tenses present simple usage - vajiravudh · present simple vs present continuous present simple...

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Tenses Present simple: We use the present simple to talk about actions we see as long term or permanent. It is a very common and very important tense. Usage Talk about regular actions or events. They drive to the office every day. She doesn't come here very often. The news usually starts at 6.00 every evening. Do you usually have bacon and eggs for breakfast? Talk about facts. We have two children. Water freezes at 0° C or 32° F. What does this expression mean? The Thames flows through London. Talk about future facts, usually found in a timetable or a chart. Christmas Day falls on a Monday this year. The plane leaves at 5.00 tomorrow morning. Ramadan doesn't start for another 3 weeks. Does the class begin at 10 or 11 this week? Talk about thoughts and feelings at the time of speaking. Although these feelings can be short-term, we use the present simple and not the present continuous. They don't ever agree with us. I think you are right. She doesn't want you to do it. Do you understand what I am trying to say. Present continuous: The present continuous is used to talk about present situations which we see as short-term or temporary. We use the present simple to talk about present situations which we see as long-term or permanent. Usage The action is taking place at the time of speaking. It's raining. Who is Kate talking to on the phone? Look, somebody is trying to steal that man's wallet. I'm not looking. My eyes are closed tightly. The action is true at the present time but we don't think it will be true in the long term. I'm looking for a new apartment. He's thinking about leaving his job. They're considering making an appeal against the judgment. Are you getting enough sleep? The action is at a definite point in the future and it has already been arranged. I'm meeting her at 6.30. They aren't arriving until Tuesday. We are having a special dinner at a top restaurant for all the senior managers. Isn't he coming to the dinner?

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Page 1: Tenses Present simple Usage - Vajiravudh · Present simple VS Present continuous Present Simple Present Continuous 1. Regular actions or events : -He plays tennis most weekends. 2

Tenses Present simple: We use the present simple to talk about actions we see as long term or permanent. It is a very common and very important tense. Usage Talk about regular actions or events.

They drive to the office every day. She doesn't come here very often. The news usually starts at 6.00 every evening. Do you usually have bacon and eggs for breakfast?

Talk about facts. We have two children. Water freezes at 0° C or 32° F. What does this expression mean? The Thames flows through London.

Talk about future facts, usually found in a timetable or a chart.

Christmas Day falls on a Monday this year. The plane leaves at 5.00 tomorrow morning. Ramadan doesn't start for another 3 weeks. Does the class begin at 10 or 11 this week?

Talk about thoughts and feelings at the time of speaking. Although these feelings can be short-term, we use the present simple and not the present continuous.

They don't ever agree with us. I think you are right. She doesn't want you to do it. Do you understand what I am trying to say.

Present continuous: The present continuous is used to talk about present situations which we see as short-term or temporary. We use the present simple to talk about present situations which we see as long-term or permanent. Usage The action is taking place at the time of speaking.

It's raining. Who is Kate talking to on the phone? Look, somebody is trying to steal that man's wallet. I'm not looking. My eyes are closed tightly.

The action is true at the present time but we don't think it will be true in the long term.

I'm looking for a new apartment. He's thinking about leaving his job. They're considering making an appeal against the judgment. Are you getting enough sleep?

The action is at a definite point in the future and it has already been arranged.

I'm meeting her at 6.30. They aren't arriving until Tuesday. We are having a special dinner at a top restaurant for all the senior managers. Isn't he coming to the dinner?

Page 2: Tenses Present simple Usage - Vajiravudh · Present simple VS Present continuous Present Simple Present Continuous 1. Regular actions or events : -He plays tennis most weekends. 2

Present simple VS Present continuous Present Simple Present Continuous

1. Regular actions or events : -He plays tennis most weekends. 2. Facts :- The sun rises in the east. 3. Facts known about the future : -We leave at 8.30 next Monday 4. Thoughts and feelings about the time of speaking :- I don't feel very well.

1. The time of speaking ('now') :- Shh, I'm trying to hear what they are saying . 2. Things which are true at the moment but not always :- We're looking for a new flat. 3. Present plans for the future :- We're having dinner with them next week .

Look at these examples :

I don't usually have cereals for breakfast but I'm having some this morning because there is nothing else. I often cycle to work but I'm taking the car this morning because it's raining very hard. I'm thinking about having my hair cut short but I don't think my husband will be very happy about it. My parents live in Washington but I'm just visiting.

Note how, in all these examples, we use the present continuous to talk about events which are temporary/limited in time and the present simple to talk about events which are habits/permanent. Past simple : We use the past simple to talk about actions and states which we see as completed in the past. Usage Talk about a specific point in time.

She came back last Friday. I saw her in the street. They didn't agree to the deal.

Talk about a period of time. She lived in Tokyo for seven years. They were in London from Monday to Thursday of last week. When I was living in New York, I went to all the art exhibitions I could.

With time expressions such as these: Yesterday, three weeks ago, last year, in 2002 , from March to June, for a long time, for 6 weeks, in the 1980s, in the last century, in the past

Page 3: Tenses Present simple Usage - Vajiravudh · Present simple VS Present continuous Present Simple Present Continuous 1. Regular actions or events : -He plays tennis most weekends. 2

Past continuous : We use the past simple to talk about actions and states which we see as completed in the past. Usage Talk about a specific point in time. Talk about past events which went on for a period of time.

To emphasize the continuing process of an activity or the period of that activity. (If we just want to talk about the past event as a simple fact, we use the past simple.)

While I was driving home, Peter was trying desperately to contact me. Were you expecting any visitors? Sorry, were you sleeping? I was just making some coffee. I was thinking about him last night. In the 1990s few people were using mobile phones.

Describe a "background action" when something else happened.

I was walking in the street when I suddenly fell over. She was talking to me on the phone and it suddenly went dead. They were still waiting for the plane when I spoke to them. The company was declining rapidly before he took charge. We were just talking about it before you arrived. I was making a presentation in front of 500 people when the microphone stopped working.

Past simple VS Past continuous : Both the past simple and the past continuous refer to completed actions in the past. Most of the time when talking about such actions, we use the past simple. This is by far the most common way of talking about the past.

I lived there for 6 years. I only found out a few moments ago. I asked her but she didn't know anything. The company made 100 people redundant last year.

Only use the past continuous when you want to emphasize the continuity of the action.

Everybody was talking about it all evening. They were really trying hard but couldn't do it. I was thinking about you the other day. Were you expecting that to happen?

When we use these two forms in the same sentence, we use the past continuous to talk about the "background action" and the past simple to talk about the shorter completed action.

It was raining hard when we left the building. I was reading the report when you rang. He was going out to lunch when I saw him. The company was doing well when I last visited it.

Page 4: Tenses Present simple Usage - Vajiravudh · Present simple VS Present continuous Present Simple Present Continuous 1. Regular actions or events : -He plays tennis most weekends. 2

Irregular verbs All new verbs in English are regular. I photocopied the report.

She faxed it to me. They emailed everybody about it. I googled my name and got more than 20,000 responses.

Irregular verbs are divided into 4 categories. 1. All forms the same

set set set cost cost cost

2. Similar sound groups beat beat beaten eat ate eaten blow blew blown throw threw thrown drink drank drunk sing sang sung speak spoke spoken wake woke woken

3. The second and third forms are the same.

bend bent bent sleep slept slept spend spent spent bring brought brought buy bought bought teach taught taught have had had pay paid paid say said said

4. The "unclassifiables" come came come do did done go went gone show showed show

Present perfect : Please note that British and American English have different rules for the use of this tense. The explanation and exercises here refer to British English. In American English, it is often acceptable to use the past simple in some of these examples. We use the present perfect when we want to look back from the present to the past. Usage To look back on the recent past. I've broken my watch so I don't know

what time it is. They have cancelled the meeting. She's taken my copy. I don't have one. The sales team has doubled its turnover.

When looking back on the recent past, we often use the words 'just' 'already' or the word 'yet' (in negatives and questions only).

We've already talked about that. She hasn't arrived yet. I've just done it. They've already met. They don't know yet. Have you spoken to him yet? Have they got back to you yet?

Page 5: Tenses Present simple Usage - Vajiravudh · Present simple VS Present continuous Present Simple Present Continuous 1. Regular actions or events : -He plays tennis most weekends. 2

To look back on the more distant past. We've been to Singapore a lot over the last few years. She's done this type of project many times before. We've mentioned it to them on several occasions over the last six months. They've often talked about it in the past.

When looking back on the more distant past, we often use the words 'ever' (in questions) and 'never'.

Have you ever been to Argentina? Has he ever talked to you about the problem? I've never met Jim and Sally. We've never considered investing in Mexico.

Present perfect continuous : To talk about an action or actions that started in the past and continued until recently or that continue into the future: Usage To refer to an action that has finished but you can still see evidence.

Oh, the kitchen is a mess. Who has been cooking? You look tired. Have you been sleeping properly? I've got a a stiff neck. I've been working too long on computer.

To refer to an action that has not finished. I've been learning Spanish for 20 years and I still don't know very much. I've been waiting for him for 30 minutes and he still hasn't arrived. He's been telling me about it for days. I wish he would stop.

To refer to a series of actions. She's been writing to her regularly for a couple of years. He's been phoning me all week for an answer. The university has been sending students here for over twenty years to do work experience.

It is often used with 'since', 'for', 'all week', 'for days', 'lately', 'recently', 'over the last few months'.

I've been wanting to do that for ten years. You haven't been getting good results over the last few months. They haven't been working all week. They're on strike He hasn't been talking to me for weeks. We've been working hard on it for ages. I've been looking at other options recently. He's been working here since 2001.

Page 6: Tenses Present simple Usage - Vajiravudh · Present simple VS Present continuous Present Simple Present Continuous 1. Regular actions or events : -He plays tennis most weekends. 2

Present perfect simple VS Present perfect continuous Often there is very little difference between the present perfect simple and the present perfect continuous. In many cases, both are equally acceptable.

They've been working here for a long time but Andy has worked here for even longer. I've lived here for 10 years and she has been living here for 12 years.

To emphasize the action, we use the continuous form.

We've been working really hard for a couple of months. She's been having a hard time.

To emphasize the result of the action, we use the simple form.

I've made fifteen phone calls this morning. He's written a very good report.

Look at the difference in these examples. I've been reading this book for two months but I've only read half of it. It's very difficult to read. She's been trying to convince him for 20 minutes but she hasn't managed to yet. They've been talking about this for month and they still haven't found a solution.

When an action is finished and you can see the results, use the continuous form.

The phone bill is enormous. You've been calling your boyfriend in Australia, haven't you? You're red in the face. Have you been running?

When you use the words 'ever' or 'never', use the simple form.

I don't know them. I've never met them. Have you ever heard anything so strange in your life.

Remember that British and American English have different rules for the use of the present perfect. In American English, it is often considered acceptable to use the past simple in some of these examples.

The past simple is used to talk about actions in the past that have finished. It talks about 'then' and definitely excludes 'now'.

The present perfect simple to look back on actions in the past from the present. It always includes 'now'.

Past Simple Present Perfect Simple

Without connection to the present. :- I first got to know him 10 years ago. :- I started work here in 1989. :- I had too much to eat at lunchtime.

Situations seen from the present. :- I've known him for 10 years. :- I've worked here since 1987. :- My stomach hurts. I've eaten too much.

With time expressions like 'yesterday', 'ago', 'last year', 'in 1999'. :- We spoke to him yesterday. :- He came in a few moments ago. :- We made our last purchase from them over a year ago. :- She joined the company in 1999.

With time expressions like are 'ever', 'never', 'since’. :- I've never seen so many people here before. :- Have you ever been more surprised? :- I've done a lot since we last talked about it.

Page 7: Tenses Present simple Usage - Vajiravudh · Present simple VS Present continuous Present Simple Present Continuous 1. Regular actions or events : -He plays tennis most weekends. 2

Typical time expressions used with the present perfect in British English but often used with the past simple in American English are 'already', 'just', 'yet'.

I haven't done it yet. (UK) I didn't do it yet. (US) I've just done it. (UK) I just did it. (US) I've already done it. (UK) I already did it. (US)

We can use the time phrase 'for' with both forms, but with different meanings.

I lived in Paris for a couple of years before I moved here. I've lived in Paris for a couple of years and still love it.

Past perfect Usage To talk about what happened before a point in the past. It looks back from a point in the past to further in the past.

I hadn't known the bad news when I spoke to him. I checked with the supplier and they still hadn't received the contract. She had already told him before I got a chance to give him my version. The company has started the year well but was badly hit by the postal strike.

To be used when we report what people had said/thought/believed.

He told me they had already paid the bill. He said he believed that John had moved to Italy. I thought we had already decided on a name for this product.

Past perfect continuous Usage To look back at a situation in progress. It was a good time to invest. Inflation had

been falling for several months. Before I changed jobs, I had been working on a plan to reduce production costs. We had been thinking about buying a new house but then we decided to stay here.

To say what had been happening before something else happened.

It had been snowing for a while before we left. We had been playing tennis for only a few minutes when it started raining. He was out of breath when he arrived because he had been running.

When reporting things said in the past. She said she had been trying to call me all day. They said they had been shopping. I told you I had been looking for some new clothes.

Page 8: Tenses Present simple Usage - Vajiravudh · Present simple VS Present continuous Present Simple Present Continuous 1. Regular actions or events : -He plays tennis most weekends. 2

Past tense review Past Simple Past Continuous Present Perfect Present Perfect

Continuous Past Perfect

Simple Past Perfect Continuous

To talk about actions and states which we see as completed in the past. :-I left school when I was sixteen. :- I was very happy then. :- He told me all about his childhood.

To talk about past events which went on for a period of time. :- While I was driving home, Peter was trying desperately to contact me. :- I was thinking about him last night. :- I was walking in the street when I suddenly fell over.

To look back from the present to the past. :- I've broken my watch so I don't know what time it is. :- She hasn't arrived yet. :- We've been to Singapore a lot over the last few years. :- Have you ever been to Argentina?

To talk about an action or actions that started in the past and continued until recently or that continue into the future. :- You look tired. Have you been sleeping properly? :- I've been waiting for him for 30 minutes and he still hasn't arrived. :- He's been phoning me all week for an answer.

To talk about what happened before a point in the past. It looks back from a point in the past to further in the past. :- I hadn't known the bad news when I spoke to him. :- I thought we had already decided on a name for this product.

To look back at a situation in progress. :- We had been thinking about buying a new house but then we decided to stay here. :- It had been snowing for a while before we left. :- She said she had been trying to call me all day.

Page 9: Tenses Present simple Usage - Vajiravudh · Present simple VS Present continuous Present Simple Present Continuous 1. Regular actions or events : -He plays tennis most weekends. 2

Going to : There are 4 future forms. The one which is used most often in spoken English is 'going to', not 'will'. Usage of “Going to” To talk about a plan for the future. Notice that this plan does not have to be for the near future.

I'm going to see him later today. They're going to launch it next month. We're going to have lunch first. She's going to see what she can do. I'm not going to talk for very long. When I retire I'm going to go back to Barbados to live. In ten years time, I'm going to be boss of my own successful company.

To make a prediction based on evidence we can see now.

Look out! That cup is going to fall off. Look at those black clouds. It's going to rain soon. These figures are really bad. We're going to make a loss. You look very tired. You're going to need to stop soon.

We can replace 'going to go' by 'going'.

I'm going out later. She's going to the exhibition tomorrow.

Will - future :

Some people have been taught that 'will' is 'the future' in English. This is not correct. Sometimes when we talk about the future we cannot use 'will'. Sometimes when we use 'will' we are not talking about the future. We can use 'will' to talk about future events we believe to be certain.

The sun will rise over there tomorrow morning. Next year, I'll be 50. That plane will be late. It always is. There won't be any snow. I'm certain. It's too warm.

Often we add 'perhaps', 'maybe', 'probably', 'possibly' to make the belief less certain.

I'll probably come back later. He'll possibly find out when he sees Jenny. Maybe it will be OK. Perhaps we'll meet again some day.

We often use 'will' with 'I think' or 'I hope'. I think I'll go to bed now. I think she'll do well in the job. I hope you'll enjoy your stay. I hope you won't make too much noise.

We use 'will' at the moment we make a new decision or plan. The thought has just come into our head.

Bye. I'll phone you when I get there. I'll answer that. I'll go. I won't tell him. I promise.

Other uses of “Will” 'Will' is clearly referring to the future.

If I speak to her, I'll tell her about it. I'll probably visit Sue when I go to Oxford. Next birthday she'll be 32. Or so she says.

Page 10: Tenses Present simple Usage - Vajiravudh · Present simple VS Present continuous Present Simple Present Continuous 1. Regular actions or events : -He plays tennis most weekends. 2

'Will' is referring to events happening at the present.

The car won't start. If that's the phone, I'll get it. Will you have another cup of coffee?

'Will' referring to the present, the idea being expressed is usually one of 'showing willingness' or 'will power'.

My baby won't stop crying. I've tried everything and I'm really exhausted. I am the boss. You will do as I say. I need quiet to write this but he will keep on talking to me. I wish he would leave me alone.

'Will' for requests, orders, invitations and offers.

Will you give me a hand? Will you please take a seat? Will you have some cake? I'll help you.

'Will' to make promises or threats. I'll do it at once. I'll phone him back immediately. I won't forget this. I'll get my own back some day.

'Will' for habit. A cat will always find a warm place to sleep. My car won't go any faster than this.

'Will' for deduction. I expect he'll want us to get on with it. The phone's ringing. That will be Mark.

Shall: We don't use 'Shall' very frequently in modern English, particularly in American English. It is used to make offers and suggestions and to ask for advice.

What time shall we meet? Shall we vote on it now? What dress shall I wear? Shall I open the window?

You only really need to know that about 'shall' in modern English. Read the rest

of this only if you want to know more about how some older speakers still use 'shall'. Formerly, in older grammar, 'shall' was used as an alternative to 'will' with 'I' and 'we'. Today, 'will' is normally used. When we do use 'shall', it has an idea of a more personal, subjective future.

I shall go to see the boss and I shall ask him to explain this decision. Notice that the negative of 'shall' can be 'shall not' or 'shan't' – though the second one is now very rare in American English.

I don't like these people and I shall not go to their party. I shan't object if you go without me.

Page 11: Tenses Present simple Usage - Vajiravudh · Present simple VS Present continuous Present Simple Present Continuous 1. Regular actions or events : -He plays tennis most weekends. 2

Going to VS Will Going to Will

If you are making a future prediction based on evidence in the present situation, use 'going to'. :- Not a cloud in the sky. It's going to be another warm day. :- Look at the queue. We're not going to get in for hours. :- The traffic is terrible. We're going to miss our flight. :- Be careful! You're going to spill your coffee.

When we want to talk about future facts or things we believe to be true about the future, we use 'will'. :- The President will serve for four years. :- The boss won't be very happy. :- I'm sure you'll like her. :- I'm certain he'll do a good job. If we are not so certain about the future, we use 'will' with expressions such as 'probably', 'possibly', 'I think', 'I hope'. :- I hope you'll visit me in my home one day. :- She'll probably be a great success. :- I'll possibly come but I may not get back in time. :- I think we'll get on well.

At the moment of making a decision, use 'will'. Once you have made the decision, talk about it using 'going to'.

I'll call Jenny to let her know. Sarah, I need Jenny's number. I'm going to call her about the meeting. I'll come and have a drink with you but I must let Harry know. Harry, I'm going to have a drink with Simon.

Present forms for the future We use the present continuous to talk about things that we have already arranged to do in the future.

I've got my ticket. I'm leaving on Thursday. I'm seeing Julie at 5 and then I'm having dinner with Simon. He's picking me up at the airport. The company is giving everyone a bonus for Christmas.

In many situations when we talk about future plans we can use either the present continuous or the 'going to' future. However, when we use the present continuous, there is more of a suggestion that an arrangement has already been made.

I'm going to see him./I'm seeing him. I'm going to do it./I'm doing it.

We use the present simple to talk about events in the future which are 'timetabled'. We can also use the present continuous to talk about these.

My plane leaves at 6 in the morning. The shop opens at 9.30. The sun rises a minute earlier tomorrow. My plane is leaving at 8.30. The shop is closing at 7.00. The sun is rising at 6.32 tomorrow.

Page 12: Tenses Present simple Usage - Vajiravudh · Present simple VS Present continuous Present Simple Present Continuous 1. Regular actions or events : -He plays tennis most weekends. 2

The imperative To give a direct order. Take that chewing gum out of your

mouth. Stand up straight. Give me the details.

To give instructions. Open your book. Take two tablets every evening. Take a left and then a right.

To make an invitation. Come in and sit down. Make yourself at home. Please start without me. I'll be there shortly. Have a piece of this cake. It's delicious.

On signs and notices. Push. Do not use. Insert one dollar.

To give friendly informal advice. Speak to him. Tell him how you feel. Have a quiet word with her about it. Don't go. Stay at home and rest up. Get some sleep and recover.

Make the imperative 'more polite' by adding 'do'.

Do be quiet. Do come. Do sit down.

The Passive To say what happens to people and things, to say what is done to them.

English is spoken here. The car is being repaired.

When we don't know who did the action. The car was damaged while it was parked on the street. The shirts were made in Turkey.

When what was done is more important than who did it.

It was approved by Gerry last week. I was informed by the Human Resources Manager only two days ago.

The -ing form The –ing form can be used like a noun, like an adjective or like a verb.

Smoking is forbidden. I have a long working day. I don't like dancing.

When it is used like a noun it may or may not have an article before it.

Marketing is a very inexact science. The marketing of the product will continue for a few months yet.

It can also be part of a 'noun phrase'. Speaking to an audience is always stressful. Swimming after work is very relaxing.

In formal English, we would use a possessive with the –ing form. In informal English, many people do not.

I'm angry about his missing the meeting. Do you mind my coming?

As an adjective, the –ing form can be used before a noun.

I was met by a welcoming party at the airport. Let's go to the meeting room.

Page 13: Tenses Present simple Usage - Vajiravudh · Present simple VS Present continuous Present Simple Present Continuous 1. Regular actions or events : -He plays tennis most weekends. 2

The –ing form is used after prepositions. Notice that when 'to' is used as a preposition, it is followed by the –ing form.

Before leaving, you need to speak to Sarah. After discussing it with her, I've changed my mind. Instead of feeling sorry for yourself, do some work for charity. I don't object to working this Sunday. I'm looking forward to seeing him again. I'm used to working long hours.

There are many verb + -ing combinations. Here are some common ones:

I admit telling her. I appreciate having the raise. I avoid speaking to him. I consider blowing your nose in public to be wrong. I delayed coming until the last possible moment. He denied telling her. I detest going to parties. I enjoy dancing. I feel like having a party. I've finished writing the report. I've given up going to the gym. I can't help thinking about it. I can't imagine ever leaving this company. I don't mind doing that. He put off talking to her as long as he could. I can't stand drinking beer.

Some verbs can be followed by either the infinitive or –ing form but with different meanings. Here are some common ones:

I stopped smoking last month. (I no longer smoke.) I stopped to smoke a cigarette. (I stopped what I was doing and had a cigarette.) I remember telling him. (A memory of the past.) I must remember to tell him. (Something to remember for the future.) I'm interested in finding out more details. (Interested about the future.) I was interested to read his report. (Interested in the past.)

Some verbs can be followed by either the infinitive or –ing form but with the same meaning. Here are some common ones:

I love to go shopping. I love going shopping. I'm afraid to fly. I'm afraid of flying. I started to learn English 5 years ago. I started learning English 5 years ago.

Page 14: Tenses Present simple Usage - Vajiravudh · Present simple VS Present continuous Present Simple Present Continuous 1. Regular actions or events : -He plays tennis most weekends. 2

Conditional Zero conditional :When we talk about things that are generally or always true, we can use: If/When/Unless plus a present form PLUS present simple or imperative Note that we are not talking about a specific event but something which is generally true.

If he gets there before me, ask him to wait. When you fly budget airline, you have to pay for your drinks and snacks. Unless you need more space, a small car is big enough for one person.

In the condition clause, we can use a variety of present forms. In the result clause, there can only be the present simple or imperative. Notice that 'unless' means the same as 'if not'.

If you visit London, go on the London Eye. If unemployment is rising, people tend to stay in their present jobs. If you've done that, go and have a coffee. When you go on holiday, take plenty of sun cream. It'll be very hot. When I'm concentrating, please don't make so much noise. When I've finished an article, I always ask Kate to read it through. Unless he asks you politely, refuse to do any more work on the project. Unless prices are rising, it's not a good investment. Unless you've been there yourself, you don't really understand how fantastic it is.

The first conditional To talk about future events that are likely to happen.

If we take John, he'll be really pleased. If you give me some money, I'll pay you back tomorrow. If they tell us they want it, we'll have to give it to them. If Mary comes, she'll want to drive.

The 'if' clause can be used with different present forms.

If I go to New York again, I'll buy you a souvenir from the Empire State Building. If he's feeling better, he'll come. If she hasn't heard the bad news yet, I'll tell her.

The "future clause" can contain 'going to' or the future perfect as well as 'will'.

If I see him, I'm going to tell him exactly how angry I am. If we don't get the contract, we'll have wasted a lot of time and money.

The "future clause" can also contain other modal verbs such as 'can' and 'must'.

If you go to New York, you must have the cheesecake in Lindy's. If he comes, you can get a lift home with him.

Page 15: Tenses Present simple Usage - Vajiravudh · Present simple VS Present continuous Present Simple Present Continuous 1. Regular actions or events : -He plays tennis most weekends. 2

Second conditional To talk about 'impossible' situations. Note that after I / he/ she /it we often use the subjunctive form 'were' and not 'was'. (Some people think that 'were' is the only 'correct' form but other people think 'was' is equally 'correct' .) Note the form 'If I were you' which is often used to give advice.

If we were in London today, we would be able to go to the concert in Hyde Park. If I had millions dollars, I'd give a lot to charity. If there were no hungry people in this world, it would be a much better place. If everyone had clean water to drink, there would be a lot less disease. If she were happy in her job, she wouldn't be looking for another one. If I lived in Japan, I'd have sushi every day. If they were to enter our market, we'd have big problems. If I were you, I'd look for a new place to live. If I were you, I'd go back to school and get more qualifications.

To talk about 'unlikely' situations. If I went to China, I'd visit the Great Wall. If I was the President, I'd reduce taxes. If you were in my position, you'd understand.

Note that the choice between the first and the second conditional is often a question of the speaker's attitude rather than of facts. Compare these examples. Otto thinks these things are possible, Peter doesn't.

Otto – If I win the lottery, I'll buy a big house. Peter – If I won the lottery, I'd buy a big house. Otto – If I get promoted, I'll throw a big party. Peter – If I got promoted, I'd throw a big party. Otto – If my team win the Cup, I'll buy champagne for everybody. Peter – If my team won the Cup, I'd buy champagne for everybody.

Note that the 'If clause' can contain the past simple or the past continuous.

If I was still working in Brighton, I would commute by train. If she were coming, she would be here by now. If they were thinking of selling, I would want to buy.

Note that the main clause can contain 'would' 'could' or 'might.

If I had the chance to do it again, I would do it differently. If we met up for lunch, we could go to that new restaurant. If I spoke to him directly, I might be able to persuade him.

Also note that sometimes the 'if clause' is implied rather than spoken.

What would I do without you? ("if you weren't here") Where would I get one at this time of night? ("if I wanted one") He wouldn't agree. ("if I asked him")

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Third conditional To talk about 'impossible' conditions, impossible because they are in the past and we cannot change what has happened. Notice that the main clause can contain 'would', 'could' or 'might. Also notice that sometimes the 'if clause' is implied rather than spoken.

If I had worked harder at school, I would have got better grades. If I had had time, I would have gone to see him. But I didn't have time. If we had bought that house, we would have had to rebuild the kitchen. If we had caught the earlier train, we would have got there on time but we were late. If I had seen him at the meeting, I would have asked him. (But he wasn't there so I didn't.) If I had seen him at the meeting, I could have asked him. ( But he wasn't there so it wasn't possible.) If I had seen him at the meeting, I might have asked him. (But I'm not sure. Perhaps if the opportunity had arisen.) If I had paid more attention in class, I would have understood the lesson. I'd have done it. ("if you had asked me but you didn't.") I wouldn't have said that. ("if I'd been there.") He wouldn't have let him get away with that. ("if he had tried that with me.")

Wish ' I wish to' can mean the same as 'I want to' but it is much, much more formal and much, much less common.

I wish to make a complaint. I wish to see the manager.

Use 'wish' with a noun to 'offer good wishes'. Notice that when you want to offer good wishes using a verb, you must use 'hope ' and not 'wish'.

I wish you all the best in your new job. We wish you a merry Christmas. We wish you the best of luck. We hope you have the best of luck. I wish you a safe and pleasant journey. I hope you have a safe and pleasant journey.

The main use of 'wish' is to say that we would like things to be different from what they are, that we have regrets about the present situation. Notice that the verb tense which follows 'I wish' is 'more in the past' than the tense corresponding to its meaning.

I wish I was rich. He wishes he lived in Paris. They wish they'd chosen a different leader. I'm too fat. I wish I was thin. I never get invited to parties. I wish I got invited to parties. It's raining. I wish it wasn't raining.

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I went to see the latest Star Wars film. I wish I hadn't gone. I've eaten too much. I wish I hadn't eaten so much. I'm going to visit her later. I wish I wasn't going to visit her later.

In more formal English, we use the subjunctive form 'were' and not 'was' after 'wish'.

I wish I were taller. I wish it were Saturday today. I wish he were here.

In the case of 'will' , where 'will' means 'show willingness' we use 'would'.

He won't help me. I wish he would help me. You're making too much noise. I wish you would be quiet. You keep interrupting me. I wish you wouldn't do that.

Where 'will' means a future event, we cannot use 'wish' and must use 'hope'.

There's a strike tomorrow. I hope some buses will still be running. I hope everything will be fine in your new job.

Had better We use “had better” plus the infinitive without “to” to give advice. Although “had” is the past form of “have”, we use “had better” to give advice about the present or future.

You'd better tell her everything. I'd better get back to work. We'd better meet early.

The negative form is “had better not”. You'd better not say anything. I'd better not come. We'd better not miss the start of his presentation.

We use “had better” to give advice about specific situations, not general ones. If you want to talk about general situations, you must use “should”.

You should brush your teeth before you go to bed. I shouldn't listen to negative people. He should dress more appropriately for the office.

When we give advice about specific situations, it is also possible to use “should”.

You shouldn't say anything. I should get back to work. We should meet early.

However, when we use “had better” there is a suggestion that if the advice is not followed, that something bad will happen.

You'd better do what I say or else you will get into trouble. I'd better get back to work or my boss will be angry with me. We'd better get to the airport by five or else we may miss the flight.

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Used to We use 'used to' for something that happened regularly in the past but no longer happens.

I used to smoke a packet a day but I stopped two years ago. Ben used to travel a lot in his job but now, since his promotion, he doesn't. I used to drive to work but now I take the bus.

We also use it for something that was true but no longer is.

There used to be a cinema in the town but now there isn't. She used to have really long hair but she's had it all cut off. I didn't use to like him but now I do.

To Be Used To Doing To Get Used To doing To say that something is normal, not unusual. :- I'm used to living on my own. I've done it for quite a long time. :- Hans has lived in England for over a year so he is used to driving on the left now. :- They've always lived in hot countries so they aren't used to the cold weather here.

To talk about the process of something becoming normal for us. :- I didn't understand the accent when I first moved here but I quickly got used to it. :- She has started working nights and is still getting used to sleeping during the day. :- I have always lived in the country but now I'm beginning to get used to living in the city.

Asking questions Basically, invert the order of the subject and the first auxiliary verb.

It is snowing. = Is it snowing? He can speak German. = Can he speak German? They have lived here a long time. = Have they lived here a long time? She will arrive at ten o'clock. = Will she arrive at ten o'clock? He was driving fast. = Was he driving fast? You have been smoking. = Have you been smoking?

If there is no auxiliary, use part of the verb 'to do'.

You speak fluent French. = Do you speak fluent French? She lives in Brussels. = Does she live in Brussels? They lived in Manchester. = Did they live in Manchester? He had an accident. = Did he have an accident?

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With question words are made in the same way:

How often does she use it? Why don't you come? Where do you work? How many did you buy? What time did you go? Which one do you like? Whose car were you driving?

Note who, what and which can be the subject.

Who is coming to lunch? (who is the subject of the verb) Who do you want to invite to lunch? (you is the subject of the verb) What happened? (what is the subject of the verb) What did you do? (you is the subject of the verb)

Note the position of the prepositions in these questions:

Who did you speak to? What are you looking at? Where does he come from?

When we ask for information, we often say 'Do you know…?' or 'Could you tell me….?' These are indirect questions and more polite. Note that the word order is different.

Do you know where Johnny is? Have you any idea if he has found it?

We don’t use do, does or did. Could you tell me what time he arrived? Would you mind telling me how often you play tennis?

Use if or whether when there is no question word.

Has he done it? = Do you know if he has done it? Is it ready? = Can you tell me if it is ready?

The same changes in word order happen when we report questions. Note that in reported questions, the verb changes to the past:

What are you doing? = He asked me what I was doing. What have you done about it? = He asked me what I had done about it. Do you work with Pamela? = He asked me if I worked with Pamela.

Question tags

We use tags in spoken English but not in formal written English. They are not really questions but are a way of asking the other person to make a comment and so keep the conversation open.

Making a tag is very mechanical. To make a tag, use the first auxiliary. If there is no auxiliary, use do, does or did. With a positive sentence, make a negative tag and with a negative sentence, make a positive tag.

Positive Sentence Negative Sentence

It's beautiful, isn't it? He has been, hasn't he? You can, can't you? It must be, mustn't it?

It isn't very good, is it? It hasn't rained, has it? It can't be, can it? Jenny doesn't know James, does she?

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You know him, don’t you? He finished it, didn't he? He will come, won't he?

They didn't leave, did they? He won’t do it, will he?

Notice these: There isn't an ATM here, is there? Let's have a cup of coffee, shall we?

To reply, use the same auxiliary:

It's beautiful, isn't it? ~ Yes, it is. I think it's fabulous. It isn't very good, is it? ~ No, it isn't. In fact, it's terrible.

Although, the rules are very simple and mechanical, in order to use them easily in conversation, they have to be automatic. So you need to hear and practice them very often. Reported speech When we are saying what other people say, think or believe.

He says he wants it. We think you are right. I believe he loves her. Yesterday you said you didn't like it but now you do! She told me he had asked her to marry him. I told you she was ill. We thought he was in Australia.

When we are reporting things in the present, future or present perfect we don't change the tense.

He thinks he loves her. I'll tell her you are coming. He has said he'll do it.

When we tell people what someone has said in the past, we generally make the tense 'more in the past'.

You look very nice. = I told him he looked very nice. He's working in Siberia now. = She told me he was working in Siberia now. Polly has bought a new car. = She said Polly had bought a new car. Jo can't come for the weekend. = She said Jo couldn't come for the weekend. Paul called and left a message. = He told me Paul had called and had left me a message. I'll give you a hand. = He said he would give me a hand.

However, when we are reporting something that was said in the past but is still true, it is not obligatory to make the tense 'more in the past'. The choice is up to the speaker.

"The train doesn't stop here." :- He said the train doesn't stop here. :- He said the train didn't stop here. "I like Sarah." :- She said she likes Sarah. :- She said she liked Sarah.

We have to change the pronoun if we are reporting what someone else said.

"I don't want to go." :- I said I didn't want to go. :- Bill said he didn't want to go.

We have to change words referring to 'here and now' if we are reporting what

"I'll be there at ten tomorrow." :- (If it is later the same day) He said he

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was said in a different place or time. would be there at ten tomorrow. :- (If it is the next day) He said he would be there at ten today. :- (If we are in a different place) He said he would be there tomorrow at ten. :- (If we are in the place he is coming to) He said he would be here at ten tomorrow.

We do not use do or question marks in indirect questions.

"What time is it?" = He asked me what time it was. "Why hasn't he come? = She wondered why he hadn't come. "When will you be arriving?" = He wanted to know when we would be arriving. "What were you doing?" = They questioned him about what he had been doing.

We use the same structure when we report answers.

"147 Oak Street." = I told him what my address was. "I didn't have time to do it." = She explained why she hadn't done it. "Look at this dress and bag." = She showed me what she had bought. "Put the paper here and press this button." = He demonstrated how the scanner worked.

Yes/no questions are reported with if or whether.

Do you want a ride? = Mike asked me if I wanted a ride. Are you coming? = They wanted to know if I was coming. Will you be here later? = She asked me whether I would be here later.

Suppose We often use 'suppose' to mean 'imagine' or 'guess'

I suppose you'll be meeting Danielle when you go to Paris? When you weren't there, I supposed you must have been held up. I suppose you two know each other?

Notice that 'suppose' is not normally used in the continuous form. We do not usually say 'I am supposing'.

Now I suppose we'll have to do something else. We're waiting for John and I suppose he must be stuck in traffic. At this moment I suppose it doesn't matter.

We make 'suppose' negative, in negative meaning.

I don't suppose you know where Mary is? I don't suppose he'll do anything. I don't suppose you have a Nokia phone charger here?

When responding to an idea with 'suppose', you can use 'so' to avoid repeating the idea that has already been

Is Susan coming to this meeting? ~ I suppose so.

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expressed. 'Supposed to be' can be used to mean 'it is said / believed'.

The new James Bond movie is supposed to be excellent. He is supposed to have been rude to Mark but I don't believe it. It is supposed to be the best restaurant in town.

'Supposed to be' can also be used to talk about what is arranged, intended or expected. It is a bit like 'should'.

I'm supposed to get to work by 8. John is supposed to turn off all the lights when he leaves. I'm supposed to pay my rent on the first of the month. It's not supposed to be here.

Often there is a suggestion that the action 'supposed to' happen does not actually happen.

I'm supposed to be there before 8 but I'm often late. You were supposed to phone me. I'm supposed to be getting on a plane to Tokyo at this very minute.

'Not supposed to' often suggests that something is not allowed or prohibited.

You're not supposed to smoke in here. I'm not supposed to tell you. We're not supposed to use the Internet for personal reasons at work.

'Suppose' can also be used as a conjunction to mean 'what if'. Notice that the verb which follows it is sometimes, but not always, put 'more in the past'.

Suppose we take the earlier train to Munich? It would give us more time there. Suppose we took the plane instead? That would give us even more time. There's nobody in reception to let our visitors in. Suppose I sit there until somebody comes? I'm going to ask him for a pay increase. ~ Suppose he said 'no'? What would you do?

Have something done If you 'have something done', you get somebody else to do something for you.

I'm going to have my hair cut. She's having her house redecorated. I'm having a copy of the report sent to you

In informal English, we can replace 'have' by 'get'.

We're getting a new telephone system installed. They will be getting the system repaired as quickly as they can. I got the bill sent direct to the company.

We can also use 'have/got something done' in situations where something bad has happened to people or their possessions. This is not something they wanted to happen.

John had all his money stolen from his hotel bedroom. We had our car damaged by a falling tree. I got my nose broken playing rugby.

Should have To talk about past events that did not happen.

I should have let her know what was happening but I forgot. He should have sent everybody a

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reminder by email. They should have remembered that their guests don't eat pork.

To speculate about events that may or may not have happened.

She should have got the letter this morning. I expect she'll give us a call about it later. He should have arrived at his office by now. Let's try ringing him. They should have all read that first email by this stage. It's time to send the next one.

To speculate negatively about what may or may not have happened.

She shouldn't have left work yet. I'll call her office. He shouldn't have boarded his plane yet. We can probably still get hold of him. They shouldn't have sent the report off for printing yet. There is still time to make changes.

To regret past actions. I shouldn't have shouted at you. I apologise. We shouldn't have left the office so late. We should have anticipated this bad traffic. They shouldn't have sacked him. He was the most creative person on their team.

Can have / Could have To talk about something somebody was capable of doing but didn't do.

I could have gone to Oxford University but I preferred Harvard. She could have married him but she didn't want to. They could have bought a house here 20 years ago but chose not to.

Often, there is a sense of criticism. You could have phoned me to let me know. They could have helped me instead of just sitting there. I could have done more to help you. Sorry.

To talk about something we were not capable of doing.

I couldn't have managed without you. I couldn't have got the job. He was always going to appoint his nephew. I couldn't have enjoyed myself more. Thank you for a lovely day.

To speculate about what has happened. (We can also use 'may have' or 'might have' in these situations.)

She could have taken the earlier train. Simon could have told her. They could have overheard what we said.

To speculate about what has happened but only in questions and negative sentences and with words such as 'hardly', 'never' and 'only'.

Can she have forgotten about our meeting? He can't have seen us. They can hardly have thought that I was not interested in the job.

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To speculate about something that didn't happen.

You could have broken your neck, jumping out the window like that. He could have hurt somebody, throwing a bottle out of the window like that. I could have done well in my exam if I'd worked harder.

To talk about possible present situations that have not happened.

