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Text Corpora in Translator TrainingAnne Lise Laursen

a& Ismael Arinas Pelln

b

aAarhus University, Denmark

bUniversidad Politcnica de Madrid, Spain

Published online: 12 Feb 2014.

To cite this article:Anne Lise Laursen & Ismael Arinas Pelln (2012) Text Corporain Translator Training, The Interpreter and Translator Trainer, 6:1, 45-70, DOI:10.1080/13556509.2012.10798829

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The Interpreter and Translator Trainer 6(1), 2012, 45-70

ISSN: 1750-399X St. Jerome Publishing, Manchester

Text Corpora in Translator TrainingA Case Study of the Use of Comparable Corpora in ClassroomTeaching

Anne Lise LaursenAarhus University, Denmark

Ismael Arinas PellnUniversidad Politcnica de Madrid, Spain

Abstract. Specialized translation programmes are traditionally

expected to transform trainees into linguistic experts in terms of

specialized languages and semi-experts in terms of specialized

domains such as economics, technology and law. This type of

education aims to teach trainees how to manage a host of encyclo-

paedic and linguistic data adequately for professional translation

purposes within a relatively short period of time. A practical ap-

proach to this challenge requires teaching specific processes that

can be applied systematically to new contexts. This paper demon-

strates how comparable text corpora and concordance software

can be used as an efficient and versatile tool for classroom training

within the syllabus of specialized translation between Spanish and

Danish. In concurrent classroom sessions consisting of software

introduction and translation training, trainees acquire the relevant

basic software skills related to the concordance program as well as

the ability to analyze a set of comparable corpora within a specific

genre, in this case the genre of annual reports. The analysis they

undertake teaches them how to identify differences in stylistic

features between Spanish and Danish, and how to base their owntranslation choices on corpus data.

Keywords.LSP translation, Translation teaching, Concordance programs,Comparable corpora, Genre, Annual reports.

Trainee translators of specialized texts need to acquire expertise in special-ized languages as well as semi-expertise in specific specialized domains.

They are normally also expected to acquire software skills to performadequately in their future profession. Corpus-based approaches offer theopportunity to address both types of need and are becoming an increasinglyrecognized tool of language learning (Bowker and Pearson 2002, Hunston

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46 Text Corpora in Translator Training

2002, Johansson 2003, Kennedy 1998, Lee and Swales 2006, McEnery etal.2006, Partington 1998, Sinclair 2004). However, according to Bowkerand Marshman (2009:60), electronic tools for translators and terminologistshave often been relegated to a small number of courses within translation

programmes. This paper explores some of the ways in which softwareprocessing of a set of machine-readable corpora of specialized genres maybe integrated into translator training on a regular basis. We draw here on ourexperience of teaching translation of financial texts, where we take traineesthrough a number of different exercises to familiarize them with the processof retrieving and reading data and encourage them to apply these skills toimprove their translations. The genre-specific corpora described below have

been used to teach trainee translators how to identify contrastive stylistic

features between Danish and Spanish, and to develop criteria for evaluatingthe information obtained from parallel texts.

1. Using electronic tools in translation programmes

The relative reluctance on the part of some educators to incorporate soft-ware in the translator training curriculum seems to be a question of bothhuman and technical resources. In the eColoTrain Translator TrainingSurvey (eColoTrain 2006), some of the reasons given by informants for the

failure to integrate electronic tools in translation teaching are that there is nosoftware available for the specific type of courses they need to deliver and/orthat there is a shortage of workstations in their respective institutions. In ad-dition, a large percentage of instructors feel that their own computer skillsare not good enough to allow them to teach others, and some trainers insistthat they prefer the traditional way of teaching (eColoTrain 2006:20). Thisargument is in line with the stance adopted by Mossop, who recommendsthat software training should be separated from translation training and takencare of in practicums and workshops (2003:20). Kiraly, on the other hand,

argues that it is time to reconsider conventional approaches to translator train-ing, which date back almost half a century (2000:13), and recommends thatefforts to develop translation competence should be followed by attemptsto develop translator competence, involving the use of new technologies(ibid.:14). The trade-off between maintaining robust methods of translationtraining and keeping up with technological developments is above all amatter of time allocation (Mossop 2003:21), and it is shortage of time that

partially explains the reluctance of lecturers to incorporate software in train-ing. Compiling corpora and sample source texts for electronic processing

is a labour-intensive process, and this can be off-putting for trainers whoseschedules are already full (Bowker and Marchman 2009:69).

