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Temperature Measurements in Boreholes:

An Overview of Engineering and Scientific Applications

Stephen Prensky, U.S. Geological Survey, Denver

[Originally published in 1992, The Log Analyst, v. 33, no. 3, p.313-333.]

INTRODUCTION

Temperature data obtained in boreholes serve as critical input to many fields of engineering, exploration,and research: (1) in well completions, (2) gas and fluid production engineering, (3) in the exploration forhydrocarbons and ore minerals, and (4) for testing hypotheses concerning the evolution of the Earth's crustand tectonic processes. Wireline-conveyed maximum-recording thermometers and continuous-readingthermistors are used to measure absolute temperatures, differential temperatures, and temperature gradientsat depth. Temperature logs can detect thermal anomalies produced by temperature contrasts between theborehole fluid and the formation fluid or formation (also cement behind casing). A variety of informationcan be obtained from the identification and interpretation of these anomalies. High-resolution temperature-gradient logs can be used for detailed lithologic identification and correlation, of similar quality to otherelectric and nuclear well logs. The intent of this paper is to provide a general introduction to the diverseapplications of these data.

GEOTHERMICS

Geothermics is the subdiscipline of geophysics that studies terrestrial heat flow (see Kappelmeyer andHaenel, 1974; Buntebarth, G., 1984; Haenel et al., 1988; Jessop, 1990a). Heat flow is the transfer of heatfrom the earth's interior to the surface and is the principal driver of geological processes. The major sourceof the interior heat is the decay of radioelements in the earth's crust and upper mantle: up to 70% ofcontinental heat flow may be generated within the upper 10-20 km of the crust; while 96% of the oceanicheat flow is from beneath the oceanic crust which largely devoid of radioactive elements (Kearey and Vine,1990). The distribution of heat flow is related to the tectonic history of the earth's crust, i.e., the averageheat-flow density is inversely proportional to the geologic age of a tectonic unit or of oceanic crust (Sclateret al., 1980; Condie, 1989). Within a given tectonic unit, heat-flow density patterns reflect regionaldifferences in crustal radioactivity, fault distribution, hydrogeology, and hydrothermal activity (Cermak,1983). Knowledge of the subsurface temperature field is central to understanding the origin and evolution ofsedimentary basins, oil and gas generation, deposition of ore bodies, and the occurrence of earthquakes andvolcanism (Nielsen, 1986). While geothermics is primarily concerned with heat flow, in a broad sense, itcan be considered to include all applications of subsurface (borehole) temperature data.

Heat-flow measurements in boreholes are made by combining sets of temperature and thermal-conductivitydata by the formula Q = K(dt/dz), where Q is heat flow, K is thermal conductivity, and t is temperature atdepth z.

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

Thermal conductivity, a basic physical property of rocks and fluids, varies with changes in rock

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composition. Thermal conductivity is inversely proportional to thermal gradient (see above formula). Atemperature (gradient) log in a well in thermal equilibrium shows the actual variation of geothermal gradient(i.e. thermal conductivity) with lithology (Figure 1) (Hill, 1990). Reliable values of thermal conductivity areessential to models of basin evolution and thermal maturation. "If the mean conductivity cannot beaccurately predicted, even the most sophisticated and appropriate modeling techniques...are not sufficient foraccurate temperature predictions" (Blackwell and Steele, 1989).

Thermal conductivity is normally measured in the laboratory on core, crushed samples, or well cuttingsusing one of two techniques: divided bar or needle probe (Blackwell and Spafford, 1987; Beck, 1988;Jessop, 1990a; Somerton, 1992). There is great interest in in-situ determination of thermal conductivity,either by direct or indirect methods. In particular, the ability to accurately determine thermal conductivityfrom well logs is highly desirable because of the large number of exploration wells that have been drilledand the wide availability of well-log data from these wells (Anand et al., 1973; Goss et al., 1975; Hagedorn,1985; Vacquier et al., 1988; Dove and Williams, 1989; Brigaud et al., 1989; Brigaud et al., 1990;Demongodin et al., 1991; Seto and Bharatha, 1991; Brigaud et al., 1992). Other approaches includeinversion techniques (Ponzini et al., 1989), borehole relaxation (Wilhelm, 1990), non-linear fitting (Da-Xin,1986), temperature-buildup curves (Xu and Desbrandes, 1991), thermal pulse (Silliman and Neuzil, 1990),and variation in circulation flow rate (Pascal et al., 1989), estimation from thermal gradients (Hoang, 1980;Somerton, 1992).