I could have been earning a lot as an accountant but the work was just too boring. He could have been Prime Minister now but he got involved in a big financial scandal. They could have been the market leaders now if they had taken his advice.

Will be doing To talk about something that will be in progress at a particular moment in the future.

This time next week, I'll be sitting on the beach in Barbados. I'll be thinking about you all back in the office – and I'll be laughing. We'll be enjoying ourselves too, boss. We won't be doing any work while you are not here.

To talk about future events that are fixed or decided.

I'll be visiting your country on a regular basis. In fact, I'm going to be coming next month. He'll be looking after the factory until we can appoint a new manager. They'll be thinking about this very carefully over the next few months.

To predict what is happening now. Try phoning his hotel. He'll probably still be having breakfast. They'll be deciding who gets the contract at this very moment. I'm very nervous. She's not in her office. She'll be having lunch in the canteen.

To ask extremely politely, and with no pressure, about future plans.

Will you be eating with us this evening? Will you be needing anything else? Will they be joining us for dinner?

Will have done To talk about what will have been achieved by a certain moment in time.

We'll have been in these offices for eight years next month. She'll have visited ten countries in twelve days by the time she gets back. I'll have finished this project by Friday.

If we want to emphasise the continuity of the activity, we can use the continuous form.

I'll have been working here for 35 years by the time I retire. She'll have been driving for more than fifteen hours straight by the time she gets here. They'll have been working with us for 15

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years by the end of this year. To predict what we think has already happened at present.

He'll have already read the report by now. Too late to change it. She'll have boarded her plane. It's too late to contact her. They'll have decided by now. We should hear the result today or tomorrow.

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Table of English Tenses

tense Affirmative/ Negative/ Question Use Signal Words

Simple Present A: He speaks. N: He does not speak. Q: Does he speak?

action in the present taking place once, never or several times facts actions taking place one after another action set by a timetable or schedule

always, every …, never, normally, often, seldom, sometimes, usually if sentences type I (If I talk, …)

Present Progressive

A: He is speaking. N: He is not speaking. Q: Is he speaking?

action taking place in the moment of speaking action taking place only for a limited period of time action arranged for the future

at the moment, just, just now, Listen!, Look!, now, right now

Simple Past A: He spoke. N: He did not speak. Q: Did he speak?

action in the past taking place once, never or several times actions taking place one after another action taking place in the middle of another action

yesterday, 2 minutes ago, in 1990, the other day, last Friday if sentence type II (If I talked, …)

Past Progressive A: He was speaking. N: He was not speaking. Q: Was he speaking?

action going on at a certain time in the past actions taking place at the same time action in the past that is interrupted by another action

when, while, as long as

Present Perfect Simple

A: He has spoken. N: He has not spoken. Q: Has he spoken?

putting emphasis on the result action that is still going on action that stopped recently finished action that has an influence on the present action that has taken place once, never or several times before the moment of speaking

already, ever, just, never, not yet, so far, till now, up to now

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tense Affirmative/ Negative/ Question Use Signal Words

Present Perfect Progressive

A: He has been speaking. N: He has not been speaking. Q: Has he been speaking?

putting emphasis on the course or duration (not the result) action that recently stopped or is still going on finished action that influenced the present

all day, for 4 years, since 1993, how long?, the whole week

Past Perfect Simple

A: He had spoken. N: He had not spoken. Q: Had he spoken?

action taking place before a certain time in the past sometimes interchangeable with past perfect progressive putting emphasis only on the fact (not the duration)

already, just, never, not yet, once, until that day if sentence type III (If I had talked, …)

Past Perfect Progressive

A: He had been speaking. N: He had not been speaking. Q: Had he been speaking?

action taking place before a certain time in the past sometimes interchangeable with past perfect simple putting emphasis on the duration or course of an action

for, since, the whole day, all day

Future I Simple A: He will speak. N: He will not speak. Q: Will he speak?

action in the future that cannot be influenced spontaneous decision assumption with regard to the future

in a year, next …, tomorrow If-Satz Typ I (If you ask her, she will help you.) assumption: I think, probably, perhaps

Future I Simple (going to)

A: He is going to speak. N: He is not going to speak. Q: Is he going to speak?

decision made for the future conclusion with regard to the future

in one year, next week, tomorrow

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tense Affirmative/ Negative/ Question Use Signal Words

Future I Progressive

A: He will be speaking. N: He will not be speaking. Q: Will he be speaking?

action that is going on at a certain time in the future action that is sure to happen in the near future

in one year, next week, tomorrow

Future II Simple A: He will have spoken. N: He will not have spoken. Q: Will he have spoken?

action that will be finished at a certain time in the future

by Monday, in a week

Future II Progressive

A: He will have been speaking. N: He will not have been speaking. Q: Will he have been speaking?

action taking place before a certain time in the future putting emphasis on the course of an action

for …, the last couple of hours, all day long

Conditional I Simple

A: He would speak. N: He would not speak. Q: Would he speak?

action that might take place if sentences type II (If I were you, I would go home.)

Conditional I Progressive

A: He would be speaking. N: He would not be speaking. Q: Would he be speaking?

action that might take place putting emphasis on the course / duration of the action

Conditional II Simple

A: He would have spoken. N: He would not have spoken. Q: Would he have spoken?

action that might have taken place in the past

if sentences type III (If I had seen that, I would have helped.)

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tense Affirmative/ Negative/ Question Use Signal Words

Conditional II Progressive

A: He would have been speaking. N: He would not have been speaking. Q: Would he have been speaking?

action that might have taken place in the past puts emphasis on the course / duration of the action

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Legend

moment in time

action that takes place once, never or several times actions that happen one after another actions that suddenly take place

period of time

action that started before a certain moment and lasts beyond that moment actions taking place at the same time

Result

action taking place before a certain moment in time puts emphasis on the result

Course / Duration

action taking place before a certain moment in time puts emphasis on the course or duration of the action

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English Tenses – Examples Explanation Past Present Future

Simple Past Simple Present Future I Simple

action that takes place once, never or several times

He played football every Tuesday.

He plays football every Tuesday.

He will / is going to play football every Tuesday.

actions that happen one after another

He played football and then he went home.

He plays football and then he goes home.

He will play football and then he will go home.

state He loved football. He loves football. He will love football.

Past Progressive Present Progressive Future I Progressive

action going on at that moment

He was playing football. He is playing football. He will be playing football.

actions taking place at the same time

He was playing football and she was watching.

He is playing football and she is watching.

He will be playing football and she will be watching.

Past Perfect Simple Present Perfect Simple Future II Simple

action taking place before a certain moment in time; emphasises the result

He had won five matches until that day.

He has won five matches so far.

He will have won five matches by then.

Past Perfect Progressive Present Perfect Progressive Future II Progressive

action taking place before a certain moment in time (and beyond), emphasises the duration

He had been playing football for ten years.

He has been playing football for ten years.

He will have been playing football for ten years.

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Simple Present (Present Simple) – Introduction

The simple present expresses an action in the present taking place once, never or several times. It is also used for actions that take place one after another and for actions that are set by a timetable or schedule. The simple present also expresses facts in the present. be Use: am with the personal pronoun II is with the personal pronouns he, she or it (or with the singular form of nouns) are with the personal pronouns we, you or they (or with the plural form of nouns) Example: I am hungry. affirmative negative question I I am. I am not. Am I? he/she/it He is. He is not. Is he? you/we/they You are. You are not. Are you? have Use: have with the personal pronouns I, you, we und they (or with the plural form of nouns) has with the personal pronouns he, she, it (or with the singular form of nouns) Example: I have a dog. / I have got a dog. 'have got' is mainly used in British English. You can also use 'have' on its own (especially in American English). In this case, however, you must form negative sentences and questions with the auxiliary verb 'do' (see 'All other verbs').

positive negative question I/you/we/they I have got. / I have. I have not got. /

I do not have. Have I got? / Do I have?

he/she/it He has got. / He has.

He has not got. / He does not have.

Has he got? / Does he have?

All other verbs Use: The infinite verb (play) with the personal pronouns I, you, we and they (or with the plural form of nouns). The verb + s (plays) with the personal pronouns he, she, it (or with the singular form of nouns)

affirmative negative question I/you/we/they I play. I do not play. Do I play? he/she/it He plays. He does not play. Does he play?

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Tips on how to form negative sentences and questions Negative sentences and questions are formed with the auxiliary verb 'do'. The 3rd person singular of 'do' is 'does'. This means that in negative sentences and questions the '-s' of the main verb is placed behind 'do'. Simple Present - Exceptions in Spelling The 3rd person singular is usually formed by adding -s. But there are a few exceptions to the rule: The verbs can, may, might, must remain the same in all forms. So don't add -s. Example: he can, she may, it must Verbs ending in -o or a sibilant (ch, sh, s, x) add -es instead of s. Example: do - he does, wash - she washes A final y after a consonant becomes -ie before s. Example: worry - he worries But: A final y after a vowel (a, e, i, o, u) is not modified. Example: play - he plays Short Forms

affirmative negative I am English. = I'm English. I am not English. = I'm not English. We are English.= We're English. We are not English. = We're not / We aren't

English. He is English. = He's English. He is not English. = He's not / He isn't English. I have got a dog. = I've got a dog. I have not got a dog. = I've not got a dog. / I haven't

got a dog. He has got a dog. = He's got a dog.

He has not got a dog. = He's not got a dog. / He hasn't got a dog.

I do not play tennis. = I don't play tennis He does not play tennis = He doesn't play tennis. Simple Present - Use Facts (something is generally known to be true)

The sun sets in the west.

The sun never sets in the east or south or north, but always in the west.

Page 34: Tenses Present simple Usage - Vajiravudh · Present simple VS Present continuous Present Simple Present Continuous 1. Regular actions or events : -He plays tennis most weekends. 2

Action in the present taking place once, never or several times

Colin always plays soccer on Tuesdays.

Colin plays football regularly - every Tuesday. In English, signal words are often used, e.g.: always, never, seldom, often, regularly, every Monday.

Actions in the present taking place one after another

She takes her bag and leaves.

First one action takes place and then the other.

Action set by a time table or schedule

The train leaves at 9 pm.

Although the action takes place in the future, it takes place regularly and is set by a time table.

Verbs expressing states, possession, senses, emotions and mental activity

I love her.

When you love someone, that's a state, a fact or emotion, but not an action (like running for example). Whenever you want to express a state, possession, sense or emotions, use the simple form (not the progressive). The following words all belong to this group: be (state) believe (mental activity) belong (possession) hate (feeling and emotion) hear (senses) like (feeling and emotion) love (feeling and emotion) mean (mental activity) prefer (mental activity) remain (state) realize (mental activity) see (senses) seem (feeling and emotion) smell (senses) think (mental activity) understand (mental activity) want (feeling and emotion) wish (feeling and emotion)

Page 35: Tenses Present simple Usage - Vajiravudh · Present simple VS Present continuous Present Simple Present Continuous 1. Regular actions or events : -He plays tennis most weekends. 2

Simple Present - Signal Words always every ... often normally usually sometimes seldom never Simple Present - Summary Form: be affirmative negative question I I am. I am not. Am I? he/she/it He is. He is not. Is he? you/we/they You are. You are not. Are you? have affirmative negative question I/you/we/they I have got. / I have. I have not got. / I do not

have. Have I got? / Do I have?

he/she/it He has got. / He has.

He has not got. / He does not have.

Has he got? / Does he have?

other verbs affirmative negative question I/you/we/they I play. I do not play. Do I play? he/she/it He plays. He does not play. Does he play? Exceptions in Spelling

Exception Example The verbs can, may, might, must remain the same in all forms. So don't add s.

he can, she may, it must

Verbs ending in o or a sibilant (ch, sh, s, x) add es instead of s.

do - he does, wash - she washes

A final y after a consonant becomes ie before s. (but: don't modify y after a vowel)

worry - he worries (but: play - he plays)

Short Forms

affirmative negative I am English. = I'm English.

I am not English. = I'm not English.

We are English. = We're English.

We are not English. = We're not / We aren't English.

He is English. = He's English.

He is not English. = He's not / He isn't English.

I have got a dog. = I've got a dog.

I have not got a dog. = I've not got a dog. / I haven't got a dog.

He has got a dog. = He's got a dog.

He has not got a dog. = He's not got a dog. / He hasn't got a dog.

Page 36: Tenses Present simple Usage - Vajiravudh · Present simple VS Present continuous Present Simple Present Continuous 1. Regular actions or events : -He plays tennis most weekends. 2

I do not play tennis. = I don't play tennis

He does not play tennis = He doesn't play tennis.

Use

Use Example action in the present taking place once, never or several times

Colin always plays soccer on Tuesdays.

actions in the present taking place one after another

She takes her bag and leaves.

facts (something is generally known to be true)

The sun sets in the west.

action set by a timetable or schedule The train leaves at 9 pm. verbs of possession, senses, emotions and mental activity

I love her.

Typical Signal Words always every ... often normally usually sometimes seldom never Present Progressive - Introduction The present progressive puts emphasis on the course or duration of an action.

The present progressive is used for actions going on in the moment of speaking and for actions taking place only for a short period of time. It is also used to express development and actions that are arranged for the near future.

Present progressive is also known as present continuous. Form Use a form of to be and the infinite verb plus -ing. Use: am with the personal pronoun I is with the personal pronouns he, she or it (or the singular form of nouns) are with the personal pronouns you, we, they (or the plural form of nouns)

Page 37: Tenses Present simple Usage - Vajiravudh · Present simple VS Present continuous Present Simple Present Continuous 1. Regular actions or events : -He plays tennis most weekends. 2

affirmative negative question I I am playing. I am not playing. Am I playing? he, she, it He is playing. He is not playing. Is he playing? you, we, they You are playing. You are not playing. Are you playing? Tips on how to form negative sentences and questions In negative sentences, we put not between the form of be and the verb. In questions, we simply swop the places of subject and the form of be. Exceptions in Spelling :- A single, silent e at the end of the word is dropped before ing. Example: come - coming I am coming home. You are coming home. He is coming home. But: ee at the end of the word is not changed Example: agree - agreeing :- The final consonant after a short, stressed vowel is doubled before ing. Example: sit - sitting I am sitting on the sofa. You are sitting on the sofa. He is sitting on the sofa. :- The letter “l” as final consonant after a vowel is always doubled before ing. Example: travel - travelling I am travelling around. You are travelling around. He is travelling around. Mind: This applies only for British English; in American English there is usually only one l. :- An ie at the end of a word becomes y before ing. Example: lie - lying

I am lying in bed. You are lying in bed. He is lying in bed. Short Forms

affirmative negative I am playing. - I'm playing. I am not playing. - I'm not playing. He is playing. - He's playing. He is not playing. - He's not playing. / He isn't playing. We are playing. - We're playing.

We are not playing. - We're not playing. /We aren't playing.

Page 38: Tenses Present simple Usage - Vajiravudh · Present simple VS Present continuous Present Simple Present Continuous 1. Regular actions or events : -He plays tennis most weekends. 2

Use :- Actions taking place at the moment of speaking (now)

He is playing football.

The action is going on now. Signal words like now, at the moment are often used to emphasise that the action is taking place at the moment of speaking. Signal words are not really necessary, however, as this is already expressed by the tense itself.

:- Arrangements for the near future

I'm going to the theatre tonight.

In the example you can see that the tickets are already bought. So we are talking about an arrangement for the near future. To make clear that the action is not going on now, we usually use signal words like tonight, tomorrow, next Friday, at noon.

:- Actions taking place only for a limited period of time

Jim is helping in his brother's firm this week.

Here we are talking about a time limit. Jim does not usually work in the firm, he is still at school and wants to earn some extra money during his holidays. To make clear that there is a time limit, we usually use signal words, e.g. this week/month/year.

:- Actions taking place around now (but not at the moment of speaking)

I'm studying for my exams.

This action takes place around now and only for a limited period of time, but not at the moment of speaking. We don't have to use signal words here, but we often find signal words in such sentences, e.g. now, at the moment.

Page 39: Tenses Present simple Usage - Vajiravudh · Present simple VS Present continuous Present Simple Present Continuous 1. Regular actions or events : -He plays tennis most weekends. 2

:- Development, changing situations

The population of China is rising very fast.

The sentence describes a development from one situation to another. Signal words are not that common here, only sometimes the change of situation is emphasised by using for example more and more.

Signal Words :- Actions taking place at the moment of speaking (now)

at the moment now / just now / right now Listen! Look! :- Arrangements for the near future

in the morning / in the afternoon / in the evening at noon / tonight tomorrow next ...

:- Actions taking place only for a limited period of time

this week / this month / this year :- Actions taking place around now (but not at the moment of speaking)

at the moment now / just now / right now :- Development, changing situations

more and more Summary Form

affirmative negative question I I am playing. I am not playing. Am I playing? he, she, it He is playing. He is not playing. Is he playing? you, we, they You are playing. You are not playing. Are you playing? Exceptions in Spelling

Exception Example silent e is dropped before ing (but: ee is not changed) come - coming (but: agree -

agreeing) final consonant after short, stressed vowel is doubled sit - sitting final consonant l after vowel is always doubled (in British English)

travel - travelling

ie becomes y before ing lie - lying

Page 40: Tenses Present simple Usage - Vajiravudh · Present simple VS Present continuous Present Simple Present Continuous 1. Regular actions or events : -He plays tennis most weekends. 2

Short Forms positive negative

I am playing. - I'm playing. I am not playing. - I'm not playing. He is playing. - He's playing. He is not playing. - He's not playing. / He isn't playing. We are playing. - We're playing.

We are not playing. - We're not playing. /We aren't playing.

Use

Use Example actions taking place at the moment of speaking (now)

He is playing football.

arrangements for the near future I'm going to the theatre tonight. actions taking place only for a limited period of time

Jim is helping in his brother's firm this week.

actions taking place around now (but not at the moment of speaking)

I'm studying for my exams.

development, changing situations The population of China is rising very fast.

Typical Signal Words

at the moment now / just now / right now Listen! Look!

Simple Past (Past Simple)

The simple past expresses an action in the past taking place once, never, several times. It can also be used for actions taking place one after another or in the middle of another action. Form

Positive Negative Question no differences I spoke. I did not speak. Did I speak? For irregular verbs, use the past form. For regular verbs, just add “ed”. Exceptions in Spelling when Adding ‘ed’

Exceptions in spelling when adding ed Example after a final e only add d love – loved final consonant after a short, stressed vowel or l as final consonant after a vowel is doubled

admit – admitted travel – travelled

final y after a consonant becomes i hurry – hurried

Page 41: Tenses Present simple Usage - Vajiravudh · Present simple VS Present continuous Present Simple Present Continuous 1. Regular actions or events : -He plays tennis most weekends. 2

Use :- action in the past taking place once, never or several times

He visited his parents every weekend. :- actions in the past taking place one after the other

He came in, took off his coat and sat down. :- action in the past taking place in the middle of another action

When I was having breakfast, the phone suddenly rang. :- if sentences type II (If I talked, …)

If I had a lot of money, I would share it with you. Signal Words

yesterday, 2 minutes ago, in 1990, the other day, last Friday If-Clause Type II (If I talked, …)

Simple Past – Past Progressive Form

Simple Past Past Progressive :- irregular verbs: I spoke :- regular verbs: verb + ed I worked

:- past form of 'be' + ing form of verb I was speaking you were speaking he / she / it was speaking we were speaking they were speaking

Exceptions Exceptions when adding 'ed' : :- when the final letter is e, only add d. love - loved :- after a short, stressed vowel, the final consonant is doubled admit - admitted :- final l is always doubled in British English (not in American English) travel - travelled :- after a consonant, final y becomes i. (but: not after a vowel) worry - he worried but: play - he played

Exceptions when adding 'ing' : :- silent e is dropped (but: does not apply for -ee) come - coming but: agree - agreeing :- after a short, stressed vowel, the final consonant is doubled sit - sitting :- final l is always doubled in British English (not in American English) travel - travelling :- final ie becomes y. lie - lying

Page 42: Tenses Present simple Usage - Vajiravudh · Present simple VS Present continuous Present Simple Present Continuous 1. Regular actions or events : -He plays tennis most weekends. 2

Use After another or at the same time?

Do you want to express that the actions in the past happened one after another or at the same time?

Simple Past Past Progressive :- after another She came home, switched on the computer and checked her e-mails.

:- at the same time Simon was playing on the computer while his brother was watchin TV.

New action or already in progress?

If you want to express that a new action happened in the middle of another action, you need both tenses: Simple Past the new action and Past Progressive for the action already in progress.

Simple Past Past Progressive :- new action My mobile rang (when I was sitting in a meeting.)

:- action already in progress While I was sitting in a meeting, (my mobile suddenly rang.)

Only mentioning or emphasising progress?

Do you just want to mention that an action took place in the past (also used for short actions)? Or do you want to put emphasis on the progress, e.g. that an action was taking place at a certain time?

Simple Past Past Progressive :- just mentioning Colin played football yesterday.

:- emphasising progress Yesterday at six o'clock, Colin was playing football.

Certain Verbs The following verbs are usually only used in Simple Past (not in the progressive form). :- state: be, cost, fit, mean, suit

We were on holiday. :- possession: belong, have

Sam had a cat. :- senses: feel, hear, see, smell, taste, touch

He felt the cold. :- feelings: hate, hope, like, love, prefer, regret, want, wish

Jane loved pizza. :- brain work: believe, know, think, understand

I did not understand him. :- introductory clauses for direct speech: answer, ask, reply, say

“I am watching TV,“ he said.

Page 43: Tenses Present simple Usage - Vajiravudh · Present simple VS Present continuous Present Simple Present Continuous 1. Regular actions or events : -He plays tennis most weekends. 2

Signal words Simple Past Past Progressive

first then If-clause Type II (If I talked, …)

when while as long as

Simple Past – Present Perfect Simple Form

Simple Past Present Perfect Simple :- irregular verbs I spoke

:- irregular verbs: form of 'have' + 3rd column of irregular verbs I / you / we / they have spoken he / she / it has spoken

:- regular verbs: infinitive + ed I worked

:- regular verbs: form of 'have' + infinitive + ed I / you / we / they have worked he / she / it has worked

Exceptions Exceptions when adding 'ed': :- when the final letter is e, only add d love - loved :- after a short, stressed vowel, the final consonant is doubled admit - admitted :- final l is always doubled in British English (not in American English) travel - travelled :- after a consonant, final y becomes i (but: not after a vowel) worry - worried but: play - played Use

In British English, the use of Simple Past and Present Perfect is quite strict. As soon as a time expression in the past is given, you have to use Simple Past. If there are no signal words, you must decide if we just talk about an action in the past or if its consequence in the present is important.

Note that the following explanations and exercises refer to British English only. In American English, you can normally use Simple Past instead of Present Perfect. We cannot accept this in our exercises, however, as this would lead to confusions amongst those who have to learn the differences. Certain time in the past or just / already / yet?

Do you want to express that an action happened at a certain time in the past (even if it was just a few seconds ago) or that an action has just / already / not yet happened?

Page 44: Tenses Present simple Usage - Vajiravudh · Present simple VS Present continuous Present Simple Present Continuous 1. Regular actions or events : -He plays tennis most weekends. 2

Simple Past Present Perfect Simple :- certain time in the past I phoned Mary 2 minutes ago.

:- just / already / not yet I have just phoned Mary.

Certain event in the past or how often so far?

Do you want to express when a certain action took place or whether / how often an action has happened till now?

Simple Past Present Perfect Simple :- certain event in the past He went to Canada last summer.

:- whether / how often till now Have you ever been to Canada? / I have been to Canada twice.

Emphasis on action or result?

Do you just want to express what happened in the past? Or do you want to emphasise the result (a past action's consequence in the present)?

Simple Past Present Perfect Simple :- Emphasis on action I bought a new bike. (just telling what I did in the past.)

:- Emphasis on result I have bought a new bike. (With this sentence I actually want to express that I have a new bike now.)

Signal Words

Simple Past Present Perfect Simple yesterday ... ago in 1990 the other day last ...

just already up to now until now / till now ever (not) yet so far lately / recently

Simple Past – Past Perfect Simple Form

Simple Past Past Perfect Simple :- 2nd column of irregular verbs I spoke

:- had + 3rd column of irregular verbs I had spoken

:- regular verbs: infinitive + ed I worked

:- regular verbs: form of have + infinitive + ed I had worked

Exceptions Exceptions when adding ed: :- when the final letter is e, only add d love - loved

Page 45: Tenses Present simple Usage - Vajiravudh · Present simple VS Present continuous Present Simple Present Continuous 1. Regular actions or events : -He plays tennis most weekends. 2

:- after a short, stressed vowel, the final consonant is doubled admit - admitted :- final l is always doubled in British English (not in American English) travel - travelled :- after a consonant, final y becomes i (but: not after a vowel) worry - worried but: play - played Use

We use Simple Past if we give past events in the order in which they occured. However, when we look back from a certain time in the past to tell what had happened before, we use Past Perfect.

Normal order in the past or looking back to an event before a certain time in the past?

Do you just want to tell what happened some time in the past or do you want to tell what had happened before/up to a certain time in the past?

Simple Past Past Perfect Simple :- some time in the past Jane got up at seven. She opened her birthday presents and then the whole family went to the zoo.

:- before/up to a certain time in the past Before her sixth birthday, Jane had never been to the zoo.

Signal Words

Simple Past Past Perfect Simple first then

already up to then before that day after*

*Note: "After" is only used as a signal word for Past Perfect if it is followed by a subject + verb, meaning that one action had been completed before another action began (the new action is in Simple

After the family had had breakfast, they went to the zoo. However, if "after" is followed by object + subject + verb, the verb belongs to the new action and is therefore in Simple Past.

After her visit to the zoo, Jane was exhausted. More exceptions with signal words When: depending on the situation, "when" can be used with Simple Past or Past Perfect. Compare the following examples:

When Jane saw the elephants, she was amazed. (at the same time) When Jane had seen the elephants, she wanted to see the giraffes. (second action happened after the first action had been completed) When Jane went to see the elephants, she had already seen the lions. (second action had been completed when the first action took place)

Page 46: Tenses Present simple Usage - Vajiravudh · Present simple VS Present continuous Present Simple Present Continuous 1. Regular actions or events : -He plays tennis most weekends. 2

Before: "Before" as well can either be used with Simple Past or Past Perfect. If the action after "before" is a new action, use Simple Past. If the action after "before" started (and was not completed) before a certain time in the past, use Past Perfect. Compare the following examples:

Jane had read a lot about elephants before she went to the zoo. Jane went to the zoo before she had finished reading her new book about elephants.

Past Progressive (Past Continuous) The past progressive puts emphasis on the course of an action in the past. Form

Positive Negative Question I / he / she / it I was speaking. I was not speaking. Was I speaking? you / we / they You were speaking. You were not speaking. Were you speaking? Exceptions in Spelling

Exceptions in spelling when adding ing Example final e is dropped (but: ee is not changed) come – coming

(but: agree – agreeing) after a short, stressed vowel, the final consonant is doubled sit – sitting l as final consonant after a vowel is doubled (in British English)

travel – travelling

final ie becomes y lie – lying Use :- puts emphasis on the course of an action in the past

He was playing football. :- two actions happening at the same time (in the past)

While she was preparing dinner, he was washing the dishes. :- action going on at a certain time in the past

When I was having breakfast, the phone suddenly rang. Signal Words of Past Progressive when, while, as long as Present Perfect Simple

The present perfect simple expresses an action that is still going on or that stopped recently, but has an influence on the present. It puts emphasis on the result. Form

Positive Negative Question I / you / we / they I have spoken. I have not spoken. Have I spoken? he / she / it He has spoken. He has not spoken. Has he spoken?

Page 47: Tenses Present simple Usage - Vajiravudh · Present simple VS Present continuous Present Simple Present Continuous 1. Regular actions or events : -He plays tennis most weekends. 2

Exceptions in Spelling when Adding ‘ed’ Exceptions in spelling when adding ed Example after a final e only add d love – loved final consonant after a short, stressed vowel or l as final consonant after a vowel is doubled

admit – admitted travel – travelled

final y after a consonant becomes i hurry – hurried Use :- puts emphasis on the result

She has written five letters. :- action that is still going on

School has not started yet. :- action that stopped recently

She has cooked dinner. :- finished action that has an influence on the present

I have lost my key. :- action that has taken place once, never or several times before the moment of speaking

I have never been to Australia. Signal Words of Present Perfect already, ever, just, never, not yet,

so far, till now, up to now Present Perfect Progressive (Present Perfect Continuous)

The present perfect progressive expresses an action that recently stopped or is still going on. It puts emphasis on the duration or course of the action. Form

Positive Negative Question I / you / we / they I have been

speaking. I have not been speaking.

Have I been speaking?

he / she / it He has been speaking.

He has not been speaking.

Has he been speaking?

Exceptions in Spelling

Exceptions in spelling when adding ing Example final e is dropped (but: ee is not changed)

come – coming (but: agree – agreeing)

after a short, stressed vowel, the final consonant is doubled sit – sitting l as final consonant after a vowel is doubled (in British English)

travel – travelling

final ie becomes y lie – lying

Page 48: Tenses Present simple Usage - Vajiravudh · Present simple VS Present continuous Present Simple Present Continuous 1. Regular actions or events : -He plays tennis most weekends. 2

Use :- puts emphasis on the duration or course of an action (not the result)

She has been writing for two hours. :- action that recently stopped or is still going on

I have been living here since 2001. :- finished action that influenced the present

I have been working all afternoon. Signal Words

all day, for 4 years, since 1993, how long?, the whole week

Simple Present - Present Perfect Progressive Form

Simple Present Present Perfect Progressive :- infinitive (3rd person singular: infinitive + 's') I / you / we / they speak he / she / it speaks

:- form of 'have' + been + ing-form I / you / we / they have been speaking he / she / it has been speaking

Exceptions Exceptions when adding 's': :- The verbs can, may, might, must remain the same in all forms. Do not add s. he can, she may, it must :- For verbs ending in o or a sibilant (ch, sh, s, z), add es. do - he does, wash - she washes :- y as final letter after a consonant becomes ie. (but: not after a vowel) worry - he worries but: play - he plays

Exceptions when adding 'ing' : :- Silent e as final letter is dropped. (does not apply for -ee) come - coming but: agree - agreeing :- After a short, stressed vowel, the final consonant is doubled. sit - sitting :- l as final letter after a single vowel is doubled in British English (but not in American English). travel - travelling :- ie at the end of the word becomes y. lie - lying

Use

We use Simple Present for general statements about the present and for actions taking place regularly in the present. We use Present Perfect Progressive to express how long an action has been going on. General statements (when/how often) or how long already?

Do you want to make a general statement about the present, e.g. say when or how often an action usually takes place? Or do you want to express, how long an action has already been going on?

Page 49: Tenses Present simple Usage - Vajiravudh · Present simple VS Present continuous Present Simple Present Continuous 1. Regular actions or events : -He plays tennis most weekends. 2

Simple Present Present Perfect Progressive general statement, when / how often I write a letter every day.

how long already I have been writing for an hour.

Signal Words

Simple Present Present Perfect Progressive how often ... times

how long since for

Note: The signal words for Simple Present are the same here as for Present Perfect in the explanation on confusing tenses - Present Perfect Simple/Present Perfect Progressive. If we use these signal words for Simple Present, we want to know how often an action usually takes place in the present (not how often it has taken place so far). There is a difference, because you can ask someone how often he plays tennis (in general) or how often he has played tennis (so far). Present Perfect Simple – Present Perfect Progressive Form

Present Perfect Simple Present Perfect Progressive :- irregular verbs: form of 'have' + 3rd column of irregular verbs I / you / we / they have spoken he / she / it has spoken :- regular verbs: form of 'have' + infinitive + ed I / you / we / they have worked he / she / it has worked

:- form of 'have' + been + verb + ing I / you / we / they have been speaking he / she / it has been speaking

Exceptions Exceptions when adding 'ed' : :- when the final letter is e, only add d love - loved :- after a short, stressed vowel, the final consonant is doubled admit - admitted :- final l is always doubled in British English (not in American English) travel - travelled :- after a consonant, final y becomes i (but: not after a vowel) worry - worried but: play - played

Exceptions when adding 'ing' : :- silent e is dropped. (but: does not apply for -ee) come - coming but: agree - agreeing :- after a short, stressed vowel, the final consonant is doubled sit - sitting :- after a vowel, the final consonant l is doubled in British English (but not in American English). travel - travelling :- final ie becomes y. lie - lying

Page 50: Tenses Present simple Usage - Vajiravudh · Present simple VS Present continuous Present Simple Present Continuous 1. Regular actions or events : -He plays tennis most weekends. 2

Use Both tenses are used to express that an action began in the past and is still

going on or has just finished. In many cases, both forms are correct, but there is often a difference in meaning: We use the Present Perfect Simple mainly to express that an action is completed or to emphasise the result. We use the Present Perfect Progressive to emphasise the duration or continuous course of an action. Result or duration?

Do you want to express what has happened so far or how long an action has been going on yet?

Present Perfect Simple Present Perfect Progressive :- Result (what / how much / how often) I have written 5 letters. / I have been to London twice.

:- Duration (how long) I have been writing for an hour.

Certain verbs The following verbs are usually only used in Present Perfect Simple (not in the progressive form). :- state: be, have (for possession only)

have been on holiday for two weeks. :- senses: feel, hear, see, smell, taste, touch

He has touched the painting. :- brain work: believe, know, think, understand

I have known him for 3 years. Emphasis on completion or duration?

Do you want to emphasise the completion of an action or its continuous course (how has somebody spent his time)?

Present Perfect Simple Present Perfect Progressive :- Emphasis on completion I have done my homework. (Meaning: My homework is completed now.)

:- Emphasis on duration I have been doing my homework. (Meaning: That's how I have spent my time. It does not matter whether the homework is completed now.)

Result or side effect?

Do you want to express that a completed action led to a desired result or that the action had an unwanted side effect?

Present Perfect Simple Present Perfect Progressive :- desired result I have washed the car. (Result: The car is clean now.)

:- unwanted side effect Why are you so wet? - I have been washing the car. (side effect: I became wet when I was washing the car. It does not matter whether the car is clean now.)

Page 51: Tenses Present simple Usage - Vajiravudh · Present simple VS Present continuous Present Simple Present Continuous 1. Regular actions or events : -He plays tennis most weekends. 2

Time + negation: last time or beginning of an action? In negative sentences: Do you want to express how much time has past since

the last time the action took place or since the beginning of the action? Present Perfect Simple Present Perfect Progressive

:- since the last time I haven't played that game for years. (Meaning: It's years ago that I last played that game.)

:- since the beginning I haven't been playing that game for an hour, only for 10 minutes. (Meaning: It's not even an hour ago that I started to play that game.)

Permanent or temporary?

If an action is still going on and we want to express that it is a permanent situation, we would usually use the Present Perfect Simple. For temporary situations, we would prefer the Present Perfect Progressive. This is not a rule, however, only a tendency.

Present Perfect Simple Present Perfect Progressive :- permanent James has lived in this town for 10 years. (Meaning: He is a permanent resident of this town.)

:- temporary James has been living here for a year. (Meaning: This situation is only temporary. Maybe he is an exchange student and only here for one or two years.)

Signal words

Present Perfect Simple Present Perfect Progressive how often ... times

how long since for

Past Perfect Simple The past perfect simple expresses an action taking place before a certain time in the past. Form

Positive Negative Question no differences I had spoken. I had not spoken. Had I spoken? Exceptions in Spelling when Adding ed

Exceptions in Spelling when Adding ed Example after final e, only add d love – loved final consonant after a short, stressed vowel or l as final consonant after a vowel is doubled

admit – admitted travel – travelled

final y after a consonant becomes i hurry – hurried

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Use :- action taking place before a certain time in the past (putting emphasis only on the fact, not the duration)

Before I came here, I had spoken to Jack. :- Conditional Sentences Type III (condition that was not given in the past)

If I had seen him, I would have talked to him. Signal Words

already, just, never, not yet, once, until that day (with reference to the past, not the present) If-clause Type III (If I had talked, …)

Past Perfect Progressive (Past Perfect Continuous) The past perfect progressive puts emphasis on the course or duration of an action taking place before a certain time in the past. Form

Positive Negative Question He had been talking. He had not been talking. Had he been talking? Use :- action taking place before a certain time in the past :- sometimes interchangeable with past perfect simple :- puts emphasis on the course or duration of an action Signal words

for, since, the whole day, all day Future Simple “will” Will future expresses a spontaneous decision, an assumption with regard to the future or an action in the future that cannot be influenced. Form

positive negative question no differences I will speak. I will not speak. Will I speak? Use :- a spontaneous decision

Wait, I will help you. :- an opinion, hope, uncertainty or assumption regarding the future

He will probably come back tomorrow. :- a promise

I will not watch TV tonight.

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:- an action in the future that cannot be influenced It will rain tomorrow.

:- conditional clauses type I

If I arrive late, I will call you. Signal Words

in a year, next …, tomorrow with the sentences beginning with: I think, probably, perhaps Future Simple “going to” Going to future expresses a conclusion regarding the immediate future or an action in the near future that has already been planned or prepared. Form

positive negative question I I am going to speak. I am not going to speak. Am I going to speak? you / we / they You are going to

speak. You are not going to speak.

Are you going to speak?

he / she / it He is going to speak. He is not going to speak.

Is he going to speak?

Use :- an action in the near future that has already been planned or prepared

I am going to study harder next year. :- a conclusion regarding the immediate future

The sky is absolutely dark. It is going to rain. Signal Words

in one year, next week, tomorrow Future Progressive (Future Continuous) Future progressive puts emphasis on the course of an action taking place in the future. Form

positive negative Question He will be talking.

He will not be talking.

Will he be talking?

Use :- action that is going on at a certain time in the future :- action that is sure to happen in the near future

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Signal Words in one year, next week, tomorrow

Future II Simple Future II Simple expresses an action that will be finished at a certain time in the future. Form

Positive Negative Question He will have talked. He will not have talked. Will he have talked? Use :- action that will be finished at a certain time in the future Signal Words

by Monday, in a week Future II Progressive (Future II Continuous)

Future II progressive puts emphasis on the course / duration of an action taking place before a certain time in the future. It can also be used to express an assumption regarding a future action.

Future II progressive is not used very often as it can usually be replaced by future II simple. Form

Positive Negative Question He will have been talking. He will not have been

talking. Will he have been talking?

Use :- action taking place before a certain time in the future :- puts emphasis on the course of an action Signal Words

for ..., the last couple of hours, all day long Conditional I Simple The conditional I simple expresses an action that might take place. Form

Positive Negative Question He would talk. He would not talk. Would he talk? Use :- action that might take place :- if clause type II (If I were you, I would go home.)

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Conditional I Progressive (Conditional I Continuous) The conditional I progressive puts emphasis on the course of an action that might take place. Form

Positive Negative Question He would be talking. He would not be talking. Would he be talking? Use :- action that might take place :- puts emphasis on the course of an action Conditional II Simple The conditional II simple expresses an action that could have taken place in the past. Form

Positive Negative Question He would have talked. He would not have talked. Would he have talked? Use :- action that could have taken place in the past :- if causes type III (If I had seen that, I would have helped.) Conditional II Progressive (Conditional II Continuous) Conditional II Progressive puts emphasis on the duration of an action that could have taken place in the past. Form

Positive Negative Question He would have been talking.

He would not have been talking.

Would he have been talking?

Use :- action that could have taken place in the past :- puts emphasis on the course / duration of an action Word Order in English Sentences In the English language there are no different forms for subjects and objects. To keep subject and object apart, however, we have to stick to the word order. Word Order in Positive Sentences For the beginning, remember this simple rule:

subject verb(s) object I speak English I can speak English

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If you are a more advanced learner, remember the following rule: subject verb(s9 indirect object direct object place time

I will tell you the story at school tomorrow. Word Order in Negative Sentences

The word order in negative sentences is the same as in affirmative sentences. Note, however, that in negative sentences we usually need an auxiliary verb: subject verbs indirect object direct object place time

I will not tell you the story at school tomorrow. Word Order in Subordinate Clauses

In subordinate clauses, the word order is the same as in simple affirmative sentences. (Conjunctions are often used between two clauses):

conjunction subject verb(s) indirect object

direct object place time

I will tell you the story at school

tomorrow ...

because I don't have

time now.

Position of Time Expressions (e.g.: recently, now, then, yesterday) Adverbs of time are usually put at the end of the sentence.

subject verb(s) indirect object direct object time I will tell you the story tomorrow. If you don't want to put emphasis on the time, you can also put the adverb of time at the beginning of the sentence.

time subject verb(s) indirect object direct object Tomorrow I will tell you the story. Note that some time expressions are adverbs of frequency (always, never, usually etc.). These are usually put before the main verb (except for 'be' as a main verb). subject auxiliary/be adverb main verb object, place or time

I often go swimming in the evenings. He doesn't always play tennis. We are usually here in summer. I have never been abroad.

