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Resource-use: A Source of Conflict The Case of Karamoja communities of Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan and Uganda

Terms of Reference (ToR)

Resource-use: A source of conflict

The Case of Karamoja Communities of Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan and Uganda

Resource-use: A source of conflict The Case of Karamoja Communities of Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan and Uganda

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Contents

1) Background Information ................................................................................................. 2

1.1 Beneficiary: ................................................................................................................. 2

1.2 Contracting Authority: ................................................................................................ 2

1.3 Relevant Regional Background ................................................................................... 2

1.4 Justification for the study ............................................................................................ 3

2) Objective, Purpose and Expected Results ...................................................................... 6

2.1 Overall Objective ........................................................................................................ 6

2.2 Purpose ........................................................................................................................ 6

2.3 Expected Results ......................................................................................................... 7

3) Scope of the Work............................................................................................................. 7

3.1 General ........................................................................................................................ 7

3.2 Specific Activities ....................................................................................................... 8

3.3 Project Management and Monitoring .......................................................................... 9

3.4 Methods and Processes................................................................................................ 9

4) Mission Logistics and Timing ........................................................................................ 11

4.1 Location ..................................................................................................................... 11

4.2 Commencement Date and Period of Execution ........................................................ 12

5) Requirements .................................................................................................................. 12

5.1 Qualification .............................................................................................................. 12

5.2 Facilities and Office Space ........................................................................................ 12

6) Reports ............................................................................................................................. 13

6.1 Report Types and Contents ....................................................................................... 13

6.2 Submission and Approval of Reports........................................................................ 13

6.3 Milestones and Mission Schedule ............................................................................. 14


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1) Background Information

1.1 Beneficiary:

Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) and its member states

1.2 Contracting Authority:

Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD)

1.3 Relevant Regional Background

The IGAD is comprised of seven member states namely; Djibouti, Sudan, Eritrea,

Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia and Uganda that occupy a total area of over 5 million sq

km, with a combined population of over 200 million people of whom over 70% live

in the rural setting. It was formed in 1986 to address issues of drought,

desertification and food insecurity. In 1996, IGAD was revitalized and its mandate

broadened to include economic cooperation and conflict prevention, management

and resolution. Conflicts caused by misunderstandings on ownership, access, and

utilisation of natural resources of political nature are common in the region at all

levels. These exacerbate disasters whenever they occur. This continues to worsen

with the high population growth rate of over 3% and high rate of degradation of the

environment and natural resource base.

In all the seven states the economy depends largely on agriculture, including

livestock production of which nomadic pastoralism is widespread and extensive.

There is, however, great potential for tourism and industry in the region and oil

production in the Sudan, provided peace prevails. When drought occurs, the impact,

especially due to famines, is very high on the populations because of their high

vulnerability as a result of high levels of poverty, environmental degradation,

migration, underdeveloped infrastructure and poor primary production technologies.

The marginal areas that lie between the highly endowed highlands and the arid areas

are under very high pressure from migrant populations from both the high potential

areas and the arid and semi-arid areas in all the member states. The IGAD

Secretariat therefore offers an opportunity for promoting peace and re-arrangements

in the rational use of resources within and across the borders. It also offers prospects

of moving towards an economic integration and ultimately political unity. These

will further raise chances of peace and prosperity for all the peoples and


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communities of the region and environmental rehabilitation. Prosperity will

ultimately reduce the present high vulnerability to poverty and environmental

degradation and insecurity. There is therefore a need to undertake a study to identify

the inter-linkages between conflicts, scarcity of natural resources and environmental

refugees and the impact of these inter-linkages on IGAD in operationalizing its

mandate.

1.4 Justification for the study

The IGAD region’s dry lands are characterized by high temperatures, erratic and

high inter-annual, seasonal and spatial rainfall variability. They are ravaged by

frequent droughts causing severe food shortages. This adds to woes of local farmers

in the uncertainties and unpredictability of their harvests during any season. Farmers

have to plant larger and larger areas and a variety of crops as an insurance strategy

and therefore increasing the area being degraded, threatened and vulnerable to

desertification and insecurity. Therefore weather uncertainties lead to expansion of

cultivated area which in turn leads to conflicts on access and use of natural

resources.

On the other hand pastoralists lose animals during droughts. To ensure that some

survive, they tend to keep large numbers of animals and sometimes with a

preference on small stock e.g. goats, which quickly proliferate after droughts. Large

herds (overstocking) in an area lead to land degradation – desertification. When the

pastoralists migrate in search of water and grazing they invariably get in conflict

with other communities in search of the same. Their range has also been alienated

by agricultural communities, which have migrated and occupied their former dry

season ranges. They also get in conflict with these farming communities.

