Test Framework

Subarea I—Foundations of Reading Development Blue information is from the online dictionary 0001 Understand phonological and phonemic awareness. the distinction between phonological awareness (i.e., the awareness that oral language is composed of smaller units, such as spoken words and syllables) and phonemic awareness (i.e., a specific type of phonological awareness involving the ability to distinguish the separate phonemes in a spoken word);

Phonological awareness

C

Phonemic awareness (i.e., their ability to distinguish the separate phonemes in a spoken word), Reading research indicates that phonological and phonemic awareness skills develop along a continuum from basic to higher-level skills, and that phoneme substitution is a more difficult, or higher-level, skill. Substituting the sound /i/ for /o / in the word hot to make the word hit is an example of phoneme substitution.

Research indicates that phonemic awareness skills, particularly phonemic blending (i.e., combining a sequence of speech sounds to form a word), are prerequisite skills to effective phonics instruction

Phonemic awareness is a specific type of phonological awareness involving the ability to distinguish the separate phonemes in a spoken word. Identifying the beginning sound of a single-syllable word is typically one of the earliest phonemic awareness skills developed, while substituting medial phonemes (D) is considered a more advanced phonemic awareness skill

B

A

the role of phonological awareness and phonemic awareness in reading development;

B

the difference between phonemic awareness and phonics skills;

phonics

levels of phonological and phonemic awareness skills (e.g., rhyming, segmenting, blending, deleting, substituting);

Rhyming Segmenting Phonemic segmentation presenting students with a spoken word and having them say all the sounds in the word—is an example of a phoneme-segmentation task. Reading research indicates that phonological and phonemic awareness skills develop along a continuum from basic to higher-level skills, and effective instruction targets skills at a student's current level of development. Segmenting phonemes is a relatively high-level phonemic awareness skill; thus, this exercise would be most appropriate for students

A

who have already achieved a relatively high level of phonemic awareness

B

C

D

Blending Phonemic blending Phonemic blending is the ability to combine a sequence of speech sounds (phonemes) together to form a word. Beginning readers use their skill in phonemic blending and their knowledge of letter- sound correspondence to sound out and blend the sounds of simple printed words Blending consonants A consonant blend is a sequence of two or more consonants in a word, each of which represents a separate phoneme. For example, the sequence of consonants at the end of the word best represents the sequence of phonemes /s/ and /t/. A student who says bet for best is omitting the letter s, an error in decoding the consonant blend at the end of the word. The other responses are incorrect because these miscues are unrelated to decoding consonant blends

B

C

B

Deleting substituting

Sequencing D

strategies (e.g., explicit, implicit) to promote phonological and phonemic awareness (e.g., distinguishing spoken words, syllables, onsets/rimes, phonemes);

distinguishing spoken words Syllables Onsets/rimes Onsets the initial consonant sounds of the word; Rimes rest of the word

B

Phonemes A phoneme is a phonological unit of language, a discrete speech

D

sound in a particular language that native speakers of the language recognize as sufficient to distinguish between two phonologically similar but separate words. For example, the speech sounds /k/ and /n/ are phonemes in English because native English speakers who hear the pair of spoken forms /kap/ and /na p/ regard them as distinct words.

While there are approximately 100 speech sounds, or phonemes, used in human language, only a portion of these is used in any given language, and the set varies across languages. Also, each language has its own constraints on permissible phoneme combinations (e.g., consonant clusters, vowel sequences). For example, English allows consonant blends such as [kl], [tr], and [sp] both in initial and medial positions in words, while some languages do not allow them at all or do not allow them in the initial position, which is where they appear in the sample words clip, trap, and spin. English Language Learners frequently have difficulty detecting in a new language phonemes or phoneme combinations that do not occur in their primary language.

A

Auditory discrimination the role of phonological processing in the reading development of individual students

(e.g., English Language Learners, struggling readers through highly proficient readers). 0002 Understand concepts of print and the alphabetic principle. development of the understanding that print carries meaning;

Concepts of print Awareness of print Print awareness encompasses a developing understanding of print concepts and the writing system, an understanding of relationships between oral language and print, and familiarity with ways that literate adults interact with and make use of printed materials and writing. The classroom described includes several elements that can be effectively used to promote print awareness at the kindergarten level. The presence of printed labels, posters, and big books provides exposure to print and the teacher can use these materials to model print functions. Big books can be used effectively as part of explicit instruction in print concepts and book-handling skills.