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Position of Adverbs Adverb of Manner (e.g.: slowly, carefully, awfully) These adverbs are put behind the direct object (or behind the verb if there's no direct object).

subject verb(s) direct object adverb He drove the car carefully. He drove carefully. Adverbs of Place (e.g.: here, there, behind, above) Like adverbs of manner, these adverbs are put behind the direct object or the verb.

subject verb(s) direct object adverb I didn't see him here. He stayed behind. Adverbs of Time (e.g.: recently, now, then, yesterday) Adverbs of time are usually put at the end of the sentence.

subject verb(s) indirect object direct object time I will tell you the story tomorrow. If you don't want to put emphasis on the time, you can also put the adverb of time at the beginning of the sentence.

time subject verb(s) indirect object direct object Tomorrow I will tell you the story. Adverbs of Frequency (e.g.: always, never, seldom, usually) Adverbs of frequency are put directly before the main verb. If 'be' is the main verb and there is no auxiliary verb, adverbs of frequency are put behind 'be'. Is there an auxiliary verb, however, adverbs of frequency are put before 'be'. subject auxiliary/be adverb main verb object, place or time I often go swimming in the evenings. He doesn't always play tennis. We are usually here in summer. I have never been abroad. Word Order in Questions In questions, the word order subject-verbs-object is the same as in affirmative sentences. The only thing that’s different is that you usually have to put the auxiliary verb (or the main verb “be”) before the subject. Interrogatives are put at the beginning of the sentences:

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interrogative auxiliary verb subject other

verb(s) indirect object

direct object place time

What would you like to tell

me

Did you have a party in your flat

yesterday?

When were you here? You don’t use an auxiliary verb if you ask for the subject. In this case the interrogative simply takes the place of the subject.

interrogative verb(s) object Who asked you? Adjectives and Adverbs

Adjectives are used to modify nouns, e.g. The dog is loud. – What is the dog like? – loud

Adverbs are used to modify verbs, adjectives or other adverbs, e.g. The dog barks loudly. – How does the dog bark? – loudly Comparison of Adjectives Positive Form

Use the positive form of the adjective if the comparison contains one of the following expressions: as … as

Jane is as tall as John. not as … as / not so … as

John is not as tall as Arnie. Comparative Form and Superlative Form (-er/-est) :- one-syllable adjectives (clean, new, cheap) :- two-syllable adjectives ending in -y or -er (easy, happy, pretty, dirty, clever)

positive form comparative form superlative form clean cleaner (the) cleanest Exceptions in spelling when adding -er / -est :- silent ‘e’ is dropped

late-later-latest :- final ‘y’ after a consonant becomes i

easy-easier-easiest :- final consonant after short, stressed vowel is doubled

hot-hotter-hottest

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Comparative Form and Superlative Form (more/most) :- adjectives of three or more syllables (and two-syllable adjectives not ending in -y/-er)

positive form comparative form superlative form difficult more difficult most difficult Comparative Form and Superlative Form (irregular comparisons) positive form comparative form superlative form good better best bad / ill worse worst little (amount) less least little (size) smaller smallest much / many more most far (place + time) further furthest far (place) farther farthest late (time) later latest late (order) latter last near (place) nearer nearest near (order) - next old (people and things)

older oldest

old (people) elder eldest Form and Comparison of Adverbs Adverbs are used to express how something is done (adjectives express how someone or something is).

The dog sleeps quietly. The dog is absolutely quiet. Form In general: adjective + -ly

adjective adverb slow slowly Exceptions in spelling

exception example silent e is dropped in true, due, whole true → truly y becomes i happy → happily le after a consonant is dropped sensible → sensibly after ll only add y full → fully Adjectives ending in -ic: adjective + -ally (exception: public-publicly)

adjective adverb fantastic fantastically

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Adjectives ending in -ly: use ‘in a … way / manner’ or another adverb with similar meaning

adjective adverb friendly in a friendly way

in a friendly manner likely probably Exceptions

adjective adverb (meaning) adverb (meaning) good well difficult with difficulty public publicly deep deep (place) deeply (feeling) direct direct directly (=soon) hard hard hardly (=seldom) high high (place) highly (figurative) late late lately (=recently) most most mostly (=usually) near near nearly (=almost) pretty pretty (=rather) prettily short short shortly (=soon) The following adjectives are also used as adverbs (without modification):

daily, enough, early, far, fast, hourly, little, long, low, monthly, much, straight, weekly, yearly, …

Comparison Comparison (-er/-est)

Comparative ending in -er

Superlative ending in -est

one-syllable adverbs (hard) harder hardest adverbs with the same form as adjectives (early)

earlier earliest

Comparison (more / most)

Comparative formed with more

Superlative formed with most

adverbs ending in -ly (happily)

more happily most happily

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Irregular comparisons positive form comparative superlative

well better best badly worse worst ill worse worst little less least much more most far (place + time) further furthest far (place) farther farthest late (time) later latest Adjective or Adverb :- Adjectives are used to modify nouns:

The dog is loud. :- Adverbs are used to modify verbs, adjectives or other adverbs:

The dog barks loudly. Linking Verbs Some verbs can only be used with adjectives, others might change their meaning when used with an adverb. verb used with an adjective used with an adverb

look look good (= appearance) look well (= healthy) feel feel good (= state of health/mind) feel well (= have a good sense of touch) smell smell good (= odour) smell well (= have a good sense of smell) taste taste good (= preference) taste well (= have a good sense of taste) The following verbs can only be used with adjectives: be become get grow keep remain seem sound stay turn Auxiliary Verbs

Auxiliary Verbs are the verbs be, do, have, will when they are followed by another verb (the full verb) in order to form a question, a negative sentence, a compound tense or the passive. The verb "be"

The verb be can be used as an auxiliary and a full verb. As an auxiliary we use this verb for compound tenses and the passive voice. Note that be is an irregular verb: Simple Present: I am, he/she/it is, we/you/they are Simple Past: I/he/she/it was, we/you/they were

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Past Participle: been

You can tell that in the following sentences be is an auxiliary because it is followed by another verb (the full verb). (For progressive forms use the "-ing" form of the full verb; for passive voice, use the past participle of the full verb.) Progressive Forms Present Progressive: He is playing football. Past Progressive: He was playing football. Present Perfect Progressive: He has been playing football. Past Perfect Progressive: He had been playing football. Passive Simple Present/Past: The house is/was built. Present/Past Perfect: The house has/had been built. Future I: The house will be built. "be" as a full verb

The verb be can also be a full verb. In this case, it's not followed by another verb. If be is used as a full verb, we do not need an auxiliary in negative sentences or questions. positive sentence: They are fifteen years old. negative sentence: They are not fifteen years old. question: Are they fifteen years old? The verb "have"

The verb have, too, can be used both as an auxiliary and as a full verb. As an auxiliary we use this verb to form compound tenses in active and passive voice. (Use the past participle of the full verb.) Compound Tenses - Active Voice Present Perfect Simple: He has played football.

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Past Perfect Simple: He had played football. Present Perfect Progressive: He has been playing football. Past Perfect Progressive: He had been playing football. Compound Tenses - Passive Voice Present/Past Perfect: The house has/had been built. Note that have is an irregular verb, too: Simple Present: I/we/you/they have, he/she/it has Simple Past: I/he/she/it/we/you/they had Past Participle: had "have" in positive sentences

As a full verb have indicates possession. In British English, however, we usually use have got (have being the auxiliary, got the full verb). full verb:

I have a car. auxiliary verb:

I have got a car. "have" in negative sentences and questions

When we use have as a full verb, we must use the auxiliary do in negative sentences and questions. If we use have got, however, we do not need another auxiliary.

have as a full verb: I do not have a car. Do I have a car?

have as an auxiliary verb:

I have not got a car. Have I got a car?

The verb "will"

The verb will can only be used as an auxiliary. We use it to form the future tenses. The auxiliary verb "will" Future I: He will not play football.

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Future II: He will have played football.

The verb will remains the same for all forms (no "s" for 3rd person singular). The short form for negative sentences is won't.'

I will, he will I will not = I won't

The verb "do"

The verb do can be both an auxiliary and a full verb. As an auxiliary we use do in negative sentences and questions for most verbs (except not for be, will, have got and modal verbs) in Simple Present and Simple Past. (Use the infinitive of the full verb.) The auxiliary "do" in negative sentences Simple Present: He does not play football. Simple Past: He did not play football. The auxiliary "do" in questions Simple Present: Does he play football? Simple Past: Did he play football? The verb do is irregular: Simple Present: I/we/you/they do, he/she/it does Simple Past: I/he/she/it/we/you/they did The full verb "do" As a full verb we use do in certain expressions. If we want to form negative sentences or questions using do as a full verb, we need another do as an auxiliary. positive sentence: She does her homework every day. negative sentence: She doesn't do her homework every day. question: Does she do her homework every day? Sentences without the auxiliary "do" In the following cases, the auxiliary do is not used in negative sentences/questions: the full verb is "be" Example: I am not angry. / Are you okay? the sentence already contains another auxiliary (e.g. have, be, will) Example: They are not sleeping. / Have you heard that? the sentence contains a modal verb (can, may, must, need, ought to, shall, should) Example: We need not wait. / Can you repeat that, please? the question asks for the subject of the sentence Example: Who sings that song?

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Modal Verbs and their substitutes Modal verbs are for example may, can, must, should, need. They express an ability, permission, wish etc. to do something. (I may, can, must swim.) Many modal verbs cannot be used in all of the English tenses. That's why we need to know the substitutes to these modal verbs. Modal Verb Substitute Example must to have to I must swim. = I have to swim. must not not to be allowed to I must not swim. = I am not allowed to

swim. can to be able to I can swim. = I am able to swim. may to be allowed to I may swim. = I am allowed to swim. need to have to I need to swim. = I have to swim. need not not to have to I need not swim. = I don't have to swim. shall / should/ ought to

to be supposed to / to be expected to / to be to

I shall / should / ought to swim. = I am supposed to swim. / I am expected to swim. / I am to swim.

Conditional Sentences / If-Clauses Type I, II und III Conditional Sentences are also known as Conditional Clauses or If Clauses. They are used to express that the action in the main clause (without if) can only take place if a certain condition (in the clause with if) is fulfilled. There are three types of Conditional Sentences. Conditional Sentence Type 1 → It is possible and also very likely that the condition will be fulfilled. Form: if + Simple Present, will-Future Example: If I find her address, I’ll send her an invitation. IF Clause Type 1 Form if + Simple Present, will-Future Example: If I find her address, I will send her an invitation. The main clause can also be at the beginning of the sentence. In this case, don't use a comma. Example: I will send her an invitation if I find her address. Note: Main clause and / or if clause might be negative. See Simple Present und will-Future on how to form negative sentences. Example: If I don’t see him this afternoon, I will phone him in the evening. Use Conditional Sentences Type I refer to the future. An action in the future will only happen if a certain condition is fulfilled by that time. We don't know for sure whether the condition actually will be fulfilled or not, but the conditions seems rather realistic – so we think it is likely to happen. Example: If I find her address, I’ll send her an invitation. I want to send an invitation to a friend. I just have to find her address. I am quite sure, however, that I will find it. Example: If John has the money, he will buy a Ferrari. I know John very well and I know that he earns a lot of money and that he loves Ferraris. So I think it is very likely that sooner or later he will have the money to buy a Ferrari.

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Conditional Sentence Type 2 → It is possible but very unlikely, that the condition will be fulfilled. Form: if + Simple Past, Conditional I (= would + Infinitive) Example: If I found her address, I would send her an invitation. IF Clause Type 2 Form if + Simple Past, main clause with Conditional I (= would + Infinitive) Example: If I found her address, I would send her an invitation. The main clause can also be at the beginning of the sentence. In this case, don't use a comma. Example: I would send her an invitation if I found her address. Note: Main clause and / or if clause might be negative. See Simple Past und Conditional I on how to form negative sentences. Example: If I had a lot of money, I wouldn’t stay here. Were instead of Was In IF Clauses Type II, we usually use ‚were‘ – even if the pronoun is I, he, she or it –. Example: If I were you, I would not do this. Use Conditional Sentences Type II refer to situations in the present. An action could happen if the present situation were different. I don't really expect the situation to change, however. I just imagine „what would happen if …“ Example: If I found her address, I would send her an invitation. I would like to send an invitation to a friend. I have looked everywhere for her address, but I cannot find it. So now I think it is rather unlikely that I will eventually find her address. Example: If John had the money, he would buy a Ferrari. I know John very well and I know that he doesn't have much money, but he loves Ferraris. He would like to own a Ferrari (in his dreams). But I think it is very unlikely that he will have the money to buy one in the near future. Conditional Sentence Type 3 → It is impossible that the condition will be fulfilled because it refers to the past. Form: if + Past Perfect, Conditional II (= would + have + Past Participle) Example: If I had found her address, I would have sent her an invitation. IF Clause Type 3 Form if + Past Perfect, main clause with Conditional II Example: If I had found her address, I would have sent her an invitation. The main clause can also be at the beginning of the sentence. In this case, don't use a comma. Example: I would have sent her an invitation if I had found her address. Note: Main clause and / or if clause might be negative. See Past Perfect and Conditional II on how to form negative sentences. Example: If I hadn’t studied, I wouldn’t have passed my exams. Use Conditional Sentences Type III refer to situations in the past. An action could have happened in the past if a certain condition had been fulfilled. Things were different then, however. We just imagine, what would have happened if the situation had been fulfilled. Example: If I had found her address, I would have sent her an invitation.

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Sometime in the past, I wanted to send an invitation to a friend. I didn't find her address, however. So in the end I didn't send her an invitation. Example: If John had had the money, he would have bought a Ferrari. I knew John very well and I know that he never had much money, but he loved Ferraris. He would have loved to own a Ferrari, but he never had the money to buy one. Exceptions Sometimes Conditional Sentences Type I, II and III can also be used with other tenses. Exceptions for Conditional Sentences So far you have only learned the basic rules for Conditional Sentences. It depends on the context, however, which tense to use. So sometimes it's possible for example that in an IF Clause Type I another tense than Simple Present is used, e.g. Present Progressive or Present Perfect. Conditional Sentences Type I (likely) Condition refers to: IF Clause Main Clause

future action Simple Present

If the book is interesting, …

Future I …I will buy it. Imperative …buy it. Modal Auxiliary

…you can buy it.

action going on now

Present Progressive

If he is snoring, … Future I …I will wake him up.

Imperative …wake him up. Modal Auxiliary

…you can wake him up.

finished action

Present Perfect

If he has moved into his new flat, …

Future I …we will visit him. Imperative …visit him. Modal Auxiliary

…we can visit him.

improbable action

should + Infinitive

If she should win this race, …

Future I …I will congratulate her.

Imperative …congratulate her.

Modal Auxiliary

…we can congratulate her.

present facts Simple Present

If he gets what he wants, …

Simple Present

…he is very nice.

Conditional Sentences Type II (unlikely) Condition refers to: IF Clause Main Clause

present / future event

Simple Past

If I had a lot of money, …

Conditional I

…I would travel around the world.

consequence in the past

Simple Past

If I knew him, … Conditional II

…I would have said hello.

Conditional Sentences Type II (impossible)

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Condition refers to: IF Clause Main Clause

present Past Perfect

If I had known it, … Conditional I

…I would not be here now.

past Past Perfect

If he had learned for the test, …

Conditional II

…he would not have failed it.

Infinitive and Gerund There are certain words in English that are usually followed by an infinitive or gerund. If you are not sure whether to use the infinitive or gerund, check out our lists or look the words up in a dictionary. Infinitive Use Certain words are followed by an infinite verb with or without ‘to’. Use and Word Lists Example as the subject of a clause To know you is to love you. after certain expressions (without ‘to’) Why not go to the cinema? after certain verbs (without ‘to’) I can swim. after certain verbs (with ‘to’) He wants to swim. after certain verbs with interrogatives (infinitive constructions)

They don’t know how to swim.

after certain verbs with objects (without ‘to’)

He made her swim.

after certain verbs with objects (with ‘to’) They wanted him to swim. after certain adjectives and their comparisons

It’s easier to swim downstream.

after nouns deriving from the verbs mentioned above

We made a promise to swim. (derived from the verb ‘to promise’)

Gerund Form ing form of the verb Exceptions in Spelling See → Present Progressive – Exceptions Use Certain words are followed by an Ing-Form. Use and Word Lists Example as the subject of a clause Cycling is good for your health. after certain adjectives He’s afraid of going by plane. after certain prepositions Before going to bed he turned off the lights. after certain verbs I enjoy cooking. after certain verbs with prepositions I am looking forward to seeing you again. after certain nouns We had problems finding our way back home. Words used with the Gerund Adjectives (with Prepositions) followed by the Gerund Example: I am interested in visiting the museum.

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afraid of angry about / at bad at busy clever at crazy about disappointed about excited about famous for fond of glad about good at impressed by interested in keen on like near proud of sick of sorry about tired of worried about worth Präpositions followed by the Gerund Example: Instead of studying for her exams, she went out every night. about (in 'how/what about') after apart from because of before by in in spite of instead of on without Verbs followed by the Gerund Example: I enjoy enjoy cooking. admit advise allow appreciate avoid can't help can't stand consider delay deny dislike enjoy escape fancy finish go (in go swimming) imagine involve keep mention mind miss permit postpone practise reject resist risk stop suggest understand waste time / money Verbs with Prepositions followed by the Gerund Example: I'm looking forward to seeing you again soon. accuse of adjust to agree with apologize for approve of ask about ask for begin by believe in be used to blame for care for carry on complain about concentrate on congratulate on consist of cope with decide against decide for depend on die of dream about / of escape from feel like forgive for give up insist on keep on look forward to object to pay for prevent sb. from protect from put off rely on spend money on spend time on succeed in suspect of take part in talk about / of thank for think of use for warn against worry about Nouns / Nouns with Prepositions followed by the Gerund Example: There's no point in waiting any longer. advantage of alternative of chance of choice between danger of difficulty in doubt about experience in fun hope of idea of interest in opportunity of place for pleasure in point in possibility of problem reason for trouble

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trouble in use way of waste of money waste of time Words followed either by Infinitive or Ing-Form Use and Word Lists Example same meaning I started to read. / I started reading. same meaning but different use

She forbids us to talk. / She forbids talking.

different meaning He stopped to smoke. / He stopped smoking. infinitive or present participle I saw him go up the stairs. / I saw him going up the

stairs. Words used either with the Infinitive or Gerund Words with the same meaning Example: I started to read. / I started reading. attempt begin bother cannot bear cease continue hate intend love prefer start Words with the same meaning but different use Word Infinitive - with an object Gerund – without an object advise I advise you to go by bus. I advise going by bus. allow / permit He allowed her to take the car. He allowed taking the car. forbid She forbids us to smoke. She forbids smoking. Words with a different meaning Word Infinitive meaning Gerund meaning forget / remember

with regard to the future Remember to switch off the lights.

with regard to the past Do you remember switching off the lights?

go on start something new Go on to read.

continue with the same action Go on reading.

regret with regard to the future I regret to say that.

with regard to the past I regret saying that.

stop interrupt another action I stopped to smoke.

terminate I stopped smoking.

try do something complicated Try to solve this riddle.

do it and see what happens Try talking to him.

Infinitive or Present Participle Gerund and present participle are not exactly the same. As this chapter is about when to use the infinitive and when to use the ing-form, however, we have also listed words here that can be used either with the infinitive or the present participle. (for more information on the present participle see participles) Words Infinitive meaning Gerund meaning feel hear see

Emphasises that the action is completed. Example: I saw him go up the stairs.

Action can be completed, but not necessarily. Example: I saw him going up the stairs.

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go come

expresses a purpose Example: She is coming to show us the pictures.

in connection with activities Example: Let’s go shopping / dancing.

Nouns - Articles, Plural und Possessive Case Important things to keep in mind when using nouns are which article to use and how to form the plural and how to form the possessive case. Article Direct article - the example: the house Indirect article a / an a - if the first letter of the following word is pronounced like a consonant example: a car, a university an - if the first letter of the following word is pronounced like a vowel example: an apple, an hour Plural general rule: singular form + s example: a car - two cars after s, ch, x, z the plural is formed by adding es example: a box - two boxes y after a consonant is changed to ie before the plural s example: a city - two cities But: y after a vowel is not changed example: a boy - two boys After o the plural is usually formed by adding es (this is not the case, however, with words used for electric gadgets and music: radio, video, disco) example: a tomato - two tomatoes Possessive Case of Nouns adding 's of phrase usually used for people usually used for things Ronny's brother the name of the school If there is a relation to people when using the possessive case with unanimated things, often the s is added instead of using an of phrase. example: Germany's economy or the ecomony of Germany When using the possessive case with a time, s is added. example: a three week's holiday Passive Voice Use of Passive Passive voice is used when the focus is on the action. It is not important or not known, however, who or what is performing the action. Example: My bike was stolen. In the example above, the focus is on the fact that my bike was stolen. I do not know, however, who did it. Sometimes a statement in passive is more polite than active voice, as the following example shows: Example: A mistake was made. In this case, I focus on the fact that a mistake was made, but I do not blame anyone (e.g. You have made a mistake.). Form of Passive Subject + finite form of to be + Past Participle (3rd column of irregular verbs)

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Example: A letter was written. When rewriting active sentences in passive voice, note the following: :- the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence :- the finite form of the verb is changed (to be + past participle) :- the subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the passive sentence (or is dropped) Examples of Passive Tense Subject Verb Object

Simple Present Active: Rita writes a letter. Passive: A letter is written by Rita.

Simple Past Active: Rita wrote a letter. Passive: A letter was written by Rita.

Present Perfect Active: Rita has written a letter. Passive: A letter has been written by Rita.

Future I Active: Rita will write a letter. Passive: A letter will be written by Rita.

Hilfsverben Active: Rita can write a letter. Passive: A letter can be written by Rita.

Examples of Passive Tense Subject Verb Object

Present Progressive

Active: Rita is writing a letter. Passive: A letter is being written by Rita.

Past Progressive Active: Rita was writing a letter. Passive: A letter was being written by Rita.

Past Perfect Active: Rita had written a letter. Passive: A letter had been written by Rita.

Future II Active: Rita will have written a letter. Passive: A letter will have been written by Rita.

Conditional I Active: Rita would write a letter. Passive: A letter would be written by Rita.

Conditional II Active: Rita would have written a letter. Passive: A letter would have been written by Rita.

Passive Sentences with Two Objects Rewriting an active sentence with two objects in passive voice means that one of the two objects becomes the subject, the other one remains an object. Which object to transform into a subject depends on what you want to put the focus on. Subject Verb Object 1 Object 2

Active: Rita wrote a letter to me. Passive: A letter was written to me by Rita. Passive: I was written a letter by Rita. .

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As you can see in the examples, adding by Rita does not sound very elegant. That’s why it is usually dropped. Personal and Impersonal Passive Personal Passive simply means that the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence. So every verb that needs an object (transitive verb) can form a personal passive. Example: They build houses. – Houses are built. Verbs without an object (intransitive verb) normally cannot form a personal passive sentence (as there is no object that can become the subject of the passive sentence). If you want to use an intransitive verb in passive voice, you need an impersonal construction – therefore this passive is called Impersonal Passive. Example: he says – it is said Impersonal Passive is not as common in English as in some other languages (e.g. German, Latin). In English, Impersonal Passive is only possible with verbs of perception (e. g. say, think, know). Example: They say that women live longer than men. – It is said that women live longer than men. Although Impersonal Passive is possible here, Personal Passive is more common. Example: They say that women live longer than men. – Women are said to live longer than men. The subject of the subordinate clause (women) goes to the beginning of the sentence; the verb of perception is put into passive voice. The rest of the sentence is added using an infinitive construction with 'to' (certain auxiliary verbs and that are dropped). Sometimes the term Personal Passive is used in English lessons if the indirect object of an active sentence is to become the subject of the passive sentence. Participles There are three kinds of participles in English: present participle, past participle and perfect participle. You probably know the first two from certain tenses and adjective forms. Apart from that, participles are also used to shorten sentences. Present Participle The present participle is the ing-form. You surely know this form: :- from progressive / continuous tenses (e. g. Present Progressive) – I am speaking. :- as an adjective form – The film is interesting. :- as a gerund – He is afraid of flying. Not the exceptions in spelling when adding 'ing': Exception Example final e dropped (but: ee is not changed) come – coming (but: agree -

agreeing) final consonant after short, stressed vowel is doubled sit – sitting final consonant l after vowel is always doubled (in British English)

travel – travelling

final ie becomes y lie – lying The present participle can be used to describe the following verbs: come, go, sit Example: The girl sat crying on the sofa. The present participle can also be used after verbs of the senses if we do not want to emphasise that the action was completed. (see Infinitive or Ing-Form) feel, find, hear, listen to, notice, see, smell, watch Example: Did you see him dancing?

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Furthermore, the present participle can be used to shorten or combine active clauses that have the same subject. Example: She left the house and whistled. – She left the house whistling. Past Participle The past participle is the participle that you find in the third column of lists with irregular verbs. You surely know this form: :- from perfect tenses (z. B. Present Perfect Simple) – I have spoken. :- from passive voice – The letter was written. :- as an adjective form – I was bored to death. For irregular participle forms see third column of irregular verbs. Regular verbs form the past participle by adding ed, however, note the following exceptions in spelling: Exceptions when adding ed Example after a final e, only add d love – loved final consonant after a short, stressed vowel or l as final consonant after a vowel is doubled

admit – admitted travel – travelled

final y after a consonant becomes i hurry – hurried The past participle can also be used to shorten or combine passive clauses that have the same subject. Example: The boy was given an apple. He stopped crying. – Given an apple, the boy stopped crying. Perfect Participle The perfect participle can be used to shorten or combine clauses that have the same subject if … :- … one action (the one where the perfect participle is used) is completed before the next action starts. Example: She bought a bike and cycled home. – Having bought a bike, she cycled home. :- … one action has been going on for a period of time when another action starts. Example: He had been living there for such a long time that he didn't want to move to another town. – Having lived there for such a long time, he didn't want to move to another town. The perfect participle can be used for active and passive voice. :- active voice: having + past participle (Having cooked, he set the table.) :- passive voice: having been + past participle (Having been cooked, the food looked delicious.) Use of Participle Clauses If a clause is shortened using a participle construction, the clause is called participle clause. Example: Watching TV, she forgot everything around her. In English, participle clauses are mainly used in writing in order to put a lot of information into one sentence. When shortening or combining clauses with a participle construction, keep the following rules in mind: :- Both clauses should have the same subject. :- The less important part becomes the participle clause. Important information should always be in the main clause. :- Make sure, you use the correct participle form (see above). :- The conjunctions as, because, since and relative pronouns who, which are left out. :- The conjunctions before, when are used in the participle clause. :- The conjunctions after, while can be used or left out. Participle Clauses with different Subjects

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Sometimes participle clauses can be used even if the clauses to be combined do not have the same subject. This is the case for example if the main clause contains one of the following verbs + object: feel, find, hear, listen to, notice, see, smell, watch Example: I heard him playing the guitar. Here, the participle clause must directly follow the object it is relating to. (Note: Some of the verbs mentioned here can also be used with the infinitive. For further information see Infinitive or Ing-Form) A participle construction is also possible, if both subjects are mentioned (often the word 'with' is put before the subject in the participle clause). This is very formal, however, and not often used. Example: Mrs Jones went to New York. Mr Smith took up her position. → (With) Mrs Jones going to New York, Mr Smith took up her position. Incorrect Participle Clauses Apart from the exceptions mentioned above, participle clause and main clause should have the same subject. Otherwise the sentences might sound rather strange. Example: I was driving on the motorway, when the baby started to cry. → Falscher Partizipialsatz: Driving on the motorway, the baby started to cry. In this example you get the feeling that the baby has driven the car. So these participle clauses are considered wrong in standard English. In colloquial English, these 'incorrect participle clauses' are usually okay, and you can even find an example in Shakespeare's Hamlet: Now, Hamlet, hear. ’Tis given out that, sleeping in my orchard, a serpent stung me. As the text goes, it is said that Hamlet's father was bitten by a snake. Strictly speaking, however, the snake was asleep when it bit Hamlet's father. Phrasal Verbs Phrasal verbs are mainly used in spoken English and informal texts. (The more formal a conversation or text, the less phrasal verbs are found.) Phrasal verbs consist of a verb plus a particle (preposition, adverb). The particle can change the meaning of the verb completely, e.g.: :- look up – consult a reference book (look a word up in a dictionary) :- look for – seek (look for her ring) :- look forward – anticipate with pleasure (look forward to meeting someone) There are no rules that might explain how phrasal verbs are formed correctly - all you can do is look them up in a good dictionary and study their meanings. In our lists, you will find some frequently used phrasal verbs and their meanings. Position of the Particle The particle is placed either after the verb or after the object. Example: Write down the word. / Write the word down. If the object is a pronoun, however, the particle has to be placed after the pronoun (object). Example: Write it down. Frequently used Phrasal Verbs Phrasal Verbs with: break, bring, call, carry, come, do, fall, get, go, keep, look, make, put, run, set, take, turn break break down fail to function

have a physical or mental collapse break in interrupt a discussion

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burgle soften with use (shoes)

break off discontinue (therapy, relationship) break out escape from prison, begin suddenly break up end a relationship

bring bring about cause to happen bring forth give birth to bring forward draw attention to sth bring on cause to happen or appear bring round persuade

cause to recover consciousness bring up rear, educate a child

mention vomit

call call back return a phone call call for require call in communicate by phone

consult a specialist call off cancel call out read names aloud

order workers to strike call on request sb to do sth call up reach by phone

summon for military services

carry carry away remove

inspire, affect emotionally carry off take away (by force)

win remove, degrade (earth)

carry on continue carry out accomplish, make carry through complete

bring out of difficulties

come come about happen, to be achieved

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come across find/meet by chance come after follow come at attack

reach, discover come back return come by pass, go past, visit

buy, get come down fall (price) come down to mean, signify come down with fall sick with come in enter, be received

prove to be come in for receive, be object of (criticism) come off become detached come out become known, be published

be removed (stain) come over come from a distance come round visit sb

recover consciousness come to amount to

arrive/reach a place come up be mentioned/discussed

(problem) arise come up against be faced with (problems) come upon find/meet by chance come up to match (a standard) come up with produce an idea

do do away with abolish

kill do up dress up

fasten, secure (clothing) do with need do without not require

fall fall apart fall into pieces fall behind fail to keep up pace fall for be in love with

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be deceived by fall in with meet by chance

coincide with fall off decrease

drop from fall out quarrel fall out with quarrel with fall through fail, miscarry fall to start an activity eagerly

get get across communicate (an idea) get along be in good terms with somebody get away escape get away with escape (punishment) get by manage, cope get down to turn one's attention to sth get in enter (car, taxi) get off disembark (bus, train etc.) get on enter (bus, train etc.) get out disembark (car, taxi) get over recover (illness, upset) get through pass (an exam)

be connected on the phone get to reach get up rise from bed after sleeping

go go against be contrary to (principles, rules) go along with take the same view go away depart go down become less

decrese in price sink (ship) set (sun)

go for pick up, go and get go off explode

deteriorate (food) begin to sound (alarm)

go on continue

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go out leave the house strike

go over inspect the details of sth go past pass go round visit informally go through deal with

discuss in detail experience sth (usually bad)

go up increase in price explode

go with match

keep keep away prevent from / avoid being near keep back withhold keep down not to increase keep off avoid (a topic)

stay away keep on not stopping doing sth keep up continue, carry on keep up with not to fall behind sb

look look after take care of look down on regard with a feeling of superiority look for seek look forward to anticipate with pleasure look into investigate (a crime) look on be a spectator

regard look out be careful look over inspect hastily look through pretend not to see

examine the contents of sth look up consult a reference book look up to respect

make make for have/produce a particular effect make off run away make out recognise, distinguish

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make up constitute, form invent a lie put together, prepare apply cosmetics

make up for compensate regain (time)

put put across express in an understandable way put back put sth to its proper place

lay money aside for the future move back the hands of a clock

put by save for later use put down repress

write down store (food)

put down to give as a reason, attribute to put forward move forward the hands of a clock

suggest, propose put in for be a candidate for an election put on dress oneself with

tease gain (weight)

put off postpone put out extinguish (a fire, light) put through connect sb by phone put up build

raise (hand) provide accomodation for offer for sale

put up with tolerate, accept

run run after chase run away escape, flee run down knock down, collide with

feel weak due to overwork run in imprison run into meet by chance run off escape, flee

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run out run outside become used up

run out of exhaust one's stock run over overflow

study quickly pass over, knock down

run up against meet with difficulties

set set aside reserve for later use set back hinder, slow down a progress set down write down set off cause to explode

start a journey set up start business

take take after follow sb as an example

resemble in appearance take down write down take in understand (meaning)

deceive take off undress

begin flight (plane) take to develop a habit take up continue, proceed

become interested in take up with begin to associate with

turn turn down diminish the intensity

reject turn in hand in turn off switch off turn on switch on turn out switch off turn over bring the reverse side up turn up increase the intensity

make an appearance Prepositions Prepositions are short words (on, in, to) that usually stand in front of nouns (sometimes also in front of gerund verbs).

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Even advanced learners of English find prepositions difficult, as a 1:1 translation is usually not possible. One preposition in your native language might have several translations depending on the situation. There are hardly any rules as to when to use which preposition. The only way to learn prepositions is looking them up in a dictionary, reading a lot in English (literature) and learning useful phrases off by heart (study tips). The following table contains rules for some of the most frequently used prepositions in English: Prepositions – Time English Usage Example on days of the week on Monday in months / seasons

time of day year after a certain period of time (when?)

in August / in winter in the morning in 2006 in an hour

at for night for weekend a certain point of time (when?)

at night at the weekend at half past nine

since from a certain point of time (past till now)

since 1980

for over a certain period of time (past till now)

for 2 years

ago a certain time in the past 2 years ago before earlier than a certain point of time before 2004 to telling the time ten to six (5:50) past telling the time ten past six (6:10) to / till / until

marking the beginning and end of a period of time

from Monday to/till Friday

till / until in the sense of how long something is going to last

He is on holiday until Friday.

by in the sense of at the latest up to a certain time

I will be back by 6 o’clock. By 11 o'clock, I had read five pages.

Prepositions – Place (Position and Direction) English Usage Example in room, building, street, town,

country book, paper etc. car, taxi picture, world

in the kitchen, in London in the book in the car, in a taxi in the picture, in the world

at meaning next to, by an object for table for events place where you are to do something typical (watch a film, study, work)

at the door, at the station at the table at a concert, at the party at the cinema, at school, at work

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English Usage Example on attached

for a place with a river being on a surface for a certain side (left, right) for a floor in a house for public transport for television, radio

the picture on the wall London lies on the Thames. on the table on the left on the first floor on the bus, on a plane on TV, on the radio

by, next to, beside

left or right of somebody or something

Jane is standing by / next to / beside the car.

under on the ground, lower than (or covered by) something else

the bag is under the table

below lower than something else but above ground

the fish are below the surface

over covered by something else meaning more than getting to the other side (also across) overcoming an obstacle

put a jacket over your shirt over 16 years of age walk over the bridge climb over the wall

above higher than something else, but not directly over it

a path above the lake

across getting to the other side (also over) getting to the other side

walk across the bridge swim across the lake

through something with limits on top, bottom and the sides

drive through the tunnel

to movement to person or building movement to a place or country for bed

go to the cinema go to London / Ireland go to bed

into enter a room / a building go into the kitchen / the house towards movement in the direction of

something (but not directly to it) go 5 steps towards the house

onto movement to the top of something jump onto the table from in the sense of where from a flower from the garden Other important Prepositions English Usage Example from who gave it a present from Jane of who/what does it belong to

what does it show a page of the book the picture of a palace

by who made it a book by Mark Twain on walking or riding on horseback

entering a public transport vehicle on foot, on horseback get on the bus

in entering a car / Taxi get in the car off leaving a public transport vehicle get off the train out of leaving a car / Taxi get out of the taxi

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English Usage Example by rise or fall of something

travelling (other than walking or horseriding)

prices have risen by 10 percent by car, by bus

at for age she learned Russian at 45 about for topics, meaning what about we were talking about you Pronouns (Personal, Possessive, Relative and Reflexive Pronouns) Pronouns are words like I, me (personal pronouns) or my, mine (possessive pronouns). Personal Pronouns Possessive Adjectives and Pronouns

Reflexive Pronouns subject

form object form possessive adjective

possessive pronoun

I me my mine myself you you your yours yourself he him his his himself she her her hers herself it it its its itself we us our ours ourselves you you your yours yourselves they them their theirs themselves Personal Pronouns - Subject Form example: We have got some books. Personal Pronouns - Object Form example: The books are for us. Possessive Adjectives example: These are our books. Possessive Pronouns example: The books are ours. Reflexive Pronouns example: He can carry the bags himself. Relative Pronouns example: This is the man who lives next door. Question Tags Question tags are used in conversation to get a (positive) reaction from the person you are talking to. That’s not really difficult, is it? ;o) Form :- positive main clause → negative question tag :- negative main clause → positive question tag Examples You are Tom, aren’t you? He isn’t Joe, is he? main clause with auxiliary verb → use auxiliary verb in question tag You’ve got a car, haven’t you? Relative Clauses We use relative clauses to give additional information about something without starting another sentence. By combining sentences with a relative clause, your text becomes more fluent and you can avoid repeating certain words. How to Form Relative Clauses

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Imagine, a girl is talking to Tom. You want to know who she is and ask a friend whether he knows her. You could say: A girl is talking to Tom. Do you know the girl? That sounds rather complicated, doesn't it? It would be easier with a relative clause: you put both pieces of information into one sentence. Start with the most important thing – you want to know who the girl is. Do you know the girl … As your friend cannot know which girl you are talking about, you need to put in the additional information – the girl is talking to Tom. Use „the girl“ only in the first part of the sentence, in the second part replace it with the relative pronoun (for people, use the relative pronoun „who“). So the final sentence is: Do you know the girl who is talking to Tom? Relative Pronouns relative pronoun use example

who subject or object pronoun for people I told you about the woman who lives next door.

which subject or object pronoun for animals and things

Do you see the cat which is lying on the roof?

which referring to a whole sentence He couldn’t read which surprised me.

whose possession for people animals and things Do you know the boy whose mother is a nurse?

whom object pronoun for people, especially in non-defining relative clauses (in defining relative clauses we colloquially prefer who)

I was invited by the professor whom I met at the conference.

that subject or object pronoun for people, animals and things in defining relative clauses (who or which are also possible)

I don’t like the table that stands in the kitchen.

Subject Pronoun or Object Pronoun? Subject and object pronouns cannot be distinguished by their forms - who, which, that are used for subject and object pronouns. You can, however, distinguish them as follows: If the relative pronoun is followed by a verb, the relative pronoun is a subject pronoun. Subject pronouns must always be used. the apple which is lying on the table If the relative pronoun is not followed by a verb (but by a noun or pronoun), the relative pronoun is an object pronoun. Object pronouns can be dropped in defining relative clauses, which are then called Contact Clauses. the apple (which) George lay on the table Relative Adverbs A relative adverb can be used instead of a relative pronoun plus preposition. This often makes the sentence easier to understand. This is the shop in which I bought my bike. → This is the shop where I bought my bike. relative adverb meaning use example

when in/on refers to a time expression the day when we met

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which him where in/at which refers to a place the place where we met

him why for which refers to a reason the reason why we met

him Defining Relative Clauses Defining relative clauses (also called identifying relative clauses or restrictive relative clauses) give detailed information defining a general term or expression. Defining relative clauses are not put in commas. Imagine, Tom is in a room with five girls. One girl is talking to Tom and you ask somebody whether he knows this girl. Here the relative clause defines which of the five girls you mean. Do you know the girl who is talking to Tom? Defining relative clauses are often used in definitions. A seaman is someone who works on a ship. Object pronouns in defining relative clauses can be dropped. (Sentences with a relative clause without the relative pronoun are called Contact Clauses.) The boy (who/whom) we met yesterday is very nice. Non-Defining Relative Clauses Non-defining relative clauses (also called non-identifying relative clauses or non-restrictive relative clauses) give additional information on something, but do not define it. Non-defining relative clauses are put in commas. Imagine, Tom is in a room with only one girl. The two are talking to each other and you ask somebody whether he knows this girl. Here the relative clause is non-defining because in this situation it is obvious which girl you mean. Do you know the girl, who is talking to Tom? Note: In non-defining relative clauses, who/which may not be replaced with that. Object pronouns in non-defining relative clauses must be used. Jim, who/whom we met yesterday, is very nice. How to Shorten Relative Clauses? Relative clauses with who, which, that as subject pronoun can be replaced with a participle. This makes the sentence shorter and easier to understand. I told you about the woman who lives next door. – I told you about the woman living next door. Do you see the cat which is lying on the roof? – Do you see the cat lying on the roof? Reported Speech (Indirect Speech) If we report what another person has said, we usually do not use the speaker’s exact words (direct speech), but reported (indirect) speech. Therefore, you need to learn how to transform direct speech into reported speech. The structure is a little different depending on whether you want to transform a statement, question or request. Statements When transforming statements, check whether you have to change: :- pronouns :- present tense verbs (3rd person singular) :- place and time expressions :- tenses (backshift) Type Example direct speech “I speak English.” reported speech (no backshift)

He says that he speaks English.