BOREHOLE TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT AND DATA REDUCTION

Historical Background

Jessop (1990a) presents a history of the measurement of underground temperatures. Briefly, the earliestmeasurements of underground temperatures were made during the 1700s, soon after thermometers weredeveloped, in mine shafts, tunnels, and water wells. Some of the earliest systematic measurements inboreholes were conducted between 1868 and 1883 under the auspices of a committee of the BritishAssociation for the Advancement of Science (see Jessop, 1990a). One purpose of these studies was toexamine and compile data on regional geothermal gradients. A primary impetus was "the necessity ofreducing working temperatures in mines and tunnels to within safe and comfortable limits..." (Strong, 1933).Initially, these measurements were individual readings from maximum-reading thermometers, taken atdepths up to several hundred feet.

The development of the petroleum industry during the second half of the nineteenth century made deepboreholes available for subsurface temperature measurement and the parallel development of electrical-resistance thermometers greatly improved the accuracy and precision of the measurements. It was at thistime that temperature measurement and geothermics "...assumed general economic value and wide scientificinterest" (see API, 1930; Strong, 1933). In two of the early systematic studies of borehole temperatures indeep wells, Johnson and Adams (1916) and Van Orstrand (1918) used both hand-operated maximum-reading mercury thermometers and electrical-resistance equipment. Van Orstrand (1918) discussedtemperature anomalies associated with fluid entry (gas, oil, and water) into the borehole. Schlumberger firstintroduced the temperature survey, using continous-recording logging tools, in the late 1930s. This surveyhad immediate applications in design and repair of well completions and in production engineering (Guyod,1936; Leonardon, 1936; Deussen and Guyod, 1937; Schlumberger et al., 1937). the wide-spread use oftemperature logging was boosted with publication of Guyod's (1946) series of articles discussing theory andthe various (then) current and potential uses, in a petroleum-industry trade journal.



Current Methods of Measurement

The majority of borehole temperature measurements are obtained as maximum-reading values acquiredduring logging runs or as continuous-recorded temperature surveys in wells drilled for commercial purposes(exploration and production of hydrocarbons, minerals, and geothermal energy) and water wells. Due to theconditions under which these data are obtained and the purposes for which they are used, the accuracy ofthese data are much lower than those obtained for measurement of heat flow. Time constraints imposed bythe commercial nature of these wells means that wells may be logged during, or soon after circulation ofdrilling fluids, during production flow of gas and fluids, and at high logging speeds. The effective accuracyof commercial temperature logs is ±0.5ºC (Blackwell and Spafford, 1987). These data, obtained underdynamic conditions, must then be extrapolated to static conditions. Jorden and Campbell (1984), Plisga(1987), and Hill (1990) summarize the acquisition and uses of temperature surveys and temperature loggingin the petroleum industry and Hallenburg (1984) and Jessop and Judge (1975), in mineral exploration.

Blackwell and Spafford (1987), Haenel et al. (1988), and Jessop (1990a) provide excellent reviews of thescientific measurement of heat flow, both the technology and the methodology. While various types ofwireline techniques (electrical and nonelectrical) have been used to measure borehole temperatures, ingeneral, the most accurate temperature and heat-flow data are obtained with high-resolution thermistorslowered into small-diameter, thermally stable boreholes at logging speeds of 30-50 ft/min (10-15 m/min)(Blackwell and Spafford, 1987; Beck and Balling, 1988; Blackwell and Steele, 1989). These data aregenerally recorded as continuous temperature or temperature gradient logs. Although the resolution of"research" equipment may range between 0.0001ºC and 0.001ºC, typical accuracy ranges from ± 0.02ºC to±0.05ºC (Blackwell and Spafford, 1987). The "thermal recovery" time for a borehole (Figure 2) may rangefrom a few days for a shallow (100-150 m) air-drilled hole to several months for deep mud-drilled oilwells(Blackwell and Spafford, 1987).

Data Reduction - Correction to Static Conditions

There have been many methods and algorithms proposed to extrapolate bottomhole temperature (BHT)values measured during drilling (during thermal disturbance), or soon after circulation has ceased (duringthermal relaxation), to obtain static ("true") borehole or formation temperature. Cao et al. (1988a) dividedthese methods into two general classes, (1) those that concentrate on the bottom of the borehole where theBHT value is measured, and (2) those that simulate of the evolution of the temperature of the complete mudcolumn. Because the determination of "static" bottomhole temperature is important to all applications ofborehole-temperature data, a more in-depth discussion is provided along with a complete listing of relevantcitations.

