test review

Test Review

Exam 1Chapters 1 & 4

Spring 2013

04/22/23 1

Cardiovascularsystem

OrganelleMoleculeAtoms

Chemical levelAtoms combine to form molecules.

Cellular levelCells are made up ofmolecules.

Tissue levelTissues consist of similartypes of cells.

Organ levelOrgans are made up of different typesof tissues.

Organ system levelOrgan systems consist of differentorgans that work together closely.

Organismal levelThe human organism is made upof many organ systems.

Smooth muscle cell

Smooth muscle tissue

Connective tissue

Blood vessel (organ)

HeartBloodvessels

Epithelialtissue

Smooth muscle tissue

1 2

3

4

56

Figure 1.1204/22/23

Figure 1.3a

NailsSkin

Hair

(a) Integumentary System Forms the external body covering, and protects deeper tissues from injury. Synthesizes vitamin D, and houses cutaneous (pain, pressure, etc.) receptors and sweat and oil glands.

304/22/23

Figure 1.3b

Bones

Joint

(b) Skeletal System Protects and supports body organs, and provides a framework the muscles use to cause movement. Blood cells are formed within bones. Bones store minerals.

404/22/23

Figure 1.3c

Skeletalmuscles

(c) Muscular System Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression. Main- tains posture, and produces heat.

504/22/23

Figure 1.3d

Brain

NervesSpinalcord

(d) Nervous System As the fast-acting control system of the body, it responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands.

604/22/23

Figure 1.3e

Pineal gland

PituitaryglandThyroid

glandThymus

AdrenalglandPancreas

Testis

Ovary

(e) Endocrine System Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells.

704/22/23

Figure 1.3f

(f) Cardiovascular System Blood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc. The heart pumps blood.

Heart

Bloodvessels

804/22/23

Figure 1.3g

Lymphaticvessels

Red bonemarrow

Thoracicduct

Thymus

Spleen

Lymphnodes

(g) Lymphatic System/Immunity Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood. Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream. Houses white blood cells (lymphocytes) involved in immunity. The immune response mounts the attack against foreign substances within the body.

904/22/23

Figure 1.3h

Nasalcavity

BronchusPharynxLarynxTrachea

Lung

(h) Respiratory System Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide. The gaseous exchanges occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs.

1004/22/23

Figure 1.3i

Liver

Oral cavityEsophagus

Largeintestine

StomachSmallintestine

RectumAnus

(i) Digestive System Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells. Indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces. 1104/22/23

Figure 1.3j

KidneyUreter

UrinarybladderUrethra

(j) Urinary System Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body. Regulates water, electrolyte and acid-base balance of the blood.

1204/22/23

Figure 1.3k-l

Prostategland

Ductusdeferens

PenisTestis

Scrotum

Ovary

Uterinetube

Mammaryglands (inbreasts)

UterusVagina

Overall function is production of offspring. Testes produce sperm and male sexhormone, and male ducts and glands aid in delivery of sperm to the femalereproductive tract. Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones. The remainingfemale structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of the fetus.Mammary glands of female breasts produce milk to nourish the newborn.

(k) Male Reproductive System (l) Female Reproductive System

1304/22/23

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

Necessary Life Functions

1. Maintaining boundaries between internal and external environments• Plasma membranes

• Skin

2. Movement (contractility)• Of body parts (skeletal muscle)

• Of substances (cardiac and smooth muscle)



3. Responsiveness: The ability to sense and respond to stimuli (“irritability”)• Withdrawal reflex

• Control of breathing rate

4. Digestion• Breakdown of ingested foodstuffs

• Absorption of simple molecules into blood



5. Metabolism: All chemical reactions that occur in body cells• Catabolism and anabolism

6. Excretion: The removal of wastes from metabolism and digestion• Urea, carbon dioxide, feces



7. Reproduction

• Cellular division for growth or repair

• Production of offspring

8. Growth: Increase in size of a body part or of organism


Survival Needs

1. Nutrients• Chemicals for energy and cell building

• Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, vitamins

2. Oxygen• Essential for energy release (ATP

production)


Survival Needs

3. Water• Most abundant chemical in the body

• Site of chemical reactions

4. Normal body temperature• Affects rate of chemical reactions

5. Appropriate atmospheric pressure• For adequate breathing and gas exchange in

the lungs


Homeostasis

• Maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment despite continuous outside changes• A dynamic state of equilibrium