Droughts and famine disasters reinforce poverty and the desertification processes in

the marginal areas. The majority of the people in the dry lands practice subsistence

agriculture and occasionally sell the little excess for their livelihood. Their survival

is therefore dependent on farm production that in turn depends on the behaviour of

the weather during the cropping seasons, area cultivated and inputs. With the rapid

increase in populations, these subsistence farmers continue to open more and more


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land for cultivation of crops and do cultivate it for longer periods without fallow

periods. This exposes the soils to weather elements, over exploitation, loss of

fertility and eventually leads to degradation and competition for the remaining

resources and conflicts.

The frequent extended and severe droughts normally leave the populations hungry

and poorer having lost crops and livestock and disrupted livelihood systems. This

reinforces their poverty, which means they cannot purchase and use optimizing

agricultural inputs in the next season so as to increase productivity. Consequently, it

becomes cyclic with the frequent droughts. This arguably leads to increased poverty

and the opening up of more and more land for cultivation as insurance to harvesting

more for the growing family. Secondly, if the situations are severe and frequent,

food aid becomes common and populations with their few remaining animals

congregate at food aid centres. Such centres become degraded due to

overpopulation.

Pastoralism is still widespread in all the sub-region. Probably this is the oldest land

use system still persistent in Africa. When the range was still expansive, nomadism

as a survival strategy in time of drought or dry season used to save the stock.

Livestock movements in search of pasture are much more restricted now. The

pastoralists have therefore become more vulnerable to droughts and dry seasons

than before. The traditional dry season critical resource zones have been lost to

sedentary communities who depend on rain-fed agriculture. Thus some pastoralist

groups have resorted to larger herds of smaller stocks as a survival strategy as noted.

Small stocks also proliferate faster after droughts for recovery purposes. But they

are also the most vulnerable. Overstocking in most areas is leading to severe land

degradation.

Poverty, confinement or reduction of the range/territory for nomadism coupled with

increasing human and animal populations and frequent droughts have resulted in

critical and serious resource use conflicts in the rangelands of IGAD member states

and elsewhere. These have sometimes exploded into many significant and

prolonged-armed conflicts in the region. Droughts and the resultant conflicts

contributed greatly to the political instability, starvation and social breakdown and


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cost a lot in terms of disaster relief and human aid as well as lives. It has led to over

exploitation of a range of resources in the safe places and under exploitation in

conflict zones. Level of exploitation in these areas needs monitoring in order to

design appropriate strategies to combat desertification and avoid serious

catastrophes in times of drought. It is expected that resource use conflicts will

continue to recur in the foreseeable future with high frequencies as the scarce

resources dwindle and populations increase. They will therefore continue to trigger

humanitarian crises. This requires conflict prevention and/or conflict settlement

(resolution) mechanisms.

Environmental refugees are normally destined for the dry sub-humid and semiarid

zones of the dry lands. This is because high population growth rates and densities in

the agriculturally high potential areas have resulted in the dry sub-humid and semi-

arid zones being the destination of many migrants – environmental refugees. At the

same time, residents of arid and semi-arid zones also make the dry sub-humid zones

their destination during severe droughts. This has made the dry sub-humid and

semi-arid zones a convergence zone for the environmental refugees. These refugees

more often than not put their new settlements under intensive rain-fed agriculture

and therefore they are at the mercy of the climatic condition of these zones. These

encroachments into the fragile dry lands with low resilience are major concerns to

resource managers, especially in respect to the survival of mankind in the long-term.

Those are also areas of great natural and agricultural biodiversity that need

conservation for man’s future survival.

Those moving from highly populated and degraded highland to the marginal areas

and food aid centres; and those pastoralists moving to marginal areas and food aid

centres can both be termed as environmental refugees. These trends need to be

monitored: trends in absolute cultivated area, geographical spread and productivity,

population dynamics, and the actual causes of degradation and appropriate cure. The

resultant conflicts need also be resolved otherwise the refugee areas will in turn be

degraded and a vicious cycle started.

The above are pertinent issues which must be addressed and constitute adequate

justification for undertaking a study to identify the nexus between environment


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security, conflict and environmental refugees. This could provide adequate

information for planning, policy formulation for sustainable utilization of the dry

lands and conflict prevention, management and resolution.