The original (and also the simplest) method to determine formation temperature and temperature gradients,is the two-point, or multiple-point average temperature gradient. A linear relationship is assumed betweenthe ambient surface temperature and BHT temperatures at other depths are determined by interpolation(Schlumberger et al., 1937). Summers (1972) and Speece et al. (1985) used regression techniques tocalculate geothermal gradients for large data sets.

Most techniques (using algorithms or time-temperature curves) treat temperature as a transient function, i.e.,they involve progressive measurements of temperature with time after cessation of circulation, to extrapolatethe temperature at static conditions (Bullard, 1947; Cooper and Jones, 1959; Lachenbruch and Brewer,1959; Jaeger, 1961; Cheremenski, 1960; Edwardson et al., 1962; Schoeppel and Gilarranz, 1966; Kehle etal., 1971; Parasnis, 1971; Oxburgh et al., 1972; Manetti, G., 1973; Middleton, 1979, 1982). The most



commonly used method is the time-sequential, Horner-type extrapolation of bottomhole temperature (BHT)data (Timko and Fertl, 1972; Dowdle and Cobb, 1974; Fertl and Wichmann, 1977; Tanaka and Sato, 1977;Leblanc et al., 1982; Drury, 1984; Sasaki, 1985, 1987; Fertl, et al., 1986; Kritikos and Kutasov, 1988; Hasanand Kabir, 1992).

Other approaches include: the transient method of borehole relaxation (Oxburgh et al., 1972; Luheshi,1983); transient methods using graphical type-curves (Barelli and Palama, 1981; Lee 1982; Dixon, 1986);least-squares inversion (Vasseur et al., 1985); empirical relationships between BHT and temperaturesobtained during shut-in (and buildup) testing (Joyner, 1975; Oxburgh and Andrew-Speed, 1981; Sekiguchi,1984; Ben Dhia, 1987; 1988; see "Geothermal Energy"); and mathematical inversion methods (see "RecentDevelopments"). Ribeiro (1987) uses an approach for correcting temperature data in water wells (bottomwell temperatures, BWT) similar to that of using BHT data in petroleum wells.

Determining the bottomhole temperature during circulation, or the temperature at points along the boreholeduring production flow, are needed for designing well completions, interpretation of production logs, and inproduction engineering. A number of methods have been proposed for estimating downhole temperaturesduring circulation (bottomhole circulating temperature, BHCT) and production (e.g., Boldizar, 1958; Lesem,1958; Moss, 1959; Edwardson et al., 1962; Ramey, 1962; Tragesser et al., 1967; Keller and Crouch, 1968,Raymond, 1969; Holmes and Swift, 1970; Keller et al., 1973; Sump and Williams, 1973; Chernayak, 1979;Shiu and Begs, 1980; Wooley, 1980, for a summary of pre-1980 developments Middleton, 1982; Beck andShen, 1985; Thompson and Burgess, 1985; Jones, 1986; Ribeiro and Hamza, 1986; Shen and Beck, 1986;see "Recent Developments").

The widespread availability of powerful computers and the routine use of digital databases makes it possibleto generate fieldwide and regional studies using BHT data. Many early studies of this type used uncorrectedBHT values (e.g., Schoeppel and Gilarranz, 1966; Harper, 1971; Summers, 1972; Grisafi et al, 1974;Carvalho and Vacquier, 1977; Staub and Treat, 1981; Reiter and Tovar, 1982; Eggleston and Reiter, 1984;Alam and Pilger, 1986). Some early studies, and most of the more recent ones apply some type ofcorrection to the BHT values to account for thermal disturbances (drilling-fluid circulation) (e.g. Evans andColeman, 1974; Evans, 1977; Carstens and Finstad, 1981; Chapman et al., 1984; Vacquier, 1984; Reiter etal., 1986; Deming and Chapman, 1987; 1988b; Willett and Chapman, 1987; Ben Dhia, 1988, 1991; Kumar,1989; Jones, et al., 1989; Lucazeau and Ben Dhia, 1989; Correia et al., 1990).

In addition to correcting measured temperature data to equilibrium conditions, it is common in heat-flowstudies, where very small variations (0.01ºC) are considered significant and accuracy is critical, to furtherreduce (correct) these data for a number of geological factors: climate, topography, uplift and erosion (seediscussion in Jessop, 1990a).

APPLICATIONS

The applications of borehole-temperature data can be grouped into two broad categories, engineering usesand scientific uses. There is a certain amount of overlap between these groups, particularly in the area ofhydrocarbon and minerals exploration.

Engineering Uses

Correction of Resistivity Logs. Electrical resistivity is a function of temperature and salinity. Well-loginterpretation requires that measurements of resistivity at surface conditions (e.g., mud characteristics Rm,



Rmf, Rmc) as well as in the borehole (Rw, Rt), be corrected to formation temperature at the depth ofinterest (this requires calculation of a geothermal gradient) (see charts Gen 6-9, Schlumberger, 1989).

