, The 151 Johnston, C.: on subjectivity 67-8 Jouet , J. and Toussaint, Y .: on

technology use in France 234 Jud Suss 65-6

Kantor, D. and Lehr, W.: on family use of time 262-3

Katz, E. and Lazarsfield, P.: mass society thesis 45-6,48; P e r s o ~ l Influence 48

Keddie, N . : on codes and social structures 5; on education and cultural values 37

King, A.: on patterns in leisure 224-5; on standardization of time 265

Klapper, J.: on 'reinforcement' 48 Knorr-Cetina, K.: concept of

'methodological situationalism' 188 Kramarae, C.: on definition and use of

technology 230 Kubey, T.: on use of television to

avoid negative moods 167-8 Kumar, K.J.: on family structure and

relating to television 166

Labov, W. : on codes and social structures 5

Lacan, J.: on constitution of subject 60; on interpellation 62

Laclau, E. 160; on class and ideology 69; on interpellation 62-3,64

Index 319

Laclau, E. and Mouffe, C.: Hegemony and Social Strategy 134

Lakoff and Johnson: on metaphor 209 language: and wnsciousness 121; form

and meaning 12S5; lexico- referential systems 9 3 4 ; political determinations of 94-5; and project methods 95-6,98; and society 178-9

language, class and code 55-8 Lazarsfeld, P. et al.: The People's

Choice 48 leisure: and class 225; and gender 225;

gender differences in 225; increasingly home-centred 164

Lemish, D.: 'The rules of viewing television in public places' 133

Lewis, C.A.: on radio and home life 259

Lewis. J.: on group interviews 17; on narrative in television news 209

lexico-referential systems 9 3 4 Liebes, T. and Katz, E.: Dallas study

37,38 Lindlof, T. and Meyer, T.: on

interactive technology 238-9; on signficance of interactive technology 277; on significance of domestic settings 203; on vagueness in communication 184-5

Lindlof, T. and Traudt, P.: on family viewing 140; on household space and viewing habits 165; on physical structure of home 204; on use of technology in home 227

Live Aid S 7 Lockwood, D.: on consumption 216 Lodziak, C.: on economic reasons for

television viewing 168; on effect of broadcasting on domestic time 261; on social organization of time 266

Lull, J. : cross-cultural comparisons of sense of time 262; on ethnography 13, 186; on household space and viewing habits 165; on importance of context 176; on influence of household space 204; on 'modalities' of television 207-8; on selection of television programmes 141; on television and use of time 262; on use of video rewrders 228-9

McArthur, C.: on political and cultural values 8

320 Index

McCabe, C.: on political and cultural values 8

Maclntyre, A.: on thought and action 94-5

McLuhan, M.: on differences in types of media 207; on television 7

McLuhan, M. and Fiore, Q.: on 'global village' 278

McRobbie, A.: on subjectivity of researcher 190

McRobbie, A. and Garber, J.: on girls' rejection of masculinecoded objects 234-5; on girls' sub-cultures 228; 24%

Maddox, B.: on women's use of telephone 232

Madonna, study of readings of by teenage girls 38-9

Malinowski, B. : immersionist ethnography 191

Mann, M.: on 'abstract' and 'situated' levels of consciousness 9; on relation of class, culture and consciousness 5

Marcus, G. and Fischer, M.: on anthropology as reflexive 184; on 'crisis' of ethnography 13, 189

Martin, G. : on role of popular newspapers 253

Martin-Barbero, J.: on massculture 36; on television and construction of nation 267

Marxism: and audience research 20, and mass culture 3 4 4

Mascia-Lees, F.E. et al.: on politics of postmodem ethnography 191,192

mass communications, elements of process 77-8

mass communications research: 'hypodermic model' 45-6,48,59, 78-9,83,273; normative paradigm 47-8; 'pendulum effect' 78; 'uses and gratifications' see uses and gratifications approach

mass culture 34-6 mass society: and Fascism 41-6; d e of

groups and opinion leaders 48 Massey, D. 40; on concepts of local

and global 282; on postmodem ethnography and global power relations 191-2

Mattelart, A.: on cultural imperialism 127; on empirical facts 125

Mattelart, A. and Dorfmann, A.: on Donald Duck 82

Mayer, M. : on women's use of telephone 231

Mead, G.H.: on 'generalised other' 95 meaning: and consumption 210-11;