Homeostatic Control Mechanisms

• Involve continuous monitoring and regulation of many factors (variables)

• Nervous and endocrine systems accomplish the communication via nerve impulses and hormones


Components of a Control Mechanism

1. Receptor (sensor)

• Monitors the environment

• Responds to stimuli (changes in controlled variables)

2. Control center

• Determines the set point at which the variable is maintained

• Receives input from receptor

• Determines appropriate response


Components of a Control Mechanism

3. Effector• Receives output from control center

• Provides the means to respond

• Response acts to reduce or enhance the stimulus (feedback)


Negative Feedback

• The response reduces or shuts off the original stimulus• Examples:

• Regulation of body temperature (a nervous mechanism)

• Regulation of blood volume by ADH (an endocrine mechanism)

Figure 1.5

Sweat glands activated

Shiveringbegins

StimulusBody temperaturerises BALANCE

Information sentalong the afferentpathway to controlcenter

Information sentalong the afferentpathway to controlcenter

Afferentpathway

Afferentpathway

Efferentpathway

Efferentpathway

Information sentalong the efferentpathway toeffectors

Information sentalong the efferentpathway to effectors

StimulusBody temperature falls

ReceptorsTemperature-sensitivecells in skin and brain

ReceptorsTemperature-sensitivecells in skin and brain

EffectorsSweat glands

EffectorsSkeletal muscles

Control Center(thermoregulatory

center in brain)

Control Center(thermoregulatory

center in brain)

ResponseEvaporation of sweatBody temperature falls;stimulus ends

ResponseBody temperature rises;stimulus ends

2504/22/23


Negative Feedback: Regulation of Blood Volume by ADH

• Receptors sense decreased blood volume

• Control center in hypothalamus stimulates pituitary gland to release antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

• ADH causes the kidneys (effectors) to return more water to the blood


Positive Feedback

• The response enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus• May exhibit a cascade or amplifying effect• Usually controls infrequent events e.g.:

• Enhancement of labor contractions by oxytocin (Chapter 28)

• Platelet plug formation and blood clotting (Chapter 17)

Feedback cycle endswhen plug is formed.

Positive feedbackcycle is initiated.

Positivefeedbackloop

Break or tearoccurs in bloodvessel wall.

Plateletsadhere to siteand releasechemicals.

Releasedchemicalsattract moreplatelets.

Platelet plugforms.

1

23

4

Figure 1.62804/22/23


Homeostatic Imbalance

• Disturbance of homeostasis

• Increases risk of disease• Contributes to changes associated with

aging• May allow destructive positive feedback

mechanisms to take over (e.g., heart failure)


Anatomical Position

• Standard anatomical body position:

• Body erect

• Feet slightly apart

• Palms facing forward

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.7a

Cervical

(a) Anterior/Ventral

Pubic(genital)

CephalicFrontalOrbitalNasalOralMental

ThoracicAxillaryMammarySternalAbdominalUmbilicalPelvicInguinal(groin)

Upper limbAcromialBrachial (arm)AntecubitalAntebrachial (forearm)Carpal (wrist)Manus (hand)PalmarPollexDigital

Lower limbCoxal (hip)Femoral (thigh)PatellarCrural (leg)Fibular or peronealPedal (foot)Tarsal (ankle)MetatarsalDigitalHallux

ThoraxAbdomenBack (Dorsum)

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.7b

Cervical Back (dorsal)

(b) Posterior/Dorsal

Scapular Vertebral Lumbar Sacral Gluteal Perineal (between anus and external genitalia)

Upper limb AcromialBrachial (arm) Olecranal Antebrachial (forearm)Manus (hand) Metacarpal DigitalLower limb Femoral (thigh) Popliteal Sural (calf) Fibular or peronealPedal (foot) Calcaneal Plantar

Cephalic Otic Occipital (back of head)

ThoraxAbdomenBack (Dorsum)


Body Cavities

• Dorsal cavity

• Protects nervous system

• Two subdivisions:

• Cranial cavity

• Encases brain

• Vertebral cavity

• Encases spinal cord


Body Cavities

• Ventral cavity

• Houses internal organs (viscera)

• Two subdivisions (separated by diaphragm):

• Thoracic cavity

• Abdominopelvic cavity

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.9a-b

Cranialcavity(contains brain)