B

D

Pretend read The child's behavior, "pretend reading" when pointing to the text or printed portion of a page in a book, indicates an understanding that printed text represents meaningful language.

C

strategies for promoting awareness of the relationship between spoken and written language;

Big books

the role of environmental print in developing print awareness;

development of book handling skills;

Book-handling skills the instruction the teacher provides before reading aloud, in conjunction with how the teacher holds and proceeds through the book during reading, helps beginning readers learn how to hold a book with the front cover facing up and the spine on the left, and then how to move through the pages from front to back.

B

strategies for promoting an understanding of the directionality of print;

Directionality

techniques for promoting the ability to track print in connected text;

strategies for promoting letter knowledge (e.g., skill in recognizing and naming upper-case and lower-case letters);

Letter recognition

Letter naming Letter naming entails an ability both to distinguish between letters and to associate particular letter shapes with their names.

letter formation; Tracing letters The activity described has children use arm movements and highly textured material to heighten their awareness of letter shapes and the sequence of strokes for forming letters. The activity is effective for students who are having difficulty with letter formation because it simultaneously activates visual, kinesthetic, and tactile sensory pathways in learning letter shapes and associating these shapes with their names. Research suggests that such multisensory techniques are effective for this purpose.

A

D

strategies for promoting understanding of the alphabetic principle (i.e., the recognition that phonemes are

Alphabetic principle Understanding the alphabetic principle entails the recognition that letters and letter patterns used in writing an alphabetic language correspond to the sounds in the spoken words of the language.

A

represented by letters and letter pairs);

Phonetic spelling Research has shown that students' understanding of the alphabetic principle is enhanced and reinforced by having opportunities to apply their knowledge of letter-sound correspondences in both reading and writing—the latter by using phonetic spellings

D

Phonetically-regular

Phonetically irregular

use of reading and writing strategies for teaching letter-sound correspondence;

Letter-sound correspondence

development of alphabetic knowledge in individual students (e.g., English Language Learners, struggling readers through highly proficient readers).

0003 Understand the role of phonics in promoting reading development. explicit strategies for teaching phonics;

Systematic phonics In research-based, systematic phonics instruction, phonics elements are introduced according to their utility for beginning readers, and therefore according to their frequency of use in words appearing in primary-grades texts. Among the letter combinations given, th occurs most frequently in such texts and therefore is among the very first letter combinations taught

C

the role of phonics in developing rapid, automatic word recognition;

Automaticity is the rapid recognition of a word without conscious attention to the decoding process. Research indicates that accurate decoding skills are a prerequisite to the development of, and readiness to benefit from instruction in, automatic word recognition. Applying consistent phonics generalizations to decode common words is a foundational decoding skill appropriate for beginning readers at the first-grade level.

the role of automaticity in developing reading fluency;

Automaticity Reading research has shown that accurate decoding skills are a prerequisite to effective development of word-reading automaticity, which, in turn, is foundational to the development of reading fluency—that is, reading text accurately, at a rate that supports comprehension, and with speech-like phrasing and expressiveness. Furthermore, convergent research suggests that a lack of automatic decoding skills is a frequent cause of comprehension difficulties among students in the primary grades.

Research has shown that rereading the same text several times builds comprehension and improves reading rate and automaticity with respect to the given text, but these gains do not

D

necessarily transfer to other texts. The most effective way for students to improve reading rate and automaticity is to practice reading many texts written at their independent reading level (i.e., texts that they can read accurately).

A

interrelationships between decoding, fluency, and reading comprehension;

Fluency The key indicators of reading fluency are accuracy, rate, and prosody. In the primary grades, the most common factor disrupting fluency is weak decoding skills, which most directly affects reading accuracy but affects the other indicators as well (e.g., by causing a slow rate or resulting in choppy reading). Research has shown that fluent readers have higher levels of comprehension than readers who lack fluency. By the third grade, fluent readers have developed automaticity in decoding, which allows them to focus on the meaning of what they are reading rather than on expending all their effort and energy on decoding each individual word letter by letter.