Reservoir Engineering. Temperature is required for calculations of hydrocarbon recovery factors, includingpressure-volume-temperature relationships, and gas-oil ratios.

Well Completion and Production Logging. (Including the production of hydrocarbons and geothermalenergy, and in the study of groundwater and aquifer potential.)

Casing cements - Setting cement is an exothermic reaction that produces an obvious temperatureanomaly (Figure 3). Temperature data are used in designing cement slurries, for locating the top ofcasing cement, and for detecting channels in the cement (Venditto and George, 1984; Bergren andBradley, 1988; Jutten and Morriss, 1990; Tilghman et al., 1990; Pilkington, 1992).

Completion design. Temperature data are required for assessing drilling-mud composition; thestability of tubulars (drillpipe, casing, tubing) to avoid buckling due to thermal stress; design ofpackers, wellhead, and production equipment; deposition of waxes in tubing; design of drill bits(Wooley, 1980).

Fluid flow. Liquids entering the wellbore have warmer temperatures than the borehole fluids whilethose entering the formation will have cooler temperatures (Figure 4). Gas entering the wellbore coolsby expansion while gas injected into the formation heats by compression (Joule-Thompson effect)(Figure 5). Temperature anomalies are used for identifying the depth of fluid and gas entry or exit,detection of casing leaks and intervals of lost circulation, locating underground blowouts and sourcesof gas kicks, and for volumetric determinations of this flow for purposes of production and injection(Plisga, 1987; McKinley, 1989; Hill, 1990).

Evaluation of fractures. Zones of natural fractures can be identified and induced fractures can beevaluated (both pre- and post-fracture treatments) using temperature anomalies produced by thecontrast in temperature between injected fluid and formation fluids (Figure 6) (Anderson, 1989; Hill,1990). Acid treatments are also used to stimulate fluid production; the reactions of the acid with theformation rock produces an exothermic reaction which in generates thermal anomalies. Evaluation ofacid treatments is made by examination of these anomalies.

Fluid injection. Temperature anomalies of the type mentioned above, are used to identify permeable(fractured) zones for injection of water and steam and in the monitoring flood sweep efficiency(Wood and Dunham, 1986; Fialka et al., 1990).

Waste disposal - Anomalies present on temperature surveys can be used to trace injection progressduring fluid-waste disposal and for assessing mechanical integrity of wells (Jarrell and Lyle, 1987;see also "Hydrology", below).

Scientific Uses

Stratigraphic Correlation. As mentioned earlier, changes in thermal conductivity (thermal gradient) maycorrespond to lithologic variations and an accurate temperature-gradient log (T-log) may be used forstratigraphic correlation in some areas (Figure 7) (Deussen and Guyod, 1937; Judge and Beck, 1973; Beck,1976; Conaway and Beck, 1977; Reiter et al., 1980). Below the water table, precision temperature logs can



often provide more detailed and accurate lithologic information than natural gamma-ray logs in sandstonesand limestones that contain significant amounts of shale since temperature logs are not affected by thepresence of radioactive (K-U-Th) minerals (Blackwell and Spafford, 1987). In general, thermal resistivityhas a negative correlation with electrical resistivity (Figure 7), except for coal units. The T-log is useful foridentifying coals, especially when other high-resistivity formations are present (Beck, 1976; Kayal, 1981;Kayal and Christoffel, 1982).

Basin Analysis and Modeling.

Basin hydrodynamics. Thermally driven groundwater circulation (together with thermal conductivity)exerts the major influence on the temperatures within a sedimentary basin during its evolution(Blackwell et al., 1983; Smith and Chapman, 1983; Chapman, 1987; Bethke et al., 1988; Blackwelland Steele, 1989; Jessop, 1989; Majorowicz, 1989; Chapman et al., 1991). Modeling hasdemonstrated the existence of thermally driven fluid circulation in many basins (recent examplesinclude Bachu, 1985; Hitchon et al., 1986; Jones and Majorowicz, 1987; Kukkonen, 1988; Beck et al.,1989; Vugrinovich, 1989; Willett and Chapman, 1989; Ben Dhia, 1991). Basin hydrodynamics areintimately related to migration and deposition of hydrocarbon deposits (Hitchon, 1984; Hermanrud,1986; Roberts, 1986; Toth, 1988; Davis, 1991), ore minerals (Roberts, 1986; Hitchon et al., 1987;Sharp and Kyle, 1988; Bethke and Marshak, 1990), and geothermal-energy potential (see"Geothermal Energy").