According to Bowker and Barlow (2008), one of the advantages of aconcordance program in a translation context is that compared to transla-

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Anne Lise Laursen and Ismael Arinas Pelln 47

tion memory software (TM) it is low-tech and therefore relatively simpleto use. They further point out that TMs are good for large projects andrecurrent tasks, such as updating manuals, while concordancers are idealfor small tasks and for contexts where there is considerable variation intasks (ibid.:18). In terms of quality, a further advantage of concordancers isthat they present numerous and varied examples of the keyword in context(KWIC) and hence allow trainees to choose the appropriate string for a spe-cific target text. By contrast, the single match offered by TM means that asentence will not necessarily fit into the text as a whole (ibid.:15). This canimpact the quality of the target text to varying degrees, and when it comesto language pairs that have different stylistic preferences, the impact can bequite serious. As an example of how the single match of strings can interfere

with the rhythm of a text (Durban 2003:117, in Kenny 2007:198), LpezCiruelos (2003) shows how a TM translation can result in a target text thatfails to comply with target language conventions. In this particular case, thestaccato sentence-by-sentence translation of an English text into Spanishdoes not reflect typical Spanish textual features, such as preference for hy-

potaxis as opposed to the English preference for parataxis and for lexicalvariation in the case of anaphors as opposed to the English preference forlexical repetition (ibid.:182).

The advantages offered by the exploitation of bilingual corpora and the

use of concordancers are therefore clear. Tasks designed for training transla-tors typically draw on small samples from a variety of domains and genres.The simplicity of a concordance program, compared to TM, allows thetrainer to feel comfortable about integrating it in the classroom. Concord-ance lines can retrieve and reveal both intra- and intersentential features,thus facilitating the identification of language-specific conventions beyond

parts of speech and sentence boundaries. And finally, KWIC concordancesencourage trainees to make their own paradigmatic choices without being

bound by the formal structure of the source text.

2. Parallel vs. comparable corpora

It is generally accepted that dictionaries are of limited use when it comesto the translation of specialized texts. The era of the Internet has brought aradical shift in the speed and possibilities available for documenting transla-tion tasks. The Internet itself can be considered a corpus, the largest onein existence and the broadest in scope (Borja 2007:3). However, machine-readable corpora built according to a specific design are more useful and

reliable (Biel 2010:1). They facilitate a focused information search and, as aconsequence, provide quicker and more reliable answers to the communica-tive and cognitive problems that arise during translation.

Typologies of text corpora have been elaborated by Laviosa (1997:292),

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Kenny (2001:57 ff.) and Borja (2007), among others. The main distinctionsare generally drawn between monolingual versus bilingual/multilingualcorpora andparallel versuscomparable corpora, though the definition ofeach will vary from scholar to scholar.For the purposes of this study, parallelcorpora consist of source language texts in language A and their translatedversions in language B (Baker 1995:230). Comparable corpora consist oforiginal texts in one, two or more languages with similar content, e.g. on thesame subject matter. These main types can be divided into several subtypesthat are classified according to the intended purpose or function of texts(Borja 2007:5, 8, 11).

As translation tools, monolingual corpora in the target language and com-parable corpora can provide useful information on terminology, phraseology

and textual features (Borja 2007:13), but they cannot provide fully reliableanswers to translation problems. Parallel corpora, on the other hand, provideaccess to authentic data that can be extracted automatically, although thetranslational part of the corpus, some argue, might give a distorted pictureof the target language (Teubert1996:247). The potential pitfalls of using

parallel corpora for translation training purposes are evidenced in severalempirical studies. In a comparison of translated and non-translated targetlanguage texts in the language pair German-English, Teich (2003) found acertain tendency for the source language to shine through and, simultane-

ously, a tendency toward normalization, i.e. over-compensation for assumedcontrastive differences in grammar and semantics (ibid.:145, 219). Otherscholars have described certain regularities connected to features such assimplification and explicitation in translated texts (Bernardini and Zanettin2004, Mauranen 2004; see also Baker 1993).