D

High-frequency words

Sight words

the interrelationship between letter-sound correspondence and beginning decoding (e.g., blending letter sounds);

C

strategies for helping students decode single-syllable words that follow common patterns (e.g., CVC, CVCC, CVVC, CVCe) and multisyllable words;

Decode single-syllable words that follow common patterns

Nonsense words

Multisyllabic words By the second grade, students have typically learned to read a wide variety of syllable patterns in single-syllable words. Since most of the syllables in multisyllable words follow the same patterns as those in single-syllable words, the primary challenge for students just learning to decode multisyllable words is learning to recognize the words as a series of discrete syllables. This recognition allows students to apply their prior knowledge of syllable patterns to decoding longer words.

C

methods for promoting and assessing the use of phonics generalizations to decode words in connected text;

A

use of semantic and syntactic clues to help decode words;

the relationship between decoding and encoding (e.g., analyzing the spellings of beginning readers to assess phonics knowledge, using spelling instruction to reinforce phonics skills);

Decode Research has established that encoding and decoding are reciprocal processes and that spelling knowledge can contribute to word-reading accuracy. Accuracy is a key component of reading fluency

Beginning. Reader Beginning readers need lots of practice reading a variety of texts written at their independent reading levels to reinforce their knowledge of phonics and sight words already taught, build their automaticity, and improve their reading fluency. Leveled texts are series of texts constructed using controlled vocabulary and syntactic structures. Within a particular level, the texts share many of the same vocabulary words and follow basic syntactic structures, both of which gradually increase in difficulty in successive levels. Matching students to appropriate-level texts is key to providing beginning readers with effective practice opportunities

A

Spelling patterns • R-controlled vowels

D

• Short, long vowels • Spellings of suffixes • Silent e

C

A

strategies for promoting automaticity and fluency (i.e., accuracy, rate, and prosody);

B

the relationship between oral vocabulary and the process of decoding written words;

B

specific terminology associated with phonics (e.g., phoneme, morpheme, consonant digraph, consonant blend);

Phonemes A phoneme is a phonological unit of language, a discrete speech sound in a particular language that native speakers of the language recognize as sufficient to distinguish between two phonologically similar but separate words

Morpheme consonant digraph consonant blend Diphthong Word boundaries

development of phonics skills and fluency in individual students (e.g., English Language Learners, struggling readers through highly proficient readers).

004 Understand word analysis skills and strategies.

development of word analysis skills and strategies in addition to phonics, including structural analysis;

Structural analysis In the context of reading, structural analysis is the process of recognizing the morphemic structure of words. Typically, structural analysis is introduced to students in the early elementary grades as a strategy for identifying words with inflections or simple affixes that are in students' oral vocabulary.

structural analysis is the process of recognizing the morphemic structure of words. Readers who recognize component morphemes (i.e., base words, prefixes, suffixes, and inflections) in unfamiliar, morphologically complex words can use this knowledge to support decoding or to derive the likely meaning of the words.

Teaching students to use structural analysis and their knowledge of familiar English morphemes (i.e., the root defense and the affixes in- and -ible) to deduce the meaning of a new word containing these morphemes provides students with a powerful independent word-learning strategy. This strategy immediately extends students' understanding of both the target word and other words that contain these morphemes.

A

C

Word consciousness

interrelationships between word analysis skills, fluency, and

Expressive vs. receptive vocabulary

reading comprehension; identification of common morphemes (e.g., base words, roots, inflections and other affixes);

morpheme a meaningful morphological unit of a language that cannot be further divided (e.g., in, come, -ing, forming incoming ).

• a morphological element considered with respect to its functional relations in a linguistic system.

Affix: prefix, suffix an additional element placed at the beginning or end of a root, stem, or word, or in the body of a word, to modify its meaning.

Root word (Greek) A root word has no prefix or suffix — it's the most basic part of a word. The root word at the heart of "conformity," for example, is "form."

Inflectional endings Inflectional Endings

An inflectional ending is a group of letters added to the end of a word to change its meaning.

Some inflectional endings are:

-s bat bats

-es mix mixes

-ing snow snowing

-ed peck pecked

An inflectional ending changes the meaning of the base word and creates a new word with a different meaning.