Modeling thermal maturation of organic matter. Increases in temperature and pressure with burial arethe determining factors in the maturation of organic matter (kerogen) and the subsequent generationof hydrocarbons (Tissot et al., 1971; Lopatin, 1971; Waples, 1984; Tissot et al., 1987; Wood, 1988;Barker, 1989b). Lerche (1990a, 1990b) discusses the different methods used to assess thermal historyand thermal maturity. Determination of thermal maturity and the paleoheat flux of basins can provideimportant insights into the timing of petroleum generation, migration, accumulation, and preservation(Nuccio and Barker, 1990). Consequently, an understanding of the history of a basin, especially thethermal history (paleogeothermics) results in an improved model for use in exploration for oil andnatural gas (Burrus, 1986; Stegna, 1988; Barker, 1989a; McCullough and Naeser, 1989; Deming etal., 1989).

Detection of Zones of Overpressuring. Sharp breaks in the thermal gradient occur at the top ofoverpressured reservoirs. The increased water content contained in overpressured shales (due toundercompaction and/or clay diagenesis) results in this increase in geothermal gradient. The resulting "dog-leg" in the geothermal gradient may serve as a predictor of overpressuring (Lewis and Rose, 1970; George,1970; Jones, 1975; Pilkington, 1988). A similar "dog-leg" in paleotemperature (vitrinite reflectance) profilesmay reflect paleopore pressure (Law, et al., 1989). Fertl and Leach (1990) conclude that in Gulf CoastTertiary rocks, the highest concentrations of hydrocarbons are found near the top of overpressuring.Temperature logs may thus serve as an exploration tool.

Exploration for Energy Minerals

Petroleum and coal. Early efforts to apply borehole temperature and temperature logs to hydrocarbonexploration centered on the potential for using thermal anomalies for identifying petroleum depositsand structural traps (e.g., Anonymous, 1930; Carlson, 1930; DeGolyer, 1918; Thom, 1925; VanOrstrand, 1926, 1941; Heald, 1930) and for distinguishing hydrocarbon-bearing intervals from waterzones (Guyod, 1946). Although there is a difference in thermal conductivity of oil compared to other



fluids and rock, these efforts were largely unsuccessful because the overall thermal conductivity ofreservoir rocks was little affected by the slight differences in thermal properties of hydrocarbons andwater (Hill, 1990).

More recently, improved understanding of the strong dependence of thermal maturation/petroleumgeneration on temperature has led to renewed interest in using thermal data in the exploration forhydrocarbons, in particular, the recognition that thermal gradients can be used to identify prospectiveareas for oil and gas exploration. Temperature and heat-flow data can identify lateral and verticalthermal anomalies which may be associated with zones of enhanced maturation and oil accumulations(Gretener, 1981; Roberts, 1981; Ball, 1982; Hitchon, 1984; McConnell, 1985; Myer and McGee,1985; Blackwell, 1986; Jones et al., 1986; Majorowicz et al., 1988; McGee et al., 1989; Anderson andWilliams, 1990; Swift et al., 1990).

Hydrodynamic analysis can be used to test geological structures to see if they can serve ashydrocarbon traps (Davis, 1991). A local source of heat that results in an enhanced heat flow, e.g.,volcanic rocks or magmatic intrusion (Summer and Verosub, 1989), or resulting from a sharp contrastin thermal conductivity, e.g., salt domes (Selig and Wallick, 1966; O'Brien and Lerche, 1984, 1988),can provide an enhanced environment for hydrocarbon maturation. Kayal (1981), Kayal andChristoffel (1982), and Mwenifumbo (1989) have discussed the use of temperatures logs in theexploration for coal seams and for evaluation of coal quality.

Permafrost and gas hydrates. To protect exploration, production, and engineering projects againstproblems of ground instability that are related to thawing and refreezing of permafrost, it is necessaryto know the thickness of and temperature distribution within permafrost (Lachenbruch et al., 1982;Collett et al., 1989). This information is also needed for correction of seismic velocities, developingregional groundwater models; and the identification and evaluation of gas hydrates (Hnatiuk andRandall, 1977; Collett and Bird, 1988). Temperature logs run in time-lapse sequence (as the boreholefluid approaches thermal stabilization), provide the best estimate of permafrost thickness, i.e., depth to0°C (permafrost base) (Hnatiuk and Randall, 1977; Taylor and Judge, 1981). Scott et al. (1985)review the use of wireline logs for identifying and interpreting permafrost. The presence of frozenmethane raises the melting point and extends the influence of frozen ground downward (Jessop,1990a). Jones et al. (1989) and Majorowicz et al. (1990) discuss the applications of statistical BHTstudies for studying permafrost and subpermafrost heat flow.