'conveyor-belt' of 121; generated through everyday activities 185,207; negotiable 214; predefined 214

'meaning-systems' (ideological frameworks) 88-9,118; dominant 88.93; negotiated code 93; appositional code 93; radical 88-9; subordinate 88; see also codes, cultural

media studies: anthropological perspectives 173-4; difficulty of defining 194; increasing emphasis on audience interpretation 221-25 see also audience research; cultural studies

Medrich, E.: on television as background 1 6 7

Meehan, P. : Nationwide interview with 101, 102-3,107, 108-9

Merton, R.: on audience research 24-5; Mass Persuasion 4 7 4 4 9

Merton, R. and Kendall, P.: on focused interview 96-7

Merton, R. and Lazarsfeld, P. : on narcotic effect of media 252

message: 'direction' and 'closures' of 83-4,86; encoding and decoding S 7 ; polysemic nature of 83,85, 856

metaphor: in rhetoric of television 209 'methodological situationalism* concept

188 Metz, C. and Baudry, J.: on 'implied

spectator' for television 162 Meyerowitz, J.: on Live Aid 286-7; on

media and sense of place 279-80 Miller, D.: on concept of 'local' 282;

on consumption 211-12,21617 Mills, A. and Rice, P.: on quiz shows 8 Mills, C.W.: on indexical analysis of

vocabularies 93-4; language 95, % mobility 144-5 Modleski, T. : on class and gender 15,

160; on mass culture 34-5; on Nationwide study 35; on subjest- positioning and soap opera 181

Money Programme, The 105,112

Moores, S.: on broadcasting and family values 258-9; on communication and geography 41; on radio as masculinized technology 2 3 5 4 , 2 6 7

Moorhouse, H. and Chamberlain, C.: on relation of class, culture and consciousness 5

Morris, M. : on audience research 2734

M r and Mrs 84 multi-set households 201 multinationalism in broadcasting

corporations 289 Murdock, G.: on audience research

273, 274-5; on combining micro and macro issues of communications 272; on concept of 'habitus' 19-20; on cultural studies 4-5; on economic access to information 217-18; on economic reasons for television viewing 168; on mass culture 36; on openness of texts 31-2; on research methods 13; on sub-cultures 81

Nader, R.: Nationwide feature on 101-2,109

namwcasting 289 nation, as effect of cultural

technologies 288 N u ~ ~ o M I Commission on &uses and

Prevention of Violence: the Surgeon-General's Report H)

National Viewers' and Listeners' Association 258

nationalism, influence of media on 267-8

Nationwide: 'deconstructed' readings 113; influence of implicit messages 81-2; non-engagement with 114-15; perception of class bias 108; perception of political bias 105-6, 107, 111, 112, 113; perception of race bias 107, 114; seen as aimed at women 106; self-denigrating approach 81

Nationwide audience research project 2,3,8-9, 10-15,39,75-118; analysis of isolated parts of discourse 124; analytic methods 22,92-3; and class 16; contextual variations 100, 1334; interviewing groups 104, 111-17; interviewing methods 91-2,9643;

Index 321

invo~vement variations 99; language considerations 94-6; and negotiation and resistance from audience 91; re-examination of 119-30; research procedure 93-4; socio-demographic variations 99; S~~iological problems 125-6; studying maintenance of hegemony 91; topic variations 99-100; transcript interpretation 111-17; transcripts 104-11

Naumann, M.: on subject 129 Nava, M.: on 'contradictions of

consumerism' 273 Nazi propaganda 65-6 Neale, S.: on context of text 57, 86, on

determination 58; on form and function 124; on modes of address 66; on Nazi propaganda 6%

Newcomb, H. and Hirsch, P.: on producer and consumer of television 31

news and current affairs: gender differences in viewing 155-7; influence of 77,79; levels of interest in 251,254; local 157, 251

news-watching: motivation for 284-5; as ritual 79,252,2684,276; as transmission of ideological categories 276

newspapers: interpretative role 253-4; providing imaginary links to members of nation 268