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Type Example reported speech (backshift)

He said that he spoke English.

Statements in Reported Speech Pronouns In reported speech, you often have to change the pronoun depending on who says what. Example She says, “My mum doesn’t have time today.” – She says that her mum doesn’t have time today. Tenses No backshift Do not change the tense if the introductory clause is in Simple Present (e. g. He says). Note, however, that you might have to change the form of the present tense verb (3rd person singular). Example He says, “I speak English.” – He says that he speaks English. Backshift You must change the tense if the introductory clause is in Simple Past (e. g. He said). This is called backshift. Example He said, “I am happy.” – He said that he was happy. Direct Speech Reported Speech Simple Present Simple Past Present Progressive Past Progressive Simple Past Past Perfect Simple Present Perfect Simple Past Perfect Simple Past Progressive Past Perfect Progressive Present Perfect Progressive Past Perfect Progressive Future I (going to) was / were going to Future I (will) Conditional I (would) Conditional I (would) The verbs could, should, would, might, must, needn’t, ought to, used to do not normally change. Example: He said, “She might be right.” – He said that she might be right. Place and Time expressions For place and time expressions you have to check whether place and time are the same in direct and reported speech or not. Check out the following example:

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It is Friday and you meet James at a restaurant. James tells you that he saw Caroline in this restaurant today. (“I saw Caroline here today.”) A few minutes later, Helen joins you and you want to report what James has told you. Place (here) and time (today) are the same and you can say: → James said that he had seen Caroline here today. One day later, you meet Mary at the same restaurant. Again, you want to report to her what James has told you. The place is the same, but not the time (it happened yesterday). So you would say: → James said that he had seen Caroline here yesterday.

Still a few days later, Tom rings you at home. Again, you want to report to him what James has told you. However, now you are not at the restaurant (but at home) and a few days have passed since then. So you would say: → James said that he had seen Caroline at the restaurant on Friday. oder → I met James in a restaurant on Friday and he said that he had seen Caroline there that day. Therefore you always have to think which place and time expressions are logical in a certain situation. In the following table, you will find ways of transforming place and time expressions into reported speech. Direct Speech Reported Speech today that day now then yesterday the day before … days ago … days before last week the week before next year the following year tomorrow the next day / the following day here there

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Direct Speech Reported Speech this that these those Questions When transforming questions, check whether you have to change: :- pronouns :- present tense verbs (3rd person singular) :- place and time expressions :- tenses (backshift) Also note that you have to: :- transform the question into an indirect question :- use the interrogative or if / whether Type Example with interrogative direct speech “Why don’t you speak English?”

reported speech He asked me why I didn’t speak English. without interrogative direct speech “Do you speak English?”

reported speech He asked me whether / if I spoke English.

Questions in Reported Speech For pronouns, tenses and place / time expressions see statements in reported speech. Besides, note that instead of ‚that‘ you use the interrogative. If there is no interrogative, use ‚whether‘ / ‚if‘. Direct Speech Reported Speech statement He said: “She lives in

London.“ He said that she lived in London

question with interrogative

He asked:“Where does she live?“

He asked where she lived.

question without interrogative

He asked: “Does she live in London?“

He asked whether she lived in London. He asked if she lived in London.

It is also important that you use an indirect question in reported speech, i.e. after the interrogative or ‚whether‘ / ‚if‘ you continue the sentence as if it were a statement (subject-verb etc.). The auxiliary verb ‚do‘ is not used in indirect questions. Example: He asked: “Where does she live?“ – He asked where she lived. Requests When transforming questions, check whether you have to change: :- pronouns :- place and time expressions Type Example direct speech “Carol, speak English.“ reported speech He told Carol to speak English. Requests in Reported Speech

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For pronouns and place / time expressions see statements in reported speech. Tenses are not relevant for requests – simply use ‚to‘ + infinite verb. Example: She said, “Say hello to your mum.“ – She asked me to say hello to my mum. For negative requests, use ‚not to‘ + infinite verb. Example: He said, “Don’t give up, Bob.“ – He advised Bob not to give up. Additional Information and Exeptions Apart from the above mentioned basic rules, there are further aspects that you should keep in mind, for example: :- main clauses connected with and / but :- tense of the introductory clause :- reported speech for difficult tenses :- exeptions for backshift :- requests with must, should, ought to and let’s → more on additional information and exeptions in reported speech Advanced Points Main Clauses connected with and / but If two complete main clauses are connected with ‚and‘ or ‚but‘, put ‚that‘ after the conjunction. Example: He said,“I saw her but she didn’t see me.“ – He said that he had seen her but that she hadn’t seen him.“ If the subject is left out in the second main clause (the conjunction is followed by a verb), do not use ‚that‘. Example: She said,“I am a nurse and work in a hospital.“ – He said that she was a nurse and worked in a hospital.“ Tense of the Introductory Clause The introductory clause usually is in Past Tense. Example: He said that … Present Tense is often used to report a conversation that is still going on, e. g. during a phone call or while reading a letter. Example: “I am fine.“ – Tom says / writes that he is fine. The introductory clause can also be in another tense. In the following table you can see, for which tense of the introductory clause you have to use backshift in reported speech. No Backshift if introductory clause is in …

Backshift if introductory clause is in …

Simple Present (He says …) Present Perfect (He has said …) Future I will (He will say …) Future I going to (He is going to say …)

Simple Past (He said …) Past Perfect (He had said …) Future II ( He will have said …) Conditional I (He would say …) Conditional II (He would have said …)

Backshift in Reported Speech The basic rules for backshift when transforming direct speech into reported speech are: Direct Speech Reported Speech

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Direct Speech Reported Speech Simple Present Simple Past Present Progressive Past Progressive Simple Past Past Perfect Simple Present Perfect Past Perfect Past Progressive Past Perfect Progressive Present Perfect Progressive Past Perfect Progressive Future I (going to) was / were going to Future I (will) Conditional I Conditional I Future II Conditional II Conditional II Exceptions Backshift of Simple Present is optional if the situation is still unchanged or if you agree with the original speaker. Example: “Canberra is the capital of Australia.“ She said that Canberra is / was the capital of Australia. Backshift of Simple Past and Past Progressive is optional if they cannot be mistakenly taken for backshift of Present Tense. So backshift is not necessary if there is a time expression indicating past. Example: “She left Boston on Monday.“ He said that she left / had left Boston on Monday. Simple Past and Past Progressive do not normally change in sentences with when / if. Example: “When I was having breakfast, the telephone suddenly rang.“ She said that when she was having breakfast, the telephone suddenly rang. Example: “If I had more time, I would learn French.“ He said that if he had more time, he would learn French. Requests The basic rule for requests is: introductory clause + ‚to‘ + infinite verb. Example: “Say hello to your mum.“ She asked me to say hello to my mum. Advise expressions with must, should and ought are usually reported using advise / urge. Example: “You must read that book.“ He advised / urged me to read that book. The expression let’s is usually reported using suggest. In this case, there are various possibilities for reported speech: gerund or statement with should. Example: “Let’s go to the cinema.“

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He suggested going to the cinema. He suggested that we should go to the cinema. Short Answers Saying ‘Yes, I do. / No, I don’t’ in English is more polite than just saying ‘Yes. / No.’ That’s why short answers are very commonly used. To form the short answer, you use the first word from the question. (This is either an auxiliary verb or a form of ‘be’.) Use the long form (he does) in affirmative answers (yes). Use the short form (he doesn’t) in negative answers (no). Question Affirmative Negative Do we know him? Yes, we do. No, we don’t. Can she see me? Yes, she can. No, she can’t. Have they read the book? Yes, they have. No, they haven’t. Is he hungry? Yes, he is. No, he isn’t. Mind: If ‘you’ is the subject of the question, ‘you’ must be replaced by ‘I’ or ‘we’. Question Affirmative Negative Do you know him? Yes, I / we do. No, I / we don’t. If the question starts with ‘are you’, ‘are’ must sometimes be replaced by ‘am’. Question Affirmative Negative Are you hungry? Yes, I am. No, I’m not. But: → Yes, we are. No, we aren’t. Grammar Handbook: Nouns and Verb Phrases Noun Phrases A noun phrase is made up of a noun and all its modifiers. It can function in a sentence as a subject, an object, or a complement. Some noun phrases begin with an infinitive (to go) or a gerund (going); this type of noun phrase is always singular: To sail the seven seas was her lifelong dream. (subject) Dieters prefer green salad. (object) A ham sandwich is a popular lunch. (complement) Verb Phrases A verb phrase consists of a main verb plus one or more helping verbs, its complements, objects, or other modifiers, and functions syntactically as a verb. Some common helping verbs are: :- to be (am, is, are, was, were, be, being, been) :- to have (has, have, had) :- to do (do, does, did) :- others: may, might, must, can, could, shall, should, will, would Helping verbs add meaning to other verbs. Some helping verbs change the time expressed by the key verb. Others, such as "should" and "might," are used to indicate obligation, possibility, ability, or permission: :- The student is going to Florida for Spring Break. :- The firm will probably not hire an accountant today. :- You should edit your own compositions. Grammar Handbook: Prepositional Phrases A prepositional phrase is a group of words including a preposition and a noun, pronoun, or group of words used as a noun. They are fragments that usually do not stand alone, except in commands like "At once!" or "On your feet!"

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Kinds of Phrases There are two kinds of prepositional phrases: adjective phrases and adverb phrases. An adjective phrase modifies a noun or pronoun. It always comes immediately after the noun or pronoun it modifies: :- Joe is the student with the highest grade. ("with the highest grade" modifies "student.") An adverb phrase modifies a verb, adjective, or adverb. It is used to tell when, where, how, or to what extent about the word it modifies: :- Megan put her bird in its cage. ("in its cage" modifies the verb "put.") Two or More Phrases When two or more prepositional phrases follow each other, they may modify the same word, or one phrase may modify the object in the preceding phrase: :- They arrived at the airport on time. (Both phrases modify "arrived"; "at the airport" tells where and "on time" tells when.) :- Chicago is on the northeast tip of Illinois. ("on the northeast tip" modifies "is"; "of Illinois" modifies "tip.") Preposition or Adverb? Many words can be either prepositions or adverbs; you can distinguish prepositions by their objects. :- Preposition: The bird flew out the window. ("window" is the object of "out.") :- Adverb: We went out last night. ("out" has no object.) Prepositional Phrase or Infinitive Phrase? Prepositional phrases can be confused with infinitive phrases. "To" followed by a verb is an infinitive, but "to" followed by a noun or pronoun is a prepositional phrase Grammar Handbook: Verbals and Verb Phrases Verbals are verb forms which act as another part of speech in a sentence (i.e. as adjectives, nouns, and adverbs). Verbal phrases are verbals and any of the verb form's modifiers, objects, or complements. The three types of verbal phrases are participial, gerund, and infinitive phrases. Participial Phrases Participial Phrases are present participles or past participles and any modifiers, objects, or complements. Participial phrases contain verbs which act as adjectives in a sentence. Examples: :- Singing very softly, the boy lulled his baby brother to sleep. (the participial phrase works as an adjective, modifying "boy") :- The girls, frightened by the police car's headlights, quickly came down from the school's roof. (the participial phrase works as an adjective, modifying "girls") Gerund Phrases Gerund Phrases contain verbs ending in -ing and any modifiers, objects, or complements. Gerund phrases act as nouns in a sentence. They can act as the subject or object of a verb, as a predicate nominative, and as the object of a preposition. Examples: :- Waiting for his grades drove him crazy. (the gerund phrase works as the subject of the verb "drove") :- The woman denied knowing her own husband. (the gerund phrase works as the object of the verb "denied") :- He thought he could escape from his problems by running away. (the gerund phrase works as the object of the preposition "by")

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:- Making many acquaintances is cultivating future friendships. (the gerund phrases work as the subject and as the predicate nominative) Infinitive Phrases Infinitive Phrases contain verbals consisting of "to" followed by a verb and any modifiers, objects, or complements. Infinitive phrases usually act as nouns, but they can also act as adjectives and adverbs. Examples: :- To live in Boston eventually is his main goal in life. (the infinitive phrase works as the subject of the sentence) :- Quentin Tarentino loves to babble during interviews. (the infinitive phrase works as the object of the verb "loves") :- Do you have any clothes to donate to the homeless shelter? (the infinitive phrase works as an adjective, modifying "clothes") :- She went home to visit her family. (the infinitive phrase works as an adverb, modifying "went") Grammar Handbook: Independent and Dependent Clauses A clause is a group of words that includes a subject and a predicate. There are two types of clauses: independent and dependent. An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence, while a dependent clause must be accompanied by an independent clause. Independent Clauses Two independent clauses can be connected by: :- A coordinating conjunction: Today is Tuesday and our papers are due Wednesday. :- A conjunctive adverb or another transitional expression: I need to study for my test; in fact I am going to the library now. (In this case, use a semicolon to separate the two clauses.) :- Correlative conjunction: George not only finished his paper on time, but he also got an A+. :- Semicolon: This is one of my English classes; Shakespeare is my other. :- Colon (sometimes): She received the assignment: it is to be turned in next Friday. Dependent Clauses Dependent clauses can be either adjective, adverb, or noun clauses based on how they are used in a sentence. Adjective (or relative) clauses modify nouns or pronouns and, in order to make the relationship clear, follow the noun or pronoun they modify. Example: :- Our class, which meets at nine in the morning, discusses the importance and use of grammar in our schools. (An adjective clause modifies the noun "class".) Adverb clauses modify single words (verbs, adjectives, or adverbs) or entire phrases or clauses. They always begin with a subordinating conjunction. Adverb clauses answer the questions how? where? when? why? and to what extent? Adverb clauses appear in any of several places in the sentence as long as the relationship is clear and its position conveys the intended purpose. Example: :- Confused, after class was over, Susan decided to meet with her group to discuss the paper. (An adverb clause modifies the participle "confused.") Noun clauses act as nouns in sentences (subjects, direct objects, indirect objects, or compliments). They may begin with a relative pronoun or "by," "whether," "when," "where," "why," or "how." Examples: :- Whoever wins the race will receive the trophy. (A noun clause serves as the subject of the sentence.)

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:- This grade is what I deserve. (A noun clause serves as the subject complement.) Grammar Handbook: Adjective, Adverb, and Noun Clauses A clause is a group of related words which has both a subject and a predicate. A clause is different from a phrase because a phrase is a group of related words which lacks either a subject or a predicate or both. Adjective Clauses Adjective clauses modify nouns or pronouns. An adjective clause nearly always appears immediately following the noun or pronoun. To test for adjective clauses there are a couple of questions that you can ask. Which one? What kind? Most adjective clauses begin with "who," "whom," "which," or "that." Sometimes the word may be understood. The words "that" or "who," for example, might not specifically be in the sentence, but they could be implied. To determine the subject of a clause ask "who?" or "what?" and then insert the verb. Example: :- The book that is on the floor should be returned to the library. Occasionally, an adjective clause is introduced by a relative adverb, usually "when," "where," or "why." Example: :- Home is the place where you relax. Adverb Clauses Adverb clauses usually modify verbs, in which case they may appear anywhere in a sentence. They tell why, where, under what conditions, or to what degree the action occurred or situation existed. Unlike adjective clauses, they are frequently movable within the sentence. Example: :- When the timer rings, we know the cake is done. OR :- We know the cake is done when the timer rings. Adverb clauses always begin with a subordinating conjunction. Subordinating conjunctions introduce clauses and express their relation to the rest of the sentence. Noun Clauses Noun clauses are not modifiers, so they are not subordinators like adjectives and adverbs, and they cannot stand alone. They must function within another sentence pattern, always as nouns. A noun clause functions as a subject, subject complement, direct object, or object of a preposition. A noun clause usually begins with a relative pronoun like "that," "which," "who," "whoever," "whomever," "whose," "what," and "whatsoever." It can also begin with the subordinating conjunctions "how," "when," "where," "whether," and "why." Example: :- Whoever wins the game will play in the tournament. Grammar Handbook: Relative Clauses A relative clause acts as a clause that modifies a noun or pronoun. Relative clauses begin with a relative pronoun (who, whom, which, that, whose). Relative clauses can either be restrictive or nonrestrictive. Also see below for common usage problems. Restrictive Relative Clauses A restrictive relative clause is essential in order to complete the meaning of the main clause. Examples: :- Where is the girl who is going? :- That's the one that I like best. :- Is he the one whose house is on fire? Nonrestrictive Relative Clauses

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A nonrestrictive relative clause adds definition to the main clause, but is not necessary for meaning. Nonrestrictive relative clauses are set off by commas. Examples: :- That girl, who is going to the concert, has a green dress. :- The orange car, which is my favorite, has seating for six. :- The tuba player, whose house is on fire, just went to band practice. Common Usage Problems Beware of sentence fragments when trying to use a relative clause: :- He was a loser. Who never thought he would win. [incorrect] :- He was a loser who never thought he would win. [revised] The relative pronoun should immediately follow the antecedent in a relative clause. Violating this rule leads to confusion: :- She saw the guy who dated Sheila who has a red mohawk. [unclear] :- Does Sheila or the guy have a red mohawk? [confusing] Revised: :- She saw the guy, who has a red mohawk, who dated Sheila. Grammar Handbook: Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Clauses A modifying clause can be either restrictive or nonrestrictive. Restrictive Clause A restrictive modifying clause (or essential clause) is an adjective clause that is essential to the meaning of a sentence because it limits the thing it refers to. The meaning of the sentence would change if the clause were deleted. Because restrictive clauses are essential, they are not set off by commas. :- All students who do their work should pass easily. :- The car that I want is out of my price range. :- The gas company will discontinue our service unless we pay our bills by Friday. Nonrestrictive Clauses A nonrestrictive modifying clause (or nonessential clause) is an adjective clause that adds extra or nonessential information to a sentence. The meaning of the sentence would not change if the clause were to be omitted. Nonrestrictive modifying clauses are usually set off by commas. :- Edgar Allan Poe, who wrote "The Raven," is a great American poet. :- Puerto Rico was a Spanish colony until 1898, when it was ceded to the United States. Grammar Handbook: Sentence Types Sentences can be either simple, compound, complex, or compound-complex. The Simple Sentence Simple sentences have only one independent clause. There are no dependent clauses, and the sentence must be limited to one subject and one predicate. The sentence may contain modifying words or phrases: :- Grammar class is boring. "Magma" is a French progressive rock band. The Compound Sentence Compound sentences are composed of two or more independent clauses, which are joined by a coordinating conjunction or a semicolon. One should always use a comma before any coordinating conjunction that connects two independent clauses: :- Sissy likes "Magma," but she thinks grammar class is boring. Timmy likes grammar class, so he does not like "Magma." The Complex Sentence Complex sentences use one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses: :- When Sissy is in grammar class, she often dreams of the next Magma show. ("When Sissy..." is a dependent clause, "she often..." is an independent clause.) The Compound-Complex Sentence

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The compound-complex sentence joins a compound and a complex sentence together. It should contain two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses: :- Magma sings in a language they created, and they feel that proper grammar has no place at their shows, which are often quite obnoxious. Comma Usage For proper comma usage with each sentence type, see Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Clauses. Grammar Handbook: Subjects and Predicates In English, every sentence has two essential parts: a complete subject and a complete predicate. Subjects The complete subject is the simple subject (a noun or a pronoun) plus any word or group of words modifying the simple subject that tells who or what the sentence is about: :- The high from my Mountain Dew usually lasts about an hour. To find the complete subject, ask Who? or What? insert the verb, and finish the question. The answer is the complete subject: :- What usually lasts about an hour? The high from my Mountain Dew. The simple subject is the essential noun, pronoun, or group of words acting as a noun that cannot be left out of the complete subject. In order to identify it, remove the complements and modifiers and whatever is left is the simple subject: article simple subject prepositional phrase predicate The high from my Mountain Dew usually lasts about an hour. TIP: Does the sentence make sense with just the word ("high") identified as the simple subject? :- (The) high usually lasts about an hour. Additional Facts About Subjects The "Understood You" Sometimes, as in the case of imperative sentences (see verb mood ), the subject does not actually appear in the sentence. At such times the invisible subject is called the "understood you": :- (You) Rent The Last of the Mohicans from the video store. Positioning Although the subject most commonly appears before the verb, it can also appear afterwards in sentences that begin with "there is" or "there are." "There" is an expletive or empty word which simply gets the sentence started: :- There are precious few hills in Illinois. vs. Precious few hills are in Illinois. Sentences can also be inverted for effect: :- Happy is the wife of Harrison Ford. vs. The wife of Harrison Ford is happy. Predicates The complete predicate is the verb plus its objects, complements, and adverbial modifiers that tell what the complete subject does or is: :- The high from my Mountain Dew usually lasts about an hour. To find the complete predicate, ask "What does the subject (the high) do?" (It) usually lasts about an hour. Simple Predicate The simple predicate is the essential verb or verb phrase that cannot be left out of the complete predicate. Again, remove the modifiers and complements to identify it:

article simple subject prepositional phrase adverb simple

predicate prepositional phrase

The high from my Mountain usually lasts about an hour

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Dew TIP: Does the sentence make sense with just the word identified as the simple predicate? :- The high from my Mountain Dew lasts. Compound Subjects and Predicates Although the examples so far have contained only one subject and one verb, a sentence may contain a compound subject, a compound predicate, or both. Compound Subject The compound subject consists of two or more subjects that have the same verb and are joined by a conjunction such as "and" or "or": :- Spencer and Annie wagged their tails. Compound Predicate The compound predicate consists of two or more verbs that have the same subject and are joined by a conjunction such as "and" or "or": :- I came, saw, and conquered.

Grammar Handbook: Active and Passive Voice The voice of a verb tells whether the subject of the sentence performs or receives the action. In English there are two voices: active and passive. Active Voice In active voice, the subject performs the action expressed by the verb: :- The student wrote a song. Passive Voice In passive voice, the subject receives the action expressed by the verb: :- A song was written by the student. Forming Tenses of Passive Verbs The passive voice always consists of two parts: a form of the verb "to be" + past participle: Tense Passive voice form Present it is cleaned Past it was cleaned Future it will be cleaned Present perfect it has been cleaned Past perfect it had been cleaned Future perfect it will have been cleaned Uses of Passive Voice Use the passive voice to: :- Call attention to receiver of the action rather than the performer: - The professor was hit by three snowballs. :- Point out the receiver of the action when performer is unknown or unimportant: -A love letter was slipped under the door. - The signs will be posted. :- Avoid calling attention to the performer of the action (known as the "institutional passive"): - The fines will be collected on Monday. Active and Passive Voice in Writing The choice between using the active or passive voice in writing is a matter of style, not correctness. However, most handbooks recommend using active voice, which they describe as more natural, direct, lively, and succinct. The passive voice is considered wordy and weak (except when used in cases above). Examine the following examples. :- weak, passive: The skater was slammed into the wall by Maria.

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:- strong, active: Maria slammed the skater into the wall. :- weak, passive: The book was enjoyed by me because the events of her childhood were described so well by the author. :- strong, active: I enjoyed the book because the author described the events of her childhood so well. Hints for Identifying the Passive Voice :- An active verb may or may not have a direct object, but the passive verb almost never does. -"It is...That" construction (It is clear that... It is noted...) :- Use of the verbs To Be, Make, or Have -Passive: Your exits should be made quickly. -Active: Leave quickly. :- Endings that turn verbs into abstract nouns: -ion,-ing,-ment: -Passive: When application of force is used, the lid will open. -Active: Apply force to open the lid. Grammar Handbook: Complements A complement is called a complement because it completes the predicate in a sentence. There are two kinds of complements: object complements and subject complements. Object Complements An object complement follows the direct object and modifies or refers to the direct object. An object complement can be an adjective, a noun, a word, or a group of words which acts as an adjective or noun: :- If you elect me president, I'll keep the unions satisfied. ("President" is an object complement referring to the direct object "me." "Satisfied" is an object complement modifying the direct object "unions.") :- The students elected Mary president. ("President" is an object complement referring to the direct object "Mary.") :- Wool socks will keep your feet very warm. ("Very warm" is an object complement modifying the direct object "your feet.") Subject Complements A subject complement follows a linking verb and modifies or refers to the subject. A subject complement can be an adjective, a noun, a pronoun, a word, or a group of words which acts as an adjective or noun: :- I am a teacher, but I am not yet experienced. ("Teacher" and "experienced" are both subject complements that modify the subject "I.") Subject complements have two subgroups: predicate adjectives and predicate nouns. Predicate Adjectives A predicate adjective is a subject complement that is an adjective (see appositives): :- I am not yet experienced. ("Experienced" is a predicate adjective that modifies the subject "I.") Predicate Noun A predicate noun (nominative) is a subject complement that is a noun: :- I am a teacher. ("Teacher" is a predicate noun that refers to the subject "I.") Grammar Handbook: Direct and Indirect Objects A direct object is the word or words in a sentence designating the person or thing receiving the action of a transitive verb: :- The boy broke the dish. An indirect object comes before the direct object. It tells to whom or for whom the action of the verb is being done: :- Sing me a song.

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:- He feeds the turtle lettuce. Grammar Handbook: Appositives Appositives are two words or word groups which mean the same thing and are placed together. Appositives identify or explain the nouns or pronouns which they modify: :- Our teacher, Professor Lamanna, loves grammar. We can say that "Professor Lamanna" is an appositive or is in apposition to "our teacher." "Professor Lamanna" identifies or explains "teacher.' Appositive Phrases An appositive phrase includes an appositive and its modifiers: :- My favorite place, the English building, is located on the Quad, a grassy square in the middle of the campus. Restrictive Appositives A restrictive appositive is necessary to maintain the meaning of the sentence and does not require commas. Usually, a restrictive appositive is a single word closely related to the preceding word. It "restricts" or narrows the meaning of the word it modifies: :- The musician Harry Connick will come to Champaign. ("Harry Connick" restricts the general term "musician.") :- My sister Mary has four dogs. Nonrestrictive Appositive A nonrestrictive appositive may be omitted without changing the basic meaning of the sentence. A nonrestrictive appositive is separated by commas. Commas are always used when the word which the appositive modifies is a proper noun: :- Harry Connick, the musician, will come to Champaign. ("Musician" offers additional information about the specific name "Harry Connick") :- There are many parades for Mardi Gras, a religious festival celebrating the last day before Lent, in New Orleans, a city in Louisiana. Punctuation Note A dash or colon, as well as a comma, can be used to set off appositives: :- For the prisoner there was only one goal--escape. Common usage problems Grammar Handbook: Homophones Homophones are words that sound alike but have different spellings and meanings. As a result, these words are often Examples: :- Accept (to receive): "I accept your apology." :- Except (excluded from): "I like everyone except her." :- Capital (economic resources OR the city where lawmakers meet) :- Capitol (the building where lawmakers meet) :- Principal (head of a school): "The principal is your pal." :- Principle (a moral or fundamental truth): "That is against my principles." :- There (meaning "in that place"): "The book is over there." :- Their (possessive pronoun "belonging to them"): "Their book" :- They're (contraction for "they are"): "They're coming soon." :- Its (possessive pronoun): "The dog lost its bone." :- It's (contraction for "it is"): "It's a shame you can't come." Grammar Handbook: Parallelism Parallelism occurs when compound verbs or verbals express an action taking place at the same time or in the same tense. When such is the case, the verb and/or verbals must be in the same, or parallel, form. Example: :- Gail sings and dances. ("Sings" and "dances" are parallel forms of the verb.) Types of Parallel Structure

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:- Coordinated ideas of equal rank, connected by "and," "but," "or," or "nor." -Correct: --Earl loves bicycling and climbing. (A gerund is paired with a gerund.) --Earl loves to bicycle and to climb. (An infinitive is paired with an infinitive.) -Incorrect: --Earl loves bicycling and to climb. (Here, a gerund is paired with an infinitive.) :- Compared ideas -Correct: --I like officiating basketball more than playing basketball. (A gerund is paired with a gerund.) --I like to officiate basketball more than I like to play basketball. (An infinitive is paired with an infinitive.) -Incorrect: --I like to officiate basketball more than I like playing basketball. (An infinitive is paired with a gerund.) :-Correlative ideas are linked with the correlative conjunctions both...and, either...or, neither...nor, and not only...but also. -Correct: --Josh is talented not only as a basketball player, but also as a tennis player. (A noun is paired with a noun.) --Josh is talented not only at playing basketball, but also at playing tennis. (A gerund is paired with a gerund.) -Incorrect: --Josh is talented not only as a basketball player, but also at playing tennis. (A noun is paired with a gerund.) Placement Place correlative conjunctions immediately before the parallel terms: :-Incorrect: -Brad has both experienced the sweet taste of success and the bitterness of defeat. :-Revised: -Brad has experienced both the sweet taste of success and the bitterness of defeat. Grammar Handbook: Misplaced Modifiers Misplaced modifiers are single words, phrases, or clauses that do not point clearly to the word or words they modify. As a rule, related words usually should be kept together. Six Helpful Tips for Placing Modifiers Correctly Limiting modifiers (only, even, almost, nearly, just) should be placed in front of the words they modify. --Unclear: You will only need to plant one package of seeds. --Revised: You will need to plant only one package of seeds. ("Only" modifies "one," not "need.") Place modifying phrases and clauses so that readers can see at a glance what they modify. --Unclear: The robber was described as a tall man with a black moustache weighing 150 pounds. --Revised: The robber was described as a six-foot-tall man weighing 150 pounds with a black moustache. ("150 pounds" describes the man, not the moustache.) Sentences should flow from subject to verb to object without lengthy detours along the way. When adverbs separate subject from verb, verb from object, or helping-verb from main-verb, the result can be awkward. --Unclear: John, after trying to reach the ball, decided to get a ladder.

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--Revised: After trying to reach the ball, John decided to get a ladder. (Subject and verb are no longer separated.) Infinitives ("to" + verb, such as "to go," "to catch," "to shout") usually should not be split unless necessary, especially in formal writing. --Unclear: The patient should try to, if possible, avoid going up and down stairs. --Revised: If possible, the patient should try to avoid going up and down stairs. Dangling modifiers are word groups (usually introductory) that may seem confusing to some people if they fail to refer logically to any word in a sentence. Rewording a sentence may help to clarify the meaning. --Unclear: Deciding to join the navy, the recruiter happily pumped Joe's hand. (The recruiter is not deciding to join the navy; Joe is.) --Revised: The recruiter happily pumped Joe's hand after learning that Joe had decided to join the navy. --Unclear: Though only sixteen, UCLA accepted Martha's application. (UCLA is not sixteen; Martha is.) --Revised: Though Martha was only sixteen, UCLA accepted her application. Dangling modifiers can be repaired by restructuring the sentence, but this restructuring may vary according to the writer's stylistic preferences. -Unclear: --When watching films, commercials are especially irritating. -Revised: --One option would be to change the subject so that it names the actor that the modifier implies: ---When watching films, I find commercials especially irritating. --Another option would be to turn the modifier into a word group that includes the actor: ---When I am watching films, commercials are especially irritating. Grammar Handbook: Dangling Modifiers A dangling modifier is a phrase or clause that does not connect grammatically with what it is intended to modify. The problem is most common with adjective participial phrases, especially when they open the sentence. Such open participial phrases can be taken to modify the noun, but when the noun is not present in the sentence, then the phrase becomes nonsensical. Problems with Dangling Modifiers There are two kinds of problems with dangling modifiers: A word (often a pronoun) has been left out, so that the introductory phrase does not complement what follows. --Unclear: Running across the street, the bus left. A phrase or word in a sentence is too far from the idea that it modifies. --Unclear: A dependable car, the family decided to buy the mini-van. Correcting the Problems There are two ways to correct dangling modifiers. The main clause can be left alone and the participial construction altered, usually to an adverbial phrase. --Unclear: Running down the street, the house was on fire. --Revised: When the man ran down the street, the house was on fire. The participial construction can be allowed to stand and the main clause modified so that the modified object is in the subject position. --Revised: Running down the street, the man saw the house was on fire. Grammar Handbook: Sentence Fragments A sentence fragment is a part of a sentence punctuated as if it were a complete sentence. It is a group of words that begins with a capital letter and ends with a

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period, exclamation point, or a question mark, but does not express a complete thought. Phrases as Sentence Fragments :-A word group is a sentence fragment if it lacks a subject. --Swam into the ocean. (Note: Sentences in the imperative mood (e.g., "Swim into the ocean!") have, by convention, an understood "you" for a subject and are not considered fragments.) :-A word group is also a sentence fragment if it lacks a verb. --The white plastic chair. :-A word group missing both a subject and a predicate is a sentence fragment. --As in the lives of many. Clauses as Sentence Fragments Warning: These are only guidelines for spotting a sentence fragment, not hard and fast rules. A clue that a group of words may be a sentence fragment is that it begins with a subordinator. Often, when a group of words begins with a subordinator, it is a dependent clause, a clause that cannot stand alone as a sentence. Some common subordinators are: when, until, after, before, however, while, because, since, though, although, if, so that, so, and where. --Example: Until the day is over. Another clue is that the word group begins with a relative pronoun. Some common relative pronouns are: that, who, whose, whom, which, and when. --Example: Whom Kelly had known since the third grade. Using Sentence Fragments Students should understand that sentence fragments can be used in writing, but that they should be used rarely and cautiously. Pointing out these structures in literature might be a good way to identify the difference between strong use of sentence fragments and weak sentence fragments. --Example: Every life is many days, day after day. We walk through ourselves, meeting robbers, ghosts, giants, old men, young men, wives, widows, brothers-in-love. But always meeting ourselves. (James Joyce) The last word group is a sentence fragment. A sentence fragment is used here for emphasis. In this example, the meaning of the fragment is clear. Misusing Sentence Fragments It is very easy to misuse sentence fragments. The following piece of writing shows how this misuse can make writing unclear and disorganized. --Example: It is my opinion that the baseball strike should end. A salary cap is not a bad idea. After all, the players receive huge salaries. More money than the president. The last word group is a sentence fragment. Grammar Handbook: Fused Sentences, Run-ons, and Comma Splices Fused Sentences A fused sentence (also known as a run-on sentence) occurs when two independent clauses are joined without any punctuation or connecting word between them. --It was close to fall the trees were losing their leaves. Comma Splices A comma splice occurs when two independent clauses are joined only by a comma. --It was close to fall, the trees were losing their leaves. Six Ways to Eliminate Fused Sentences and Comma Splices Separate the clause into two sentences: ---It was close to fall. The trees were losing their leaves. Link the clauses with a semicolon:

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---It was close to fall; the trees were losing their leaves. Link the clauses with a comma and a coordinating conjunction: ---It was close to fall, so the trees were beginning to lose their leaves. Recast the two independent clauses as one independent clause: ---It was the time of year when trees begin to lose their leaves. Recast one of the independent clauses as a dependent clause: ---Because it was close to fall, the trees were losing their leaves. Use a semicolon before a conjunctive adverb (also, anyway, besides, furthermore, incidentally, moreover, otherwise, and thus) or a transitional expression (after all, by the way, for example, in other words, and on the other hand) placed between independent clauses: ---It was close to fall; consequently, the trees were losing their leaves. THE 23 AUXILIARY VERBS 1. Twelve (12) verbs, when used as auxiliary verbs, combine with the base form only (“base form” = infinitive minus “to”; for example: to go = infinitive; go = base form). will would may do shall should might does can could must did OK: I will go. You can go. He should go. We may go. They do go. Not OK: I will going. You can gone. He should goes. We may went. They do going. 2. Seven (7) verbs, when used as auxiliary verbs, combine with present participles (base form plus ing: for example, going ) OR past participles (I have walked. I have gone.) am is are was were be been OK: I am going. He is going. He is gone. You are going. You are gone. She was going. She was gone. We were going. We were gone. They will be going. They will be gone. It has been going. It has been gone. Not OK: I am go. I am went. He is goes. He was wenting. She will be goning. Note: Been is the past participle of to be. But, none of the 7 verbs above combines with been. In fact, only three auxiliaries combine with been: have, has, had. One of these three is always immediately in front of been (for example: I have been sick. He has been sick. I had been sick.), except in the negative and interrogative (for example: I have not been sick. (negative) Has he been sick? (interrogative)). Also Note: Been cannot stand alone. For example: Not OK: I been here two years. OK: I have been here two years. Not OK: I been living here two years. OK: I have been living here two years. 3. Four (4) verbs, when used as auxiliary verbs, combine with past participles only. have has had being OK: I have gone. He has gone. I had gone. I was being robbed. I have chased. He has chased. I had chased. I was being chased. Not OK: I have go. I have going. He has go. He has going. I had go . I had going. I was being rob. I was being robbing.

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I have chase. I have chasing. He has chase. He has chasing. I had chase. I had chasing. I was being chase. I was being chasing. Note: Being works best in the continuous form of passive voice, simple present and simple past only. For example: I am being chased (simple present). I was being chased (simple past). Not OK: I will be being chased. I have been being chased. I had been being chased. I will have been being chased. I am being tired = Not OK. I am tired = OK. I was being lost = Not OK. I was lost = OK. 4. Of the 23 “auxiliaries,” nine (9) are auxiliary verbs ONLY. will shall can would should could may might must OK: I will go. I shall go. I can go. I would go. I should go. I could go. I may go. I might go. I must go. Not OK: I will here. I shall there. I can this. I would that. I should him. I could her. I may them. I might it. I must us. Note: Many times every day you might hear people say: I do. She will. He does. We might. You should. They might. I must. It could. It seems like the auxiliary verb is being used as a principal verb, but the principal verb is not expressed. The examples above occur only in response to questions. Do you like candy? Yes, I do (like candy). No, I don’t (like candy). Will she come here? Yes, she will (come here). No, she won’t (come here). Does he study English? Yes, he does (study English). No, he doesn’t (study English). 5. Of the 23 “auxiliaries,” fourteen (14) are auxiliary verbs OR principal verbs. do does did am is are was were be being been have has had OK: Auxiliary Principal I do not like cats. I do my homework. He does like cats.* He does a good job. Did you eat?** You did the laundry. I am reading. I am poor. She is not listening. She isn’t rich. It was running. It was sunny. We were robbed. We were in New York They will be kissed. They will be here at noon. I have been studying. I have been sick. I have talked to her. I have some money. He has driven a car. He has a new car. You had fallen down. You had a cold. She was being prepared. She was being polite. *He does like cats. I do like cats. I did like cats. These sentences are in the emphatic form, and they are used only in the simple present and simple past; they are usually responses to statements or questions. For example: (1) John doesn’t like cats. Yes, he does like cats. John doesn’t like cats, does he? Yes, he does like cats. (2) You don’t like cats. Yes, I do like cats. You don’t like cats, do you? Yes, I do like cats. (3) She didn’t like cats. Yes, she did like cats. She didn’t like cats, did she? Yes, she did like cats. BUT: If the principal verb is a form of to be , do-does-did is unnecessary. OK: He is rich. Yes, he is. No, he isn’t. He is rich, isn’t

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he? Yes, he is. No, he isn’t. ALSO: If there is an auxiliary, do-does-did is unnecessary. OK: She isn’t working. Yes, she is working. She isn’t working, is she? Yes, she is working. **In the interrogative and the negative, do, does, and did are auxiliaries for the simple present and simple past--they are not emphatic. They are not used when the principal verb is a form of to be or when there is an auxiliary verb. For example (principal verb is a form of to be) : He is sick. Interrogative = Is he sick? Negative = He isn’t sick. For example (an auxiliary verb): I am talking. Interrogative = Am I talking? Negative = I am not talking. VERBS FOLLOWED BY GERUNDS, INFINITIVES

1. VERBS FOLLOWED BY A GERUND: (e.g., I enjoy swimming. NOT I enjoy to swim. NOT I enjoy swim.) admit advise appreciate avoid believe can’t help choose confess consider debate delay deny discuss dislike enjoy escape favor feel like finish get around to get out of give go imagine include keep on know look forward to make mention mind miss picture postpone put off

2. VERBS FOLLOWED BY AN INFINITIVE: (e.g., He wants to swim. NOT He wants swimming. NOT He wants swim.) decide expect forget have hope know how need plan promise wait want would like 3. VERBS FOLLOWED BY A GERUND OR AN INFINITIVE: (e.g., She begins swimming. OR She begins to swim. NOT She begins swim.) afford attempt begin bother choose continue dread forget hate intend like love hate neglect regret

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protest practice quit recall recommend regret remember resent resist risk stop succeed in suggest take up work at

remember stand start stop try

ADVERBS Adverbs tell how (“eagerly”), when (“lately,” “often”), where (“there,” “outside”), how much (“very,” “too”), and why (“therefore”). Adverbs usually modify verbs, other adverbs, or adjectives. Bob drives carefully . (“Carefully” modifies the verb “drives.”) Bob drives very carefully. (“Very” modifies the adverb “carefully.”) Bob is quite tall. (“Quite” modifies the adjective “tall.”) Adverbs are often “adjective + -ly”: patient--patiently careless--carelessly expensive--expensively probable--probably certain--certainly happy--happily honest--honestly personal--personally real--really direct--directly fair-fairly serious--seriously But not all adverbs end in –ly: again, ago, all, almost, also, always, any, anyhow, anymore, anyplace, anytime, anyway, anywhere, better, best, enough, far, farther, fast, further, furthest, here, how, inside, just, later, maybe, more, most, much, never, next, now, often, once, outside, quite, rather, slow (also slowly), so, some, somehow, sometime, sometimes, somewhat, still, straight, there, therefore, too, very, well, what, whatever, when, whence, whenever, where, whereby, wherein, wherever, yet. Not all words that end in -ly are automatically adverbs; “friendly,” “likely,” “lonely,” and “lovely” are adjectives. “Early” can be an adjective OR an adverb.