Gas hydrates (more precisely called clathrates) are a solid form of methane trapped in a crystallineframework of ice. Gas hydrates represent a significant potential hydrocarbon resource, in factestimates of hydrate reserves are twice as great as the combined fossil energy resource (Trofimuk etal., 1984; Collett and Kvenvolden, 1989; Sloan, 1990, 1991; Appenzeller, 1991; Collett, 1992). Thespecific conditions of temperature and pressure under which hydrates form are common in (1)northern latitudes and Arctic areas beneath zones of permafrost, and (2) just below the ocean flooralong continental margins (Kvenvolden and Cooper, 1987; Kvenvolden and Grantz, 1990; Sloan,1990). In addition to thermal conductivity, contrasts in other physical properties between ice(permafrost) and hydrates permits identification by other types of well logs (Collett et al., 1988;1989).

Exploration for Ore Minerals. Hydrodynamic circulation of thermal fluids is the primary factor in thegenesis and deposition of many stratabound, vein, and skarn-type ore- (metallic) minerals (Roberts, 1986;Garven, 1986; Sverjansky, 1987; Sharp and Kyle, 1988; Bethke and Marshak, 1990). There has been



increasing interest in incorporating hydrodynamics into a total basin-analysis approach to gain a betterunderstanding of the genesis and distribution of ore-mineral deposits (Force et al., 1991; Klein, 1991).Temperature data are used for detecting thermal anomalies that may be related to ore bodies by thefollowing mechanisms: heat refraction resulting from the contrast in thermal conductivities between ore andsurrounding rock (e.g. sphalerite deposits); local contrasts in heat generation resulting from radioactiveelements in the ore or ore zone; local contrasts in heat generation resulting from the oxidation of sulphides;recent intrusion of volcanics with which the ore is associated; movement of water along ore-associatedfracture zones (Guyod, 1946; Jessop and Judge, 1975; Houseman et al., 1989; Mwenifumbo, 1991).

Hydrology/Hydrogeology

Groundwater. As mentioned previously, temperature logs are used to detect and measure fluid flow.Most published work in this field is related to detection of regional aquifer flow (discussed aboveunder "Basin Hydrodynamics"); intra-well flow (see "Production Logging"); the detection of fracturezones; and planning for, or detection of the injection of fluid wastes (Drury et al., 1984; Williams etal., 1984; Jessop, 1987; Berner, 1987; Conaway, 1988; Drury, 1989; Jessop, 1990; Keys, 1990).

Geothermal energy. Work in this field is centered around exploration and reservoir assessment. Inaddition, the high-temperature conditions have required development of special logging tools andcables (Lysne et al., 1990). Exploration for geothermal reservoirs involves identification of thermalanomalies (Wright et al., 1985; Mongelli and Haenel, 1988; Rybach, 1989; Gosnold, 1991). A recenttrend has been to employ BHT data from oilwells in reconnaissance surveys (Jones et al., 1985; Lamand Jones, 1986).

The most important measurements for geothermal reservoir assessment are formation temperature andthermal conductivity as well as identification of fractures (Murphy and Lawton, 1977; Fertl, andOverton, 1982; Drury, 1989). These values can be used for estimating thermal gradient, heat content,and production capacity (Mathews, 1982). Estimates of static formation temperature are made usingborehole temperature buildup data (Roux et al., 1980; Brennand, 1984; Hermanrud et al., 1991),Horner plots (after Dowdle and Cobb, 1975), or relatively new nuclear logging techniques (Ross etal., 1982).

Mining and Civil Engineering. Included under this heading are construction in permafrost regions(discussed above), storage of heat-producing wastes, and design of technical installations in mines (Delisle,1988). Thermal anomalies resulting from fluid flow have been used to detect leaks in pipelines and in dams(Kappelmeyer and Haenel, 1974).

Paleoclimatology. Temperature changes at the earth's surface propagate downwards to depths that dependon the magnitude and duration of the temperature disturbance at the surface. Temperature disturbances(anomalies and inversions) may serve as indicators both of past climates and the amount of surfacetemperature change (Lane, 1923; Strong, 1933; Birch, 1948; Crain, 1968; Cermak, 1971, 1976, 1977; Beck,1982; Shen and Beck, 1983; Lachenbruch and Marshall, 1986; Harrison, 1991). Seasonal changes mayaffect only the upper 20 m, climate changes since the end of the Pleistocene may affect the upper 500 m,and the glacial effect from the Pleistocene may affect the upper 1000-2000 m (Jessop, 1990a).