-s makes a noun mean “more than one”

-es makes a noun mean “more than one”

-ing means an action is happening now

-ed means an action already happened

www.mheonline.com

Derivational endings A suffix is a letter or group of letters that come at the end of a word and have meaning. A derivational suffix is a type of suffix that creates a new word; the

new word is derived from the base word, e.g., adding -er to the word teach creates a new word teacher.

Meanings of the Most Common Derivational Suffixes

The most frequently occurring derivational suffixes are as follows:

Suffix Meaning Examples

-able

capable of, worthy of being lovable, learnable & fixable

-ar of or relating to beggar & liar

-en to become or cause to be weaken, sharpen & lengthen

-er comparative; more hotter, bigger & smarter

-er person connected with teacher, painter & shipper

-ess female princess, waitress & actress

-est comparative; most smartest, fastest & quickest

-ette small dinette, diskette & barrette

-ible capable of , worthy of being gullible & durable

-ful full of joyful, fearful & cheerful

-ish relating to childish, bookish & selfish

-less

without; not having tireless, ageless & careless

-like resembling or characteristic of childlike, doglike & homelike

-ly resembling; similar to fatherly, scholarly & motherly

-ment

action or process government, development & experiment

-ness

state or quality of: condition kindness, goodness & happiness

-or person connected with doctor, actor & editor

-ship

state or quality of: condition friendship, hardship & citizenship

Source: Fry, E.B., Ph.D. & Kress, J.E., Ed.D. (2006). The Reading Teacher’s Book of Lists 5th Edition. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass.

recognition of common prefixes (e.g., un-, re-, pre-) and suffixes (e.g., -tion, -able) and their meanings;

Common prefixes and suffixes: http://teacher.scholastic.com/reading/bestpractices/vocabulary/pdf/prefixes_suffixes.pdf

D

knowledge of Latin and Greek roots that form English words;

use of syllabication as a word identification strategy;

Syllables (open syllable) Syllable boundaries

analysis of syllables and morphemes in relation to spelling patterns;

D

techniques for identifying compound words;

Compound words compound word is a word composed of two base words, and the meaning of a compound word is related to the meaning of these component parts. Combining two words to form a single new word illustrates the concept of compound words. Types of Compound Words

There are three different types of compound words:

• Closed form: Two words are joined together to create a new meaning (firefly, softball, redhead, keyboard, makeup, notebook).

• Hyphenated form: Words are joined together by a hyphen (daughter-in-law, over-the-counter, six-year-old).

• Open form: Words are open but when read together, a new meaning is formed (post office, real estate, full moon).

D

https://www.spellingcity.com/compound-words.html

identification of homographs (i.e., words that are spelled the same but have different meanings and may be pronounced differently [e.g., bow, part of a ship/bow, to bend from the waist; tear, a drop of water from the eye/tear, to rip]);

Homograph Homographs are words that are spelled the same way but have different meanings. For example, the words saw, meaning the cutting tool, and saw, meaning the past tense of the verb to see, have different origins and meanings, but they are spelled the same way.

A

use of context clues (e.g., semantic, syntactic) to help identify words and to verify the pronunciation and meaning of words;

Semantic clues C

A

D

Syntactic clues Syntax The syntax of English determines the word orders that are possible (i.e., grammatically correct) in sentences. For example, articles and adjectives precede the nouns they modify.

B

Structural clues development of word analysis skills and fluency in individual students (e.g., English

English Language Learner there is often a discrepancy between an English Language Learner's receptive and productive language skills

B

Language Learners, struggling readers through highly proficient readers).

Subarea II—Development of Reading Comprehension 0005 Understand vocabulary development. the relationship between oral and written vocabulary development and reading comprehension;

the role of systematic, noncontextual vocabulary strategies (e.g., grouping words based on conceptual categories and associative meanings) and contextual vocabulary strategies (e.g., paraphrasing);

Word sorts/sorting words (open & closed) Grouping words related to a text based on conceptual categories and the words' associative meanings helps deepen students' understanding of the vocabulary. Discussing and justifying connections among the words further enhances students' understanding of the words and promotes retention of new words.

A

Paraphrasing paraphrasing the sentence by substituting the dictionary definition for the unfamiliar term is a good method for both reinforcing understanding of the new term and returning the reader to the flow of the story.