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“Fast,” “slow,” “quick,” “early,” and “straight” are examples of other words that can be adjectives AND adverbs, BUT have the same meaning: Sara walks fast. (adverb) = Sara is a fast walker. (adjective). The early bus (adjective) = the bus that arrives early (adverb). Most adverbs, like adjectives, can be compared using “more” and “most”: sharply--more sharply--most sharply. One- syllable adverbs are compared using “-er” and “-est”: straight--straighter--straightest. Some adverbs are irregular: well--better--best, badly (ill)--worse--worst, much--more--most, little--less--least, far--farther (further)--farthest (furthest). TRANSITIONAL PHRASES Transitional words and phrases keep the reader “on track.” They kep the reader understand the relationship between one idea or statement and subsequent ones. 1. Adding ideas: besides for example (e.g.) for instance furthermore in addition in fact indeed likewise moreover once more similarly that is (i.e.) then, too 2. As expected: as a matter of fact for that matter it follows that naturally obviously of course surely to be sure 3. Cause and effect: accordingly

6. Degrees of certainty: anyhow anyway certainly doubtless in all likelihood in all probability in any case indeed perhaps possibly probably surely 7. Qualification: especially frequently if in case in general in particular inasmuch lest occasionally particularly provided that specifically unless

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and so and that’s why as a consequence as a result as might be expected consequently for this reason hence since then therefore thus 4. Contrast: at the same time conversely despite however in spite of nevertheless nonetheless notwithstanding not at all on the contrary on the other hand still unlike yet 5. Concession: although but of course certainly doubtless granted that of course though to be sure to doubt that whereas

8. Repetition: as noted as noted earlier as we have seen besides in any case in fact in other words indeed to put it another way to repeat 9. Summary: all in all finally in a word in brief in conclusion in short in summary in summation on the whole therefore to conclude to make a long story short to sum it up to summarize

COMMON PHRASAL VERBS I A. Separable Verbs You can insert a noun or pronoun after the first word: For example: “call back” Noun: Call back John. = OK Noun: Call John back. = OK Pronoun: Call him back. = OK ask in (to invite inside)

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ask out (to invite on a date) back away (to move away) back down (to move back) back off (to move back) break down (to separate into basic parts) break off (to snap; to cancel) break in (a baseball glove) break up (to separate) bring about (a change) bring back (the good old days) bring down (the house) bring up (the kids) call back (to return a phone call) call off (to cancel) call up (to phone) check off (to notate) check out (to investigate) cheer up (to make happy) clean off (the countertop) clean out (the closet) clean up (the mess) cross off (to delete) cross out (to delete) cross up (to deceive; to trick) cut back (to diminish) cut down (to diminish) cut off (to remove) cut out (to quit; to excise) do in (to ruin; to exhaust) do over (to repeat) figure out (to solve) fill in (the blank spaces) fill out (the application form) fill up (the tank with gasoline) finish off (to complete) get out (the tools) give back (to return) give up (to turn over; to surrender) hand in (your homework) hand out (the tests to the students) hand over (all your money) hang up (your jacket) keep out (to prevent entry) keep out of (trouble) keep up (the good work) kick out (to remove) kick out of (to remove) kill off (all the cockroaches) leave out (to omit) let in (to allow entry) look over (to examine) look up (a word in the dictionary)

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make out (to discern) make up (to fabricate) name after (to give the same name to) name for (to give the same name to) pass by (to go past without stopping) pass out (to distribute) pass over (to hand over) pay back (the money you borrowed) pick out (to select) pick up (the litter; the check) point out (to show) point out to (to show) polish off (to finish) put away (to remove) put back (to replace) put off (to delay) put on (your shoes) put out (the dog) put up (the money) quiet down (to be quiet) rip off (to steal; to cheat) run out (the base hit) shut down (the assembly line) shut off (the machine) shut out (the other team) shut up (to be quiet) slow down (to reduce speed) slow up (to reduce speed) speed up (to increase speed) stand up (to intentionally miss an appointment or date with someone) start up (to start) take down (to dismantle) take off (your shoes) take on (to confront) take out (the trash) take over (the organization) take up (golf) talk over (to discuss) tear down (to dismantle) tear off (a corner of the newspaper) tear out (a page from your notebook) tear up (the contract) throw away (your old socks) throw out (yesterday’s newspaper) throw up (the ball) try on (these shoes - maybe you’ll like them) try out (this golf club - maybe you’ll like it) turn down (the offer) turn in (your homework) turn off (the lights) turn on (the lights) turn out (the lights)

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turn up (the volume) use up (to use completely) wake up (to awake) warm up (the car engine) wear out (to exhaust) wipe off (the countertop) wipe out (to annihilate) write down (this information) write off (to cancel) write up (to report someone) COMMON PHRASAL VERBS II B. Inseparable Verbs You cannot insert a noun or pronoun after the first word: For example: “look for” John looked for Mary. = OK John looked Mary for. = Not OK John looked for her. = OK John looked her for. = Not OK *break down (to stop working) call on (to visit) *catch up (to overtake) catch up to (to overtake) catch up with (to overtake) check back with (to report to) *check in (at a motel) check in with (to notify) check into (a motel) check out of (a motel) come across (to discover) *come back (to return) *come over (to visit) *come through (to succeed) *come to (to regain consciousness) cut down on (to reduce use of) cut in (to insert yourself into a line of people) do without (to have none of) *drop back (to move back) drop by (to visit) *drop in (to visit) drop in on (to visit) *drop out (to quit) drop out of (school; sight) *drop over (to visit) fool around with (to get along with (your coworkers) *get back (move away from) get in (the car) get into (trouble; the car) get off (the bus) get off of (the bus)

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get on (the bus) get out of (the bus) get over (the problem; the fence) *get through (to finish) get through with (to finish) *get up (to wake up; to get out of bed) *go back (to return) *go on (to continue) go over (to review) *grow up (to mature) *hang on (or you might fall off) *hush up (to be quiet) *keep on (to continue) keep up with (to maintain progress with) *let up (to ease off) *lie down (to recline) *listen up (to listen) look after (to take care of) look for (to search) look into (to analyze) *look out (the window) *move away (to distance oneself) move away from (to distance oneself) *move back (to retreat) move back to (to return) move into (your new home) *move out (to relocate) move out of (your former apartment and move into your new apartment) *pass away (to die) *pass on (to die) put up (or shut up) put up with (to tolerate) run across (to meet) run into (to meet) run out (the clock) run out of (time; money) *sit down (to sit) *show up (to appear) *stand up (to stand) *stand out (to excel) *stand up (to stand) stay out of (trouble; jail) take after (to mimic) *take off (to depart) talk about (to discuss) *tear out of (to leave quickly) think about (to consider; to ruminate; to cogitate) *throw up (to vomit) *turn in (to go to bed) *turn out (to appear) *turn up (to appear) wait on (to serve)

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*warm down (after exercising) *warm up (before exercising) watch out for (snakes) *work out (to exercise) work with (to help) * = phrasal verb is not followed by an object (noun or pronoun) SPELLING RULES 1. For a single syllable word, ending in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel – double the consonant: swim; swimmer; swimming rob, robber, robbed, robbing 2. For a single syllable word, ending in a single consonant preceded by two vowels – do NOT double the consonant: meet, meeting pair, paired, pairing 3. For a multiple syllable word, ending in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, if stress is on last syllable, double the consonant: prefer, preferred, preferring 4. For most words, add -s to the singular form to make it plural: cat, cats; bell, bells; rose, roses 5. If a word ends in vowel + o, usually add -s to form the plural: monkey, monkeys (BUT money, moneys, OR monies). If a word ends in a consonant + o, sometimes add -s: piano, pianos OR sometimes add -es: potato, potatoes OR sometimes add either: zero, zeros, zeroes 6. If a word ends in f or fe, sometimes add -s to make it plural: roof, roofs OR sometimes change f or fe to -ves: half, halves; wife, wives OR sometimes add either: scarf, scarfs, scarves 7. Add -es to the singular form when it ends in s, ss, ch, sh, x, z, or zz: bus, buses kiss, kisses church, churches bush, bushes ax, axes waltz, waltzes fizz, fizzes 8. Drop the final -e if a suffix* begins with a vowel: desire, desiring, desirable 9. Keep the final -e if a suffix begins with a consonant: care + full = careful complete + ly = completely excite + ment = excitement

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10. For a word that ends in a consonant + y, change the -y to -i for most suffixes: pony, ponies deny, denies denied 11. If a word ends in -ay, -ey, -oy, form the plural by simply adding -s: ray, rays valley, valleys toy, toys 12. Sometimes you change -ie to -y before -ing: die, died, dying lie, lied, lying 13. The sound of “shun” has several different spellings: solution, occasion, mission, musician, Dalmatian, crucifixion 14. The following prefixes** give negative meaning to the original word: unhappy invisible illegal impolite irregular *A suffix is a word ending. It changes the part of speech of the word, but does not change the meaning of the original (“root”) word entirely: see, seeing; act, actor beauty, beautiful equip, equipment ** A prefix is a word beginning. It changes the meaning of the original (“root”) word: review preview foresee coworker Singular, Plural of some words alumna, alumnae alumnus, alumni analysis, analyses auditorium, auditoriums bacterium, bacteria box, boxes child, children crisis, crises crisis, crises deer, deer/deers fish, fish/fishes foot, feet fungo, fungoes goose, geese house, houses man, men milk, – mother-in-law, mothers-in-law mouse, mice ox, oxen –, pants

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–, people physics, – –, scissors sheep, – sock, socks/sox tooth, teeth woman, women PUNCTUATION MARKS Punctuation marks on a page are similar to signs on a road. They guide you and direct you. 1. A period ( . ) ends a declarative or imperative sentence. I live in Pasadena. They don’t live in Pasadena. Listen to me. Don’t drink and drive. Please come here. Eat your vegetables. 2. A question mark ( ? ) ends an interrogative sentence. Do you live in Pasadena? Don’t you like chocolate ice cream? 3. An exclamation mark ( ! ) ends an exclamatory sentence (a sentence that contains a lot of emotion). Help! Stop! Don’t call me again! 4. A comma ( , ) separates items in a list. I like coffee, soda, milk, and tea. Sara, Maria, Robert and Steven will eat lunch. 5. A semicolon separates equal parts of a sentence. Mary is at home; Bob is at school. Give me a hamburger, with onions and lettuce; a coke, with a straw; and fries, with ketchup. 6. A colon ( : ) usually precedes a list. Bring these things with you: a book, a pencil, and a dictionary. 7. A dash ( – ) usually indicates a break in thought. I’ll have a hot dog with mustard – no, make that ketchup. 8. A hyphen ( - ) separates syllables to make a word easier to read. co-ordinate re-elect pray-er A hyphen also separates syllables when it’s necessary to continue a word on the follow- ing line. 9. Parentheses ( ) or a pair of dashes contain extra information. John (my brother) is coming to the party. John – my brother – is coming to the party. 10. An ellipsis (...) shows that information is missing or deleted. “To be or not...the question.” (“To be or not to be. That is the question.”) 11. Quotation marks (“ ”) enclose the exact words of a person. Maria said, “Where are the keys?” 12. An apostrophe ( ’ ) is a substitute for a letter or letters (in a contraction). isn’t = is not can’t = cannot don’t = do not I’ll = I will I’m = I am He’s sick. = He is sick. Bob’s rich. = Bob is rich. What’s new? = What is new? They’ve worked. = They have worked. ’99 = 1999 An apostrophe also shows possession.

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This is Sara’s book. (Don’t say: This is the book of Sara.) Where is the dog’s dish? 14. Begin all sentences with a capital letter (i.e., capitalize the first word in all sentences) and end all sentences with a punctuation mark. = Capitalize the first word in a sentence and finish the sentence with a punctuation mark. MATHEMATICAl OPERATIONS Remember what each sign signifies: + means plus, or and, or added to: 2 + 3 = 5 reads: 2 plus 3 is 5, or 2 and 3 is 5, or 2 plus 3 equals 5, or 3 added to 2 is 5, or 2 plus 3 is 5. – means minus, or less, or subtracted from: 6 – 4 = 2 reads: 6 minus 4 is 2, or 6 less 4 is 2, or 4 subtracted from 6 is 2, or 6 minus 4 equals 2. x means times, or multiplied by: 2 x 3 = 6 reads: 2 times 3 is 6, or 2 multiplied by 3 is 6, or 2 times 3 equals 6. ÷ means divided by, or goes into: 8 ÷ 2 = 4 reads: 8 divided by 2 is 4, or 2 goes into 8 4 times, or 8 divided by 2 equals 4. 1. Addition means to add. Add 2 and 2 and you get 4. 2 + 2 = 4 (2 PLUS 2 is 4) or (2 AND 2 is 4) 2. Subtraction means to subtract. Subtract 4 from 9 and you get 5. 9 - 4 = 5 (9 MINUS 4 is 5) 3. Multiplication means to multiply. Multiply 3 by 4 and you get 12. 4 X 3 = 12 (4 TIMES 3 is 12) 4. Division means to divide. Divide 18 by 6 and you get 3. 18 ÷ 6 = 3 (18 DIVIDED BY 6 is 3) 5. = is the equals sign (say is or are or equal or equals) + is the plus sign (say plus or and) - or – is the minus sign (say minus, or subtracted from: 4 subtracted from 9 is 5) X or x is the times sign (say times, or multiplied by: 3 multiplied by 4 is 12) ÷ is the division sign (say divided by,or goes into: 6 goes into 18 three times) . is the decimal point or decimal or point (say point: 3.7 = 3 POINT 7, NOT 3 decimal point 7, NOT 3 decimal 7) 6. Fractions (e.g., 1/5) and Decimals (e.g., 0.2) 1/5 = one-fifth = .2 = two-tenths 1/4 = one-fourth = .25 = 25 hundredths 1/3 = one-third = .33 = 33 hundredths 1/2 = one-half = .5 = five-tenths 2/3 = two-thirds 3/4 = three-fourths 1 1/2 = one and a half OR one and one-half = 1.5 = one point five TITLES

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Mr. = Mister = man (married, single, divorced, widowed) Mrs. (say Miss-uz) = woman (married, divorced, widowed) Ms. (say Mizz) = woman (married, single, divorced, widowed) Miss = woman (single) or girl Master = boy TIME 1. What time is it? I don’t know. What time is it? It’s 7 o’clock. 2. Do you have the time? No, I don’t. Do you have the time? Yes, it’s 7 o’clock. 3. Do you know what time it is? No, I don’t. Do you know what time it is? Yes, it’s 7 o’clock. 4. It’s noon. = It’s 12 pm. = It’s 12:00 pm. = It’s high noon. 5. It’s midnight. = It’s 12 am. = It’s 12:00 am. 6. It’s 7 o’clock. = It’s 7:00. 7. am = before noon. It’s 7 am. = It’s 7 in the morning. 8. pm = after noon. It’s 7 pm. = It’s 7 in the evening. 9. How to tell time The easy way: number of complete hours + number of minutes 7 hours +11 minutes = 7:11 (Do not say 7 hours :11 minutes. Say the numbers only: 7:11) The hard way: number of minutes + a word + the number of hours 11 past 7 OR 11 after 7 = 7:11 . Say past or after when the minute hand points between 0 and 30 minutes. Say to, of, till, until, or before when the minute hand points between 30 and 60 minutes. DIRECTIONS - Excuse me. How do I get to Targit from CEC? - Take Colorado Boulevard west to Lake Avenue. Targit is on the north side of Colorado about 2 blocks past Lake. - Pardon me. Do you know where Targit is? - Yes. Go west on Colorado Boulevard past Lake Avenue. It’s about 2 blocks after Lake, on the north side of Colorado. ................................................... •San Francisco N NW NE •LA •Phoenix W E SW SE •San Diego S San Francisco is north of Los Angeles. San Diego is south of Los Angeles. Phoenix is east of Los Angeles. Los Angeles is west of Phoenix. Phoenix is northeast of San Diego. Phoenix is southeast of San Francisco. San Diego is southwest of Phoenix. San Francisco is northwest of Phoenix.

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...................................... Union 88 • • Barco Foss • • Moonbucks Union 88 is on the northwest corner of the intersection. Barco is on the northeast corner of the intersection. Foss is on the southwest corner of the intersection. Moonbucks is on the southeast corner of the intersection. ................................................ How do I get to the main office? Go straight ahead. = It’s straight ahead. Go down the hall and turn left. = Go down the hall and make a left. Go past the library and turn right. = Go past the library and make a right. Turn left at the end of the hall. = Make a left at the end of the hall. MEASURES 12 inches = 1 foot 8 ounces = 1 cup 3 feet = 1 yard 2 cups = 1 pint 5,280 feet = 1 mile 2 pints = 1 quart 16 ounces = 1 pound 4 quarts = 1 gallon 2,000 pounds = 1 ton 1 gallon of water = 8 pounds 1 acre = 208.7 feet per side MONEY $ = dollar sign ¢ = cent sign $1 = $1.00 = one dollar 50¢ = 50 cents = $ .50 = half a dollar = a half dollar $1.50 = a dollar fifty = one fifty =one and a half dollars $1.50¢ 150¢ 1¢ = a penny 5¢ = a nickel 10¢ = a dime 25¢ = a quarter http://www.drgrammar.org/faqs/ Dr. Grammar's Frequently Asked Questions Located here are answers to questions previously asked of Dr. Grammar that may provide help with your writing ills. Choose one of the following three ways to find your information. 1. Browse through the lists of questions provided below. Click on the question for which you want to know the answer, and you will be instantly redirected. 2. Click here for a complete reference list. 3. Click here to search for a specific term. If after reading Dr. Grammar's response, you still want to learn more, click here and follow the prompts to your question for additional explanations and examples.

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A lot or Alot? A lot should be written as two words. Although a lot is used informally to mean "a large number" or "many," avoid using a lot in formal writing. Example: The crook had many [not a lot of] chances to rob the stranger. A or An? "Use a before a consonant sound; use an before a vowel sound. Before a letter or an acronym or before numerals, choose a or an according to the way the letter or numeral is pronounced: an FDA directive, a U.N. resolution, a $5.00 bill" (Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English Usage). Please note: This is the basic rule. For a more thorough presentation of the complexities of using a or an, see the source cited here. Accept or Except? Accept is a verb meaning "to receive" or "to approve." Example: "I accept your offer of the book." Except is a preposition meaning "excluding" or "leaving out." Example: "He liked everything on the plate except the liver." Except can also be a verb meaning "to leave out" or "to exclude." Example: "He excepted all Corvettes from his list of favorite cars." Acronyms and Initialisms? "Acronyms are formed by combining the first letter or letters of several words; they are pronounced as words and written without periods" (Alred, Brusaw, and Oliu, The Business Writer's Handbook). Examples: radar (radio detecting and ranging), COBOL (Common Business-Oriented Language), scuba (self-contained underwater breathing apparatus). "Initialisms are formed by combining the initial letter of each word in a multiword term; they are pronounced as separate letters" (Alred, Brusaw, and Oliu). Examples: e.o.m. (end of month), c.o.d. (cash on delivery), p.m. (post meridian). Usage guidelines: :- "Except for commonly used abbreviations (U.S., a.m.), spell out a term to be abbreviated the first time it is used, followed by the abbreviation in parentheses. Thereafter, the abbreviation may be used alone. :- In long documents, repeat the full term in parentheses after the abbreviation at regular intervals to remind readers of the abbreviation's meaning, as in "Remember to submit the CAR (Capital Appropriations Request) by. . . ." :- Do not add an additional period at the end of a sentence that ends with an abbreviation (example: The official name of the company is DataBase, Inc.). :- Write acronyms in capital letters without periods. The only exceptions are acronyms that have become accepted as common nouns, which are written in lowercase letters, such as scuba (self-contained underwater breathing apparatus). :- Generally, use periods for lowercase initialisms (a.k.a., e.d.p., p.m.) but not for uppercase ones (GDP, IRA, UFO). Exceptions include geographic names (U.S., U.K., E.U.) and formal expressions of academic degrees (B.A., M.B.A., Ph.D.). :- Form the plural of an acronym or initialism by adding a lowercase s. Do not use an apostrophe (CARs, DVDs).

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Do not follow an abbreviation with a word that repeats the final term in the abbreviation (ATM location not ATM machine location)" (Alred, Brusaw, and Oliu). Active or Passive Verbs? "The voice of a verb indicates the strength of the subject in a sentence. It tells us whether that subject takes action or receives action. There are two possible voices: active and passive. In the active voice, the stronger form, the subject of the sentence takes the action of the verb. Our army won the battle. The subject army is strong since it takes action. This sentence uses the active voice. In the passive voice, the weaker form, the subject is acted upon. The battle was won by our army. In this sentence, the subject battle is weak because it receives the action of the army. It takes no action of its own —a battle cannot win itself — and so the sentence uses the passive voice" (Strumpf and Douglas, The Grammar Bible 38). Affect or Effect? "Affect is a verb meaning 'to influence.' Effect is a noun meaning a result.' More rarely, effect is a verb meaning 'to cause something to happen.' [Examples:] CFCs may affect the deterioration of the ozone layer. The effect of that deterioration on global warming is uncertain. Lawmakers need to effect changes in public attitudes toward our environment" (Anson, Schwegler, and Muth, The Longman Writer's Companion 475). All Ready or Already? All ready means "fully prepared." Example: "The scouts were all ready for the test." Already means "previously." Example: "The children were already in the pool when the guests arrived." Allusion or Illusion? "An allusion is an indirect reference. [Example:] Did you catch my allusion to Shakespeare? An illusion is a misconception or false impression. [Example:] Mirrors give the room an illusion of depth" (Hacker, A Writer's Reference 124). Among or Amongst? Both are correct and mean the same, but among is more common. Among or Between? "When only two are involved, the answer is easy: between. [Example:] Miss Bennet sensed a barrier between her and Mr. Darcy. With three or more, you have a choice. Use between if you're thinking of the individuals and their relations with one another. [Example:] There were several embarrassing exchanges between Lydia, Kitty, and

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Jane. Use among if you're thinking of the group. [Example:] Darcy's arrival created a stir among the guests" (O'Connor, Woe Is I). Amount or Number? Amount should be used to refer to quantities that cannot be counted or cannot be expressed in terms of a single number. Example: "Repairing the Edsel took a great amount of work." Number is used for quantities that can be counted. Example: "A large number of deer ate the corn." And or But to begin a sentence? "Everybody agrees that it's all right to begin a sentence with and, and nearly everybody admits to having been taught at some past time that the practice was wrong" (Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English Usage). In addition, "many of us were taught that no sentence should begin with 'but. ' If that's what you learned, unlearn it — there is no stronger word at the start. It announces total contrast with what has gone before, and the reader is primed for the change" (William Zinsser qtd. in Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English Usage). Using and or but at the beginning of a sentence makes the tone of the writing more informal — like a conversation. Care needs to be taken to ensure a sentence beginning with and or but doesn't become a sentence fragment (Fogarty, Grammar Girl's Quick and Dirty Tips for Better Writing 80). Annotated Bibliography? "An annotated bibliography is just like a regular bibliography [. . .] except that each entry adds a description or summary of the work's aim, purpose, or contents. Annotations are usually a paragraph or two [. . . .] Annotated bibliographies are commonly assigned to help students survey and report on a body of scholarship or prepare for a longer research paper. Elements of an annotated bibliography :- It briefly introduces the topic of the bibliography and perhaps the kinds of works it covers. :- It refers accurately to the literature cited and follows the expected documentation style [. . . .] :- It follows each reference with a clear description or summary, briefly but accurately representing the work. :- It arranges entries alphabetically, sometimes grouped in sections by date or by general topic or focus" (Anson, Schwegler, and Muth, The Longman Writer's Companion 97). Apostrophes? "The apostrophe has four main uses: To show the omission of numbers in such expressions as Christmas '98 or letters in expressions that imitate certain patterns of speech — finger lickin' good. To form contractions (I'm, we've, can't, they'll). To form plurals of single numbers and letters: 'Mary brought home a report card with two A's and two B's.' (The apostrophe is not needed when letters or numbers appear in groups of two or more: the 1920s, the ABCs, the rule of 78s, two Ph.D.s.)

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To form possessives" (Lederer and Dowis, Sleeping Dogs Don't Lay 156). Item 3 above can also be stated this way: "Get this straight once and for all: when the "s" is added to a word simply to make it a plural, no apostrophe is used (except in expressions where letters or numerals are treated like words, like 'mind your P's and Q's and 'learn your ABC's')" (Brians, Common Errors in English Usage 15). As you can tell from the explanation on how to form the plural of ABC in number 3 above and in this paragraph, not all experts agree. What should you do? Select a style and be consistent in using it. Forming possessives is the most complicated use of the apostrophe. Again, not all experts agree. You know what to do: Select a style and be consistent in using it. Richard Lederer and Richard Dowis give the following information on forming possessives: :- "To form the possessive of a singular noun, add an apostrophe and an s even if the noun ends in s." Example: "He married the boss's daughter." :- "To form the possessive of a plural noun, add an apostrophe only, except for nouns such as men and people that have irregular plurals and are treated as if they were singular when the possessives are formed." Example: "Boston Market advertises 'New! Kid's Meal. Starting at $1.99.' [. . .] When more than one child is involved, the possessive is not kid's. It's kids'. " :- "Do not use an apostrophe to form the possessive of personal pronouns, except for the pronoun one." Example: "It is really pleasant to take one's time when playing golf." "This house is ours." :- "When two or more words, taken as a unit, show joint possession, use the possessive form with the last only." Example: "Let's all ride in John and Pedro's car." (Sleeping Dogs Don't Lay 156-159) As per...? "We find as per used in two ways. It is still in use in business correspondence and in straightforward but somewhat stiff prose [. . . .] Your decision to use as per or not would seem to be a matter of personal choice and taste; the tonal needs of a particular passage may make it useful at times even if you avoid it ordinarily" (Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English Usage). Assume or Presume? "They're not identical. Assume is closer to support, or 'take for granted'; the much stronger presume is closer to believe, dare, or 'take too much for granted.' [Example:] I can only assume you are joking when you presume to call yourself a plumber!" (O'Connor, Woe Is I 91). Bad or Badly? We use bad (an adjective) with linking verbs such as is, seems, feels, looks, or appears. Example: "I feel bad that I missed the concern." We use the adverb badly with action verbs. Example: "He smells badly." This sentence means he can't detect the smell of his girlfriend's perfume, but "He smells bad" means he needs to shower and use deodorant.

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Between you and I or Between you and me? "Because the pronouns following between are objects of the preposition, the correct phrase is between you and me. Yet the phrasing between you and I is appallingly common" (Garner, The Oxford Dictionary of American Usage and Style). Bring and Take? "Use bring when an object is being transported toward you, take when it is being moved away. [Examples:] 'Please bring me a glass of water. Please take these flowers to Mr. Scott'" (Hacker, A Writer's Reference 126). Can I or May I? "Can implies ability; may implies permission or uncertainty. [Example:] "Bart can drive now, but his parents may not lend him their new car'" (Anson, Schwegler, Muth, The Longman Writer's Companion 477). Cannot or Can Not? "Both spellings are acceptable, but cannot is more frequent in current use" (Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English Usage). Capitalization? For a list of all the rules about capitalization, follow these instructions: Go to the top of this page and use the "click here" feature to learn more. Scroll down and click on "capitalization and spelling." Click on "capitals," and you'll come to the rules of capitalization. The two rules for capitalization listed below are asked most often. Capitalization in Titles? "In titles, capitalize the first word, the last word, and all words in between except articles (a, an, the), prepositions under five letters (in, of, to), and coordinating conjunctions (and, but). These rules apply to titles of long, short, and partial works as well as your own papers" (Anson, Schwegler, and Muth. The Longman Writer's Companion 240). Capitalization of Titles of Persons? "Capitalize titles of persons when used as part of a proper name but usually not when used alone. [Examples:] District Attorney Marshall was reprimanded for badgering the witness. The district attorney was elected for a two-year term. Usage varies when the title of an important public figure is used alone. [Example:] The president [or President] vetoed the bill" (Hacker, A Writer's Reference 305).

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Cite or Site? Cite is a verb meaning "to quote for purposes of example, authority, or proof." Example: "He cites many experts in his article." Site is usually used as a noun meaning "place or scene." Example: "Check the AARP website," and "We erected the wall on the site of our future home." Colon Use? "A colon tells the reader that what follows is closely related to the preceding clause. The colon has more effect than the comma, less power to separate than the semicolon, and more formality than the dash. It usually follows an independent clause and should not separate a verb from its complement or a preposition from its object. . . . [Example:] Your dedicated whittler requires three props: a knife, a piece of wood, and a back porch. Join two independent clauses with a colon if the second interprets or amplifies the first. [Example:] But even so, there was a directness and dispatch about animal burial: there was no stopover in the undertaker's foul parlor, no wreath or spray. A colon may introduce a quotation that supports or contributes to the preceding clause. [Example:] The squalor of the streets reminded her of a line from Oscar Wilde: 'We are all in the gutter, but some of us are looking at the stars.' The colon also has certain functions of form: to follow the salutation of a formal letter, to separate hour from minute in a notation of time, and to separate the title of a work from its subtitle or a Bible chapter from a verse. [Examples:] Dear Mr. Montague: departs at 10:48 P.M. Practical Calligraphy: An Introduction to Italic Script Nehemiah 11:7" (Strunk and White, The Elements of Style, 7-8). Commas and Periods Inside Quotation Marks? "Place periods and commas inside quotation marks. [Example:] "This is a stick-up," said the well-dressed young couple. "We want all your money." This rule applies to single quotation marks as well as double quotation marks. It also applies to all uses of quotation marks: for quoted material, for titles of works, and for words used as words. Exception: In the Modern Language Association's style of parenthetical in-text citations . . ., the period follows the citation in parentheses. [Example:] James M. McPherson comments, approvingly, that the Whigs were not averse to extending the blessings of American liberty, even to Mexicans and Indians" (48). (Hacker, A Writer's Reference 285) Commas? These are the basic comma rules. If you learn them or keep a copy of them with you whenever you write, you will solve 98% of your comma problems.

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1) Put a comma before and, but, for, or, nor, so, and yet when they connect two independent clauses (sentences that can stand alone). Example: "She hit the shot, and he cheered for her." 2) Separate three or more items in a series with a comma. Example: "We want to protect cats, dogs, and horses." 3) Put a comma after an introductory word group. Example: "Because I was hungry, I bought a hamburger." 4) Set off interrupters with pairs of commas, pairs of parentheses, or pairs of dashes. Examples: "The hamburger, hot and juicy, tasted great." "The hamburger — which was hot and juicy — tasted great." "The hamburger (made from ground beef and tofu) tasted great." 5) Put commas around the name of a person or group spoken to. Example: "I hope, Carlene, that you're going with me." 6) Put commas around an expression that interrupts the flow of the sentence. Example: "We took our fishing rods, therefore, and got into the boat." Complements? "Linking verbs link the subject to a subject complement, a word or word group that completes the meaning of the subject by renaming or describing it. If the subject complement renames the subject, it is a noun or noun equivalent (sometimes call a predicate noun). [Example:] The handwriting on the wall [s] may be [v] a forgery [sc]. If the subject complement describes the subject, it is an adjective or adjective equivalent (sometimes called a predicate adjective). [Example:] Love [s] is [v] blind [sc]." (Hacker, A Writer's Reference 814). "When a pronoun is used as a subject complement (a word following a linking verb), your ear may mislead you, since the incorrect form is frequently heard in casual speech. . . . [Example:] During the Lindbergh trial, Bruno Hauptmann repeatedly denied that the kidnapper was he [not him]. If kidnapper was he seems too stilted, rewrite the sentence: During the Lindbergh trial, Bruno Hauptmann repeatedly denied that he was the kidnapper."(Hacker, The Bedford Handbook 287). Comprise? "Nothing is ever 'comprised of' something. To comprise means 'to contain or to embrace': The jury comprises seven women and five men. All of the following mean the same thing: The jury is composed of seven women and five men. The jury is made up of seven women and five men.

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Seven women and five men constitute the jury. Seven women and five men make up the jury. Even when used correctly, in my humble opinion, comprise and constitute tend to sound stilted. Some form of is made up of sounds better in most cases." (Walsh, Lapsing into a Comma 122-123). Continually or Continuously? "Yes, there is a slight difference, although most people (and even many dictionaries) treat them the same. Continually means repeatedly, with breaks in between. Continuously means without interruption, in an unbroken stream. Heidi has to wind the cuckoo clock continually to keep it running continuously. (If it's important to emphasize the distinction, it's probably better to use periodically or intermittently instead of continually to describe something that starts and stops.) The same distinction, by the way, applies to continual and continuous, the adjective forms" (O'Conner, Woe Is I 95-96). Coordinate or Cumulative Adjectives? "When two or more adjectives each modify a noun separately, they are coordinate. [Example:] Roberto is a warm, gentle, affectionate father. Adjectives are coordinate if they can be joined with and (warm and gentle and affectionate). Two or more adjectives that do not modify the noun separately are cumulative. [Example:] Three large gray shapes moved slowly toward us." Hacker, A Writer's Reference 262). Data or Datum? "In much informal writing, data is considered a collective singular noun. In formal scientific and scholarly writing, however, data is generally used as a plural, with datum as the singular form. Base your decision on whether your readers should consider the data as a single collection or as a group of individual facts. Whatever you decide, be sure that your pronouns and verbs agree in number with the selected usage" (Alred, Brusaw, and Oliu, The Technical Writer's Companion 290-291). Different From or Different Than? "Different from is preferred to different than. I remember this by remembering that different has two f's and only one t, so the best choice between than and from is the one that starts with an f" (Fogarty, Grammar Girl's Quick and Dirty Tips 22). Disinterested or Uninterested? "They're not the same. Disinterested means impartial or neutral; uninterested means bored or lacking interest. A good umpire should be disinterested, said Casey, but certainly not uninterested" (O'Conner, Woe Is I 98). Documenting Online Sources?

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What documentation style are you required to use? Once this is determined, click on Dr. Grammar's Documentation Resources, and go to the appropriate website for your documentation style. Internet sources come in two forms: articles that have been previously published in the print media (Time, Newsweek, Chicago Tribune; scholarly journals; books; etc.) and articles or websites that have life only on the World Wide Web (WWW). Since the WWW is itself a work in progress, it is constantly changing as are the systems which attempt to document material found there. Perhaps the easiest source of information concerning each system of documentation is a book entitled Online! A Reference Guide to Using Internet Sources by Andrew Harnack and Eugene Kleppinger (can be found on Dr. Grammar's Documentation Resources). Done or Finished? "Today both done and finished are Standard, and you may use whichever one meets the style requirements of your speech or writing" (Wilson, The Columbia Guide to Standard American English). Drank or Drunk? "When in doubt about the standard English forms of irregular verbs, [. . .] look up the base form of the verb in the dictionary, which also lists any irregular forms. (If no additional forms are listed in the dictionary, the verb is regular, not irregular. [. . .] Base Form: drink Past Tense: drank Past Participle: drunk" (Hacker, The Bedford Handbook 312-313). Due to or Owing to? "Due to is as impeccable grammatically as owing to, which is frequently recommended as a substitute for it. There has never been a grammatical ground for objection [. . . .] There is no solid reason to avoid using due to" (Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English Usage). Each is or Each are? "When each is used as a subject, it takes a singular verb or pronoun. [Example:] Each of the reports is to be submitted ten weeks after it is assigned. When each occurs after a plural subject with which it is in apposition, it takes a plural verb or pronoun. [Example:] The reports each have white embossed titles on their covers." (Alred, Brusaw, and Oliu, The Technical Writer's Companion 291). earth or Earth? When you mean dirt, it's earth. When you mean the third planet from the sun, it's Earth.

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Etymology (Word Origin)? "The origin and history of word or words, or the study of word origins" (Cambridge Dictionary of American English). Dr. Grammar's Word Origins page has a list of online sites and a list of books about etymologies (word origins). Everybody and Everyone? Everybody and everyone are interchangeable. Anyone and anybody are also interchangeable. Everyone/Everybody is/are happy? "What's wrong with saying, Are everybody happy? After all, when you use the word everybody, you're thinking of a crowd, right? Then why do we say, Is everybody happy? In other words, just how many people do we mean when we say everybody or everyone? The answer is one. Odd as it may seem, these pronouns are singular. We often use them when talking about whole gangs of people, but we treat them grammatically as individual gang members. The result is that each takes a singular verb: Everybody loves a lover, but not everybody is one" (O'Conner, Who Is I 15). Farther or Further? Use farther to refer to physical distances. Example: Indiana is farther than I thought. Further refers to quantity, time, or degree. Example: They progressed further on their research. Fewer or Less? Fewer is an adjective used to refer to people or items that can be counted. Example: Because fewer cars showed up for the show, we required fewer categories. Less is used to refer to amounts that cannot be counted. Example: The small dogs required less space and less food than the large dogs. Good or Well? "Good is the adjective; well is the adverb. You do something well, but you give someone something good. The exception is verbs of sensation in phrases such as "the pie smells good' or 'I feel good.' Despite the arguments of nigglers, this is standard usage. Saying 'the pie smells well' would imply that the pastry in question had a nose. Similarly, 'I feel well' is also acceptable, especially when discussing health; but it is not the only correct usage" (Brians, Common Errors in English Usage). Have got or Have gotten? "When we say, Fabio has got three Armani suits, we mean he has them. When we say, Fabio has gotten three Armani suits, we mean he's acquired or obtained them. It's a useful distinction" (O'Conner, Who Is I 191). Hopefully?

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"Hopefully is a sentence adverb that has raised the hackles of some conservatives, but probably its overuse has made most of the trouble; it had been a perfectly good sentence adverb for generations before the recent objections were heard. Those who don't like it usually urge that I hope that or It is hoped that be used instead, but hopefully is in fact Standard" (Wilson, The Columbia Guide to Standard American English). Hyphenation? "Consult the dictionary to determine how to treat a compound word. The dictionary will tell you whether to treat a compound word as a hyphenated compound (water-repellent), one word (waterproof ), or two words (water table). If the compound word is not in the dictionary, treat it as two words" (Hacker, A Writer's Reference 300). The following rules are not all inclusive, but they are the most common uses of hyphenation. Consult a writing manual for a more extensive explanation. "Use a hyphen to connect two or more words functioning together as an adjective before a noun. [Examples:] Mrs. Douglas gave Toshiko a seashell and some newspaper-wrapped fish to take home to her mother. Richa Gupta is not yet a well-known candidate. Generally, do not use a hyphen when such compounds follow the noun. [Example:] After our television campaign, Richa Gupta will be well known. Do not use a hyphen to connect -ly adverbs to the words they modify. [Example:] A slowly moving truck tied up traffic. Note: In a series, hyphens are suspended. [Example:] Do you prefer first-, second-, or third-class tickets? Hyphenate the written form of fractions and of compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine. [Example:] One-fourth of my salary goes to pay my child care expenses. Use a hyphen with the prefixes all-, ex-, and self- and with the suffix -elect. [Examples:] The charity is funneling more money into self-help projects. Anne King is our club's president-elect. A hyphen is used in some words to avoid ambiguity or to separate awkward double or triple letters. Without the hyphen, there would be no way to distinguish between words such as re-creation and recreation. [Examples:] Bicycling in the city is my favorite form of recreation. The film was praised for its astonishing re-creation of nineteenth-century London. [. . . .] If a word must be divided at the end of a line, divide it correctly " (Hacker, A Writer's Reference 300-302). Consult a dictionary if you are unsure as to where a word should be divided.