Nice, R. : on sociology of culture 274

~$holls, T. and Armstrong, P.: on relation of class, culture and consciousness 5

Nightingale, V.: on ethnographic research I S 1 4

Nordenstreng, K.: mass communi- cations research in Finland 79,252, 268

Not the 9 O'clock News (BBC) 80 Nowell-Smith, G.: on Subject 68

O'Connor, A.: on cultural studies 3-4, 12

Ohmae, Kenichi: on global strategies 289

Open University, 'Popular Culture' course 8

oppasitional ('resistant') readings 38-9

322 Index

Panorama 81,82,84,106,107,251 Parker, C.: on gender differences in

decoding 101 Parkin, F.: on 'abstract' and 'situated'

levels of consciousness 99; on class and ideology 69; and contradictory interpellations 63; encoding/ decoding model 55; on 'meaning systems' and class 12; on 'meaning- systems' 88-9, 90,118,1267; model of class structure 126; on relation of class, culture and consciousness 5

participant observation: and interpretation 180, 181; potential contribution to audience research 173

passive people-meters 174 Pateman, T:: on election campaigns

286 Paterson, R.: on reordering of public - and private spheres 257; on

supervision of children's viewing 166,258; on videos and uncertified material 238

Pay-TV 211,213 Pecheux, M. 188,195; on

interdiscourse 61,64,77 'pendulum effect' in mass

communications research 78 phenomenology, influence on

interpretative research 37 Piepe, A. et al. : on group decoding 97 Police Five 157 politics: and domestic life 225, 283-7;

and 'non-political' television 9 Pollock, F.: on individualism 17-18 polysemy, in media texts 38 Pool: on telephone and privacy 238 popular culture, research into S 1 0 post-structuralism: in ethnography

191-4; and theorization of cultural studies 3 4

Poulantzas, N.: on class and ideology 69

power: and gender relations 141-2; and men's need for control 162-3; over family viewing 139, 147-8

preferred readings 65,86-7,92; of fiction 122; status of 122-3; and textual practices 123

presenters: 'direction' and 'closures' of message 84,85; influence on audience 94; response to 106-7, 108

Press, A.: on class and gender 160 Pride, J. and Holmes, J.: on codes and

social structures 5 production, as element of mass

communications 77-8 programme, as element of mass

communications 77-8 programme preferences: gender

differences in 155-7; and sense of identity 162

programme styles 8&5 proposition analysis 98 psychoanalytic theory 59-71;

universalist nature of 59-60 public-semce broadcasting, and class

219

quiz shows 8

Rabinow, P.: on 'symbolic violence' in ethnography 189

race 80; and available discourses 87; and public and private spheres 223; stereotypes of 8

radio 207; as masculinized technology 233,235-6; and organization of family life 258-60; as 'speaking clock' 267; and television viewing 260

Radway, J.: on audiences 14; on conception of ethnography in media studies 1%: on gender 15.16: and . .d

gratifications research 24;'on ' Nationwide audience analysis 11; on reading of romance fiction 141-2; on relation of media to everyday life 195, 197; Reading the Romance 10

Rakow, L.: on tech;lology and gender m 2

Rath, C.D.: on community and geography 288; on trans-border broadcasting 268

ratings, significance of 174-7 Rawlence, C.: on standardization of

time 266 reader: and discursive formations 68-9;

'ideal' 129; 'inscribed by the text' 129; role of 28-9, 130

readers, real and constructed 67 reading: applying model to television

consumption 206-7; 'preferred' 65, 86-7, 92, 121-3; social context of 118

realisms, variety of 67

Index 323

reception theory, and definition of text 17-

Reith, Lord 255,256 relative autonomy, concept of 55 remotecontrol devices: ownership of

228; power over 147,162-3; and viewer inattentiveness 174

research: doubts about validity of 190; open-ended 187; political objections to 190-1

researcher: role of 31,32-3; subjectivity of 190

revisionism, 'new', in audience research 22-6

rhetoric: addition and suppression 209; homology 208; identification 208-9; metaphor 209; using analysis of on television 208-10