Vocabulary logs Preteaching vocabulary

the relationship between oral vocabulary and the process of identifying and understanding written words;

strategies for promoting oral language development and listening comprehension (e.g., read-alouds, word explanation strategies);

Read aloud Reading aloud to children is a research-based strategy for promoting students' interest in reading and in books. Providing students with access to a book that the teacher has already read aloud and discussed with them is likely to foster their love of reading because the teacher has provided various scaffolds for comprehending the story, and thus they are likely to

C

experience some level of success in reading it independently.

A

knowledge of common sayings, proverbs, and idioms (e.g., raining cats and dogs, better safe than sorry);

Idioms, idiomatic expressions An idiomatic expression is a sequence of words that has a specific meaning beyond the sum of the meanings of the component words. In addition to

A

explaining the idiom's specific meaning, the most effective way to promote a student's understanding of a new idiom is to provide the student with several examples of the idiom used in comprehensible context

knowledge of foreign words and abbreviations commonly used in English (e.g., RSVP);

criteria for selecting vocabulary words;

Words that are conceptually challenging Conceptually challenging words, especially those associated with a new content-specific unit of study, are not likely to be in students' oral vocabularies, let alone in their reading vocabularies. To support students' reading comprehension of content-area texts associated with the unit, it is critical to introduce students to key concepts and associated vocabulary in both their oral and written forms prior to reading.

A

strategies for clarifying and extending a reader's understanding of unfamiliar words encountered in connected text (e.g., use of semantic and syntactic clues, use of

Dictionary Stopping to consult a dictionary is generally disruptive to the reading process; however, in some situations, as with the sentence shown in the box, consulting a dictionary is the only effective method for determining the meaning of an unfamiliar term encountered in a text.

C

word maps, use of the dictionary);

Semantic clues Syntactic clues Syntax The syntax of English determines the word orders that are possible (i.e., grammatically correct) in sentences. For example, articles and adjectives precede the nouns they modify.

Structural clues C

Semantic map

B

strategies for promoting comprehension across the curriculum by expanding knowledge of academic language, including conventions of standard English grammar and usage, differences between

Content-area texts In content-area subjects, concept building and vocabulary building are reciprocal and closely interdependent processes.

D

the conventions of spoken and written standard English, general academic vocabulary, and content-area vocabulary (e.g., focus on key words);

the importance of frequent, extensive, varied reading experiences in the development of academic language and vocabulary;

Wide reading Research has shown that independent reading of a wide range of literary and informational texts plays a key role in students' academic language development, as the language of books tends to be more sophisticated than that of everyday social language.

A

development of academic language and vocabulary knowledge and skills in individual students (e.g., English

Word recognition and vocabulary knowledge are primary factors affecting reading comprehension.

C

Language Learners, struggling readers through highly proficient readers).

0006 Understand how to apply reading comprehension skills and strategies to imaginative/literary texts. knowledge of reading as a process to construct meaning;

knowledge of reading comprehension and analysis skills for reading literature (e.g., analyzing a text's key ideas and details, interpreting an author's use of craft and structure, integrating knowledge and ideas from multiple literary works);

C

knowledge of levels of reading comprehension (i.e., literal, inferential, and evaluative) and

Literal comprehension Inferential comprehension To draw an inference from a text is to derive a conclusion that is not stated explicitly in

B

strategies for promoting comprehension of imaginative/literary texts at all three levels;

the text but rather is suggested by facts or premises presented

Evaluative comprehension questions require the reader to formulate a response based on their opinion. http://reading.uoregon.edu/big_ideas/comp/comp_dr_1.php

strategies for promoting close reading of imaginative/literary texts;

Close reading close reading, such as rereading a complex text to enhance comprehension, analyzing the author's use of language, and questioning the author's intentions and goals.

development of literary response skills (e.g., connecting elements in a text to prior knowledge and other sources;

Making connections

D

Response journals, literary response skills formal literary response involves developing a thesis and providing evidence from the text to support the thesis. To help sixth graders learn how to construct an effective literary

C

response to a text, the teacher should provide opportunities, such as prompted writing in response journals, to develop a thesis related to a text (e.g., identifying a main idea or theme of the text), and then to support their thesis by citing evidence from the text.

Active prior knowledge Activating students' prior knowledge related to a text is a powerful strategy for promoting their comprehension of the text.