Dorsalbodycavity

Vertebralcavity(contains spinal cord)

Cranialcavity

Superiormediastinum

Pericardialcavity withinthe mediastinum

Pleuralcavity

Vertebralcavity

Abdomino-pelviccavity

Ventral bodycavity(thoracic andabdominopelviccavities)

Abdominal cavity(contains digestiveviscera)

Diaphragm

Pelvic cavity(contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum)

Thoraciccavity(containsheart andlungs)

(a) Lateral view (b) Anterior view

Dorsal body cavityVentral body cavity


Ventral Body Cavities

• Thoracic cavity subdivisions:• Two pleural cavities

• Each houses a lung

• Mediastinum

• Contains pericardial cavity

• Surrounds thoracic organs

• Pericardial cavity

• Encloses heart


Serous Membrane (Serosa)

• Thin, double-layered membrane separated by serous fluid

• Parietal serosa lines internal body walls

• Visceral serosa covers the internal organs


Epithelial Membranes

• Serous Membranes

• Serosae—membranes (mesothelium + areolar tissue) in a closed ventral body cavity

• Parietal serosae line internal body walls

• Visceral serosae cover internal organs

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4.11c

Parietalpericardium

Visceralpericardium

(c) Serous membranes line body cavitiesclosed to the exterior.

Parietalperitoneum

Visceralperitoneum

ParietalpleuraVisceralpleura



• Mucous membranes

• Mucosae

• Line body cavities open to the exterior (e.g., digestive and respiratory tracts)


Mucosa ofnasal cavity

Mucosa oflung bronchi

Mucosa ofmouth

Esophaguslining

(b) Mucous membranes line body cavitiesopen to the exterior.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.12

Epigastricregion

Umbilicalregion

Rightlumbarregion

Leftlumbarregion

Righthypochondriac

region

Lefthypochondriac

region

Hypogastric(pubic)region

Right iliac(inguinal)

region

Left iliac(inguinal)

region

Liver

Gallbladder

Ascending colon oflarge intestineSmall intestine

Appendix

Cecum

Diaphragm

Stomach

Descending colonof large intestine

Transverse colonof large intestine

Initial part ofsigmoid colon

Urinary bladder

(a) Nine regions delineated by four planes (b) Anterior view of the nine regions showing the superficial organs



• Cutaneous membrane (skin) (More detail with the Integumentary System, Chapter 5)


Tissues

• Groups of cells similar in structure and function• Types of tissues

• Epithelial tissue

• Connective tissue

• Muscle tissue

• Nerve tissue


Epithelial Tissue (Epithelium)

• Two main types (by location):

1. Covering and lining epithelia

• On external and internal surfaces

2. Glandular epithelia

• Secretory tissue in glands


Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue

1. Cells have polarity—apical (upper, free) and basal (lower, attached) surfaces

• Apical surfaces may bear microvilli (e.g., brush border of intestinal lining) or cilia (e.g., lining of trachea)

• Noncellular basal lamina of glycoprotein and collagen lies adjacent to basal surface


Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue

2. Are composed of closely packed cells

• Continuous sheets held together by tight junctions and desmosomes

3. Supported by a connective tissue reticular lamina (under the basal lamina)

4. Avascular but innervated

5. High rate of regeneration


Classification of Epithelia

• Ask two questions:

1. How many layers?

1 = simple epithelium

>1 = stratified epithelium


Stratified

Simple

Apical surface

Basal surface

Apical surface

Basal surface

(a) Classification based on number of cell layers.


Classification of Epithelia

2. What type of cell?• Squamous

• Cuboidal

• Columnar

• (If stratified, name according to apical layer of cells)


Squamous

Cuboidal

Columnar(b) Classification based on cell shape.


Overview of Epithelial Tissues

• For each of the following types of epithelia, note:

• Description

• Function

• Location


(a) Simple squamous epithelium

Description: Single layer of flattenedcells with disc-shaped central nucleiand sparse cytoplasm; the simplestof the epithelia.

Function: Allows passage ofmaterials by diffusion and filtrationin sites where protection is notimportant; secretes lubricatingsubstances in serosae.

Location: Kidney glomeruli; air sacsof lungs; lining of heart, bloodvessels, and lymphatic vessels; liningof ventral body cavity (serosae).