Richards, I.: on variant and misreadings 12

Riley, D.: on construction of category 'woman' 160

Riley, J. and Riley, M.: on communications research 49

ritual: as mode of dramatizing community 264; news-watching as 79,252,268-9,276

Robins, K.: on communication and geography &l; on spatial restructuring 271

Robins, K. and Webster, F.: on selling through television 215

Rogge, J.U. and Jensen, K.: on effect of new technologies 281; on use of video recorders 228

romance: gender differences in viewing 155-6

romance fiction, women's reading of 128,141-2

Rosen, H. : on codes and social structures 5; on determination 56; on education and cultural values 37; on television and educational achievement 169

Rosengren, K.: on gratifications research 24

Ross, Andrew: on television 7 Rothschild, J.: on gendered use of

home computers 230 Royal Television Society, Towler's

1985 lecture to 176 Ruskin, J. : on women and home

225

Rutherford, J.: on concept of nation 288

Ryall, T. : on genres of cultural artefacts 127-30

Ryle, Gilbert: on 'thin' and 'thick' descriptions 182

Sahlins: on consumption 211 Said, E.: on 'Orientalism' 189 Sangren, E.: on 'authority' in t e a 192 satellite television 210, 241,272, 281,

287 Saussure, F. de: definition of text as

syntagm 123; on identity and difference 235; on speech act as individual 130

Scanlon, Hugh, interviewed on Nationwide 103,110

Scannell, P.: on relationship of television and radio 260; on social organization of space 255; on social organization of time 266; on television and everyday practices l77

scheduling policies 237; international 262

Schiller, H.: on economic access to information 218

Schlesinger, P.: on identity and communications 287-8

Schroder, K.: on 'convergence' in audience research 25; on decoding 30; on gratifications research 24

Schudson, M.: on audience research 273; on decoding 30; on role of researcher 32; on social context of response 3 3 4

Schutz, A.: on significance of everyday experience 185

Screen theory 60-1,61-2; critique of sociological approaches 68-9

Seiter, E.: on class and gender 160; on role of researcher 32

Seiter, E. et al.: on audience pleasure 26; critique of Modleski 181; on rationalization of time 266; on revisionism 23

semiology and cultural studies 24-5 'semiotic democracy' 2 6 9 semiotics: in analysis of Nationwide

study 75; and codes 32-3 Silverstone, R.: on application of

rhetorical analysis to television 208; on complexity of television watching

173; on cultural studies 6; on integration of environment and action in understanding wmmuni- cation 183; on news-watching as ritual 269; on television as bridge between private and public 283; on television as everyday life 197

Silverstone, R., Morley, D. et al.: on wnsumption of television 215

Skirrow, G. : on video games as masculinized technology 232-3,234

Sky Television, 'Home Shopping TV network' 216

Slack, J.D.: on context 276 Smith, Susan: on construction of news

209 soap opera 8, 154; conventions 129;

Miller on 282; providing 'past in common' 261; significance of multiple narrative 264; and subject- positioning 181

social formation and discourses 57-8 social systems approach to

communications research 49 sociology: in analysis of Nationwide

study 75; attitude to cultural studies 24; 'invisibility' of women in 228

Soja, E. 40; on distinction between natural and created space 270; on time in critical theory 270

space: effect of communications systems on 278-83; household 215, 227; and gender relations 224, gendered organization of 227-8, influence of 204, policing of 258; social significance of 27&2

Spigel, L.: on introduction of television 2367; on marketing of dishwashers 237

Spivak, G.: on postmodern ethnography 192

sport on television, discussion of 151 Stam, R.: on motivation of news-

watching 284-5 sub-cultures 81; of girls 228; within

audience 87-90 subjectivity: formation of 162;

relationship to actions and social relations 134-6; of researcher 190

subjects: distinctions between forms of subjectivity 129; histories of 64; processes constituting 60; textual and social 67-71

survey techniques, limitations of 173 symbolic interactionism: influence on

interpretative research 37

taste, popular 218-20 technology: 'appropriate' 229-32; areas

for further research 222; changes affecting television 201,204-5; and control 242-4; and 'dehumanization' 2434; ethnographic portrait of home use 2 3 9 4 ; gendering of 280; home-based uses of 222; inherited competences 247; re-wntextualizing study of television within 194; relationship to social and cultural identities 1%; women's attitudes to 163,227-35.267; and youth culture 245