C

using evidence from a text to support analyses, develop summaries, and draw inferences and conclusions);

development of literary analysis skills (e.g.,

Genres features and conventions of different literary genres

identifying features of different literary genres, analyzing story elements, analyzing character development, interpreting figurative language, identifying literary allusions, analyzing the author's point of view);

• Informational/expository text • Literary/narrative text • Historical novel • Graphic novel • Trade books are books

marketed to a general audience, as opposed to books developed for specialized audiences. Children's trade books cover a range of topics and include both fiction and nonfiction texts. Wide reading of trade books provides students with exposure to many genres and helps them begin to develop an awareness of the structural differences between genres.

Story elements • Theme • Characters • Plot • Setting • POV (stated, implied) • Mood

Character development

B

Figurative language Literary allusion A literary allusion is when an author refers indirectly to an earlier literary work by using a name, word, or phrase closely associated with that literary work

A

Author’s point of view D

Literary analysis At the second-grade level, a significant focus of literary analysis involves thinking about characters and how characters' actions and words provide clues about their motivations.

use of comprehension strategies to support effective reading (e.g., rereading, visualizing, reviewing, self-monitoring and other metacognitive strategies);

Rereading Guiding students in reading and rereading key passages of a complex text scaffolds their understanding of the text by allowing them to delve deeper into the ideas presented in the text with each successive reading.

Visualizing A

Reviewing self-monitoring Two of the most effective instructional strategies for promoting English Language Learners' comprehension of a content-area text are activating the students' prior knowledge of the text's content and contextualizing new concepts and vocabulary through the use of visuals, demonstrations, and/or hands-on activities. To contextualize new vocabulary related to water sports, the use of visuals such as illustrations and photographs would be the most effective (and efficient) strategy to use and would also activate any prior knowledge the students had regarding the topic.

Metacognition Metacognitive reading comprehension strategies prompt students to think about their thinking as they read a text. The teacher models two powerful metacognitive strategies: visualizing to support comprehension and self-questioning to clarify understanding and to set a purpose for further reading. Think aloud

B

Reading guide Reading guides such as the one described compel students to reread a complex academic text multiple times so they can complete the activities in the guide, which are specifically designed to help the students interact with the content and language of the text.

B

use of oral language activities to promote comprehension (e.g., retelling, discussing); the role of reading fluency in facilitating comprehension;

Retelling Having a young student provide a "retelling" (or having an older student construct a summary) of a text removes clues or scaffolds from the assessment that teacher questions often provide and ensures that a student's responses are based solely on his or her reading of the text. Some disadvantages of retellings include that the results are not easy to quantify

Discussing

use of writing activities to promote literary response and analysis (e.g., creating story maps and other relevant graphic organizers;

Story map Outline Venn Diagram Timeline Semantic map

comparing and contrasting different versions of a story, different books by the same author, or the treatment of similar themes and topics in different texts or genres);

development of the reading comprehension skills and strategies of individual students (e.g., English Language Learners, struggling readers through highly proficient readers).

Many factors contribute to reading comprehension. Skilled readers use different comprehension strategies to achieve different purposes

B

C

0007 Understand how to apply reading comprehension skills and strategies to informational/expository texts. knowledge of reading comprehension and analysis skills for reading informational text (e.g., explaining key ideas and details in an informational text, analyzing the craft and structure used in an expository or persuasive text, integrating knowledge and ideas from multiple print or digital sources);

Key ideas and details

Analyzing text

Integrating knowledge

knowledge of levels of reading comprehension (i.e., literal, inferential, and evaluative) and strategies for promoting comprehension of informational/expository texts at all three levels;

Literal comprehension Inferential comprehension To draw an inference from a text is to derive a conclusion that is not stated explicitly in the text but rather is suggested by facts or premises presented

Evaluative comprehension strategies for promoting close reading of informational/expository texts, including strategies for identifying point of view, distinguishing facts

Identify POV Facts vs. opinions Multiple perspectives Evidence to support Detecting faulty reasoning

from opinions, analyzing multiple accounts of the same event or topic, determining how an author uses reasons and evidence to support particular points in a text, and detecting faulty reasoning in informational/expository texts; use of reading strategies for different texts and purposes (e.g., adjusting reading rate based on text difficulty, skimming/scanning);

Setting a purpose for reading Rate Skimming Skimming involves a quick, superficial reading of a text to get an overall impression of the material. This would be an appropriate and effective strategy for previewing a textbook chapter.