Photomicrograph: Simple squamous epitheliumforming part of the alveolar (air sac) walls (125x).

Air sacs oflung tissue

Nuclei ofsquamousepithelialcells


Epithelia: Simple Squamous

• Two other locations

• Endothelium• The lining of lymphatic vessels, blood

vessels, and heart

• Mesothelium• The epithelium of serous membranes in the

ventral body cavity


(b) Simple cuboidal epitheliumDescription: Single layer ofcubelike cells with large,spherical central nuclei.

Function: Secretion andabsorption.

Location: Kidney tubules;ducts and secretory portionsof small glands; ovary surface.

Photomicrograph: Simple cuboidalepithelium in kidney tubules (430x).

Basementmembrane

Connectivetissue

Simplecuboidalepithelialcells


(c) Simple columnar epitheliumDescription: Single layer of tall cells with round to oval nuclei; some cells bear cilia; layer may contain mucus-secreting unicellular glands (goblet cells).

Function: Absorption; secretion of mucus, enzymes, and other substances; ciliated type propels mucus (or reproductive cells) by ciliary action.Location: Nonciliated type lines most of the digestive tract (stomach to anal canal),gallbladder, and excretory ducts of someglands; ciliated variety lines small bronchi, uterine tubes, and some regionsof the uterus.

Photomicrograph: Simple columnar epitheliumof the stomach mucosa (860X).

Simplecolumnarepithelialcell

Basementmembrane

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4.3d

(d) Pseudostratified columnar epithelium

Description: Single layer of cells ofdiffering heights, some not reachingthe free surface; nuclei seen atdifferent levels; may contain mucus-secreting cells and bear cilia.

Function: Secretion, particularly ofmucus; propulsion of mucus byciliary action.Location: Nonciliated type in male’ssperm-carrying ducts and ducts oflarge glands; ciliated variety linesthe trachea, most of the upperrespiratory tract.

Photomicrograph: Pseudostratified ciliatedcolumnar epithelium lining the human trachea (570x).

Trachea

Cilia

Pseudo-stratifiedepitheliallayer

Basementmembrane

Mucus ofmucous cell

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4.3e

(e) Stratified squamous epithelium

Description: Thick membranecomposed of several cell layers;basal cells are cuboidal or columnarand metabolically active; surfacecells are flattened (squamous); in thekeratinized type, the surface cells arefull of keratin and dead; basal cellsare active in mitosis and produce thecells of the more superficial layers.

Function: Protects underlyingtissues in areas subjected to abrasion.

Location: Nonkeratinized type formsthe moist linings of the esophagus,mouth, and vagina; keratinized varietyforms the epidermis of the skin, a drymembrane.

Photomicrograph: Stratified squamous epitheliumlining the esophagus (285x).

Stratifiedsquamousepithelium

NucleiBasementmembraneConnectivetissue

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4.3f

(f) Transitional epitheliumDescription: Resembles both stratified squamous and stratified cuboidal; basal cells cuboidal or columnar; surface cells domeshaped or squamouslike, depending on degree of organ stretch.

Function: Stretches readily and permits distension of urinary organ by contained urine.Location: Lines the ureters, urinary bladder, and part of the urethra.

Photomicrograph: Transitional epithelium lining the urinary bladder, relaxed state (360X); note the bulbous, or rounded, appearance of the cells at the surface; these cells flatten and become elongated when the bladder is filled with urine.

BasementmembraneConnectivetissue

Transitionalepithelium


Glandular Epithelia

• A gland is one or more cells that makes and secretes an aqueous fluid

• Classified by:

• Site of product release—endocrine or exocrine

• Relative number of cells forming the gland—unicellular (e.g., goblet cells) or multicellular


Endocrine Glands

• Ductless glands

• Secrete hormones that travel through lymph or blood to target organs


Exocrine Glands

• More numerous than endocrine glands

• Secrete products into ducts

• Secretions released onto body surfaces (skin) or into body cavities

• Examples include mucous, sweat, oil, and salivary glands


Unicellular Exocrine Glands

• The only important unicellular gland is the goblet cell


Modes of Secretion

• Merocrine • Products are secreted by exocytosis (e.g., pancreas, sweat and

salivary glands)• Holocrine• Products accumulated in cell and then secreted by rupture of

gland cells (e.g., sebaceous glands)• Entire cell is broken down

• Apocrine• Product accumulated in cell and then pinched off apical surface• Axillary and inguinal regions (body odor)• Modified apocrine glands – mammary and ceruminous• Some question their existence in humans