2) Objective, Purpose and Expected Results

2.1 Overall Objective

The general objective of this study is to contribute to IGAD strategies on conflict

prevention, management and resolution and environment and natural resources by

identifying the nexus between scarcity of environmental resources and conflicts in

the Karamoja Cluster (communities and environmental refugees) in support of

programmes and projects under the Divisions of Peace and Security and Agriculture

and Environment.

2.2 Purpose

The purpose of this study is to identify conflict zones in the Karamoja Cluster after a

thorough analysis of household and community resource base (cultivated land,

productivity, population dynamics, status of land degradation and conflicts, etc) and

develop conflict resolution, policy and legal frameworks to advance peace and

security as well as sustainable management of natural resources in cross-border

communities of the four IGAD member states. With this backdrop, the specific

objectives of the study include:

• To assess adequacy of household and community resource base

• To determine the level of economic and social stress prevalent among

households and communities

• To identify conflict zones resulting from environmental stress as a result of

competition for resources, droughts and environmental refugees

• To develop a better understanding of the root causes, extent, severity and

consequences of the conflicts

• To design conflict resolution mechanisms including social and economic

development approaches and strategies, policies and legal frameworks for land

use and land management systems as well as the ownership, access and use,

taking into account traditional resources governance systems.


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2.3 Expected Results

The expected results of the consultancy work will include the following:

a) Current situation in Karamoja Cluster assessed - based on a desktop

research including preliminary research on secondary data, consultant’s

knowledge and experience, and literature review and filed assessment in the

Karamoja area, the consultant shall deliver a report on current member states

policies and strategies on governance, ownership and access to resources,

whose interplay can lead to conflicts, on current conflict zones resulting

from environmental stress, household and community resource bases and

level of economic and social stress in the region.

b) Selected Intervention Areas identified – based on the findings of the

study / consultancy, the consultant will identify selected intervention areas

that shall be implemented by Peace and Security and Agriculture and

Environment Divisions in an integrated manner to address the nexus

between conflicts and environmental stress in the area, including mapping of

Conflict zones, development of conflict resolution frameworks and

formulation of economic and social development policy and legal

framework.

c) An Action Plan for the implementation of the identified intervention

areas prepared – the consultant shall finalize and submit a detailed action

plan for the implementation of the identified intervention areas, with clear

time frame, resources required and responsibilities.

3) Scope of the Work

3.1 General

The consultant shall explore Karamoja Cluster pastoralists, and any other areas of

pertinent importance with regard to issues of conflict and environment. S/he will

conduct interviews with main actors and best practice organisations dealing with

matters of peace and security and economic and social development within the

identified framework.


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3.2 Specific Activities

In undertaking this consultancy mission, the consultant will be involved in the

following specific activities to achieve the objective.

Designing appropriate research methods, data collection instruments and

analytical tools,

Preparing , delivering and presenting draft and final inception report,

Conducting Interviews with the following stakeholders

Pastoral households and community leaders

CEWARN and ICPAT in Addis Ababa

NGOs and CSOs in member states working in the area of

environment and conflict.

Best practices Regional Economic Communities (RECs) in the

area of study.

As part of the synthesis phase, accomplish the following activities:

- Presentation of the draft study to relevant IGAD Secretariat staff

- Preparation of the study incorporating the comments from the

members of the Secretariat.

- Submission of the final study incorporating comments and additional

inputs from member states

Outlining significant findings and recommendations from synthesising and

analysing of data

Preparing and delivering weekly progress reports in writing to the IGAD

Peace and Security Division.

Drawing regional and international best practices in similar arrangements and

fields that can be applied in the IGAD region

Debriefing the significant findings and contents of the final report to relevant

Divisions at IGAD Secretariat in a validation meeting to collect valuable

comments from the client,

Presentation of the assessment report, the identified intervention areas and the

proposed action plan at a regional workshop

Preparing and submitting a final draft report taking into account the comments

from the regional workshop until accepted by IGAD and its partners,


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3.3 Project Management and Monitoring

In collaboration with the Acting Director of Peace and Security, the Division of

Agriculture and Environment will be responsible for the overall management, quality

supervision and guidance of the mission. CPMR will provide contractual, logistical

(airfare) and office space in Djibouti.

3.4 Methods and Processes

The methodology outlined for this consultancy will include primary and secondary

data collection and well-recognised analytical tools. The consultant is expected to

outline his/her methods and detail instruments of data collection and analysis in the

inception report. Indicative methods and processes will also be addressed in the

initial proposal of the consultant in a response to this TOR.