As mentioned earlier, temperature data, especially in shallow boreholes, must be corrected for thesedisturbances in order to obtain accurate measurements of heat flow (Beck, 1977; Vasseur and Lucazeau,1983; Clauser, 1984). The rapid warming in the years 1880-1940 produced a temperature inversion in



thermal gradient at depths of 50-100 m in many parts of North America and Australia (Jessop, 1990a).

Study of the Earth's Evolution. While it is generally accepted that plate motions are due to mantleconvection (Condie, 1989; Kearey and Vine, 1990), the occurrence of mantle upwelling unrelated to plateboundaries (mantle plumes and "hot spots") has led to an ongoing debate on whether the plates "drive"themselves by subsidence and subduction or are passively transported by mantle convection. Thermal data(temperature and conductivity) provide a means for calibrating empirical and theoretical geological andgeophysical models of the crust (Williams and Anderson, 1990). Such models are used in the examinationof plate tectonics, crustal studies, magma emplacement, and structural geology. As discussed above,regional thermal studies may have direct application in that they may serve to identify the location ofmining belts (Sawkins, 1990) and areas of thermal maturity and hydrocarbon potential.

The following references represent a brief selection of recent papers that provide an introduction to thermalapplications in crustal studies: Sclater et al., 1980; Chapman and Rybach, 1985; Uyeda, 1988; Pollack andSass, 1988; Bristow, 1989; Morgan and Gosnold, 1989; De Rito et al., 1989; Gallagher, 1990; Jessop,1990a; Blackwell, et al., 1991. The number of individual papers is far too numerous to cite, however,frequent sources of such papers are the journals Geophysics, Geothermics, Journal of Geodynamics, Journalof Geophysical Research, and Tectonophysics. These journals frequently publish the proceedings ofsymposia on heat flow (e.g., Jessop, 1977; Beck, 1985; Rybach, 1985; Uyeda et al., 1989; Cermak et al.,1989; Cermak and Sass, 1991).

In addition to regional and basin studies, boreholes drilled for scientific research are serving as foci forthermal studies designed to further our understanding of basic processes contributing to crustal evolution(Williams and Anderson, 1990). Recent projects of significance include the Cajon Pass well (Lachenbruch,and Sass, 1988, 1992; Williams et al., 1988; Sass et al., 1992), Salton Sea drilling project (Sass et al., 1988;Newmark, et al., 1988), KTB program (Burkhardt et al., 1989), Toa Baja (Anderson and Larue, 1991), andDSDP/ODP boreholes (most sites involve measurements of heat flow, e.g., Hyndman et al., 1984; Gable etal., 1989; Nobes et al., 1991; Shipboard Scientific Party, 1992).

RECENT ADVANCES IN BOREHOLE GEOTHERMICS

Static Formation Temperature

Beck and Balling (1988) discuss and compare the methods current to 1988. Most of the methods citedabove in the section on "Data Reduction," use "forward" modeling, i.e., temperature values are obtained bythe forward (in time) calculation of given parameter values and the subsequent adjustment of theseparameters to fit the observed data (Cao et al., 1988a). The most recent trend involves the application ofmathematical inversion techniques (generally based on finite-element models) to determine static ("true")formation temperature. Inversion techniques work backwards from the observed data to infer values of theinput parameters (Cao et al., 1988a, 1988b; Deming and Chapman, 1988a, 1988b; Deming, 1989;Hermanrud and Shen, 1989, Hermanrud et al., 1990; Lerche, 1990b, Nielsen et al., 1990; McPherson andChapman, 1991). Both Hermanrud et al. (1990) and Nielsen et al. (1990) conclude that in comparison withother techniques, their inversion methods yield temperatures that are (1) higher than those obtained by theHorner-type extrapolation, and (2) that are more consistent with temperatures obtained during DST andproduction tests.

Borehole Temperatures for Well Completions and in Flowing Wells



New methods and algorithms have been developed for improved determination of BHCT, temperaturesduring flow, and formation temperatures from shut-in temperature buildup. BHCT is crucial to variouscementing practices during well completion, e.g., design of cement slurries (Kutasov et al., 1988; Tilghmanet al., 1990; Kabinoff et al., 1992). Information on wellbore heat loss and dynamic temperature profiles(taken during fluid flow or injection) is important to production engineering. A number of papers in therecent literature have proposed new methods to obtain these data (e.g., flow-rate pulses, Pascal et al., 1989),refinements to existing methods (e.g., shut-in temperature buildup, Carslon and Barnette, 1988; drillstemtests, Hermanrud et al., 1991), or new mathematical models for determining wellbore heat loss and fluidtemperatures (Kutasov, 1989; Sagar et al., 1989; Seyer and Landen, 1990; Hasan and Kabir, 1991a, 1991b).