Connective Tissue

• Most abundant and widely distributed tissue type• Four classes• Connective tissue proper

• Cartilage

• Bone tissue

• Blood


Major Functions of Connective Tissue

• Binding and support• Protection

• Insulation• Transportation (blood)


Characteristics of Connective Tissue

• Connective tissues have:

• Mesenchyme as their common tissue of origin

• Varying degrees of vascularity• Cells separated by nonliving extracellular

matrix (ground substance and fibers)


Structural Elements of Connective Tissue

• Ground substance• Medium through which solutes diffuse between blood

capillaries and cells• Components:• Interstitial fluid• Adhesion proteins (“glue”) • Proteoglycans• Protein core + large polysaccharides (chondroitin

sulfate and hyaluronic acid)• Trap water in varying amounts, affecting the

viscosity of the ground substance (major part of matrix)



• Three types of fibers

• Collagen (white fibers)

• Strongest and most abundant type

• Provides high tensile strength

• Elastic

• Networks of long, thin, elastin fibers that allow for stretch

• Reticular• Short, fine, highly branched collagenous fibers



• Cells

• Mitotically active and secretory cells = “blasts”

• Mature cells = “cytes”

• Fibroblasts in connective tissue proper

• Chondroblasts and chondrocytes in cartilage

• Osteoblasts and osteocytes in bone

• Hematopoietic stem cells in bone marrow

• Fat cells, white blood cells, mast cells, and macrophages


Macrophage

Fibroblast

Lymphocyte

Fat cellMast cell

Neutrophil

Capillary

Cell types Extracellularmatrix

Fibers• Collagen fiber• Elastic fiber• Reticular fiber

Ground substance


Connective Tissue: Embryonic

• Mesenchyme — embryonic connective tissue

• Gives rise to all other connective tissues

• Gel-like ground substance with fibers and star-shaped mesenchymal cells


(a) Connective tissue proper: loose connective tissue, areolar

Description: Gel-like matrix with allthree fiber types; cells: fibroblasts,macrophages, mast cells, and somewhite blood cells.

Function: Wraps and cushionsorgans; its macrophages phagocytizebacteria; plays important role ininflammation; holds and conveystissue fluid.Location: Widely distributed underepithelia of body, e.g., forms laminapropria of mucous membranes;packages organs; surroundscapillaries.

Photomicrograph: Areolar connective tissue, asoft packaging tissue of the body (300x).

Epithelium

Laminapropria

Fibroblastnuclei

Elasticfibers

Collagenfibers

Figure 4.8a


(b) Connective tissue proper: loose connective tissue, adipose

Description: Matrix as in areolar,but very sparse; closely packedadipocytes, or fat cells, havenucleus pushed to the side by largefat droplet.

Function: Provides reserve foodfuel; insulates against heat loss;supports and protects organs.

Location: Under skin in thehypodermis; around kidneys andeyeballs; within abdomen; in breasts.

Photomicrograph: Adipose tissue from thesubcutaneous layer under the skin (350x).

Nucleus offat cell

Vacuolecontainingfat droplet

Adiposetissue

Mammaryglands


(c) Connective tissue proper: loose connective tissue, reticular

Description: Network of reticularfibers in a typical loose groundsubstance; reticular cells lie on thenetwork.

Function: Fibers form a soft internalskeleton (stroma) that supports othercell types including white blood cells,mast cells, and macrophages.

Location: Lymphoid organs (lymphnodes, bone marrow, and spleen).

Photomicrograph: Dark-staining network of reticularconnective tissue fibers forming the internal skeletonof the spleen (350x).

Spleen

White bloodcell(lymphocyte)

Reticularfibers

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4.8d

(d) Connective tissue proper: dense connective tissue, dense regular

Description: Primarily parallelcollagen fibers; a few elastic fibers;major cell type is the fibroblast.

Function: Attaches muscles tobones or to muscles; attaches bonesto bones; withstands great tensilestress when pulling force is appliedin one direction.

Location: Tendons, mostligaments, aponeuroses.

Photomicrograph: Dense regular connectivetissue from a tendon (500x).