The consultancy work is expected to involve the following processes:

1. Inception phase: The consultant, right after being commissioned to carry out this

consultancy, should conduct literature review of relevant documents and

preliminary assessments of other secondary data, as available.

Based on the findings of the preliminary desktop research and the personal

knowledge and experiences of the consultant, he/she will prepare and present a

draft inception report within four working days after the commencement of the

project outlining the issues stated in 3.2 above. A final inception report will be

submitted taking the feedback given during the presentation into account within

one and two calendar days after the presentation. The inception report is the

framework to the final work and practical guiding points for both the consultant

and the client and should be presented carefully and professionally. Any change

on the contents of the inception report, particularly research methods, schedule

(milestone) should be notified in writing to the client.

Field phase: This phase predominantly involves the collection of data from the

field deploying the methods and instruments stated in the inception report. In-

country logistical support will be provided to the consultant to collect data from

within the focal ministries of member states, and while in the Masai Mara region.


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The central point of the data collection is to come up with policy, legal and

conflict prevention and natural resources management frameworks that are well

backed by research and are representative of views across the IGAD region. These

policies are expected to be properly aligned with existing national policies and

strategies, as well as the IGAD Peace and Security Strategy. Field work is

expected to be completed within four weeks after the date of commencement.

Validation Meeting/Debriefing: The consultant is required to provide debriefing to the

Divisions of Peace and Security and Agriculture and Environment immediately after the

completion of the field phase. A workshop based on the outcome of the study for

stakeholders in the region to thoroughly discuss the situation analysis, areas of intervention

and the proposed Plan of Action will be convened a later date.

2. Synthesis phase: After the debriefing session, the consultant is expected to

deliver zero draft report of the project document to IGAD in Djibouti

electronically meeting the deadline. The report will be circulated among IGAD

partners and professionals to provide technical inputs and comments on the draft

report. Consolidated comments will be communicated to the consultant within

four working days.

3. Draft report: the first draft report will be presented in five hard copies and soft

copy to IGAD/CPMR within twenty five working days after commissioning of

the work. IGAD and its partners will give their comments in writing within six to

ten calendar days. The consultant can further enrich the draft report while

waiting for the feedback or comments.

4. Final report: The consultant, taking the comments into account shall prepare an

improved version of the report within four working days after the receipt of the

comments. This process may be repeated until IGAD and its partners are satisfied

of the content of the final report and it should be delivered within the deadline as

outlined above.

5. Throughout the process the consultant will prepare and submit a weekly

progress review report in writing to the Division of Peace and Security and


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Agriculture and Environment addressing constraints/limitations, challenges and

performance (achievements) against a plan that can be accompanied with

meetings as necessary.

4) Mission Logistics and Timing

The total duration of the study will be 42 calendar days. The study will commence around

February/March 2010 and will end around April/May 2010. The dates and venue of the

regional workshop will be agreed between the consultant and IGAD Secretariat.

4.1 Location

The mission will take place in the Karamoja Cluster region of Kenya, Uganda and

Ethiopia, Addis Ababa as well as Djibouti where IGAD headquarters is located. The

consultant will be allowed some days in his/her home country for mission

preparation and reporting.

The consultant will commence the mission in Djibouti, where briefing will be

conducted. S/he will then proceed to Addis Ababa to meet the CEWARN team,

which will provide briefing on the Karamoja Cluster and present the logistical

roadmap for the mission. Accompanied by an officer from Ethiopia CEWERU, the

consultant will travel by road to visit the cluster region of Ethiopia. S/he will then

travel back to Addis Ababa by road and take a flight to Nairobi to meet the

CEWERU contact person in Nairobi, Kenya. S/he will take a local flight to the

Turkana region to undertake consultations and interviews and thereafter cross by

road to the Karamoja region in Uganda, where S/he will receive guidance from a

designated CEWERU contact person. At the end of the field work in the cluster

region of Uganda, S/he will take a local flight to Entebbe and travel to Djibouti for

the final leg of the mission


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4.2 Commencement Date and Period of Execution

The mission will commence around February/March 2010 and the consultant will

have 42 working days, including international/regional travel and home-based

work to complete his/her assignment.

5) Requirements

5.1 Qualification

Advanced University Degree (Masters/PhD) or equivalent in International

Development studies, International Relations, Political Science, law,

Environmental Economics, Security Management or related fields of study.