Tognini-Bonelli (2001) suggests that parallel and comparable corporacomplement each other. She sees parallel corpora as providing a possibilityto posit a set ofprima facieequivalents, i.e. a range of possible translation

pairs that have already been identified and used by translators (ibid.:154).

These can provide a starting point for finding an adequate functional solutionto a specific target text challenge. A comparable corpus can then provide a

basis for confirming or disconfirming the initial findings and, in general, forachieving functional equivalence according to the conventions of the targetlanguage. Bernardini and Castagnoli (2008) offer an example of how this

prima faciestep can be by-passed by working with a relatively small corpusof English and Italian texts on wine tasting. On the basis of a web-derived

bilingual comparable corpus, they demonstrate how a simple search for atranslation equivalent of a typical genre-specific phrase (il vanigliato dellegno) can offer trainees a genre-specific equivalent for legno, viz.oak, and arange of options for vanigliato, viz. vanilla notes, nuances orhints (ibid.:40)or provide a domain-specific collocate that could not have been predicted bythe trainee temperatura ambienteturning up as room temperaturerather

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than ambient temperature(ibid.:48). As there is no automatic capture oftranslation equivalents in the comparable corpora, equivalents have to befound by means of seeds (= search words) which can retrieve the relevantequivalent in its co-text environment or as part of specific collocations(ibid.:49).

Parallel corpora seem to be the default choice in corpus-based studiesand the training of translators, according to the relevant literature ( Olahan2004:168-72). However, bilingual comparable corpora are gaining groundin classroom teaching, and these are often small in size, like Bernardiniand Castagnolis wine-tasting corpus. The crucial point in relation to thesesmall, specialized corpora often termed virtual corpora, ad hoc corporaor do-it-yourself corpora(Borja 2007, Corpas Pastor and Seghiri 2009:78,

Hernndez 2010, Rodrguez Ins 2009, Snchez-Gijn 2003, 2009) is thatthey can be compiled from electronic sources by the translator, or in class-room training by the trainer or trainee, as part of the preparation for a specifictranslation task. This recent focus on and acceptance of small comparablecorpora as a means of identifying target language patterns is a step forward

because they are less demanding and less time-consuming to compile and,consequently, it is easier for the translation trainer to incorporate them asa didactic tool. Snchez-Gijn describes how trainees can be instructed toretrieve an appropriate do-it-yourself corpus in the target languagewithin a

specific field and to use the corpus by means of keywordsand truncations toidentify features such as collocations and conventional uses of verbal forms(2009:122). Corpas Pastor and Seghiri argue in favour of bilingual compar-able corpora, which, in addition to retrieving collocations and multiterms,make it possible to compare textualanddiscoursal features in the source andtarget languages (2009:94).

From a genre perspective, setting the choice of specific genres as the criter-ion for corpus composition within a given domain means that homonyms and

polysemes that do not belong to the domain can be eliminated, thus reducing

noise. At the same time, trainees are able to observe the specific discoursalmoves and linguistic devices that are characteristic of specific genres.

3. Danish-Spanish translator training: A case study

The incorporation of a corpus data-driven approach in specialist languagetraining raises a number of issues (Lee and Swales 2006:57-58): What isthe merit of searching a corpus compared with static, pre-prepared teachingmaterials? Should concordance work be a complement to regular language

instruction or the core of the course? How effective is a fully corpus-basedcourse when the students have a low level of disciplinary acculturation? Andif the course is based on the use of corpora, what types of corpora should it

be based on?

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While Lee and Swales were developing a writing course for non-linguistexperts who needed to improve their writing in academic genres within theirspecific discipline, our trainees are linguists who need to translate a widerange of genres from a broad variety of disciplines. Our goal has been toteach the use of corpus linguistics as a general approach that can be appliedin future professional tasks. We therefore decided to compile several corporaof specialized genres as well as a significantly larger general reference corpusto use for terminology extraction purposes. In introductory courses, traineeswould be taught the basics of concordancing in the context of translation,terminology extraction, personal knowledge management, and translationquality assessment. This knowledge could then be used as a tool to carry outsome of the tasks undertaken in the financial translation classes.