Shoulderjoint

Ligament

Tendon

Collagenfibers

Nuclei offibroblasts

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4.8e

(e) Connective tissue proper: dense connective tissue, dense irregular Description: Primarilyirregularly arranged collagenfibers; some elastic fibers;major cell type is the fibroblast.Function: Able to withstandtension exerted in manydirections; provides structuralstrength.Location: Fibrous capsules oforgans and of joints; dermis ofthe skin; submucosa ofdigestive tract.

Photomicrograph: Dense irregularconnective tissue from the dermis of theskin (400x).

Collagenfibers

Nuclei offibroblasts

Fibrousjointcapsule

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4.8f

(f) Connective tissue proper: dense connective tissue, elastic

Description: Dense regularconnective tissue containing a highproportion of elastic fibers.

Function: Allows recoil of tissuefollowing stretching; maintainspulsatile flow of blood througharteries; aids passive recoil of lungsfollowing inspiration.

Location: Walls of large arteries;within certain ligaments associatedwith the vertebral column; within thewalls of the bronchial tubes.

Elastic fibers

Aorta

HeartPhotomicrograph: Elastic connective tissue inthe wall of the aorta (250x).


Connective Tissue: Cartilage

• Three types of cartilage:

• Hyaline cartilage• Elastic cartilage• Fibrocartilage

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4.8g

(g) Cartilage: hyaline

Description: Amorphous but firmmatrix; collagen fibers form animperceptible network; chondroblastsproduce the matrix and when mature(chondrocytes) lie in lacunae.Function: Supports and reinforces;has resilient cushioning properties;resists compressive stress.

Location: Forms most of theembryonic skeleton; covers the endsof long bones in joint cavities; formscostal cartilages of the ribs; cartilagesof the nose, trachea, and larynx.

Photomicrograph: Hyaline cartilage from thetrachea (750x).

Costalcartilages

Chondrocytein lacuna

Matrix

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4.8h

(h) Cartilage: elasticDescription: Similar to hyalinecartilage, but more elastic fibersin matrix.

Function: Maintains the shapeof a structure while allowinggreat flexibility.

Location: Supports the externalear (pinna); epiglottis.

Photomicrograph: Elastic cartilage fromthe human ear pinna; forms the flexibleskeleton of the ear (800x).

Chondrocytein lacuna

Matrix

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4.8i

(i) Cartilage: fibrocartilageDescription: Matrix similar tobut less firm than that in hyalinecartilage; thick collagen fiberspredominate.

Function: Tensile strengthwith the ability to absorbcompressive shock.

Location: Intervertebral discs;pubic symphysis; discs of kneejoint.

Photomicrograph: Fibrocartilage of anintervertebral disc (125x). Special stainingproduced the blue color seen.

Intervertebraldiscs

Chondrocytesin lacunae

Collagenfiber

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4.8j

(j) Others: bone (osseous tissue)Description: Hard, calcifiedmatrix containing many collagenfibers; osteocytes lie in lacunae.Very well vascularized.Function: Bone supports andprotects (by enclosing);provides levers for the musclesto act on; stores calcium andother minerals and fat; marrowinside bones is the site for bloodcell formation (hematopoiesis).Location: Bones

Photomicrograph: Cross-sectional viewof bone (125x).

Lacunae

Lamella

Centralcanal

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4.8k

(k) Others: bloodDescription: Red and whiteblood cells in a fluid matrix(plasma).

Function: Transport ofrespiratory gases, nutrients,wastes, and other substances.

Location: Contained withinblood vessels.

Photomicrograph: Smear of human blood (1860x); twowhite blood cells (neutrophil in upper left and lymphocytein lower right) are seen surrounded by red blood cells.

Neutrophil

Red bloodcells

Lymphocyte

Plasma


Photomicrograph: Neurons (350x)

Function: Transmit electricalsignals from sensory receptorsand to effectors (muscles andglands) which control their activity.Location: Brain, spinalcord, and nerves.

Description: Neurons arebranching cells; cell processesthat may be quite long extend fromthe nucleus-containing cell body;also contributing to nervous tissueare nonirritable supporting cells(not illustrated).

Dendrites

Neuron processes Cell body

Axon

Nuclei ofsupportingcells

Cell bodyof a neuron

Neuronprocesses

Nervous tissue


(a) Skeletal muscleDescription: Long, cylindrical,multinucleate cells; obviousstriations.