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"I" before "E" except after "C"? We have all been taught the rule, but Richard Lederer has compiled a list of 144 exceptions in his book Adventures of a Verbifore. When in doubt about the spelling of a word, go to a dictionary. (I.e.) or (E.g.)? "Properly used, each of these is Standard. I.e. abbreviates Latin id est, 'that is'; use it when you wish to repeat in different words what you've just finished saying: I'm strongly opposed; i.e., I'm determined not to cooperate. E.g. abbreviates the Latin tag exempli gratia, 'for the sake of example, for example.' [Eat foods containing a lot of fiber, e.g., fruits, vegetables, and whole grains.] People sometimes say the names of the letters i and e or e and g instead of saying the English that is or for example, but the abbreviations aren't much shorter, and most of us would prefer the English words in speech, no matter how familiar the Latin abbreviations are in writing....Most editors put them in italics; all require a comma after the second period (The Columbia Guide to Standard American English 165). Idiom? "Idioms are phrases that don't mean what they literally say, but have meaning to native speakers. For example, the phrase under the weather is known by most native English speakers to mean that someone isn't feeling well, but if you weren't a native English speaker, you would probably have no idea what under the weather means by just looking at the words" (Fogarty, Grammar Girl's Quick and Dirty Tips 55). If or Whether? "It's good practice to distinguish between these words. Use if for a conditional idea, whether for an alternative or possibility. Thus, Let me know if you'll be coming means that I want to hear from you only if you're coming. But Let me know whether you'll be coming means that I want to hear from you about your plans one way or the other" (Garner, The Oxford Dictionary of American Usage and Style). Imply or Infer? "If you imply something, you hint or suggest it. [Example:] Her email implied that the project would be delayed. If you infer something, you reach a conclusion on the basis of evidence. [Example:] The manager inferred from the email that the project would be delayed" (Alred, Brusaw, and Oliu, The Technical Writer's Companion 294). In regard(s) to? "The use of the plural regards in the phrases in regards to and with regards to is incorrect. Since each phrase shows its speaker regarding just one issue, the regard is singular: in regard to and with regard to. [Examples:] I am calling in regard to your memo. With regard to our meeting, I cannot attend." (Strumpf and Douglas, The Grammar Bible 220).

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Independent vs Dependent Clauses? "An independent clause is a complete sentence; it can stand alone. [Example:] Tattooing was not known in the Western world. A dependent (subordinate) clause is part of a sentence; it cannot stand alone. [Example:] Until Captain Cooke returned from his voyage to Tahiti" (Rozakis, The Complete Idiot's Guide to Grammar and Style 142). If the above independent and dependent clauses were put together in a sentence, it would read: Until Captain Cooke returned from his voyage to Tahiti, tattooing was not known in the Western world. Intensifiers? really, really tough? "People are always looking for ways to emphasize how really, really special the subject under discussion is. (The use of 'really' is one of the weakest and least effective of these.) A host of words have been worn down in this service to near-meaninglessness. It is good to remember the etymological roots of such words to avoid such absurdities as 'fantastically realistic,' 'absolutely relative,' and 'incredibly convincing.' When you are tempted to use one of these vague intensifiers consider rewriting your prose to explain more precisely and vividly what you mean: 'Fred's cooking was incredibly bad' could be changed to 'When I tasted Fred's cooking I almost thought I was back in the middle-school cafeteria'" (Brians, Common Errors in English Usage). Into or In to? "Into is a preposition that has many definitions, but they all generally relate to direction. On the other hand, in by itself can be an adverb, preposition, or adjective (and to by itself is a preposition or an adverb). Sometimes in and to just end up next to each other. Maybe examples will help! He walked into the room. (Which direction was he going? Into the room.) We broke in to the room. ('Broke in' is a phrasal verb. What did you break in to? The room.) (Fogarty, Grammar Girl's Quick and Dirty Tips 34-35). Irony, Sarcasm, or Facetiousness? Irony is "the use of words to express something different from and often opposite to their literal meaning." Sarcasm is "a cutting, often ironic remark intended to wound. " By contrast, facetiousness is "playfully jocular; humorous." (The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language) It is I or It is me? "Instead of the old choice between right and wrong we are now choosing a style; it is a choice that is much closer to the reality of usage than the old one way. [. . .] Clearly, both the it is I and it's me patterns are in reputable use and have been for a

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considerable time. It is I tends to be used in more formal or more stuffy situations; it's me predominates in real and fictional speech and in a more relaxed writing style" (Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary of English Usage). It's her or It's she? "In all but the most formal circumstances, it's OK to use It is me, That's him, It's her, and similar constructions, instead of the technically correct but stuffier It is I, That's he, and It's she" (O'Conner, Woe Is I 186). Its or It's? This one is simple if you remember that it's is a contraction of it is or it has. Example: It's a beautiful morning; however, it's been an ugly season. Its is the possessive form of it. Example: It appeared the squirrel couldn't make up its mind whether or not to run across the street. Lie or Lay ? The verb lay means to place or to set down. It always takes a direct object, the thing that is placed or set down. Examples: Lay the magazine on the table. I have laid the bike under the tree. The verb lie means to recline. It does not take a direct object. Examples: I will lie down around noon. Let's go lie out on the grass. Like or Such as? "Writers whom we respect disagree on whether there is any significant difference between like and such as. Wilson Follett and Theodore Bernstein say no. James J. Kilpatrick says yes. We come down gingerly on the side of Kilpatrick. His argument seems valid: 'When we are talking of large, indefinite fields of similarity, like properly may be used. . . . When we are talking about specifically named persons [places or things] . . . included in a small field, we ought to use such as.' In 'Books like this one can help you write better,' like means similar to. In 'Cities such as Atlanta and Birmingham are important to the economy of the Southeast,' the intent is to specify those cities as examples, not merely to put them into a broad category of cities that are important to the economy of the Southeast" (Lederer and Dowis, Sleeping Dogs Don't Lay 79). Linking Verbs? "Linking verbs link the subject to a subject complement, a word or word group that completes the meaning of the subject by renaming or describing it. [Example:] The handwriting on the wall may be a forgery. Linking verbs are usually a form of be: be, am, is, are, was, were, being, been. Verbs such as appear, become, feel, grow, look, make, prove, remain, seem, smell, sound, and taste are linking when they are followed by a word group that names or describes the subject" (Hacker, A Writer's Reference 500).

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Littler and Littlest? "Although occasionally used, both these forms [littler, littlest] are regarded as dialectical or perhaps as juvenile. When size is involved, the better forms are smaller and smallest; when quantity or importance is involved, the better forms are less (sometimes lesser) and least" (Bernstein, The Careful Writer). Majority is or are? "Many words that mean a group of things — total, majority, and number, for example — can be singular or plural. Sometimes they mean the group acting as a whole, sometimes the members of a group. "As with the other two-faced words, ask yourself whether you are thinking of the whole or the parts. A little hint: The before the word (the total, the majority) is usually a tip-off that it's singular; while a (a total, a number), especially when of comes after, usually indicates a plural. [Examples:] The majority is in charge. Still, a majority of voters are unhappy" (O'Conner, Woe Is I 26). May or Might? "These words occupy different places on a continuum of possibility. May expresses likelihood {we may go to the party}, while might expresses a stronger sense of doubt {we might be able to go if our appointment is cancelled} or a contrary-to-fact hypothetical {we might have been able to go if George hadn't gotten held up} (Garner, The Oxford Dictionary of American Usage and Style). Me, Myself, or I? "In the old days when people studied traditional grammar, we could simply say, "The first person singular pronoun is I when it's a subject and me when it's an object,' but now few people know what that means. [. . .] The misuse of I and myself for me is caused by nervousness about me. [. . .] But the notion that there is something wrong with me leads people to overcorrect and avoid it where it is perfectly appropriate. People will say, 'The document had to be signed by both Susan and I' when the correct statement would be, 'The document had to be signed by both Susan and me.' Trying even harder to avoid the lowly me, many people will substitute myself as in 'The suspect uttered epithets at Officer O'Leary and myself.' Myself is no better than I as an object. Myself is not a sort of all-purpose intensive form of me or I . Use myself only when you have used I earlier in the same sentence: 'I am not particularly fond of goat cheese myself'" (Brians, Common Errors in English Usage). Mid- or just Mid? "In forming compounds, mid- is normally joined to the following word or element without a space or hyphen: midpoint. However, if the second element begins with a capital letter, it is separated with a hyphen: mid-May. It is always acceptable to separate the elements with a hyphen to prevent possible confusion with another form, as, for example, to distinguish mid-den (the middle of a den) from the word midden.

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The adjective mid is a separate word, and as is the case with any adjective, it may be joined to another word with a hyphen when used as a unit modifier: in the mid Pacific but a mid-Pacific Island" (The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language). Mrs./Ms./Miss? "Ms. is widely used in business and public life to address or refer to a woman, especially if her marital status is either unknown or irrelevant to the context. More traditionally, Miss is used to refer to an unmarried woman, and Mrs. is used to refer to a married woman. Some women may indicate a preference for Ms., Miss, or Mrs., which you should honor. If a woman has an academic or professional title, use the appropriate form of address (Doctor, Professor, Captain) instead of Ms., Miss, or Mrs." (Alred, Brusaw, and Oliu, The Technical Writer's Companion 297). None is or None are? "None has been both singular and plural since Old English and still is. [. . .] If in context it seems like a singular to you, use a singular verb; if it seems like a plural, use a plural verb. Both are acceptable beyond serious criticism" (Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English Usage). Numbers: When to spell out and When to write as numbers? "Spell out numbers of one or two words or those that begin a sentence. Use figures for numbers that require more than two words to spell out. [Examples:] It's been eight years since I visited Peru. I counted 176 DVDs on the shelf. If a sentence begins with a number, spell out the number or rewrite the sentence. [Example:] One hundred fifty children in our program need expensive dental treatment. Exceptions: In technical and some business writing, figures are preferred even when spellings would be brief, but usage varies. When in doubt, consult the style guide of the organization for which you are writing. When several numbers appear in the same passage, many writers choose consistence rather than strict adherence to the rule. When one number immediately follows another, spell out one and use figures for the other: three 100-meter events, 25 four-poster beds. Generally figures are acceptable for dates, addresses, percentages, fractions, decimals, scores, statistics and other numerical results, exact amounts of money, divisions of books and plays, pages, identification numbers, and the time. Dates July 4, 1776, 56 BC, AD 30 Addresses 77 Latches Lane, 519 West 42nd Street Percentages 55 percent (or 55%) Fractions, Decimals ½, 0.047 Scores 7 to 3, 21-18 Statistics average age 37, average weight 180 Surveys 4 out of 5 Exact Amounts of Money $105.37, $106,000 Divisions of Books volume 3, chapter 4, page 189

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Divisions of Plays act 3; scene 3 (or act III, scene iii) Identification Numbers serial number 10988675 Time of Day 4:00 p.m., 1:30 a.m. (Hacker, A Writer's Reference 310-311). OK or Okay? Both OK and okay are acceptable in informal writing; however, avoid them in formal writing. On or Upon?/In or Into? On/upon and in/into are equally interchangeable according to the Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English Usage. Parallelism? "Parallelism is the expression of similar or related ideas in similar grammatical form. Besides emphasizing the relationships of ideas, parallelism can create intriguing sentence rhythms and highlights." "Once you begin a parallel pattern, you need to complete it. If you mix structures, creating incomplete or faulty parallelism, your sentences may disappoint readers' expectations and be hard to read. Mixed Consider swimming if you want an exercise that aids cardiovascular fitness, develops overall muscle strength, and probably without causing injuries. Parallel Consider swimming if you want an exercise that aids cardiovascular fitness, develops overall muscle strength, and causes few injuries." (Anson, Schwegler, and Muth, The Longman Writer's Companion 396-397) Parenthetical Documentation? To obtain the information for your specific documentation style, go to Dr. Grammar's Documentation Resources page and click on the appropriate website. Plurals of Abbreviations, Letters, and Numbers? "No two authorities seem to agree on how we should form the plurals of abbreviations (GI, rpm, RBI), letters (x, y, z), and numbers (9, 10). Should we had s or 's? Where one style maven sees UFO's, another sees UFOs. One is nostalgic for the 1950's, the other for the 1950s. This is more a matter of taste and readability than of grammar, and frankly, we have better things to worry about. For the sake of consistency and common sense, here's what I recommend. To form the plurals of all numbers, letters, and abbreviation (with or without periods and capitals) simply add 's" (O'Conner, Woe Is I 30). Plurals of Proper Names? "Here are a few rules that will help the curious pluralize proper names. Please note that, in every case, the spellings of the proper names should not change except for the

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addition of -s or -es. "With proper names ending in a sound that blends well with s, simply add -s. Brown = the Browns Lindberg = the Lindbergs Ericson = the Ericsons Shaw = the Shaws Hogan = the Hogans Whitlock = the Whitlocks "With proper nouns ending in sounds that don't blend well with s, the sibilant sounds, add -es. Cox = the Coxes Jones = the Joneses Douglas = the Douglases Martinez = the Martinezes Firch = the Firches Nemetz = the Nemetzes" (Strumpf and Douglas, The Grammar Bible 15-16). Possessive with a Gerund? A gerund is a verb form ending in -ing that functions as a noun. Example: Crying is good for you. When a pronoun modifies a gerund or gerund phrase , use the possessive case (my, our, your, his/her/its, their). Example: Your crying made me sad. Nouns may also modify gerunds; add -'s to form the possessive case. Example: The dog's suffering angered me. Preposition at end? "If a sentence that ends with a preposition sounds fine and makes sense, by all means, write the sentence. It is absolutely antiquated to forbid ending a sentence with a preposition. However, it is always possible to reword the sentence" (Strumpf and Douglas, The Grammar Bible 214-215). Proportional or Proportionate? Both are correct and neither is preferred. Punctuation of Dates? "Put a comma between the data and the year, between the day of the week and the date, and after the year when you give a full date. [Example:] I ordered a laptop on May 3, 2007, that arrived Friday, May 18. You don't need commas when a date is inverted (5 July 1973) or contains only month and year, month and day, or season and year. [Example:] We installed the software after its June 2007 test. (Anson, Schwegler, and Muth, The Longman Writer's Companion 429) Quotation Marks and Other Punctuation There are three basic rules. All commas and periods should be placed inside the quotation marks. All colons and semicolons should be placed outside the quotation marks.

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Question marks and exclamation marks should be placed within the quotation marks when they apply only to the quoted material; they should be placed outside when the entire sentence, including the quoted material, is a question or exclamation. Reason is because? "Reason is because is a redundancy. Use reason is that . . . . The reason we recommend 'reason is that' is that the grammatical subject, reason, is balanced by a noun clause in the predicate, headed by that" (Lederer and Dowis, Sleeping Dogs Don't Lay 51). Regular and Irregular Verbs? "A verb is regular when its past tense and past participle are formed by adding -ed or -d to the base form. [Example:] honor, honored, honored. A verb is irregular when it does not follow the (-ed or -d pattern. If you are unsure about whether a verb form is regular or irregular, or what the correct form is, consult [. . .] a dictionary. Dictionaries list any irregular forms under the entry for the base form" (Lunsford, The Everyday Writer 230). Semicolon use? "A semicolon creates a brief reading pause that can dramatically highlight a close relationship or a contrast. The semicolon alone can't specify the relationship the way words like because or however can. Be sure, therefore, that the relationship you are signaling won't be puzzling to readers." "Join two sentences with a semicolon. A semicolon joins main clauses that can stand alone as complete sentences. [Example:] The demand for paper is at an all-time high; businesses alone consume millions of tons each year." "Use a semicolon with words such as however and on the other hand. When you use a semicolon alone to link main clauses, you ask readers to recognize the logical link between the clauses. When you add words like however or on the other hand, you create a different effect on readers by specifying how the clauses relate. [Example:] I like apples; however, I hate pears." "Use a semicolon with a complex series. When items in a series contain commas, readers may have trouble deciding which commas separate parts of the series and which belong within items. To avoid confusion, put semicolons between elements in a series when one or more contain other punctuation. [Example:] I interviewed Debbie Rios, the attorney; Rhonda Marron, the accountant; and the financial director." (Anson, Schwegler, and Muth, The Longman Writer's Companion 432-433) Set or Sit? Set is a verb meaning "to put" or "to place." Example: He set the urn on the table. Sit is a verb meaning "to be seated." Example: He sat on the couch next to the dog.

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Shall or Will? "Will has almost entirely replaced shall in American English except in legal documents and in questions like "Shall we have red wine with the duck?'" (Brians, Common Errors in English Usage) Sic? "In scholarly writing you should copy quotations exactly as they appear in your source, but you must also produce a paper free of grammatical and mechanical errors. So how should you handle a source that contains an error? One way is to rephrase the quotation in your own words, crediting your source for the idea. However, if the quotation is so eloquent or effective that you decide to include it despite the error, use [sic] (an abbreviation of the Latin sicut, meaning thus) to indicate that the original source is responsible for the mistake. [Example:] 'One taste tester reported that the Carb Charge energy bar was to [sic] dry; she said it had the consistency of sawdust' (Cisco 22)." (Faigley, The Brief Penguin Handbook 496) Single quotation marks? "Single quotation marks enclose a quotation within a quotation. Open and close the quoted passage with double quotation marks, and change any quotation marks that appear within the quotation to single quotation marks. [Example:] Baldwin says, "The title 'The Uses of the Blues' does not refer to music; I don't know anything about music." (Lunsford, The Everyday Writer 338) Spacing after concluding marks of punctuation? Until recently, there were two spaces after concluding punctuation. It is now common to use one space after concluding punctuation. Either one space or two spaces is correct; however, be consistent in whatever spacing you use. Split infinitives? "Today almost everyone agrees that it is OK to split infinitives, especially when you would have to change the meaning of the sentence or go through writing gymnastics to avoid the split." (Fogarty, Grammar Girl's Quick and Dirty Tips 56) Than I/Than me? "Some of the smartest people I know hesitate at the word than when it comes before a pronoun. What goes next, I or me? he or him? she or her? they or them? The answer: All of the above! This is easier than it sounds. Take I and me as examples, since they're the pronouns we use most (egotists that we are). Either one may be correct after than, depending on the meaning of the sentence. :- Trixie loves spaghetti more than I means more than I do. :- Trixie loves spaghetti more than me means more than she loves me." (O'Conner, Woe Is I 12)

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That or Which or Who? Do not use which to refer to persons. Use who instead. That, though generally used to refer to things, may be used to refer to a group or class of people. [Examples:] The player who [not that or which] made the basket at the buzzer was named MVP. The team that scores the most points in this game will win the tournament (Hacker, A Writer's Reference 136). The faculty is or The faculty are? Faculty is a collective noun. "A collective noun is singular in form yet identifies a group of individuals (audience, mob, crew, troop, tribe, or herd). When the group acts as a single unit, choose a singular verb. When group members act individually, choose a plural verb. [Examples:] One Single Unit: The staff is hardworking and well trained. Individual Members: The staff have earned the respect of our clients." (Anson, Schwegler, and Muth, The Longman Writer's Companion 355). Then or Than? Than is used to indicate comparison or degree. Example: His drive was longer than mine. Then is used to indicate time. Example: Then he putted out and won the tournament. Thru or Through? Through is acceptable in all forms of writing. Thru, if used at all, should be used only for informal writing. To, Too, or Two? "To generally shows direction. Too means 'also.' Two is the number. [Example:] We, too, are going to the meeting in two hours." (Lunsford, The Everyday Writer 313). Toward(s), Forward(s), Backward(s)? "No final s ('towards'), although that's how they say it in Britain. Similarly, in American English, standard practice is not to add a final s to forward, backward, upward, onward, downward, and so on. [Example:] George and Karmer were last seen heading toward the buffet." (O'Conner, Who Is I 117-118). Transitive verb or Intransitive verb? "Any verb that requires a direct object is known as a transitive verb. [Example:] I trim the lawn. (The noun lawn receives the action of the verb, the trimming. The verb trim is a transitive verb.) [Example:] I taught the children. (The noun children receives the action of the verb, the teaching. The verb taught is also a transitive verb.)

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Verbs that do not take objects are intransitive verbs. [Example:] We shall run when we get the chance. (No word receives the action of this verb. Therefore, run is an intransitive verb.) [Example:] We stayed at the Ritz. (No noun or pronoun receives the action of this verb either. It is intransitive.)" (Strumpf and Douglas, The Grammar Bible 71). Try and or Try to? "The phrase try and is colloquial for try to. [. . .] to [Example:] Please try and finish the report on time." (Alred, Brusaw, and Oliu, The Business Writer's Handbook). Unique or More unique? "The primary meaning of unique is 'one of a kind'; it's an absolute, so something can't be more unique than something else." (Fogarty, Grammar Girl's Quick and Dirty Tips 66). Who or Whom? "The words who and whom are both pronouns [, . . . and] you use who when you are referring to the subject of a clause and whom when you are referring to the object of a clause. [. . . A] simple memory trick — we'll call it the 'him-lich' maneuver. It's as easy as testing your sentence with the word him: if you can hypothetically answer your question with the word him, you need a whom." (Fogarty, Grammar Girl's Quick and Dirty Tips 50-51). [Example:] Who/Whom do you love? You love him. Whom do you love? (51) All material © 2001 to University of Northern Iowa. Dr. Grammar grants you use of the information contained on the Dr. Grammar website free of charge if a) you are a student, faculty member or staff member of an educational institution (K-12, junior college, college or university); b) you are a United States federal, state or local government employee; or c) your use of the information is exclusively at home for non-commercial purposes. If you do not meet the requirements for free use of the information, you may make a request to: Department of English; Baker 117; University of Northern Iowa; Cedar Falls, IA 50614-0502; Phone: (319) 273-2821; Fax: (319) 273-5807. Adverbs An adverb modifies: a verb:

John is a formula one driver. He drives fast (adverb). an adjective: John is a very (adverb) fast (adjective) driver. another adverb: John drives very (adverb) fast (adverb).

Remember that an adjective modifies a noun: John is a fast driver and an adverb modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb. ADVERBS OF MANNER They tell us how something is done: Ricky plays football badly. Sainz drives fast. Position: They go after the verb if the verb is intransitive: Sainz drives fast. Otherwise, they go after the object of the verb: My secretary types letters fast.

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Some common adverbs of manner are: badly, well, carefully, clearly, easily, etc. ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY They tell us how often something happens, Position: a) after the verb "to be" and auxiliary verbs. I am usually at home in the evenings. I will always remember you. b) before any other verb. I never have tea for breakfast. Some common frequency adverbs are : always, often, frequently, sometimes, generally, seldom, ever, rarely, never. ADVERBS OF TIME They tell us when something happens, happened, will happen, etc. Position: these adverbs are usually placed at the very beginning or at the very end of a sentence. He went home yesterday. Some common adverbs of time are: now, yesterday, tomorrow, etc. ADVERBS OF PLACE They tell us where something is, where it happens, happened, etc. Position: a) if there is no object they are placed after the verb. Jennifer is sleeping upstairs. b) otherwise they come after the object. Richard took left his books here. Some common adverbs of place are: here, there, upstairs, downstairs, nearby, etc. ADVERBS OF DEGREE They are used when you want to give more information about the extent of an action or the degree to which an action is performed. Position: They can be used in the usual positions of adjuncts. Jim was deeply moved by the sad fate of so many deprived children. Some common adverbs of degree are: absolutely, deeply, entirely, fairly, quite, etc. Question words What is used to ask about a thing or an action: What is this? It's my new car. What are you doing here? I am waiting for Mary. Who is used to ask about a person: Who is that boy? My brother Tom. Where is used to ask about a place: Where are my glasses? On the table.

When is used to ask about time:

When do some trees lose their leaves? In autumn.

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Whose can be used as a determiner (before a noun) or as a pronoun. It is used to ask which person something belongs to or is associated with: Whose car is this? Itดs Sheilaดs. Whose is this coat? It's Peter's. Which can be used as a determiner or as a pronoun. It is used to ask about one thing or person when the choice is restricted: There are three coats on the chair. Which one is yours? Why is used to ask the reason for something of the purpose of something: Why is Sally crying? She is crying because she has cut herself. How is used to ask about manner: How do you come to school? By bus. How can be combined with other words at the beginning of questions: How much is used to ask about the amount of something: How much milk is there in the fridge? Two litres. How many is used to ask about the number of things or people: How many bottles of milk did you buy? Three bottles. How long is used to ask about the length of a period of time: How long have you lived here? For two years. How far is used to ask about distance: How far is it to London from here? 500 km. Relative clauses: an introduction There are two types of relative clauses: Defining relative clauses. They are used to identify who or what we are talking about: The man who phoned a moment ago wanted to speak to Susan. If we said, "the man wanted to speak to Susan," the person we are talking to would not understand which man we are speaking about. Non-defining relative clauses. They do not define their antecedent. They only give more information about it but this information is not essential to understand who or what we are talking about:

This aqueduct, which was built in the first century AD, is still in use. We can say, This aqueduct is still in use, and there is no doubt what we are talking about. A non-defining relative clause does not define its antecedent. It only gives us more information about it. Relative pronouns List of relative pronouns: who and whom refer to people

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The man who is sitting at the head of the table is the manager of a large car company. whom is used when the relative pronoun goes after a preposition: Jeremy does not like June, with whom he has worked for two years. And, sometimes, in formal English when it is the object of a verb: Mrs Johnson loves Mary, whom she adopted two years ago. which refers to things: The car which you bought last year is very fast. that can be used instead of who or which in defining relative clauses: The novel that / which I am reading is very good. The man that / who phoned this morning didnดt say what he wanted. whose is used to show who or what something belongs to or is related to. It is not a pronoun because it always goes before a noun, so it is a kind of possessive determiner. But for the sake of clarity it is usually included in the list of relative pronouns: Jane tried to console the woman whose husband died while he was helping rescue two mountaineers. A relative pronoun can be:

the subject of a relative clause: The man who phoned a moment ago wanted to speak to Susan.

the object of a relative clause: The second-hand car which Paul bought last year has not broken down yet.

The relative pronoun can be omitted when it is the object of a defining relative clause: The second hand car (that / which) Paul bought last year has not broken down yet.

the complement of a preposition: The boy with whom Jenny goes out is a very good sportsman.

The preposition can be put at the end of the relative clause and then you can use who instead of whom. If there is a time adverb / time expression, the preposition is placed before the time adverb: June, who Peter has gone out with for three months, is very nice. :- If it is a defining relative clause, you can omit the relative pronoun: The boy who Jenny goes out with is a very good sportsman. The boy Jenny goes out with is a very good sportsman. Defining relative clauses When you want to use a relative clause you need a relative pronoun or a relative adverb. Sometimes the relative pronoun can be omitted. :- who / whom are used to refer to people: The man who lives upstairs is very noisy. :- which is used to refer to things: The car which you bought last year is very fast. :- that can be used to refer to people or things: The man that opened the door was tall. The novel that I am reading is very good. :- whose is used to show who or what something belongs to or is related to: The novel that I am reading is about a woman whose husband dies in a car crash. List of relative adverbs: :- When can be used instead of (in / on which): I will always remember the day when (on which) they left. :- Where can be used instead of (in / at which): They do not like the house where (in which) she lives. :- who / whom are used to refer to people: The man who lives upstairs is very noisy.

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:- which is used to refer to things: The car which you bought last year is very fast. :- that can be used to refer to people or things: The man that opened the door was tall. The novel that I am reading is very good. :- whose is used to show who or what something belongs to or is related to: The novel that I am reading is about a woman whose husband dies in a car crash. List of relative adverbs: :- When can be used instead of (in / on which): I will always remember the day when (on which) they left. :- Where can be used instead of (in / at which): They do not like the house where (in which) she lives. List of relative pronouns: Defining relative clauses are used to identify which person or thing we are talking about: The man who is being greeted so warmly is the president of British Petroleum (BP).

If we said the man is the president of British Petroleum, nobody would probably know who we are talking about because there are four men in the picture. When the relative clause defines the subject of another clause, the usual word order is broken and you find: Subj.+ relative clause + verb ... The man who is being greeted is the president of British Petroleum (BP). A relative pronoun, like most pronouns, can be: the subject of a relative clause: The man who phoned a moment ago wanted to speak to Susan. the object of a relative clause: The second-hand car which Paul bought last year has not broken down yet. (which is the object of bought) when the relative pronoun is the object of the relative clause, it can be omitted: The second-hand car Paul bought last year has not broken down yet. the complement of a preposition. When the relative pronoun is not omitted and placed after the preposition you can only use whom to refer to people and which to refer to things: The boy with whom Jenny goes out is a very good sporstman. The key with which I opened the back door yesterday is very rusty. When the relative pronoun is the complement of a preposition, it can be omitted. Then the preposition must be placed at the end of the relative clause unless there is a time adverb. If there is a time adverb, the preposition is placed before the time adverb. The boy Jenny goes out with is a very good sporstman. The key I opened the back door with yesterday is very rusty. Non-defining relative clauses A non-defining relative clause does not define its antecedent. It only gives us more information about it. This information is not essential to understand who or what we are talking about:

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The astronaut, who is about to take off, is saying goodbye to his family and friends. We can say the astronaut is saying goodbye to his family and friends and there is no doubt who we are talking about because there is only one astronaut in the picture . But if we leave out a defining relative clause we do not know who or what we are talking about: The man who lives next door is thinking of moving to Spain. The man is thinking of moving to Spain. (which one?) Non-defining relatives clauses: are separated from their antecedent by commas: John does not like Peter, who has been his boss for 5 years. always need a relative pronoun. The relative pronoun is never omitted: Robert loves Mary, who he has gone out with for 3 months. always need who to refer to people and which to refer to things. "That" cannot be used instead of "who" or "which": Every year millions of people visit the Eiffel Tower, which was built at the end of the 19th century. The relative pronoun, like other pronouns, can be the subject, object of a verb or the complement of a preposition: John does not like Peter, who has been his boss for 5 years. (who is the subject of has been) I have not met Sharon, who Paul loves so much. (who is the object of loves) Robert loves Mary, with whom he has gone out for 3 months. Reported speech: an introduction Reported speech is used to report statements, questions or commands. It allows you to express the meaning of what somebody has said without using the speaker's exact words:

Sandy is talking to her hairdresser: Oh, James is so romantic! He came into my office with a bouquet of roses and asked me to marry him.

Will you marry me?

When you use indirect speech to report someone's words, some changes in tenses, pronouns, adverbs, etc. are often necessary. Change of pronouns, adverbs, etc. Personal pronouns, possessive pronouns, ajectives and adverbs may or may not change depending on who the speaker is and when and where he is speaking:

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Some time later, Mrs Roberts is talking to a friend and says, I was very happy when the doctor told me I had had a healthy baby. After the birth of the baby, the doctor gets home and says to his wife, Mrs Roberts felt very happy when I told her she had had a healty baby.

In the first example Mrs Roberts is speaking about herself, so she uses me and I . But in the second example the doctor is speaking to his wife about Mrs Roberts, so he has to use third person pronouns: her and she. It is important to use your common sense and to pay attention to who is reporting what, where and when: Some common changes in time expressions are: Direct speech Indirect speech today that day yesterday the day before

the day before yesterday two days ago

last week / month, etc. the previous week

a year / two years ago,etc.

a year before / the previous year

tomorrow the next day / the following day

the day after tomorrow

in two daysด time

next week / month, etc.

the following week / year

Reported speech: tense changes When the reporting verb is in the present, pesent perfect, or future tense, the verb/s used in direct speech can be reported without any change of tense:

The man has asked if it is raining.

When the reporting verb is in a past tense, changes in tense forms are usually necessary: At school At home Teacher: What are you eating? The student gets home and says:" Mum, the

teacher asked me what I was eating and I told him I was eating a bar of chocolate." Student: I am eating a chocolate bar.

When the student is talking to his mother, the incident he is referring to is in the past. The action expressed by "eat" is not in progress any longer. The chocolate bar is finished, so he has to use past continuous instead of present continuous.

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But the change of tense is optional when the time reference of the original remark is still valid at the time we report it. Although it is optional, changes in tense forms are often preferred for the sake of concord:

Sally: I am 15 years old.

If she is still 15 at the time her words are reported the speaker can say: Sally said that she was 15. Or Sally said that she is 15.

How to report statements Statements are usually reported by means of: say (to somebody) / tell somebody + "that-clause."

Some time later Mrs Roberts is talking to a friend and says, I was very happy when the doctor told me that I had had a healthy baby.

The conjunction that can be omitted after some common reporting verbs like say, tell, etc.: I was very happy when the doctor said (that) I had had a healthy baby. I was very happy when the doctor said to me (that) I had had a healthy baby. I was very happy when the doctor told me (that) I had had a healty baby. How to report orders Orders are usually reported as follows : Tell, order, etc.+ somebody + (not) to do sth: Robert gets home and says to his wife:

This morning my boss got angry with me because I was reading the newspaper and he told me to start working at once.

Sheila to her dog : "Don't move." Sheila told her dog not to move. You can also use want, demand, etc.: Teacher: Do the exercise on page 50. Student: The teacher wants us to do the exercise on page 50. You must be careful because tell can be used to report orders and statements and the reported clauses are different in each case. How to report questions "yes/no" questions are reported as follows: ask (somebody) / want to know, etc. + if / whether + subject + verb ... Paul : " John, will you play tennis on Sunday?" John is talking to his mother and says: "Paul asked (me) if I would play tennis on

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Sunday" "wh-questions" are reported as follows: ask (somebody) / want to know, etc. + wh-word + subject + verb ...

Sonia is talking to a friend about her holidays in Paris and says: I asked a policeman where the Eiffel Tower was and he said it was behind my back. It was so funny !

As you can see, when Sonia speaks to the policeman be is before the subject (interrogative form) because she is asking a question, but in the reported question be is not in the interrogative form because the speaker (Sonia) is not asking a question. She does not want an answer. She is reporting a question. ask (somebody) / want to know, etc. + wh-word + verb ... (when the "wh- word" is the subject of the verb.) Reporter to PC Smith: "Who killed Mr Rattle?" PC Smith is speaking to his wife and says: "A reporter asked me who had killed Mr Rattle." How to report requests, suggestions, etc. Requests are usually reported by means of : ask somebody (not) to do something:

The bear can see the hunter´s rifle and is begging for mercy. The hunter speaking to his companion: "The bear is asking me not to kill him."

You must be careful because ask can be used to report questions and requests and the reported clauses are different in each case. Suggestions are often reported by means of: the verb suggest: Paul to his girlfriend: Why don´t we go to the cinema? Paulดs girlfriend to her mother: Paul suggested going to the cinema. Common Words in American and British English Here are a few of the more common words which are different in American and British English. This is only meant to highlight some of the variety which exists within English, and is not a complete list by any means. It also does not address different vocabulary which is used in Australia, Canada, South Africa and India as well as the

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Caribbean, Africa, and the many other places in the world which use English as the language of commerce or government.

American British

apartment flat

argument row

baby carriage pram

band-aid plaster

bathroom loo or WC

can tin

chopped beef mince

cookie biscuit

corn maize

diaper nappy

elevator lift

eraser rubber

flashlight torch

fries chips

gas petrol

guy bloke, chap

highway motorway

hood (car) bonnet

jello jelly

jelly jam

kerosene paraffin

lawyer solicitor

license plate number plate

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line queue

mail post

motor home caravan

movie theater cinema

muffler silencer

napkin serviette

nothing nought

overpass flyover

pacifier dummy

pants trousers

parking lot car park

period full stop

pharmacist chemist

potato chips crisps

rent hire

sausage banger

sidewalk pavement

soccer football

sweater jumper

trash can bin

truck lorry

trunk (car) boot

vacation holiday

vest waistcoat

windshield (car) windscreen

zip code postal code

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Spelling differences between American and British English -or vs. -our American British color colour favorite favourite honor honour -ll vs. -l American British enrollment enrolment fulfill fulfil skillful skilful -og vs. -ogue

American British analog analogue catalog catalogue

dialog dialogue -ck or -k vs. -que American British bank banque check cheque checker chequer -ense vs. -enze American British defense defence license licence

-ze vs. -se American British analyze analyse criticize criticise memorize memorise -er vs. -re American British center centre meter metre theater theatre -e vs. -oe or -ae American British encylopedia encylycopaedia maneuver manoeuvre medieval mediaeval -dg vs. -dge (or -g vs. -gu) American British aging ageing argument arguement judgment judgement Other American British jewelry jewellery draft draught pajamas pyjamas plow plough program programme tire tyre

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In British English, words that end in -l preceded by a vowel usually double the -l when a suffix is added, while in American English the letter is not doubled. The letter will double in the stress is on the second syllable. Base Word American British counsel counseling counselling equal equaling equalling model modeling modelling quarrel quarreling quarrelling signal signaling signalling travel traveling travelling excel excelling excelling propel propelling propelling Spelling of verbs This is related to formation of the past participle for verbs. For a complete list of irregular verb spellings, see Susan Jones' Complete List of English Irregular Verbs at this web site. Below is a sampling of the three main categories of differeneces with verbs. -ed vs. -t The first category involves verbs that use -ed or -t for the simple past and past participle. Generally, the rule is that if there is a verb form with -ed, American English will use it, and if there is a form with -t, British English uses it. However, these forms do not exist for every verb and there is variation. For example, both American and British English would use the word 'worked' for the past form of 'to work', and in American English it is common to hear the word 'knelt' as the past tense of 'to kneel'. Base form American British to dream dreamed dreamt to leap leaped leapt to learn leareded learnt base form vs. -ed The second category of difference includes verbs that use either the base form of the verb or the -ed ending for the simple past. Base form American British to fit fit fitted to forecast forecast forecasted to wed wed wedded irregular vs. -ed The third category of difference includes verbs that have either an irregular spelling or the -ed ending for the simple past. Base form American British

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to knit knit knitted to light lit lighted to strive strove strived So what does tall his mean for learners of English? In the beginning, unfortunately, it means a lot of memorization (or memorisation) and of course, a few mistakes. For spoken English, the differences are barely audible, so forge ahead and don't be too concerned with whether a word is spelled 'dwelled' or 'dwelt'. With written English, however, if you are unsure about the spelling, better to ask your teacher or look the word up in the dictionary and see what the experts say. http://www.englishclub.com/writing/spelling_american-english.htm English and American English Spelling Here are the principal differences in spelling between English and American English. English American

English

Final -l is always doubled after one vowel in stressed and unstressed syllables in English but usually only in stressed syllables in American English, for example:

rebel > rebelled travel > travelled

rebel > rebelled travel > traveled

Some words end in -tre in English and -ter in American English, for example:

centre theatre

center theater

Some words end in -ogue in English and -og in American English, for example:

analogue catalogue

analog catalog

Some words end in -our in English and -or in American English, for example:

colour labour

color labor

Some verbs end in -ize or -ise in English but only in -ize in American English, for example:

realise, realize harmonise, harmonize

realize harmonize

Common Differences English American English

all right all right, alright (disputed)

analyse analyze

centre center

cheque check

colour color

counsellor counselor

criticise, criticize criticize

defence defense

doughnut donut

favour favor

fibre fiber

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flavour flavor

fulfil fulfill

grey gray

honour honor

humour humor

jewellery jewellery, jewelry

judgement, judgment judgment

kerb curb

labour labor

license, licence (verb) licence (noun)

license (verb) license (noun)

litre liter

metre meter

mould mold

neighbour neighbor

offence offense

practise (verb) practice (noun)

practice (verb) practice (noun)

pretence pretense

programme program

pyjamas pajamas

realise, realize realize

savour savor

speciality specialty

theatre theater

travelled travelling

travelled, traveled travelling, traveling

tyre tire

valour valor The Conjunctive Adverb Recognize a conjunctive adverb when you see one. Conjunctions have one job, to connect. They join words, phrases, or clauses together to clarify what the writer is saying. Their presence provides smooth transitions from one idea to another. When the job of an adverb is to connect ideas, we call it a conjunctive adverb. Here is a list:

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accordingly also besides consequently conversely finally furthermore hence

however indeed instead likewise meanwhile moreover nevertheless next

nonetheless otherwise similarly still subsequently then therefore thus

A conjunctive adverb can join two main clauses. In this situation, the conjunctive adverb behaves like a coordinating conjunction, connecting two complete ideas. Notice, however, that you need a semicolon, not a comma, to connect the two clauses: M A I N C L A U S E + ; + conjunctive adverb + , + M A I N C L A U S E . Read these examples: The dark skies and distant thunder dissuaded Clarice from her afternoon run; moreover, she had thirty calculus problems to solve for her morning class. Leon's apartment complex does not allow dogs over thirty pounds; otherwise, he would have bought the gangly Great Dane puppy playing in the pet store window. The cat ate a bowlful of tuna; then, to the squirrels' delight, the fat feline fell asleep in the rocking chair. A conjunctive adverb will also introduce, interrupt, or conclude a single main clause. In this situation, you will often need commas to separate the conjunctive adverb from the rest of the sentence. Check out these examples: At 10 a.m., Paul was supposed to be taking his biology midterm. Instead, he was flirting with the pretty waitress at the coffee house. Maria declined Jeff's third invitation to go out. This young man is determined, nevertheless, to take her to dinner one night soon. After mowing the yard in the hot sun, Pedro was too hungry to shower. He did wash his dusty hands, however. If the break is weak, do not use comma(s). Anna called to say her car would not start. Rafael will therefore have to walk to school. Weak interruption = no commas. The long noodles splashed tomato sauce all over the front of Brenda's shirt. Ordering fettuccine was a mistake indeed. Weak interruption = no comma. Modal Verbs Eveyone can understand Modal Verbs! What are model verbs? Model verbs are also called auxiliary verbs, helping verbs and model auxiliaries. Model verbs are not complete verbs, and they can only be used with a verb. The usage of model verbs: Model verbs stay in the base form - bare infinitive - the bare infinitive is the infinitive without "to" before the verb. The following model verbs are used to with the present tense: can, will, shall, ought to, must, need, may The following model verbs are used in the past tense: would, should, could, might Model verbs are used to answer questions in the short form yes, I do.