Application of Computer BHT Databases

Large digital databases of BHT data, originally compiled under the sponsorship of AAPG (Kehle et al.,1971), permit analysis of data from thousands of wells for the evaluation of the thermal regimes ofsedimentary basins. The statistics of using large databases helps to reduce the inaccuracies that are inherentin individual BHT values (see review by Bachu et al., 1987). This effort was led by a Canadian groupinvestigating the hydrodynamics and energy potential of the western Canada basin (Majorowicz and Jessop,1981; Lam and Jones, 1982; Lam and Jones; 1984a, 1984b; Majorowicz et al., 1984; Jones et al., 1985;Lam et al., 1985; Majorowicz et al., 1985; Lam and Jones, 1986; Majorowicz et al., 1986). Similartechniques have been applied by others in other regions (Speece et al., 1985; Bodner and Sharp, 1987;Hitchon et al., 1987; Majorowicz et al., 1988; Pfeiffer and Sharp, 1989; Jones, 1991).

In-situ Measurement of Thermal Conductivity (see above, "Thermal Conductivity")

Paleoclimatology

There has been renewed interest in the use of subsurface temperature data to infer climate changes, e.g., theAmerican Geophysical Union devoted full technical sessions to this topic at its 1989 and 1990 fall meetings(Jessop, 1990b; Pollack and Clow, 1990). Recent papers use both linear regression (Gosnold and Bauer,1991) and inversion techniques (Mongelli and Zito, 1988; Hall and Thomas-Betts, 1989; Nielsen and Beck,1989) for extracting information on paleoclimate from temperature logs (see above, "Paleoclimatology").

Changes in Sea Level

Anomalies in shallow temperature gradients are used to identify changes in shoreline position, i.e.,uplift/sea-level change, in Arctic regions (Taylor, 1991).

SUMMARY

Temperatures obtained in boreholes, either as single values from maximum-reading instruments or ascontinuous temperature surveys or logs, are essential to many areas of engineering and scientific research.These include: commercial applications e.g., exploration for, and production of, energy and ore minerals;research on tectonic processes associated with evolution of basins and crustal studies; and studies on climatechange. The identification and interpretation of temperature anomalies in the thermal gradient is used toidentify (1) fluid flow (in, or around, a borehole and also on a basin scale), (2) exothermic reactions (settingcement, mineral oxidation), (3) zones of enhanced thermal maturation of organic material and potentialaccumulations of hydrocarbons or coal, (4) changes in surface temperature with time. Measurement ofcrustal heat flow is used to map regional and worldwide variations that are in turn used for developing



models of crustal evolution.

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About the AuthorAbout the Author

StephenStephen PrenskyPrensky is a research geologist with the U.S. Geological Survey, Branch of Petroleum Geology,Denver, Colorado. He has been with the USGS since 1975, working as well-log specialist in reservoircharacterization. Previous experience includes exploration and production geology with Texaco's OffshoreDivision. He holds a B.A. and M.S. in geology from SUNY Binghamton, and the University of Southern California.Stephen has been a member of SPWLA since 1978, and is currently serving on the Board of Directors as Vice-President of Publications. His "Bibliography of Well-Log Applications," has been published annually in The LogAnalyst since 1987. Stephen is also a member of AAPG, MGLS, SCA, and SPE.

Figure Captions

1. Precision temperature-gradient log (T-log) showing the correlation with lithology (from Conaway and Beck,1977. Copyright by SEG, reprinted by permission).

2. Schematic of borehole temperature profile showing changes with time after cessation of circulation as theborehole approaches thermal equilibrium (borehole relaxation phase) (from Jorden and Campbell, 1984.Copyright by SPE, reprinted by permission).

3. Effect of cement behind casing on temperature gradient and location of the top of cement (Plisga, 1997.Copyright by SPE, reprinted by permission).



4. Temperature behavior in injection and production wells (from Hill, 1990. Copyright by SPE, reprinted bypermission).

5. Thermal (cool) anomaly on temperature log caused by gas entry into a wellbore (Hill, 1990, modified fromMcKinley, 1982. Copyright by SPE, reprinted by permission).

6. Height of induced fractures indicated by thermal (cool) anomaly on temperature log (Hill, 1990; modifiedfrom Agnew, 1966. Copyright by SPE, reprinted by permission).

7. Correlation and comparison of T-logs to other geophysical logs (from Reiter et al., 1980. Copyright by SEG,reprinted by permission).

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