Function: Voluntary movement;locomotion; manipulation of theenvironment; facial expression;voluntary control.Location: In skeletal musclesattached to bones oroccasionally to skin.

Photomicrograph: Skeletal muscle (approx. 460x).Notice the obvious banding pattern and thefact that these large cells are multinucleate.

Nuclei

Striations

Part ofmuscle fiber (cell)


(b) Cardiac muscleDescription: Branching, striated, generally uninucleate cells that interdigitate atspecialized junctions (intercalated discs).

Function: As it contracts, it propels blood into the circulation; involuntary control.Location: The walls of the heart.

Photomicrograph: Cardiac muscle (500X);notice the striations, branching of cells, andthe intercalated discs.

Intercalateddiscs

Striations

Nucleus


(c) Smooth muscleDescription: Spindle-shapedcells with central nuclei; nostriations; cells arranged closely to form sheets.

Function: Propels substancesor objects (foodstuffs, urine,a baby) along internal passage-ways; involuntary control.Location: Mostly in the wallsof hollow organs.

Photomicrograph: Sheet of smooth muscle (200x).

Smoothmusclecell

Nuclei



• Cutaneous membrane (skin) (More detail with the Integumentary System, Chapter 5)


Cutaneousmembrane(skin)

(a) Cutaneous membrane (the skin)covers the body surface.



• Mucous membranes

• Mucosae• Line body cavities open to the exterior (e.g.,

digestive and respiratory tracts)


Mucosa ofnasal cavity

Mucosa oflung bronchi

Mucosa ofmouth

Esophaguslining

(b) Mucous membranes line body cavitiesopen to the exterior.



• Serous Membranes• Serosae—membranes (mesothelium + areolar

tissue) in a closed ventral body cavity

• Parietal serosae line internal body walls

• Visceral serosae cover internal organs

• Name according to regions• Pleura• Pericardium• Peritoneum


Parietalpericardium

Visceralpericardium

(c) Serous membranes line body cavitiesclosed to the exterior.

Parietalperitoneum

Visceralperitoneum

ParietalpleuraVisceralpleura


Steps in Tissue Repair

• Inflammation

1. Release of inflammatory chemicals

2. Dilation of blood vessels

3. Increase in vessel permeability

4. Clotting occurs

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4.12, step 1

Scab

Blood clot inincised wound

Epidermis

Vein

Inflammatorychemicals

Inflammation sets the stage:• Severed blood vessels bleed and inflammatory chemicals are

released.• Local blood vessels become more permeable, allowing white

blood cells, fluid, clotting proteins and other plasma proteinsto seep into the injured area.

• Clotting occurs; surface dries and forms a scab.

Migrating whiteblood cell

Artery

1



• Organization and restored blood supply

• The blood clot is replaced with granulation tissue

• Epithelium begins to regenerate

• Fibroblasts produce collagen fibers to bridge the gap

• Debris is phagocytized


Regeneratingepithelium

Area ofgranulationtissueingrowth FibroblastMacrophage

Organization restores the blood supply:• The clot is replaced by granulation tissue, which restores

the vascular supply.• Fibroblasts produce collagen fibers that bridge the gap.• Macrophages phagocytize cell debris.• Surface epithelial cells multiply and migrate over the

granulation tissue.

2



• Regeneration and fibrosis

• The scab detaches

• Fibrous tissue matures; epithelium thickens and begins to resemble adjacent tissue

• Results in a fully regenerated epithelium with underlying scar tissue


Regeneratedepithelium

Fibrosedarea

Regeneration and fibrosis effect permanent repair:• The fibrosed area matures and contracts; the epitheliumthickens.• A fully regenerated epithelium with an underlying area ofscar tissue results.

3


Developmental Aspects

• Primary germ layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm• Formed early in embryonic development

• Specialize to form the four primary tissues

• Nerve tissue arises from ectoderm• Muscle and connective tissues arise from

mesoderm• Epithelial tissues arise from all three

germ layers


MesodermEndoderm

16-day-old embryo(dorsal surface view)

EpitheliumNervous tissue(from ectoderm)

Muscle and connectivetissue (mostly frommesoderm)Ectoderm

test review

Documents

body cells

body organs

external body

white blood cells lymphocytes

bbonesjointb skeletal

organ level organs

cellular level cells

heart pumps blood