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yes, we can. No, I don't. Model verbs can be used as part of the grammar structure of the sentence, such as when used with the perfect tenses. When are model verbs used: Prediction - Will and Shall Will and shall can be used to state predict that an event or an action will take place or will occur The model verbs can used to make a prediction about an event or action about the future. I think we will be able to go and see the move tonight. My mother thinks we will not get home be it starts to rain. Requests - Offers - Suggestions - Can - Could - May - Shall To make requests, offers or suggestions can be stated with the model verbs Permission - Can - Could - May - Might Can, could, may and might are model verbs that can be used to give permission or deny permission to do something or to someone. Can I help you cook dinner? You may not watch T. V. after dinner. Certainty - Possibility - Can - Might - may- Could - Shall -Can, might - and could are model verbs that can be used to state certainty and possibility. Do you think it might rain tomorrow night? I might be home before midnight. You can come over tonight if you would like to. Ability - Inability - Can - Could - Able to My father hopes that we will be able to go to the moves. I can not go to Europe with you. Usage Of The Modal Verb Tense Rules for using verb tenses: Sentences using verbs do not use "auxiliary verbs". "Not" after the verb is used to make a verb negative, including when using the simple verb tenses. To make questions using verbs, the verb comes before the subject. Modal verbs do not change there form. "To" is not used after a verbs do have, except with "ought to". The main verb is always in its base form when used with a verb modal verbs stay in the base form - bare infinitive - the bare infinitive is the infinitive without "to" before the verb. The following modal verbs are used to with the present verb tense: :- can, will, shall, ought to, must, need, may The following modal verbs are used in the past tense: :- would, should, could, might modal verbs are used to answer questions in the short form :- yes, I do. :- yes, we can. :- No, I don't. Wishes & Verb Tenses How do we use the grammar form "wish"? Wishes is used to state the desire of a situation to be different. Wishes can be used to used in the past, present and future. Rules for wishes: The verb tense is different then the time. Past Tense - uses the Past Perfect Verb Tense

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Examples: :- I wish I had studied for my test last night. :- I wish my car hadn't broken down. Present Tense - uses the Past Tense (were is used for all subjects, was is not used). Examples: :- I wish it weren't raining all day. :- I wish I were rich. Future Tense - after wish would is used. Examples: :- I wish it would stop raining. :- I wish the people next door would lower there radio. Modal Verbs and Wishes - When verbs are used with wishes the sentence structure is Modal Verb + Have + V3/Past Participle http://englishplus.com/grammar/00000005.htm Sentence Fragments (Incomplete Sentences) 1. A sentence must have a subject and a verb if it is to make sense. Incorrect: John, being a friendly computer salesman and baseball fan. (No verb) Correct: John, being a friendly computer salesman and baseball fan, refused to argue. (John--the subject--is doing something, namely, refusing.) 2. A subordinate clause (also sometimes called a dependent clause) is not a complete sentence if it does not have a main clause even though it may have a subject and verb. Incorrect: Because we are baseball fans. Correct: We watched the All-Star Game because we are baseball fans. There is nothing wrong with beginning a sentence with the word because as long as the clause with because is followed by a main clause. Correct: Because we are baseball fans, we watched the All-Star Game. 3. Sometimes in conversation only sentence fragments make sense. OK, if you are recording a conversation, otherwise incorrect: She asked, "Why did you watch that baseball game?" "Because we are baseball fans." Run-On Sentences A run-on sentence consists of two or more main clauses that are run together without proper punctuation. Sometimes even sentences which are technically correct are easier to read if they are made into shorter sentences. We often speak in run-on sentences, but we make pauses and change our tone so people can understand us. But when we write, no one can hear us, so sometimes we must break our sentences into shorter units so that they do not sound run-on. Incorrect: The boy showed us his tickets someone gave them to him. Correct: The boy showed us his tickets. Someone gave them to him. Incorrect: We often speak in run-on sentences, but we make pauses and change our tone so people can understand us, but when we write, no one can hear us, so sometimes we must break our sentences into shorter units so that they do not sound run-on. (Technically punctuated OK, but too long to be easily understood. See better sentence structure above.) Dangling Modifiers A dangling modifier is a phrase or clause which says something different from what is meant because words are left out. The meaning of the sentence, therefore, is left "dangling." Incorrect: While driving on Greenwood Avenue yesterday afternoon, a tree began to fall toward Wendy H's car.

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(It sounds like the tree was driving! This actually appeared in a newspaper article. An alert reader wrote, "Is the Department of Motor Vehicles branching out and issuing licenses to hardwoods? Have they taken leaf of their senses?") Adding a word or two makes the sentence clear. Correct: While Wendy H was driving on Greenwood Avenue yesterday afternoon, a tree began to fall toward her car. When a modifier "dangles" so that the sentence is meaningless (or means something other than your intent), restate it and add the words it needs in order to make sense. Misplaced Modifiers This is a common problem in American speech. Writing has to be more precise than speaking, or it will be misunderstood. A misplaced modifier is simply a word or phrase describing something but not placed near enough the word it is supposed to modify. The modifying word or phrase is not dangling; no extra words are needed; the modifier is just in the wrong place. Incorrect: I had to take down the shutters painting the house yesterday. It sounds like the shutters painted the house! Place the modifying phrase painting the house near or next to the word it is meant to modify. Correct: Painting the house yesterday, I had to take down the shutters.

Pronoun Case Pronouns are words that Americans often carelessly use in their speech. The problem is that the use of pronouns must be very clear when we write. Many times the writing will be misunderstood; at best, the writer will appear uneducated. A major problem with pronouns is the use of the wrong case. In English certain pronouns are meant to be the subject or predicate nominative of a sentence. Other words are meant to be the objects--whether direct, indirect, objects of prepositions, or object complements. Pronouns used as subjects or predicate nominatives (nominative case): I, you, he, she, it, we, they, who Pronouns used as objects (objective case): me, you, him, her, it, us, them, whom Some things are really obvious. All English speakers know we say "I like him," not "Me like he." But there are four common problem areas with pronoun case: compounds, appositives, predicate nominatives, and who/whom. Compound Subjects and Objects with Pronouns If we know that "Me like him" is incorrect, then that also means that "Katy and me like him" is incorrect. The word I belongs in the subject. The sentence should read "Katy and I like him." Similarly, the subject in "Katy and we like him" is correct. Politeness says that the I, we, me or us comes last. If the sentence had some kind of compound object the sentence would read: "Katy likes Joe and me," not "Katy likes Joe and I." After all, we would say "Katy likes me," not "Katy likes I." Similarly the object in "Katy likes the Johnsons and us" is correct. Pronouns with Appositives Sometimes a descriptive noun phrase called an appositive will follow a personal pronoun. Keep the proper case of the pronoun. We do not say: "Us want ease of use." We say: "We want ease of use." Therefore we do not say: "Us computer users want ease of use." Instead, we should say: "We computer users want ease of use." The Chronicles of Narnia says: "Come in front with us lions." That is correct. We say "with us," not "with we," so we should say "with us lions."

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Pronouns in the Predicate Nominative In standard written English, the personal pronouns in the predicate nominative are the same as they would be in the subject. Most Americans do not speak this way, but it is grammatically correct. The nominative case follows a linking verb to rename the subject. Incorrect: The winner was her. (Objective case) Correct: The winner was she. (Nominative case) She is a predicate nominative. It uses the same case as the subject since it simply renames the subject. Even though we may often say, "It's me" the grammatically correct way is "It's I." Who and Whom Who and whom correspond to he and him. Who is the subject or predicate nominative. Whom is the object. Correct: Who are you? (Subject) Correct: Whom do you see? (Direct object) Correct: Whom did you give it to? (Object of preposition to) Correct: Who did that? (Subject) It may help you to recall that who follows the same pattern as he and they. When all three are in the objective case, they end with m: whom, him, them. This same pattern applies when you add the suffix -ever or -soever: Correct: Whoever dies with the most toys wins. (Subject) Correct: He gave that ticket to whoever asked for one. (Subject of asked) Correct: Pick whomever I tell you to. (Direct object)

Possessive Pronouns Certain pronouns called possessive pronouns show ownership. Some are used alone; some describe a noun. Used alone: mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs, whose Correct: That computer is hers. Modify noun: my, your, his, her, its, our, their, whose Correct: That is her computer. Please note that none of the possessive pronouns are spelled with an apostrophe. See Apostrophes with Pronouns for more on this. Possessive Pronouns with Gerunds Possessive pronouns are used to describe gerunds. Using the objective case confuses the reader. Incorrect: You winning in spite of the odds inspired us all. (Ambiguous and awkward. Do you inspire or does the winning inspire?) Correct: Your winning in spite of the odds inspired us all. Incorrect: We could not stand him whining about everything. (Which could you not stand? Him? or His whining?) Because of the possible confusion, use possessive pronouns with gerunds. Correct: We could not stand his whining about everything. Pronouns with Than or As When you use a pronoun in a comparison using the words than or as, use the proper pronouns as if all the words were being said. Most of the time when we use a comparison using than or as, we leave words out. This is technically called an elliptical clause--a clause with an ellipsis. An ellipsis is words left out.

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Look at it this way. There is a difference between the two following sentences. Both are grammatically correct; they just mean two different things. He likes you more than me. He likes you more than I. Think of what words are left out: He likes you more than I do. (I is the subject) He likes you more than he likes me. (Me is the direct object) When a pronoun follows than or as in a comparison, make sure you understand what words are missing and then use the correct pronoun. Incorrect: He is taller than her. (i.e., than her is?) Correct: He is taller than she. (i.e., than she is. Much better!) Incorrect: He is as happy as them. (i.e., as happy as them are?) Correct: He is as happy as they. (i.e., as happy as they are.) Correct with one meaning: He sees you more often than I. (i.e., than I see you.) Correct with another meaning: He sees you more often than me. (i.e., than he sees me.) The case of the pronoun makes the difference! For more, see Pronoun Case. Subject Agreement with the Verb It is usually pretty easy to match the verb with the subject in English. Only in the present tense does the verb have more than one form. And except for one verb, only the third person singular is different. Besides, the third person singular present tense always ends in an s. We understand this most of the time. Verb: To speak I, you, we, they speak he, she, it speaks Verb: To do I, you, we, they do he, she, it does Verb: To be (the only exception) I am you, we, they are he, she, it is The verb to be is also the only verb with more than one form in the past tense. See also the subjunctive mood. Verb: To be, past I, he, she, it was you, we, they were Normally, none of this is a problem. However, there are a few cases that confuse writers and speakers. Separated Subjects and Verbs A phrase or clause often separates the subject and the verb. The verb must still agree with the subject. Incorrect: The climate in both places are mild.

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Correct: The climate in both places is mild. (Climate is the subject, not places. It takes the verb is.) Keep track of the subject, especially when there is a singular pronoun or collective noun for the subject and a plural element in the phrase that separates the subject and verb. Collective noun: A group of senators was calling for an investigation. Singular pronoun: One of the many galaxies was proven to be near a black hole. Compound Subjects Two or more singular subjects joined by or or nor take a singular verb. Correct: Neither John nor Mary knows what happened. Two or more plural subjects joined by any conjunction (including and, or, but, or nor) take a plural verb. Correct: Both men and women are allowed to enter. If one or more singular subject is joined to one or more plural subject by or or nor, the verb agrees with the subject closest to the verb. Incorrect: Neither Mary nor her brothers knows what happened. (Brothers is closer to the verb and is plural; the verb should agree with brothers). Correct: Neither Mary nor her brothers know what happened. Correct: Neither her brothers nor Mary knows what happened. A compound subject whose parts are joined by and normally takes a plural verb. Correct: Joe and his brother know what happened. A compound subject whose parts are joined by and takes a singular verb in two special instances. 1. When the parts of the subject combine to form a single item. Correct: One and one equals two. Correct: Cookies and cream is my favorite flavor. 2. When the compound subject is modified by the words each or every. Correct: Every boy and girl has to participate. See also British vs. American Grammar, The Verb To Be, and Indefinite Pronouns. Using Indefinite Pronouns Indefinite pronouns are words which replace nouns without specifying which noun they replace. Singular: another, anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything, little, much, neither, nobody, no one, nothing, one, other, somebody, someone, something Plural: both, few, many, others, several Singular or Plural: all, any, more, most, none, some Singular indefinite pronouns take singular verbs or singular personal pronouns. Correct: Each of the members has one vote. (The subject, each, is singular. Use has.) Incorrect: One of the girls gave up their seat. Correct: One of the girls gave up her seat. (Her refers to one, which is singular.) Plural indefinite pronouns take plural verbs or plural personal pronouns. Correct: A few of the justices were voicing their opposition. (Few is plural, so are were and their.) For indefinite pronouns that can be singular or plural, it depends on what the indefinite pronoun refers to. Correct: All of the people clapped their hands. (All refers to people, which is plural.) Correct: All of the newspaper was soaked. (Here all refers to newspaper, which is singular.)

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A Gender-Sensitive Case The pronouns ending with -body or -one such as anybody, somebody, no one, or anyone are singular. So are pronouns like each and every. Words like all or some may be singular. That means that a possessive pronoun referring to these singular words must also be singular. In standard written English the possessive pronoun his is used to refer to a singular indefinite pronoun unless the group referred to is known to be all female. Incorrect: Is everyone happy with their gift? Correct: Is everyone happy with his gift? (Is and everyone are singular. The possessive pronoun must be singular, too) Most languages, including English, observe the standard of using the masculine pronoun in situations like this. However, in some circles today the idea of choosing the masculine pronoun sounds discriminatory against women. If this usage bothers you, or if you think it may bother your audience, there are two possible ways to work around this and still use standard English. 1. Use the phrase his or her. It is a little awkward, but OK. Correct: Is everyone happy with his or her gift? 2. Rewrite the sentence using a plural pronoun or antecedent. Plural personal pronouns in English no longer distinguish between masculine and feminine. Correct: Are all the people happy with their gifts? Use of Pronouns Ending in -self Words ending in -self or -selves are called reflexive or intensive pronouns. They should always refer to another word that has already been named. In grammatical terms, they need an antecedent. Incorrect: The president named myself to the committee. (Myself is not previously named) Correct: The president named me to the committee. Correct: I did it all by myself. (Myself refers to I) Correct: John talks to himself when he is nervous. (Himself refers to John) General Antecedent Agreement The antecedent of a pronoun is the word the pronoun refers to. There are several style problems which writers and speakers sometimes have when they do not match the pronoun and the noun it replaces correctly. Missing or Mismatched Antecedent A pronoun, unless it is an indefinite pronoun, must have an antecedent, a word it refers to. The pronoun must match the word it replaces--singular or plural, and, sometimes, masculine or feminine. Incorrect: Every student must have their pencils. (Both every and student are singular; therefore, his, her, or his or her must be used. Their is plural and cannot refer to a singular noun.) Unclear Antecedent A pronoun's antecedent must be clear. Incorrect: I never go to that place because they have stale bread. (What does they refer to? Both I and place are singular.) Correct: I never go to that place because it has stale bread. When the antecedent is a different gender, person, or number than the pronoun it is supposed to replace; this is sometimes called a "faulty co-reference." Incorrect: Politics is my favorite subject. They are such fascinating people. Correct: Politics is my favorite subject. Politicians are such fascinating people.

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Faulty co-reference may also occur with adverbs that do not replace an adverbial expression or pronouns that do not replace nouns. Incorrect: He ought to speak French well. He lived there for twenty years. Correct: He ought to speak French well. He lived in France for twenty years. Ambiguous Antecedent A pronoun's antecedent must be unambiguous. Sometimes there may be more than one word the pronoun could refer to. In a case like that, it may be better not to use the pronoun. Incorrect: The suitcase was on the plane, but now it's gone. (What is gone? The suitcase or the plane?) Correct: The suitcase was on the plane, but now the suitcase is gone. OR The suitcase was on the plane, but now the plane is gone. (Depends on which you mean...) Faraway Antecedent The pronoun must be close enough to the word it is replacing so that your reader knows whom or what you are talking about. Unclear: Buford saw Longstreet's division coming toward his men. Reynolds' troops responded quickly to the calls for assistance, and soon he found himself in the midst of a deadly battle. (Who is he? Buford, Reynolds, or Longstreet?) Clear: Buford saw Longstreet's division coming toward his men. Reynolds' troops responded quickly to the calls for assistance, and soon Buford found himself in the midst of a deadly battle. See also Using Indefinite Pronouns. The Subjunctive Mood A verb is in the subjunctive mood when it expresses a condition which is doubtful or not factual. It is most often found in a clause beginning with the word if. It is also found in clauses following a verb that expresses a doubt, a wish, regret, request, demand, or proposal. These are verbs typically followed by clauses that take the subjunctive: ask, demand, determine, insist, move, order, pray, prefer, recommend, regret, request, require, suggest, and wish. In English there is no difference between the subjunctive and normal, or indicative, form of the verb except for the present tense third person singular and for the verb to be. The subjunctive for the present tense third person singular drops the -s or -es so that it looks and sounds like the present tense for everything else. The subjunctive mood of the verb to be is be in the present tense and were in the past tense, regardless of what the subject is. Incorrect: If I was you, I would run. Correct: If I were you, I would run. (The verb follows if and expresses a non-factual condition.) Incorrect: I wish he was able to type faster. Correct: I wish he were able to type faster. (The second verb is in a clause following a verb expressing a wish. It also suggests a non-factual or doubtful condition.) Incorrect: His requirement is that everyone is computer literate. Correct: His requirement is that everyone be computer literate. (Subordinate clause follows main clause with a demand.) Incorrect: He recommended that each driver reports his tips. Correct: He recommended that each driver report his tips.

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Sometimes we may use the conditional auxiliary verbs of could, should, or would to express the same sense. Subjunctive:I wish he were kinder to me. Conditional: I wish he would be kinder to me. Note: In modern English, the subjunctive is found only in subordinate clauses. Comparatives and Superlatives Use words ending in -er or modified by the word more to compare two items. This is known as the comparative degree. Use words ending in -est or modified by the word most to compare three or more items. This is known as the superlative degree. Correct: K2 is taller than Annapurna. Incorrect: Annapurna is the taller of the three peaks. (Three or more requires superlative.) Correct: Annapurna is the tallest of the three peaks. Normally, -er and -est are added to one-syllable words. -er and -est are added to two-syllable words unless the new word sounds awkward. Correct: fairer prettier handsomest Awkward: famousest readier Correct: most famous more ready Use the modifiers more or most with all root words longer than two syllables as well as with two syllable words that sound awkward. Always use more or most with adverbs that end in -ly. Incorrect: beautifuller smoothliest Correct: more beautiful most smoothly Correct: friendliest beastliest (adjectives, not adverbs) Less and least form comparisons of a lesser degree in a similar manner. Less is used when comparing two items, least with three or more. See also Irregular Comparisons and Comparison Problems. Irregular Comparisons A few of the comparatives and superlatives in English do not follow the usual pattern. Here is a list of common exceptions.

Positive Comparative Superlative bad worse worst badly worse worst far(distance) farther farthest far(extent) further furthest good better best ill worse worst late later latest or last less lesser least little(amount) less least many more most much more most well better best

The comparisons for well apply to both the adjective meaning "healthy" and the adverb meaning "in a good manner." For more on how to use some of these see the Common Mistakes section on good/well and bad/badly. Also see Common Mistakes section for the difference between further and farther and between littlest and least.

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Farther or Further? Farther refers to length or distance. It is the comparative form of the word far when referring to distance. Further means "to a greater degree," "additional," or "additionally." It refers to time or amount. It is the comparative form of the word far when meaning "much." Correct: London is farther north than Juneau. (Refers to distance) Correct: This plan requires further study. (Meaning "additional study," refers to amount) Correct: According to my timetable, we should be further along. (Refers to time) Using Little, Littlest, and Least The word little can be used in two different senses--meaning "small in size" or "small amount of." Examples: He was still a little boy. (small in size) Please give me a little milk. (small amount of) This becomes trickier in the comparative and superlative because little has two different forms. If little means "small in size," the comparative is littler or more little, and the superlative is littlest. If little means "small amount of," the comparative is less, and the superlative is least. Examples: He was the littlest boy in the class. Please give me less milk than he has. He drank the least amount of milk of anyone there. Bad or Badly? Bad is an adjective. It describes nouns or pronouns. It is often used with descriptive linking verbs like look, feel, sound, or to be. Incorrect: She felt badly about missing the date. Correct: She felt bad about missing the date. (Bad describes the pronoun she.) Incorrect: Things looked badly for the Mudville nine. Correct: Things looked bad for the Mudville nine. (Bad describes the noun Things.) Badly is an adverb (like well). It describes verbs and should be used with all verbs other than linking verbs. As many adverbs do, it usually answers the question "How?" Incorrect: Mudville played bad last night. Correct: Mudville played badly last night. (Badly describes the verb played.) Good or Well? Good is an adjective. It describes nouns or pronouns. It may be used with descriptive linking verbs like look, feel, sound, taste, or be to describe the subject. Incorrect: The coffee tasted well this morning. Correct: The coffee tasted good this morning. Correct: The pitcher is looking good today. Well is normally an adverb. It describes verbs (sometimes adjectives) and is used with most other verbs. Well as an adjective means "healthy." Incorrect: He pitches good. Correct: He pitches well. Incorrect: I do not feel very good. Correct: I do not feel very well. (healthy)

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Comparison Problems There are five problems writers sometimes have with comparisons. 1. Make sure you are comparing similar items. Incorrect: The tusk of a mastodon is bigger than an elephant. (It sounds as if the writer is comparing the tusk with an elephant.) Correct: The tusk of a mastodon is bigger than the tusk of an elephant. 2. Make sure your comparison is balanced. Use the same pattern on both sides of the comparison to make it readable and clear. Unbalanced: The tusk of a mastodon is bigger than an elephant's. Correct: The tusk of a mastodon is bigger than that of an elephant. (Or "than the tusk of an elephant"; either choice keeps the pattern of using the prepositional phrase.) Correct: A mastodon's tusk is bigger than an elephant's. (Or "than an elephant's tusk"; either choice keeps the pattern of using the possessive noun.) 3. When comparing people or items that are grouped together, it may be necessary to use the word other or else to make the meaning clear. Incorrect: The X-15 was faster than any airplane. (The X-15 is an airplane. The sentence makes it sound as though it were some other kind of aircraft.) Correct: The X-15 was faster than any other airplane. Incorrect: Manute was taller than anyone on the team. (This suggests that he either was not on the team or that he is being compared to himself.) Correct: Manute was taller than anyone else on the team. 4. The words major and minor are comparative forms that have lost some of their original usage. However, it is nonstandard to add -ly to them just as it is to add -ly to any comparative adjective or adverb that ends in -er. Incorrect: He was majorly disappointed. Correct: He was greatly disappointed. Correct: He was more greatly disappointed than we thought. 5. Avoid the double comparison. Words that end in -er or -est and certain irregular comparisons do not need to be modified with the words more, most, less, or least since they are already comparative or superlative. Similarly, do not add an -er or -est to an irregular comparison for the same reason. Incorrect: That film was more funnier than the one we saw last week. Correct: That film was funnier than the one we saw last week. Incorrect: She felt worser yesterday. (Worse is already comparative.) Correct: She felt worse yesterday. The word lesser is accepted by most authorities when used as an adjective meaning smaller or less significant. Using Negatives There are a few rules to keep in mind when making a sentence say "No." 1. Double negatives are nonstandard. Avoid two negative words in the same clause. Incorrect: I don't want no seconds. (Both don't and no are negatives.) Correct: I don't want any seconds. Correct: I want no seconds. This rule does not include negative interjections at the beginning of a sentence or clause, since those are grammatically separate. Correct: No, I don't want any seconds. 2. Do not use but in a negative sense with another negative.

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Incorrect: He didn't want but one good manuscript. Correct: He wanted but one good manuscript. Correct: He wanted only one good manuscript. 3. Words like barely, hardly, and scarcely have a negative sense and should not be used with another negative. In effect, this creates a double negative. Incorrect: He couldn't hardly speak. Correct: He could hardly speak. Incorrect: We were not barely able to see the stage. Correct: We were barely able to see the stage. Tricky Plurals There are four groups of words which some speakers and writers have difficulty with. In each case it has to do with the agreement of plurals or plural-looking words with the verbs or other words they go with. Plural-looking Nouns Some nouns that end in -s look like they are plural, but they really are singular. This is particularly true of branches of knowledge, certain foods or dishes, and certain diseases. Branches of knowledge like mathematics, physics, ethics, politics, or social studies are singular. Names of foods, while plural, are treated singularly when they are treated as a single dish. Some diseases, while plural in origin, are treated singularly because just one disease is discussed: measles, mumps, rickets, or pox. Examples: Politics is a rough life. Baked beans is one of my favorite dishes. Mumps has been nearly eradicated in the U.S. A few words, though singular in nature, are made of paired items and generally treated as plural: scissors, pants, trousers, glasses, pliers, tongs, tweezers, and the like. Many are often used with the word pair as in pair of pants or pair of scissors. Example: These scissors are too dull to cut with. Nouns Expressing Measurement A noun expressing an amount or measurement is normally singular. If the unit of measurement refers to a number of individual items, then it treated as a plural. Examples: Two spoons of sugar is too much for me. (A single measurement) Twelve dollars is less than what I want to sell it for. (A single sum of money) Four-fifths of the country is satisfied with its health insurance. (One part of a whole) Four-fifths of the people are satisfied with their health insurance. (Four-fifths refers to many individuals.) Titles Titles of books and other works of art are always considered singular even if the title sounds plural. The Alfred Hitchcock film The Birds was successfully advertised with a campaign that said, "The Birds is coming!" Unlike so many ads, that one was grammatically correct. Plurals That Do Not End in -s A number of plurals, mostly derived from Latin, do not end in -s. Nevertheless, they are plural and should be treated as such. Words such as criteria, phenomena, memoranda, and media are plural. Their singular forms are criterion, phenomenon, memorandum, and medium.

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The word data is also technically plural, but the singular form, datum, is rare in English, so using data as singular is tolerated, but not precisely correct. Say "piece of data" or "item of data" for the singular if datum sounds too affected. See also "Alumni" and other listings in Spelling Slammer. The Verb To Be The verb to be is the most irregular verb in the English language. It is normally a linking verb showing existence or the condition of the subject. It can also be used as an auxiliary verb when forming the passive voice. The forms of the verb to be in English are as follows:

Infinitive to be Present am, is, are Past was, were Present Participle being Past Participle been Present Subjunctive be Past Subjunctive were Imperative be

Defining a Phrase When we looked at nouns and pronouns, we said that a pronoun can sometimes replace a noun in a sentence. One of the examples we used was this: [Children] should watch less television ~[They] should watch less television Here it is certainly true that the pronoun they replaces the noun children. But consider: [The children] should watch less television ~[They] should watch less television In this example, they does not replace children. Instead, it replaces the children, which is a unit consisting of a determiner and a noun. We refer to this unit as a NOUN PHRASE (NP), and we define it as any unit in which the central element is a noun. Here is another example: I like [the title of your book] ~I like [it] In this case, the pronoun it replaces not just a noun but a five-word noun phrase, the title of your book. So instead of saying that pronouns can replace nouns, it is more accurate to say that they can replace noun phrases. We refer to the central element in a phrase as the HEAD of the phrase. In the noun phrase the children, the Head is children. In the noun phrase the title of your book, the Head is title. Noun phrases do not have to contain strings of words. In fact, they can contain just one word, such as the word children in children should watch less television. This is also a phrase, though it contains only a Head. At the level of word class, of course, we would call children a plural, common noun. But in a phrase-level analysis, we call children on its own a noun phrase. This is not simply a matter of terminology -- we call it a noun phrase because it can be expanded to form longer strings which are more clearly noun phrases. From now on in the Internet Grammar, we will be using this phrase-level terminology. Furthermore, we will delimit phrases by bracketing them, as we have done in the examples above.

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The Basic Structure of a Phrase

PHRASES

PAGE 2/5 Phrases consist minimally of a Head. This means that in a one-word phrase like [children], the Head is children. In longer phrases, a string of elements may appear before the Head: [the small children] For now, we will refer to this string simply as the pre-Head string. A string of elements may also appear after the Head, and we will call this the post-Head string: [the small children in class 5] So we have a basic three-part structure:

pre-Head string Head post-Head string

[the small children in class 5] Of these three parts, only the Head is obligatory. It is the only part which cannot be omitted from the phrase. To illustrate this, let's omit each part in turn:

pre-Head string Head post-Head string

[-- children in class 5]

*[the small -- in class 5]

[the small children --] Pre-Head and post-Head strings can be omitted, while leaving a complete noun phrase. We can even omit the pre- and post-Head strings at the same time, leaving only the Head:

pre-Head string Head post-Head string

[-- children --] This is still a complete noun phrase. However, when the Head is omitted, we're left with an incomplete phrase (*the small in class five). This provides a useful method of identifying the Head of a phrase. In general, the Head is the only obligatory part of a phrase.

More Phrase Types

PHRASES PAGE 3/5

Just as a noun functions as the Head of a noun phrase, a verb functions as the Head of a verb phrase, and an adjective functions as the Head of an adjective phrase, and so on. We

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recognise five phrase types in all:

Phrase Type Head Example

Noun Phrase Noun [the children in class 5]

Verb Phrase Verb [play the piano]

Adjective Phrase Adjective [delighted to meet you]

Adverb Phrase Adverb [very quickly]

Prepositional Phrase Preposition [in the garden] For convenience, we will use the following abbreviations for the phrase types:

Phrase Type Abbreviation

Noun Phrase NP

Verb Phrase VP

Adjective Phrase AP

Adverb Phrase AdvP

Prepositional Phrase PP

Using these abbreviations, we can now label phrases as well as bracket them. We do this by putting the appropriate label inside the opening bracket: [NP the small children in class 5] Now we will say a little more about each of the five phrase types.

Noun Phrase (NP) As we've seen, a noun phrase has a noun as its Head. Determiners and adjective phrases usually constitute the pre-Head string: [NP the children] [NP happy children] [NP the happy children] In theory at least, the post-Head string in an NP can be indefinitely long: [NP the dog that chased the cat that killed the mouse that ate the cheese that was made from the milk that came from the cow that...] Fortunately, they are rarely as long as this in real use.

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The Head of an NP does not have to be a common or a proper noun. Recall that pronouns are a subclass of nouns. This means that pronouns, too, can function as the Head of an NP: [NP I] like coffee The waitress gave [NP me] the wrong dessert [NP This] is my car If the Head is a pronoun, the NP will generally consist of the Head only. This is because pronouns do not take determiners or adjectives, so there will be no pre-Head string. However, with some pronouns, there may be a post-Head string: [NP Those who arrive late] cannot be admitted until the interval Similarly, numerals, as a subclass of nouns, can be the Head of an NP: [NP Two of my guests] have arrived [NP The first to arrive] was John

Verb Phrase (VP) In a VERB PHRASE (VP), the Head is always a verb. The pre-Head string, if any, will be a `negative' word such as not [1] or never [2], or an adverb phrase [3]: [1] [VP not compose an aria] [2] [VP never compose an aria] [3] Paul [VP deliberately broke the window] Many verb Heads must be followed by a post-Head string: My son [VP made a cake] -- (compare: *My son made) We [VP keep pigeons] -- (compare: *We keep) I [VP recommend the fish] -- (compare: *I recommend) Verbs which require a post-Head string are called TRANSITIVE verbs. The post-Head string, in these examples, is called the DIRECT OBJECT. In contrast, some verbs are never followed by a direct object: Susan [VP smiled] The professor [VP yawned] These are known as INTRANSITIVE VERBS. However, most verbs in English can be both transitive and intransitive, so it is perhaps more accurate to refer to transitive and intransitive uses of a verb. The following examples show the two uses of the same verb: Intransitive: David smokes Transitive: David smokes cigars We will return to the structure of verb phrases in a later section.

Adjective Phrase (AP)

PHRASES

PAGE 4/5 In an ADJECTIVE PHRASE (AP), the Head word is an adjective. Here are some examples:

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Susan is [AP clever] The doctor is [AP very late] My sister is [AP fond of animals] The pre-Head string in an AP is most commonly an adverb phrase such as very or extremely. Adjective Heads may be followed by a post-Head string: [AP happy to meet you] [AP ready to go] [AP afraid of the dark] A small number of adjective Heads must be followed by a post-Head string. The adjective Head fond is one of these. Compare: My sister is [AP fond of animals] *My sister is [fond]

Adverb Phrase (AdvP) In an ADVERB PHRASE, the Head word is an adverb. Most commonly, the pre-Head string is another adverb phrase: He graduated [AdvP very recently] She left [AdvP quite suddenly] In AdvPs, there is usually no post-Head string, but here's a rare example: [AdvP Unfortunately for him], his wife came home early

Prepositional Phrase (PP) PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES usually consist of a Head -- a preposition -- and a post-Head string only. Here are some examples: [PP through the window] [PP over the bar] [PP across the line] [PP after midnight] This makes PPs easy to recognise -- they nearly always begin with a preposition (the Head). A pre-Head string is rarely present, but here are some examples: [PP straight through the window] [PP right over the bar] [PP just after midnight]

Phrases within Phrases

PHRASES

PAGE 5/5 We will conclude this introduction to phrases by looking briefly at phrases within phrases. Consider the NP: [NP small children] It consists of a Head children and a pre-Head string small. Now small is an adjective, so it is the Head of its own adjective phrase. We know this because it could be expanded to form a longer string: very small children

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Here, the adjective Head small has its own pre-Head string very: [AP very small] So in small children, we have an AP small embedded with the NP small children. We represent this as follows: [NP [AP small] children] All but the simplest phrases will contain smaller phrases within them. Here's another example: [PP across the road] Here, the Head is across, and the post-Head string is the road. Now we know that the road is itself an NP -- its Head is road, and it has a pre-Head string the. So we have an NP within the PP: [PP across [NP the road]] When you examine phrases, remember to look out for other phrases within them.

PAGE

1/7

So far we have been looking at phrases more or less in isolation. In real use, of course, they occur in isolation only in very restricted circumstances. For example, we find isolated NPs in public signs and notices: [Exit] [Sale] [Restricted Area] [Hyde Park] We sometimes use isolated phrases in spoken English, especially in responses to questions: Q: What would you like to drink? A: [NP Coffee] Q: How are you today? A: [AP Fine] Q: Where did you park the car? A: [PP Behind the house] In more general use, however, phrases are integrated into longer units, which we call CLAUSES: Q: What would you like to drink? A: [I'd like coffee] Q: How are you today? A: [I'm fine] Q: Where did you park the car? A: [I parked the car behind the house]

The Clause Hierarchy The clause I'd like coffee is a SUBORDINATE CLAUSE within

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the sentence I think I'd like coffee. We refer to this larger clause as the MATRIX CLAUSE:

The matrix clause is not subordinate to any other, so it is, in fact, co-extensive with the sentence. We say that the matrix clause is SUPERORDINATE to the subordinate clause. The terms subordinate and superordinate are relative terms. They describe the relationship between clauses in what is called the CLAUSE HIERARCHY. We can illustrate what this means by looking at a slightly more complicated example: He said I think I'd like coffee Here the matrix clause is: He said I think I'd like coffee This matrix clause contains two subordinate clauses, which we'll refer to as Sub1 and Sub2:

Sub1 is both subordinate and superordinate. It is subordinate in relation to the matrix clause, and it is superordinate in relation to Sub2. Subordinate and superordinate, then, are not absolute terms. They describe how clauses are arranged hierarchically relative to each other. We can bracket and label clauses in the same way as phrases. We will use the following abbreviations: Matrix Clause: MC Subordinate Clause: SubC Applying these labels and brackets to our first example, we get: [MC I think [SubC I'd like coffee]] Just as we've seen with phrases, we can have embedding in clauses too. Here, the subordinate clause is embedded within the matrix clause. There is a greater degree of embedding in our second example, where there are two subordinate clauses, one within the other: [MC He said [SubC I think [SubC I'd like coffee]]] Finite and Nonfinite Clauses CLAUSES &

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SENTENCES PAGE 2/7

As a working definition, let us say that clauses contain at least a verb phrase: [MC [VP Stop]] [MC David [VP composed an aria] when he was twelve] [MC My solicitor [VP sent me a letter] yesterday] As these examples show, clauses can also contain many other elements, but for now we will concentrate on the VP. We have already seen that verbs (and therefore the VPs that contain them) are either FINITE or NONFINITE, so we can use this distinction to classify clauses. Clauses are either finite or nonfinite. Finite verb phrases carry tense, and the clauses containing them are FINITE CLAUSES: [1] She writes home every day (finite clause -- present tense verb) [2] She wrote home yesterday (finite clause -- past tense verb) On the other hand, nonfinite verb phrases do not carry tense. Their main verb is either a to-infinitive [3], a bare infinitive [4], an -ed form [5], or an -ing form [6]: [3] David loves [to play the piano] [4] We made [David play the piano] [5] [Written in 1864], it soon became a classic [6] [Leaving home] can be very traumatic These are NONFINITE CLAUSES. Matrix clauses are always finite, as in [1] and [2]. However, they may contain nonfinite subordinate clauses within them. For example: [MC David loves [SubC to play the piano]] Here we have a finite matrix clause -- its main verb loves has the present tense form. Within it, there is a nonfinite subordinate clause to play the piano -- its main verb play has the to-infinitive form. On the other hand, subordinate clauses can be either finite or nonfinite: Finite: He said [SubC that they stayed at a lovely hotel] -- past tense Nonfinite: I was advised [SubC to sell my old car] -- to-infinitive

Subordinate Clause Types

CLAUSES & SENTENCES PAGE 3/7

Subordinate clauses may be finite or nonfinite. Within this broad classification, we can make many further distinctions. We will begin by looking at subordinate clauses which are

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distinguished by their formal characteristics. Many subordinate clauses are named after the form of the verb which they contain: TO-INFINITIVE CLAUSE: You must book early [to secure a seat] BARE INFINITIVE CLAUSE: They made [the professor forget his notes] -ING PARTICIPLE CLAUSE: His hobby is [collecting old photographs] -ED PARTICIPLE CLAUSE: [Rejected by his parents], the boy turned to a life of crime For convenience, we sometimes name a clause after its first element: IF-CLAUSE: I'll be there at nine [if I catch the early train] As we'll see on the next page, if-clauses are sometimes called conditional clauses. THAT-CLAUSE: David thinks [that we should have a meeting] The that element is sometimes ellipted: David thinks [we should have a meeting] Relative Clauses An important type of subordinate clause is the RELATIVE CLAUSE. Here are some examples: The man [who lives beside us] is ill The video [which you recommended] was terrific Relative clauses are generally introduced by a relative pronoun, such as who, or which. However, the relative pronoun may be ellipted: The video [you recommended] was terrific Another variant, the REDUCED RELATIVE CLAUSE, has no relative pronoun, and the verb is nonfinite: The man [living beside us] is ill (Compare: The man [who lives beside us]...) Nominal Relative Clauses NOMINAL RELATIVE CLAUSES (or independent relatives) function in some respects like noun phrases: [What I like best] is football (cf. the sport I like best...) The prize will go to [whoever submits the best design] (cf. the person who submits...) My son is teaching me [how to use email] (cf. the way to use email) This is [where Shakespeare was born]

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(cf. the place where...) The similarity with NPs can be further seen in the fact that certain nominal relatives exhibit number contrast: Singular: [What we need] is a plan Plural: [What we need] are new ideas Notice the agreement here with is (singular) and are (plural). Small Clauses Finally, we will mention briefly an unusual type of clause, the verbless or SMALL CLAUSE. While clauses usually contain a verb, which is finite or nonfinite, small clauses lack an overt verb: Susan found [the job very difficult] We analyse this as a unit because clearly its parts cannot be separated. What Susan found was not the job, but the job very difficult. And we analyse this unit specifically as a clause because we can posit an implicit verb, namely, a form of the verb be: Susan found [the job (to be) very difficult] Here are some more examples of small clauses: Susan considers [David an idiot] The jury found [the defendant guilty] [Lunch over], the guests departed quickly All of the clause types discussed here are distinguished by formal characteristics. On the next page, we will distinguish some more types, this time on the basis of their meaning.