3.1. The introductory course

Trainees in specialized translation at the Department of Business Communi-cation (Aarhus University, Denmark) are given a 20-hour introductory courseentitled Theory and Method. This course covers functional translation (Nord1997, Schjoldager et al.2008, Vermeer 1996), terminology (Tarp 2004),

personal knowledge management (Ditlevsen and Kastberg 2009, Kastbergand Ditlevsen 2007, Kastberg 2009), interpreting (Pchhacker 2004, Snell-

Hornby 2006), and translation quality (Mossop 2007). Half of the course isdevoted to theoretical aspects and is common to all language specializations(English, French, German and Spanish). The remaining 10 hours are dedi-cated to practical work in each of the areas covered. This second part of thecourse is specific to each language specialization; in the Spanish group wehave found it useful to use corpus software in the practical component.

For our case study, we selected the concordancing softwareAntconc3.2.1w(hereafterAntconc), because it is fairly intuitive and trainees can work with itindependently outside the classroom. This software can be downloaded free

of charge from Laurence Anthonys web-site (http://www.antlab.sci.waseda.ac.jp/software.html). Antconc can generate and sort KWIC concordances. It

produces n-grams1for a specific word or words and can also generate themfor the whole corpus according to minimum and maximum cluster lengthcriteria. It offers a statistical analysis of collocations for specific words, andgenerates a word list for the whole corpus. And with a reference corpus avail-able, Antconc can draw on this to identify and extract keyword lists from thespecialized corpus under study.

We compiled different types of corpora to work with Antconc: a Spanish

1As theWorld Wide Web Consortium (W3C) explains, n-grams are statistical measures ofAs the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) explains, n-grams are statistical measures ofthe likelihood of two or more words appearing together in a text corpus. See http://www.w3.org/TR/ngram-spec/ (accessed 3 January 2012).(accessed 3 January 2012).

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general reference corpus, five specialized corpora in Spanish, and a set ofDanish-Spanish comparable corpora. Table 1 displays the general charac-teristics of the Spanish reference corpus that we compiled for the extractionof keywords from our specialized corpora.

Spanish Reference Corpus

Number of tokens 4,080,101

Number of types 135,206

Type/Token ratio 3.31%

Number of documents 999

Table 1. Data for the compiled Spanish reference corpus

This reference corpus is both large enough to support the terminologyextraction tasks and freely available to all trainees. It serves the purposeof providing a standard against which to compare the smaller, specializedcorpora (Rayson and Garside 2000) and shows our trainees the basics ofcorpus use for term extraction. Nelson (2010:55) argues that very largecorpora are more appropriate for lexicographic purposes than for didacticones; in other words, the optimal size of a corpus depends on the purpose for

which it is used. For didactic purposes, the exemplar texts selected shouldmatch the level of fluency of the learners (ibid.). In our case, the Masterdegree trainees we teach are proficient enough in their second language towork with corpora of authentic specialized texts. And given that, as Biber(2010:241) explains, in the analysis of genre-specific corpora the focus ison the linguistic characteristics that are used to structure complete texts, itwas necessary to compile the general reference corpus to serve as a standardfor comparison with the smaller, specialized corpora. Finally, as Handford(2010:258) suggests, genre-based corpora can be small and still claim to be

representative of the genre.The Spanish specialized corpora have been compiled with the purpose of

linking the concept offunctional translation, defined here as target-orientedtranslation that favours message over form, to the concept of genre (Swales1990, Bhatia 1993, Trosborg 1997, 2000). Trainees used these corpora toidentify generic features of each genre analyzed and extract terms with Ant-conc, using the keyword and n-grams functions. Later, they incorporated thisinformation into recyclable knowledge maps of genre-specific translations.The Spanish-Danish comparable corpora represented the link between the

introductory course and the financial translation module in the sense that theywere used both for a specific translation quality session in the introductorycourse and as a tool for performing different tasks in the financial translationclasses, as described in more detail below.

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To introduce trainees to corpora and concordancing, we initially providedthem with access to three Spanish specialized corpora: a corpus of PatientInformation Leaflets (PILs), a corpus of informed consents, and a corpus ofsales contracts (Table 2).