B

Scanning when scanning, you look only for a specific fact or piece of information without reading everything www.howtolearn.com

use of comprehension strategies to support effective reading (e.g., rereading, visualizing, self-questioning, paraphrasing);

Rereading Guiding students in reading and rereading key passages of a complex text scaffolds their understanding of the text by allowing them to delve deeper into the ideas presented in the text with each successive reading.

Visualizing Self-questioning Paraphrasing paraphrasing the sentence by substituting the dictionary definition for the unfamiliar term is a good method for both reinforcing understanding of the new term and returning the reader to the flow of the story.

use of oral language activities to promote comprehension (e.g., using evidence in an informational/expository text to explain concepts, events, ideas, or procedures);

the role of reading fluency in facilitating comprehension of informational/expository texts;

D

use of writing activities to promote comprehension (e.g., student-generated questioning, note taking, outlining, summarizing, semantic maps);

Student-generated questioning Note-taking Outlining Summarizing Semantic maps

knowledge of text structures (e.g., chronological, comparison/contrast, cause/effect);

Chronological

C

Compare/contrast Cause/effect Beginning/Middle/End

use of text features (e.g., index, glossary), graphic features (e.g., illustrations, charts, maps), and reference materials;

Index Glossary Illustrations Charts Maps Reference materials bibliography Table of contents

D

application of comprehension strategies to electronic texts;

eBooks Electronic books can offer many scaffolds to beginning or struggling readers, including providing the opportunity to hear the pronunciation or the definition of an unfamiliar word in the text or to listen to the whole text read aloud by a proficient reader. While electronic books can be available for use on a computer, they are not necessarily limited to this medium

A

Effective use of internet Determining whether a given Web site contains reliable information is an important step in conducting research on the Internet. Having students question the validity of content they read on a Web site will build this skill, promoting their ability to conduct more effective and bias-free research

A

development of students' ability to apply reading comprehension skills for varied purposes;

development of the reading comprehension skills and strategies of individual students (e.g., English Language Learners, struggling readers through highly proficient readers).

Subarea III—Reading Assessment and Instruction 0008 Understand formal and informal methods for assessing reading development. the use of data and ongoing reading assessment to adjust instruction to meet students' reading needs;

the characteristics and uses of standardized criterion-referenced and norm-referenced tests to assess reading development and

Norm referenced tests Norm-referenced tests are designed specifically for the purpose of comparing students' performance. Norms are statistics that describe the test performance of a representative sample group.

B

identify reading difficulties;

Criterian referenced test criterion referencing is the term used when a student's performance is related to a preestablished standard or set of objectives

Curriculum-based assessments Benchmarks

concepts of validity, reliability, and bias in testing;

Validity Validity is the degree to which a test measures what it is intended to measure.

B

predictive validity has poor predictive value relative to students' classroom performance

content validity proven to be useful as an instructional intervention

Reliabilty whether the test results are likely to be repeatable with a similar examinee test group

Reliability indicates the degree to which a test yields consistent results over successive administrations. If a test yielded fluctuating results, it would be considered to have low reliability.

C

bias

the characteristics and uses of formal and informal reading-related assessments (e.g., assessment of phonemic awareness, miscue analyses, Informal Reading Inventories, running records, use of rubrics, portfolio assessment, assessment of authentic tasks);

assessment of phonemic awareness

C

miscue analyses • Self-corrections • Miscues • omissions

Informal Reading Inventories IRI Standardized Informal Reading Inventories (IRIs) are administered individually to students to establish the students' reading levels. The results of this type of assessment provide evidence to guide the selection of reading materials for students for instruction and/or interventions and to guide students in their selection of materials for independent reading.