Subordinate Clauses: Semantic Types

CLAUSES & SENTENCES PAGE 4/7

Here we will look at subordinate clauses from the point of view of their meaning. The main semantic types are exemplified in the following table: Subordinate Clause Type

Example

Temporal I'll ring you again [before I leave] David joined the army [after he graduated] [When you leave], please close the door I read the newspaper [while I was waiting]

Conditional I'll be there at nine [if I can catch the early train] [Provided he works hard], he'll do very well

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at school Don't call me [unless its an emergency]

Concessive He bought me a lovely gift, [although he can't really afford it] [Even though he worked hard], he failed the final exam [While I don't agree with her], I can understand her viewpoint

Reason Paul was an hour late [because he missed the train] I borrowed your lawn mower, [since you weren't using it] [As I don't know the way], I'll take a taxi

Result The kitchen was flooded, [so we had to go to a restaurant] I've forgotten my password, [so I can't read my email]

Comparative This is a lot more difficult [than I expected] She earns as much money [as I do] I think London is less crowded [than it used to be]

The table does not cover all the possible types, but it does illustrate many of the various meanings which can be expressed by subordinate clauses. Notice that the same word can introduce different semantic types. For instance, the word while can introduce a temporal clause: I read the newspaper [while I was waiting] or a concessive clause: [While I don't agree with her], I can understand her viewpoint. Similarly, the word since can express time: I've known him [since he was a child] as well as reason: I borrowed your lawn mower, [since you weren't using it] In the following exercise, be aware of words like these, which can introduce more than one type of subordinate clause.

Sentences

CLAUSES & SENTENCES PAGE 5/7

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Most people recognise a sentence as a unit which begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop (period), a question mark, or an exclamation mark. Of course, this applies only to written sentences. Sentences have also been defined notionally as units which express a "complete thought", though it is not at all clear what a "complete thought" is. It is more useful to define a sentence syntactically, as a unit which consists of one or more clauses. According to this definition, the following examples are all sentences: [1] Paul likes football [2] You can borrow my pen if you need one [3] Paul likes football and David likes chess Sentence [1] is a SIMPLE SENTENCE -- it contains only one clause. Sentence [2] consists of a matrix clause You can borrow my pen if you need one, and a subordinate clause if you need one. This is called a COMPLEX SENTENCE. A complex sentence is defined as a sentence which contains at least one subordinate clause. Finally, sentence [3] consists of two clauses which are coordinated with each other. This is a COMPOUND sentence. By using subordination and coordination, sentences can potentially be infinitely long, but in all cases we can analyse them as one or more clauses.

The Discourse Functions of Sentences

CLAUSES & SENTENCES PAGE 6/7

Sentences may be classified according to their use in discourse. We recognise four main sentence types: declarative interrogative imperative exclamative Declarative Declarative sentences are used to convey information or to make statements: David plays the piano I hope you can come tomorrow We've forgotten the milk Declarative sentences are by far the most common type. Interrogative Interrogative sentences are used in asking questions: Is this your book?

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Did you receive my message? Have you found a new job yet? The examples above are specifically YES/NO INTERROGATIVES, because they elicit a response which is either yes or no. ALTERNATIVE INTERROGATIVES offer two or more alternative responses: Should I telephone you or send an email? Do you want tea, coffee, or espresso? Yes/no interrogatives and alternative interrogatives are introduced by an auxiliary verb. WH- INTERROGATIVES, on the other hand, are introduced by a wh- word, and they elicit an open-ended response: What happened? Where do you work? Who won the Cup Final in 1997? Questions are sometimes tagged onto the end of a declarative sentence: David plays the piano, doesn't he? We've forgotten the milk, haven't we? There's a big match tonight, isn't there? These are known as TAG QUESTIONS. They consist of a main or auxiliary verb followed by a pronoun or existential there Imperative Imperative sentences are used in issuing orders or directives: Leave your coat in the hall Give me your phone number Don't shut the door Stop! Tag questions are sometimes added to the end of imperatives: Leave your coat in the hall, will you? Write soon, won't you? In an imperative sentence, the main verb is in the base form. This is an exception to the general rule that matrix clauses are always finite. Exclamative Exclamative sentences are used to make exclamations: What a stupid man he is! How wonderful you look!

The four sentence types exhibit different syntactic forms, which we will be looking at in a later section. For now, it is worth pointing out that there is not necessarily a one-to-one relationship between the form of a sentence and its discourse function. For instance, the following sentence has declarative form: You need some help But when this is spoken with a rising intonation, it becomes a

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question: You need some help? Conversely, rhetorical questions have the form of an interrogative, but they are really statements: Who cares? ( = I don't care)

The Grammatical Hierarchy: Words, Phrases, Clauses, and Sentences

CLAUSES & SENTENCES PAGE 7/7

Words, phrases, clauses, and sentences constitute what is called the GRAMMATICAL HIERARCHY. We can represent this schematically as follows: sentences consist of one or more... clauses consist of one or more... phrases consist of one or more... words Sentences are at the top of the hierarchy, so they are the largest unit which we will be considering (though some grammars do look beyond the sentence). At the other end of the hierarchy, words are at the lowest level, though again, some grammars go below the word to consider morphology, the study of how words are constructed. At the clause level and at the phrase level, two points should be noted: 1. Although clauses are higher than phrases in the hierarchy, clauses can occur within phrases, as we've already seen: The man who lives beside us is ill Here we have a relative clause who lives beside us within the NP the man who lives beside us. 2. We've also seen that clauses can occur within clauses, and phrases can occur within phrases. Bearing these two points in mind, we can now illustrate the grammatical hierarchy using the following sentence: My brother won the lottery

As a means of illustrating the grammatical hierarchy, the labelled brackets we have used here have at least one major drawback. You've probably noticed it already -- they are very difficult to interpret. And the problem becomes more acute as the sentence becomes more complex. For this reason, linguists prefer to employ a more visual method, the TREE DIAGRAM.

Sentence Patterns from a Functional Perspective FORM AND FUNCTION PAGE 8/9

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In order to summarise what we have learned, we will now look at some typical sentence patterns from a functional perspective. We will then conclude this section by looking at some untypical patterns, on the next page. As we've seen, the Subject is usually (but not always) the first element in a sentence, and it is followed by the verb: Pattern 1

Subject Verb

David The dog Susan

sings barked yawned

In this pattern, the verb is not followed by any Object, and we refer to this as an intransitive verb. If the verb is monotransitive, it takes a Direct Object, which follows the verb: Pattern 2

Subject Verb Direct Object

David The professor The jury

sings wants found

ballads to retire the defendant guilty

In the ditransitive pattern, the verb is followed by an Indirect Object and a Direct Object, in that order: Pattern 3

Subject Verb Indirect Object Direct Object

The old man My uncle The detectives

gave sent asked

the children me Amy

some money a present lots of questions

Adjuncts are syntactically peripheral to the rest of the sentence. They may occur at the beginning and at the end of a sentence, and they may occur in all three of the patterns above: Pattern 4 (Adjunct) Subject Verb Indirect

Object Direct Object

(Adjunct)

[1] Usually David sings in the bath

[2] Unfortunately the wants to retire this year

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professor

[3] At the start of the trial

the judge showed the jury the photographs

in a private chamber

Pattern 4 is essentially a conflation of the other three, with Adjuncts added. We have bracketed the Adjuncts to show that they are optional. Strictly speaking, Objects are also optional, since they are only required by monotransitive and ditransitive verbs, as in the examples [2] and [3] above.

Some Untypical Sentence Patterns

FORM AND FUNCTION PAGE 9/9

The sentence patterns we looked at on the previous page represent typical or canonical patterns But you will often come across sentences which do not conform to these patterns. We will look at some of these here. Extraposition The Subject is sometimes postponed until the end of the sentence. Here are some examples: In first place is Red Rum Inside the house were two detectives More important is the question of compensation Here, the typical declarative order has been disrupted for stylistic effect. In these examples, the Subject comes after the verb, and is said to be EXTRAPOSED. Compare them with the more usual pattern:

In first place is Red Rum

~Red Rum is in first place

Inside the house were two detectives

~Two detectives were inside the house

More important is the question of compensation

~The question of compensation is more important

The Subject is also extraposed when the sentence is introduced by anticipatory it: It is a good idea to book early It is not surprising that he failed his exams In the more typical pattern, these constructions may sound stylistically awkward: To book early is a good idea That he failed his exams is not surprising Extraposition is not always just a matter of style. In the following examples, it is obligatory:

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It seems that he'll be late again

~*That he'll be late again seems

It turned out that his secretary had stolen the money

~*That his secretary had stolen the money turned out

Direct Objects, too, can be extraposed. Recall that their typical position is after the verb (Pattern 2). However, when anticipatory it is used, the Direct Object is extraposed: He made it very clear that he would not be coming back Again, the canonical pattern is stylistically very awkward: *He made that he would not be coming back very clear Cleft Sentences A declarative sentence, such as David studied English at Oxford can be reformulated as: It was David who studied English at Oxford This is called a CLEFT SENTENCE because the original sentence has been divided (or "cleft") into two clauses: It was David and who studied English at Oxford. Cleft sentences focus on one constituent of the original sentence, placing it after it was (or it is). Here we have focussed on the Subject David, but we could also focus on the Direct Object English: It was English that David studied at Oxford or on the Adjunct at Oxford It was at Oxford that David studied English Cleft constructions, then, exhibit the pattern: It + be + focus + clause

Adjuncts

FORM AND FUNCTION PAGE 7/9

Certain parts of a sentence may convey information about how, when, or where something happened: He ate his meal quickly (how) David gave blood last week (when) Susan went to school in New York (where) The highlighted constituents here are ADJUNCTS. From a syntactic point of view, Adjuncts are optional elements, since their omission still leaves a complete sentence: He ate his meal quickly ~He ate his meal David gave blood last week ~David gave blood Susan went to school in New York ~Susan went to school Many types of constituents can function as Adjuncts, and we exemplify these below.

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Realisations of Adjuncts Noun Phrases functioning as Adjuncts David gave blood last week Next summer, we're going to Spain We've agreed to meet the day after tomorrow NPs as Adjuncts generally refer to time, as in these examples. Adverb Phrases functioning as Adjuncts They ate their meal too quickly She walked very gracefully down the steps Suddenly, the door opened Prepositional Phrases functioning as Adjuncts Susan went to school in New York I work late on Mondays After work, I go to a local restaurant PPs as Adjuncts generally refer to time or to place -- they tell us when or where something happens. Clauses functioning as Adjuncts Subordinate clauses can function as Adjuncts. We'll begin with some examples of finite subordinate clauses:

Clauses functioning as Adjuncts

EXAMPLES

Finite While we were crossing the park, we heard a loud explosion I was late for the interview because the train broke down If you want tickets for the concert, you have to apply early My car broke down, so I had to walk

Nonfinite To-infinitive clause Bare infinitive clause -ing clause -ed clause Small clause

To open the window, you have to climb a ladder Rather than leave the child alone, I brought him to work with me Being a qualified plumber, Paul had no difficulty in finding the leak Left to himself, he usually gets the job done quickly His face red with rage, John stormed out of the room

You will notice that these clauses express the range of meanings that we looked at earlier (in Subordinate Clauses:

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Semantic Types). In all cases, notice also that the Adjuncts express additional and optional information. If they are omitted, the remaining clause is still syntactically complete.

The Indirect Object

FORM AND FUNCTION PAGE 6/9

Some verbs occur with two Objects: We gave [John] [a present] Here, the NP a present undergoes the "action" (a present is what is given). So a present is the Direct Object. We refer to the NP John as the INDIRECT OBJECT. Indirect Objects usually occur with a Direct Object, and they always come before the Direct Object. The typical pattern is: Subject -- Verb -- Indirect Object -- Direct Object Here are some more examples of sentences containing two objects:

Indirect Object Direct Object

Tell me a story

He showed us his war medals

We bought David a birthday cake

Can you lend your colleague a pen? Verbs which take an Indirect Object and a Direct Object are known as DITRANSITIVE verbs. Verbs which take only a Direct Object are called MONOTRANSITIVE verbs. The verb tell is a typical ditransitive verb, but it can also be monotransitive:

Indirect Object Direct Object

Ditransitive David told the children a story

Monotransitive David told a story As we've seen, an Indirect Object usually co-occurs with a Direct Object. However, with some verbs an Indirect Object may occur alone: David told the children although we can usually posit an implicit Direct Object in such cases: David told the children the news

Realisations of the Indirect Object NPs are the most common realisations of the Indirect Object. It is a typical function of pronouns in the objective case, such as

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me, him, us, and them. Less commonly, a clause will function as Indirect Object: David told whoever saw her to report to the police

Inside the Predicate

FORM AND FUNCTION PAGE 5/9

Now we will look inside the Predicate, and assign functions to its constituents. Recall that the Predicate is everything apart from the Subject. So in David plays the piano, the Predicate is plays the piano. This Predicate consists of a verb phrase, and we can divide this into two further elements: [plays] [the piano] In formal terms, we refer to the verb as the PREDICATOR, because its function is to predicate or state something about the subject. Notice that Predicator is a functional term, while verb is a formal term:

FORM FUNCTION

Verb Predicator However, since the Predicator is always realised by a verb, we will continue to use the more familiar term verb, even when we are discussing functions.

The Direct Object In the sentence David plays the piano, the NP the piano is the constituent which undergoes the "action" of being played (by David, the Subject). We refer to this constituent as the DIRECT OBJECT. Here are some more examples of Direct Objects: We bought a new computer I used to ride a motorbike The police interviewed all the witnesses We can usually identify the Direct Object by asking who or what was affected by the Subject. For example: We bought a new computer Q. What did we buy? A. A new computer ( = the Direct Object) The Direct Object generally comes after the verb, just as the Subject generally comes before it. So in a declarative sentence, the usual pattern is: Subject -- Verb -- Direct Object The following table shows more examples of this pattern:

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Subject Verb Direct Object

The tourists visited the old cathedral

She sent a postcard

The detectives examined the scene of the crime

Realisations of the Direct Object The Direct Object is most often realised by an NP, as in the examples above. However, this function can also be realised by a clause. The following table shows examples of clauses functioning as Direct Objects:

CLAUSES functioning as DIRECT OBJECTS

EXAMPLES

Finite That-clause Nominal relative clause

[1] He thought that he had a perfect alibi [2] The officer described what he saw through the keyhole

Nonfinite To-infinitive clause Bare infinitive clause -ing clause -ed clause

[3] The dog wants to play in the garden [4] She made the lecturer laugh [5] Paul loves playing football [6] I'm having my house painted

Subjects and Objects, Active and Passive A useful way to compare Subjects and Direct Objects is to observe how they behave in active and passive sentences. Consider the following active sentence: Active: Fire destroyed the palace Here we have a Subject fire and a Direct Object the palace. Now let's convert this into a passive sentence: The change from active to passive has the following results: 1. The active Direct Object the palace becomes the passive Subject 2. The active Subject fire becomes part of the PP by fire (the by-agent phrase).

Realisations of the Subject FORM AND FUNCTION

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PAGE 4/9 In the sentence, Jim was in bed, the Subject is the NP Jim. More precisely, we say that the Subject is realised by the NP Jim. Conversely, the NP Jim is the realisation of the Subject in this sentence. Remember that NP is a formal term, while Subject is a functional term:

FORM FUNCTION

Noun Phrase Subject Subjects are typically realised by NPs. This includes NPs which have pronouns [1], cardinal numerals [2], and ordinal numerals [3] as their Head word: [1] [We] decided to have a party [2] [One of my contacts lenses] fell on the floor [3] [The first car to reach Brighton] is the winner However, other constituents can also function as Subjects, and we will examine these in the following sections. Clauses functioning as Subject Clauses can also function as Subjects. When they perform this function, we refer to them generally as Subject clauses. The table below shows examples of the major types of Subject clauses:

CLAUSES functioning as SUBJECTS

EXAMPLE

Finite That-clause Nominal Relative clause

[1] That his theory was flawed soon became obvious [2] What I need is a long holiday

Nonfinite To-infinitive clause -ing clause

[3] To become an opera singer takes years of training [4] Being the chairman is a huge responsibility

Notice that some of these Subject clauses have Subjects of their own. In [1], the Subject clause that his theory was flawed, has its own Subject, his theory. Similarly, in [2], the Subject of what I need is I. Among nonfinite clauses, only to-infinitive clauses and -ing participle clauses can function as Subject. Bare infinitive clauses and -ed participle clauses cannot perform this

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function. In the examples above -- [3] and [4] -- the nonfinite Subject clauses do not have Subjects of their own, although they can do: [3a] For Mary to become an opera singer would take years of training [4a] David being the chairman has meant more work for all of us Prepositional Phrases functioning as Subject Less commonly, the Subject may be realised by a prepositional phrase: After nine is a good time to ring Prepositional phrases as Subject typically refer to time or to space.

Some Unusual Subjects Before leaving this topic, we will point out some grammatical Subjects which may at first glance be difficult to recognise as such. For example, can you work out the Subject of the following sentence? There is a fly in my soup As we've seen, the most reliable test for identifying the Subject is Subject-verb inversion, so let's try it here: Declarative: There is a fly in my soup Interrogative: Is there a fly in my soup? The inversion test shows that the subject is there. You will recall that this is an example of existential there, and the sentence in which it is the Subject is an existential sentence. Now try the same test on the following: It is raining The inversion test shows that the Subject is it: Declarative: It is raining Interrogative: Is it raining? These two examples illustrate how limited the notional definition of the Subject really is. In no sense can we say that there and it are performing an "action" in their respective sentences, and yet they are grammatically functioning as Subjects. On this page, we've seen that the function of Subject can be realised by several different forms. Conversely, the various forms (NP, clause, PP, etc) can perform several other functions, and we will look at these in the following pages.

In each of the following sentences, identify the Subject by clicking before and after it.

1. Your new neighbours are very noisy

2. Drinking beer is not permitted

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3. Without thinking, the professor stepped off the pavement

4. To ensure confidentiality, we will conceal your name and address

5. There was a storm last night

Characteristics of the Subject

FORM AND FUNCTION PAGE

3/9 The grammatical Subject has a number of characteristics which we will examine here. 1. Subject-Verb Inversion In a declarative sentence, the Subject comes before the verb: Declarative: David is unwell When we change this into a yes/no interrogative, the Subject and the verb change places with each other: If an auxiliary verb is present, however, the Subject changes places with the auxiliary: Declarative: Jim has left already Interrogative: Has Jim left already? In this interrogative, the Subject still comes before the main verb, but after the auxiliary. This is true also of interrogatives with a do-auxiliary: Declarative: Jim left early Interrogative: Did Jim leave early? Subject-verb inversion is probably the most reliable method of identifying the Subject of a sentence. 2. Position of the Subject In a declarative sentence, the Subject is usually the first constituent: Jim was in bed Paul arrived too late for the party The Mayor of New York attended the banquet We made a donation to charity However, there are exceptions to this. For instance: Yesterday the theatre was closed Here, the first constituent is the adverb phrase yesterday, but this is not the Subject of the sentence. Notice that the theatre, and not yesterday, inverts with the verb in the interrogative: Declarative: Yesterday the theatre was closed Interrogative: Yesterday was the theatre closed? So the Subject here is the theatre, even though it is not the first constituent in the sentence.

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3. Subject-verb Agreement Subject-verb AGREEMENT or CONCORD relates to number agreement (singular or plural) between the Subject and the verb which follows it: Singular Subject: The dog howls all night Plural Subject: The dogs howl all night There are two important limitations to Subject-verb agreement. Firstly, agreement only applies when the verb is in the present tense. In the past tense, there is no overt agreement between the Subject and the verb: The dog howled all night The dogs howled all night And secondly, agreement applies only to third person Subjects. There is no distinction, for example, between a first person singular Subject and a first person plural Subject: I howl all night We howl all night The concept of NOTIONAL AGREEMENT sometimes comes into play: The government is considering the proposal The government are considering the proposal Here, the form of the verb is not determined by the form of the Subject. Instead, it is determined by how we interpret the Subject. In the government is..., the Subject is interpreted as a unit, requiring a singular form of the verb. In the government are..., the Subject is interpreted as having a plural meaning, since it relates to a collection of individual people. Accordingly, the verb has the plural form are. 4. Subjective Pronouns The pronouns I, he/she/it, we, they, always function as Subjects, in contrast with me, him/her, us, them: I left early *Me left early He left early *Him left early We left early *Us left early They left early *Them left early The pronoun you can also be a Subject: You left early but it does not always perform this function. In the following example, the Subject is Tom, not you: Tom likes you

Subject and Predicate FORM AND FUNCTION PAGE 2/9

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The most familiar grammatical function is the SUBJECT. In notional terms, we can think of the Subject as the element which performs the "action" denoted by the verb: [1] David plays the piano [2] The police interviewed all the witnesses In [1], the Subject David performs the action of playing the piano. In [2], the Subject the police performs the action of interviewing all the witnesses. In these terms, this means that we can identify the Subject by asking a wh-question: [1] David plays the piano Q. Who plays the piano? A. David ( = Subject) [2] The police interviewed all the witnesses Q. Who interviewed all the witnesses? A. The police (= Subject) Having identified the Subject, we can see that the remainder of the sentence tells us what the Subject does or did. In [1], for example, plays the piano tells us what David does. We refer to this string as the PREDICATE of the sentence. In [2], the Predicate is interviewed all the witnesses. Here are some more examples of sentences labelled for Subject and Predicate.

Subject Predicate

The lion roared

He writes well

She enjoys going to the cinema

The girl in the blue dress arrived late In each of these examples, the Subject performs the action described in the Predicate. We've seen, however, that there are problems in defining verbs as "action" words, and for the same reasons, there are problems in defining the Subject as the "performer" of the action. The Subject in John seems unhappy is John, but we would hardly say he is performing an action. For this reason, we need to define the Subject more precisely than this. We will look at the characteristics of the Subject on the next page.

PAGE

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We have used the word "form" quite often in the Internet Grammar. It was one of the criteria we used to distinguish between word classes -- we saw that the form or "shape" of a word is often a good clue to its word class. When we looked at phrases, too, we were concerned with their form. We said that phrases may have the basic form (Pre-Head string) - Head - (Post-Head string). And finally, we classified clauses according to the form (finite or nonfinite) of their main verb. In all of these cases, we were conducting a FORMAL analysis. Form denotes how something looks -- its shape or appearance, and what its structure is. When we say that the old man is an NP, or that the old man bought a newspaper is a finite clause, we are carrying out a formal analysis. We can also look at constituents -- phrases and clauses -- from another angle. We can examine the FUNCTIONs which they perform in the larger structures which contain them.

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The syntactic functions which we looked at in the last section -- Subject, Object, Predicate, Adjunct, etc -- are all functions within sentences or clauses. We saw, for instance, that most sentences can be divided into two main functional constituents, the Subject and the Predicate:

Subject Predicate

[1] The lion roared

[2] He writes well

[3] She enjoys going to the cinema

[4] The girl in the blue dress arrived late Within the Predicate, too, constituents perform various functions -- in [3], for example, going to the cinema performs the function of Direct Object, while in [4], late performs the function of Adjunct. In each of these cases, we are referring to the roles which these constituents perform in the sentence or clause. We can also assign functions to the constituents of a phrase. Recall that we have said that all phrases have the following generalised structure: (pre-Head string) --- Head --- (post-Head string) where the parentheses denote optional elements. In this section, we will consider the functions of these parts

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of a phrase -- what roles do they perform in the phrase as a whole? We will begin by looking at functions within verb phrases.

Complements PAGE 2/5

Consider the bracketed verb phrase in the following sentence: David [VP plays the piano] In formal terms, we can analyse this VP using the familiar three-part structure:

pre-Head string Head post-Head string

-- plays the piano Let us now consider the functions of each of these three parts. Actually, we already know the function of one of the parts -- the word plays functions as the Head of this VP. The term "Head" is a functional label, indicated by the capital (upper case) letter. Remember that we also capitalize the other functions -- Subject, Object, Predicate, etc. Turning now to the post-Head string the piano, we can see that it completes the meaning of the Head plays. In functional terms, we refer to this string as the COMPLEMENT of the Head. Here are some more examples of Complements in verb phrases:

pre-Head string Head Complement

never needs money

-- eat vegetables

not say what he is doing In each case, the Complement completes the meaning of the Head, so there is a strong syntactic link between these two strings. At this point you may be wondering why we do not simply say that these post-Head strings are Direct Objects. Why do we need the further term Complement? The string which completes the meaning of the Head is not always a Direct Object. Consider the following: She [VP told me] Here the post-Head string (the Complement) is an Indirect Object. With ditransitive verbs, two Objects appear: We [VP gave James a present] Here, the meaning of the Head gave is completed by two strings -- James and a present. Each string is a Complement

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of the Head gave. Finally, consider verb phrases in which the Head is a form of the verb be: David [VP is a musician] Amy [VP is clever] Our car [VP is in the carpark] The post-Head strings here are neither Direct Objects nor Indirect Objects. The verb be is known as a COPULAR verb. It takes a special type of Complement which we will refer to generally as a COPULAR COMPLEMENT. There is a small number of other copular verbs. In the following examples, we have highlighted the Head, and italicised the Complement: Our teacher [VP became angry] Your sister [VP seems upset] All the players [VP felt very tired] after the game That [VP sounds great] It is clear from this that we require the general term Complement to encompass all post-Head strings, regardless of their type. In verb phrases, a wide range of Complements can appear, but in all cases there is a strong syntactic link between the Complement and the Head. The Complement is that part of the VP which is required to complete the meaning of the Head.

Complements in other Phrase Types PAGE 3/5

Complements also occur in all of the other phrase types. We exemplify each type in the following table:

Phrase Type Head Typical Complements Examples

Noun Phrase (NP)

noun PP clause

respect for human rights the realisation that nothing has changed

Verb Phrase (VP)

verb NP clause PP

David plays the piano They realised that nothing has changed She looked at the moon

Adjective adjective clause easy to read

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Phrase (AP) PP

fond of biscuits

Adverb Phrase (AdvP)

adverb PP luckily for me

Prepositional Phrase (PP)

preposition NP PP

in the room from behind the wall

Adverb phrases are very limited in the Complements they can take. In fact, they generally occur without any Complement. Noun phrases which take Complements generally have an abstract noun as their Head, and they often have a verbal counterpart:

the pursuit of happiness ~we pursue happiness

their belief in ghosts ~they believe in ghosts

the realisation that nothing has changed

~they realise that nothing has changed

In each of the following phrases, identify the Complement by clicking before and after it.

1. unable to swim

2. the fact that the money was stolen

3. below the horizon

4. learning to drive

5. aware of his potential

Adjuncts in Phrases PAGE 4/5

The term "Complement" is not simply another word for the "post-Head string" -- post-Head strings are not always Complements. This is because the post-Head string is not always required to complete the meaning of the Head. Consider: [NP My sister, who will be twenty next week,] has got a new job. Here the relative clause who will be twenty next week is certainly a post-Head string, but it is not a Complement. Notice that it contributes additional but optional information about the Head sister. In this example,

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the post-Head string is an ADJUNCT. Like the other Adjuncts we looked at earlier, it contributes additional, optional information. Adjuncts can occur in all the phrase types, and they may occur both before and after the Head. The following table shows examples of each type:

Phrase Type Head Typical Adjuncts Examples

Noun Phrase (NP) noun PP AP clause

the books on the shelf the old lady cocoa, which is made from cacao beans

Verb Phrase (VP) verb AdvP PP

she rapidly lost interest he stood on the patio

Adjective Phrase (AP)

adjective AdvP it was terribly difficult

Prepositional Phrase (PP)

preposition AdvP completely out of control

Complements and Adjuncts Compared Complements differ from Adjuncts in two important respects: 1. Complements immediately follow the Head In most phrases, the Complement must immediately follow the Head: David [VP plays [Complement the piano] [Adjunct beautifully ]] In contrast, the reverse order is not possible: *David [VP plays [Adjunct beautifully] [Complement the piano]] Similarly: fond [Complement of biscuits] [Adjunct with coffee] ~*fond [Adjunct with coffee] [Complement of biscuits] Complements, then, bear a much closer relationship to the Head than Adjuncts do. 2. Adjuncts are "stackable" In theory at least, we can "stack" an indefinite number of Adjuncts, one after another, within a phrase. For example, consider the NP: Adjunct Adjunct Adjunct Adjunct

the book on the shelf by Dickens with the red cover that you gave me... In contrast with this, phrases are limited in the number of Complements that they can take. In fact, they usually have only one Complement. Ditransitive verb phrases are an exception to this. Recall that they take two Complements: We [VP gave [Complement James] [Complement a present]]

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Specifiers

PAGE 5/5 Adjuncts can appear before the Head of a phrase, as well as after the Head. For example, in the following NP, the Adjunct sudden is part of what we have been calling the pre-Head string:

? Adjunct Head Complement

the sudden realisation that nothing has changed

In this section we will look at the function of the remaining part of the pre-Head string. In this example, what is the function of the in the phrase as a whole? We refer to this part of the phrase as the SPECIFIER of the phrase. Again, Specifiers may occur in all the major phrase types, and we exemplify them in the following table:

Phrase Type Head Typical Specifiers Examples

Noun Phrase (NP)

noun determiners the vehicle an objection some people

Verb Phrase (VP)

verb `negative' elements

not arrive never plays the piano

Adjective Phrase (AP)

adjective AdvP quite remarkable very fond of animals

Prepositional Phrase (PP)

preposition AdvP just across the street

An important point about Specifiers is that they relate to the Head + Complement sequence, and not to the Head alone. For example, in the AP very fond of animals , the Specifier very relates to fond of animals, not just to fond: Amy is very fond of animals Q. Amy is very what? A. *Fond A. Fond of animals In functional terms, then, the three-part structure of a phrase can be summarised as: (Specifier) -- [Head -- (Complement)]

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How to put simple sentences together Constant use of short sentences can be a bit strange to read. To make your writing more interesting, you can use two other sorts of longer sentences. The simplest of these is the compound sentence. How do I make a compound sentence? When you have two or more short, independent, simple sentences which are of equal weight you can join them together using special words called conjunctions. e.g. 'I hate curry.' is a simple sentence. 'I like Thai food.' is also a simple sentence. You can put these together to make one, longer and more interesting compound sentence using a conjunction - 'I hate curry' + but + 'I like Thai food' = 'I hate curry, but I like Thai food.' Junctions join two or more roads together, so we use conjunctions to join two or more short sentences together Commas are not conjunctions and they should never be used to join short sentences together (commas aren't sticky, so you can't use them to stick information together!). These are the most common conjunctions:

and, as, but, or, so

Try to avoid using the same conjunction over and over again. It is much better to 'mix and match'. BEWARE! The conjunction that you use may change the meaning of your sentence! Conjunctions don't just stick sentences together, they show the relationship between the pieces of information. e.g. Note the slightly different meaning in these sentences: I walked home. I was tired. I walked home and I was tired. I walked home as I was tired. I walked home but I was tired. I walked home so I was tired. I walked home or I was tired. The final sentence, using or doesn't really make sense. You can't use every conjunction everywhere - so choose wisely! Print this factsheet then close this window

Rs/L1.1

Complex sentences

Page 202: Tenses Present simple Usage - Vajiravudh · Present simple VS Present continuous Present Simple Present Continuous 1. Regular actions or events : -He plays tennis most weekends. 2

Constant use of short sentences can be a bit strange to read. To make your writing more interesting, you can use two other sorts of longer sentences. Factsheet 1 looked at 'compound' sentences. This factsheet looks at 'complex' sentence. How do I make a complex sentence? When you make a compound sentence (see factsheet 1) you are joining two or more simple sentences together with a conjunction. If you took the conjunction away, the sentences would be complete and they would still make sense. e.g. 'I hate curry, but I like Thai food.'= 'I hate curry' + but + 'I like Thai food' This isn't the same for complex sentences. Complex sentences don't just divide into neat, complete, simple sentences if you take out the conjunctions. In complex sentences the conjunction is used to join together clauses. A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb. Some of these clauses might be complete short sentences, but in a complex sentence at least one of them will depend on the conjunction for its meaning. In other words, if you take the conjunction away, the sentence won't divide into complete units that make sense by themselves. e.g. 'The dinner was burned because she had forgotten it.' = 'The dinner was burned' + 'because' + 'she had forgotten it.' This is a complex sentence: 'The dinner was burned' = complete, short sentence 'because' = conjunction (joining word) 'she had forgotten it' = subordinate clause. This doesn't make sense on its own. What had she forgotten? This is called a 'subordinate clause' because without the rest of the sentence it doesn't really make sense. 'Although I'm not very good, I really enjoy playing football.' = 'Although' + 'I'm not very good' + 'I really enjoy playing football.' Again, this is a complex sentence: 'Although' = conjunction (joining word). Yes, sometimes conjunctions can appear at the beginning of a sentence! 'I'm not very good' = subordinate clause. This doesn't make sense on its own. What are you not very good at? This is called a 'subordinate clause' because without the rest of the sentence it doesn't really make sense. 'I enjoy playing football' = complete short sentence BEWARE! As for compound sentences, commas are not conjunctions and they should never be used to join short sentences or clauses together (commas aren't sticky, so you can't use them to stick information together!). e.g. 'The dinner was burned, she had forgotten it.' = incorrect 'The dinner was burned because she had forgotten it.' = correct

The important joining words Factsheets 1 and 2 told you about making more interesting sentences by using compound and complex sentences. For both of these, you need a good selection of conjunctions, or joining words. The 'magnificent seven' conjunctions (the most commonly used) are: and, although, as, because, but, if, or There are a number of other important conjunctions that you can use. These can be put into categories of time, place, or agreement.

Page 203: Tenses Present simple Usage - Vajiravudh · Present simple VS Present continuous Present Simple Present Continuous 1. Regular actions or events : -He plays tennis most weekends. 2

TIME = before, after, until, since, when, whenever, while e.g. We all went home before a fight broke out. She went to bed after she put the cat out. There will be no peace until somebody says that they are sorry. It has not been the same around here since our friends moved away. They put the television off when the programme had finished. He washes his new car whenever it gets mucky. The children go to the crèche while Mum goes to work. PLACE = where e.g. Remember that restaurant where you ate a huge steak. AGREEMENT = though, although, whether e.g. He could play the violin though he was only five years old. I would invite you to come in although the place is a mess. It was a great show whether you wanted to join in or just watch. Remember! Try to avoid using the same conjunction over and over again. It is much better to 'mix and match'. The conjunction you use can change the meaning of the sentence. You can't use every conjunction everywhere - so choose wisely! Can We use 'can' to talk about 'possibility'. Can you do that? I can't manage to do that. You can leave your car in that parking space. You cannot smoke in here. Notice that there are two negative forms: 'can't' and 'cannot'. These mean exactly the same thing. When we are speaking, we usually say 'can't'. We use 'can' to talk about 'ability'. I can speak French. I can't drive. We use 'can' to ask for and give permission. (We also use 'may' for this but is more formal and much less common.) Can I speak to you or are you too busy? You can use my phone. You can't come in. We use 'can' in offers, requests and instructions. Can I help? Can you give me a hand? When you finish that, you can take out the garbage.

Page 204: Tenses Present simple Usage - Vajiravudh · Present simple VS Present continuous Present Simple Present Continuous 1. Regular actions or events : -He plays tennis most weekends. 2

We use 'can' with 'see' 'hear' 'feel' 'smell' 'taste' to talk about something which is happening now . (Where you would use the present continuous with most other verbs.) I can smell something burning. Can you hear that noise? I can't see anything. We can use 'can't' for deduction. The opposite of 'can't' in this context is 'must'. You can't be hungry. You've just eaten. You must be hungry. You haven't eaten anything all day. He was in London one hour ago when I spoke to him. He can't be here yet. Could 'Could' can be used to talk about the past, the present or the future. 'Could' is a past form of 'can' When I was living in Boston, I could walk to work. He phoned to say he couldn't come. I could see him clearly but I couldn't hear him and then the videoconference line went dead. 'Could' is used to make polite requests. We can also use 'can' for these but 'could' is more polite. Could you help me, please? Could you lend me some money? Could I have a lift? Could I bother you for a moment? If we use 'could' in reply to these requests, it suggests that we do not really want to do it. If you agree to the request, it is better to say 'can'. Of course I can. I could help you if it's really necessary but I'm really busy right now. I could lend you some money but I'd need it back tomorrow without fail. I could give you a lift as far as Birmingham. 'Could' is used to talk about theoretical possibility and is similar in meaning to 'might'. It could rain later. Take an umbrella. He could be there by now. Could he be any happier? It could be Sarah's. May / might may We can use 'may' to ask for permission. However this is rather formal and not used very often in modern spoken English May I borrow your pen? May we think about it? May I go now? We use 'may' to suggest something is possible It may rain later today. I may not have time to do it today. Pete may come with us might We use 'might' to suggest a small possibility of something. Often we read that 'might' suggests a smaller possibility that 'may', there is in fact little difference and 'might is more usual than 'may' in spoken English. She might be at home by now but it's not sure at all. It might rain this afternoon. I might not have time to go to the shops for you. I might not go.

Page 205: Tenses Present simple Usage - Vajiravudh · Present simple VS Present continuous Present Simple Present Continuous 1. Regular actions or events : -He plays tennis most weekends. 2

For the past, we use 'might have'. He might have tried to call while I was out. I might have dropped it in the street. Should We use 'should' for giving advice. You should speak to him about it. He should see a doctor. We should ask a lawyer. We use 'should' to give an opinion or a recommendation. He should resign now. We should invest more in Asia. They should do something about this terrible train service. 'Should' expresses a personal opinion and is much weaker and more personal than 'must' or 'have to'. It is often introduced by ' I think'. I think they should replace him. I don't think they should keep the contract. Do you think we should tell her. Should 2 We can use 'should' after 'reporting verbs' such as demand insist propose recommend suggest He demanded that we should pay for the repair. She insisted that she should pay for the meal. I have proposed that he should take charge of the organization. The committee recommends that Jane should be appointed. We have suggested that Michael should be given a reward for his hard work. However, it is also possible to say exactly the same thing by omitting the 'should' and just using the infinitive form without 'to' . Some people call this the 'subjunctive' form. He demanded that we pay for the repair. She insisted that she pay for the meal. I have proposed that he take charge of the organization. The committee recommends that Jane be appointed. We have suggested that Michael be given a reward for his hard work. We can use 'should' after various adjectives. Typical examples are : funny interesting natural odd strange surprised surprising typical It's funny that you should say that. I was thinking exactly the same thing. It's interesting that they should offer him the job. Not an obvious choice. It's natural that you should be anxious. Nobody likes speaking in public. Isn't it odd that he should be going to the same tiny hotel? What a coincidence. It's strange that you should think so. Nobody else does. We can use 'should' in 'if clauses' when we believe that the possibility of something happening is small. If you should happen to see him before I do, can you tell him that I want to speak to him urgently? If there should be a problem, just give me a call and I'll sort it out. If anyone should ask where I am, say I'm in a meeting. We use 'should' in various fixed expressions. To show strong agreement They're paying you compensation? I should think so. To express pleasure when you receive a gift What a fantastic present. You really shouldn't have. To emphasize a visible emotion

Page 206: Tenses Present simple Usage - Vajiravudh · Present simple VS Present continuous Present Simple Present Continuous 1. Regular actions or events : -He plays tennis most weekends. 2

You should have seen the look on her face when she found out that she had got the promotion. Must or have to We can use 'must' to show that we are certain something is true. We are making a logical deduction based upon some clear evidence or reason. There's no heating on. You must be freezing. You must be worried that she is so late coming home. I can't remember what I did with it. I must be getting old. It must be nice to live in Florida. We also use 'must' to express a strong obligation. When we use 'must' this usually means that some personal circumstance makes the obligation necessary (and the speaker almost certainly agrees with the obligation.) I must go to bed earlier. They must do something about it. You must come and see us some time. I must say, I don't think you were very nice to him. We can also use 'have to' to express a strong obligation. When we use 'have to' this usually means that some external circumstance makes the obligation necessary. I have to arrive at work at 9 sharp. My boss is very strict. We have to give him our answer today or lose out on the contract. You have to pass your exams or the university will not accept you. I have to send a report to Head Office every week. In British English, we often use 'have got to' to mean the same as 'have to'. I've got to take this book back to the library or I'll get a fine. We've got to finish now as somebody else needs this room. We can also use ' will have to' to talk about strong obligations. Like 'must' this usually means that that some personal circumstance makes the obligation necessary. (Remember that 'will' is often used to show 'willingness'.) I'll have to speak to him. We'll have to have lunch and catch up on all the gossip. They'll have to do something about it. I'll have to get back to you on that. As you can see, the differences between the present forms are sometimes very small and very subtle. However, there is a huge difference in the negative forms. We use 'mustn't' to express strong obligations NOT to do something. We mustn't talk about it. It's confidential. I mustn't eat chocolate. It's bad for me. You mustn't phone me at work. We aren't allowed personal calls. They mustn't see us talking or they'll suspect something. We use 'don't have to' (or 'haven't got to' in British English) to state that there is NO obligation or necessity. We don't have to get there on time. The boss is away today. I don't have to listen to this. I'm leaving. You don't have to come if you don't want to. He doesn't have to sign anything if he doesn't want to at this stage. I haven't got to go. Only if I want to.