telephone use 207,218; and answering makhines 238,243; and chat lines 237,241; gender differences 231-2, 280; and kin relationships 242, 244; monitoring of calls by family members 240,241-2; and privacy 238; and spatial constraints 280

teletext 143 television: as background environment

166; wmmodification of 213-16; wntextualization by market 205; decodinghnterpretation see decoding; differences in nature of watching see gender differences; viewing; discussion of 15&2; economic access to 217-18; economic considerations for viewing levels 168; and family behaviour see family; household; introduction into household 236-7; need to recognize private and public aspects of 201; and other leisure activities 139, 1-43, 156; and other media 207,260; popular wnsumption of 8; selling through 205,211,215-16,222; symbolic value of 214; as technology 204-5; and use of radio 260; see also broadcasting; viewing

texts: connection with production and consumption 86-7; wnsumption of 211; definition of and reception theory 179-80; direction and closures of 119; influence of sociologicaVstructural variables 119; 'innocent' 82; openness of 31-2, 122,

179-80; polysemy of 123; power over 31; preferred readings see readings, preferred; status of 206

textual meaning see meaning 'thin' and 'thick' descriptions of data

182,188, 194 Third Text 16 Thompson, E.P.: on standardization of

time 265 time: cultural variations in 261-5;

monochronic orientation to 263; polychronic orientation to 2634; social organization of 260-1; standardization of 265-6

Tomlinson, A.: on home as consumer unit 224; on internal fragmentation of family 221

topics, abstract and situated 99-100 Towler, R.: on complexity of viewing

176 Turkle, S.: on 'cornputer reticence' in

women 234-5; on girls' sub-cultures 245-6; on risk-taking 247

Turner, G.: on context of cultural studies 2-3; on group interviews 17; on Nationwide audience analysis 10, 11, 12, 14

United States: analytic methods 25; cultural studies 3,4,13; mass society research 6 7 ; research on television and violence 50; and 'semiotic democracy' 26

uses and gratifications approach 24.49, 51-5,80,83,85,169,206,230-1; emphasis on individual interpretation 88; and open texts 122; overestimation of 'openness' 52-3

video games 143; as masculinized technology 232-3

video recorders: gender differences in attitudes to 152-3, 187; as objects of consumption 210; ownership of 164, 201,218,228-9; and uncertified material 238; and viewer inattentiveness 174

videos: pirating of 237; planning recording of 150; pop 201

viewing: blurring of distinction from non-viewing 197; choices 141, 143; combination with other activities 1 6 9 ; wmplexity of 175-6; context of 176,1846; and conversation 149;

enforced 141,175-6; and inattentiveness 174; and orientations to time 263-5; particulatization of 187-8; planned and unplanned 149-50; 'pure' 176,207; solo 1534; style of 148-9

viewpoints, of 'ordinary person' 89,93, 94

violence and television 50 Voloshinov, V.: on availability of

discourses 100; distinction between sign and signal 854,123; and polysemy of message 83; on 'social individual' 282; on social nature of consciousness 53,130

Walkerdine, V.: on girls' rejection of masculinecoded objects 234-5

wealth creation, alternative theories of 111,117

Webster, F. and Robins, K.: on new broadcasting technology 254

Widows 150,152,154 Willemen, P.: on multinational

commodification of culture 274, 2754; on real and constructed readers 67,68; on social formation and discourses 57-8

Williams, Rayrnond: on 'community' and 'communication' 269; on local and national newspapers 2534

Williamson, J.: on mass culture 35-6 Willis, P.: on context of cultural studies

3; on education and cultural values 37; on purpose of empirical study 181

Wober, M.: on audience research 174, 175

Woolfson, C. : on individual communication 5 3 4

World in Action 251 Worpole, K . : on 'national culture' 219 Wright, P.: on role of history 23 Wright, R.: 'functional inventory' 49

Young, Filson: on broadcasting of time 267

youth culture 127-8; incorporation of new elements 201

Zaretsky, E.: on capitalism and the family 223; on domestic and political life 225

Zimmennann, J.: on new technology reproducing gender patterns 229