D

running records

C

use of rubrics portfolio assessment, Diagnostic portfolio A diagnostic portfolio (D) is individually administered and would most likely contain a comprehensive

B

battery of reading assessments designed for diagnostic purposes

assessment of authentic tasks Spelling inventories Retelling

A

characteristics and uses of group versus individual reading assessments;

group versus individual reading assessments

techniques for assessing particular reading skills (e.g., oral or written retellings to assess reading comprehension, dictated word lists to test letter-sound knowledge);

oral or written retellings to assess reading comprehension

dictated word lists to test letter-sound knowledge

awareness of text leveling;

awareness of the challenges and supports in a text (e.g., pictures, predictability, decodability);

Pictures

D

Predictability Reading aloud predictable texts to prealphabetic and emergent readers is an effective way to promote young children's motivation to read and their development of concepts of print. The portion of the text that is predictable is generally a phrase, rhyme, or sentence that is repeated throughout the text, much like the refrain of a song. This repeated text is easy for young children to learn quickly, which allows them to "read" along with the teacher.

C

Decodability

techniques for determining students' independent, instructional, and

Independent Research has shown that if a reader does not understand the meaning of at least 90 percent of the words in a text, comprehension breaks down.

A

frustration reading levels;

Instructional Frustration

assessment of the reading development of individual students (e.g., English Language Learners, struggling readers through highly proficient readers).

D

0009 Understand multiple approaches to reading instruction. knowledge of the significant theories, approaches, practices, and programs for developing reading skills and reading comprehension;

strategies for planning, organizing, managing, and differentiating

D

reading instruction to support the reading development of all students;

adjustment of reading instruction based on ongoing assessment;

C

instructional strategies for promoting development of particular reading skills (e.g., phonemic awareness, phonics skills, word identification, automatic recognition of sight words, vocabulary knowledge);

C

the importance of close reading and rereading of well crafted, content- and idea-rich texts in reading development;

A

A

strategies for evaluating and sequencing texts for reading instruction according to text complexity;

Text complexity

the importance of balancing students' exposure to and reading of literary and informational texts;

B

the uses of large-group, small-group, and individualized reading instruction;

strategies for selecting and using meaningful reading materials at appropriate levels of difficulty;

creation of an environment that promotes love of reading;

C

strategies for promoting independent reading in the classroom and at home;

Independent reading Research has shown that independent reading of a wide range of literary and informational texts plays a key role in students' academic language development, as

the language of books tends to be more sophisticated than that of everyday social language. Reluctant readers Reluctant readers are often reluctant to read independently at home because they have experienced some level of difficulty in reading. Encouraging students to read with a proficient reader, such as a parent or guardian, and to discuss key events in the text helps scaffold and support their comprehension of the text. Sharing personal responses to books with a partner also underscores that reading can be a highly social and enjoyable act; this in turn promotes positive dispositions toward reading

C

uses of instructional technologies to promote reading development;

awareness of strategies and resources for supporting individual students (e.g., English Language Learners, struggling readers through highly proficient readers).

Subarea IV—Integration of Knowledge and Understanding

In addition to answering multiple-choice items, candidates will prepare written responses to questions addressing content from the preceding objectives, which are summarized in the objective and descriptive statement below. 0010 Prepare an organized, developed analysis on a topic related to one or more of the following: foundations of reading development; development of reading comprehension; reading assessment and instruction. the role of phonological and phonemic awareness in reading development;

development of alphabetic knowledge;

role of phonics in developing rapid, automatic word recognition;

development of word analysis skills and strategies in addition to phonics, including structural analysis;

the relationship between vocabulary development and reading comprehension;

use of strategies to enhance comprehension of imaginative/literary texts;

knowledge of organizational patterns in informational/expository texts;

techniques for assessing particular reading skills;

strategies for planning, organizing, managing, and differentiating reading instruction to support the reading development of all students.

Additional prior knowledge required Active and passive voice

cognates Transition words Articles Verbs Nouns Pronouns (demonstrative, indefinite)

Adjectives Singular versus plural Tense (past, present) Coordinating conjunctions

Complex sentence structure Complex sentences contain two or more clauses, with the main clause being the independent clause that contains the sentence's subject and predicate.

A

Independent clause Synonyms, antonyms Tree diagram (sentence)

Appositives, appositive phrases

Interdisciplinary instruction/ content area instruction

Persuasive essay A persuasive essay is an expository text in which an author takes a stand on an issue and tries to persuade readers by presenting an argument and evidence to support that stand.

Writing Building a Love of reading

Building a classroom library

Before/During/After Prereading/During Reading/Post Reading

Silent reading Brainstorm C