Specialisation in the horn of Africa in related fields will be highly appreciated.

At least 10 years of progressively responsible professional work experience at

national and/or international level in the area of conflict management/ resolution.

In depth knowledge of security management particularly related to the

environment and/or War Economies is an advantage.

Fluency in English is required, but fluency in French, Arabic and the local dialects

of the Masai Mara area is beneficial. Good communication and analytical skills

with ability to write and review technical reports.

Ability to work with a team in an international, multi-cultural and interdisciplinary

environment and establish harmonious and effective working relationships both

within IGAD and among partners.

Strong computer skills including statistical/analytical tools.

Experience working with EU/EC projects and programmes.

5.2 Facilities and Office Space

CPMR will provide an office for the consultant while carrying out this consultancy

mission in Djibouti with access to internet, fixed telephone and printing/copying

facilities, and available documents and literatures to be consulted in. The consultant

is only required to have his/her own laptop and accessories. External storage devices

such as flash disks, CDs, Portable hard disk etc may not be allowed to be used in

computers of the client system for various security reasons.


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6) Reports

6.1 Report Types and Contents

Inception report should consist of the points addressed in number 3.2 to the

minimum; however, this shall not limit the consultant to include other points.

The final report should include the following basic points and subsequent

agreements while the consultant is required to include detailed content:

o Basic background and state of affairs of the region

o Identified conflict zones / environment stressed zones

o Analysis of critical resource based problems

o Identified intervention areas, including policy recommendations and

legal and institutional frameworks

o Proposed Plan of Action /way forward, specifying actions and

responsibilities at regional, national and local levels

Progress review weekly reports should be brief including challenges,

limitations/constraints, achievements, against plan, and recommended way

forward as necessary. For critical problems or when significant change is

demanded, the report should be supported with meetings with IGAD Peace

and Security and Agriculture and Environment Divisions.

Inception, draft and final reports should be in five hard copies and soft

copies; whereas other reports can be supplied electronically. Comments or

feedbacks of the client will be sent to the consultant electronically and in

such cases recipients are required to acknowledge the receipt of the soft

copy immediately in writing.

All reports should be in A4 size papers, 1.5 line spacing and 12 characters per

inch (CPI) font size minimum with outlined document mapping facility.

Reports should be in Microsoft word 97 - 2003 format or acrobat readers (pdf)

format only.

6.2 Submission and Approval of Reports

Draft reports should be submitted a minimum of four working days before the

date of presentation allowing enough time to make comments


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IGAD and its partners will give their comments on the inception and first draft

report/s within three and six calendar days respectively, while for other reports

or presentations, comments will be provided immediately during presentation or

later on the same day

Acceptance of final report will be acknowledged in writing electronically to the

client

The client reserves the right to request the consultant for further improvement

frequently as far as the expected standard is met to the satisfaction of the client

including all comments the client has notified verbally and in writing.

6.3 Milestones and Mission Schedule

Table 1: Key Milestones of Expected Results

No

Expected Result

Remark

1 Mission Commenced

2 Draft Inception Report

3 Presenting Inception Report

4 Final Inception report Client’s feedback to be given during

presentation

5 Presentation of primary

findings for validation

meeting

- Client’s feedback to be given during

presentation

6 Zero draft submission Client may need up to 4 working days for

feedback

7 First Draft Submission

Client may need up to 6 calendar days for

feedback

8 Final report submission - As necessary, the client may request the

consultant to include further amendment


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to the satisfaction of the client

- Client shall notify further amendment or

acceptance of the report within 7 working

days after the receipt of the report.

Table 2: Mission Schedule

No. International/regional

flight destinations

Job description and working place Number

of

working

days

1. Home Mission preparation. 3

2. Home-Djibouti Debriefing and inception phase at

IGAD Secretariat, Djibouti

Inception report submission and

redrafting

4

3. Djibouti – Addis Ababa IGAD CEWARN and ICPAT 3

4. Addis Ababa – Karamoja

Cluster – Addis Ababa -

Djibouti (Road & Air

transport)

Field work in the Karamoja areas of,

Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda.

(logistics of the field work will be

coordinated by CEWARN)

21

5. Djibouti Presentation of findings, debriefing and

zero draft report in Djibouti (Ag.

Director, Peace and Security)

5

6. Djibouti Draft final report writing and

presentation

3

7. Home Final report preparation and submission 3

Total 42

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