Patient Information

Leaflets (PILs)

Informed

consents

Sales contracts

Number of tokens 26,723 66,933 98,832

Number of types 5,329 5,370 6,760

Type/Token ratio 19.94% 8.02% 6.83%

Number ofdocuments

29 36 75

Average words perdocument

921.48 1,829.25 1,317.76

Table 2. Spanish training corpora

In the first session, trainees used the three corpora to familiarize themselveswith the basic functions of Antconc (generating and sorting concordancesand identifying language patterns). In the second and third sessions, theylearned the basics of making corpus queries with regular expressions2as well

as how Antconc can be used to extract keywords and how those keywordscan be used with the clustering function to identify potential terms. To checktrainees understanding of each session, they were asked to hand in a paper inwhich they described how they applied corpus analysis techniques. Severaltrainees compiled a comparable corpus of Danish articles of association andused it for their session assignment. Table 3 compares the characteristics ofthe Spanish corpus of articles of association (provided by the lecturer) withthe comparable Danish corpus compiled by the students.

Spanish Corpus Danish Corpus

Number of tokens 22,169 9,054

Number of types 2,997 1,762

Type/Token ratio 13.51% 19.46%

Number of documents 7 5

Average words per document 3,167 1,810.8

Table 3. Articles of association: Comparable corpora in Spanish and Danish

2For a basic introduction to the use of regular expressions, check the following twotutorials: http://www.regular-expressions.info/tutorial.html andhttp://gnosis.cx/publish/

programming/regular_expressions.html.

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In the final practical session, dedicated to translation quality assessment,course participants used two comparable corpora of annual report notes inSpanish and Danish,compiled by the lecturer, to apply their basic concord-ancing skills to correct two paragraphs from a Spanish annual report that had

been translated into Danish by trainees in the previous year. Table 4 showsthe characteristics of the corpora used for this exercise.

Spanish Corpus Danish Corpus

Number of tokens 434,144 145,337

Number of types 15,100 10,701

Type/Token ratio 3.47% 7.36%

Number of documents 15 15Average words per document 31,010.28 9,689.13

Table 4. Annual report notes: Comparable corpora in Spanish and Danish

The corpora described in Table 4 were used simultaneously in the financialtranslation classes for more complex exercises.

3.2. Using concordancing software in the Spanish translation classes

In Danish-Spanish-Danish translation courses within the field of account-ing, trainees normally have access to two sets of parallel texts: (1) the EU4thand 7thDirective (i.e. EU Financial Reporting Legislation), and (2) theInternational Accounting Standards (IAS), both sets in a Danish and a Span-ish version. Furthermore, they have access to a number of authentic annualreports from Danish and Spanish companies, respectively, as well as the rel-evant legal framework in the two countries. The new training element in thiscontext introduced to the 2009 class of trainees is the two genre-specific

corpora of annual report notes compiled by the lecturer which consist of 15annual reports in each language, i.e. a set of comparable bilingual corpora(Table 4), and the concordance tool.

In this context, the parallel texts can be considered the source ofprimafacie solutions, as argued by Tognini-Bonelli (2001), when it comes toaccounting terms and certain kinds of phraseology, while the comparable

bilingual corpora provide evidence for language-, domain- or genre-specificcontrastive features that can prompt trainees to introduce further correctionsand refinements to the target text. In the classroom training context, thecorpora were used in the following activities:

Solving problems in the trainees draft translations Revision of own translation (self-revision)

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Revision of former trainees translations (revision) Providing evidence for current translation strategies

In other words, the corpora served both as a didactic tool in the classroom andas a means of support in trainees independent work with translation tasks.

SOLVINGPROBLEMSINDRAFTTRANSLATIONS

One of the commissioned tasks in this module was a translation of a noteon the valuation and depreciation of the item tangible fixed assets. We havechosen two examples from this task, where we found the corpora and con-cordancer useful as a means of identifying typical errors caused by source

language or genre-specific interference. For the draft translation, the traineeshad access to the EU-legislative framework in Danish and Spanish (4thand7thDirective) and the IAS framework, and a number of Danish and Span-ish annual accounts, but notto the comparable corpora to be processed byAntconc.

The draft translation handed in by the trainees included a sequence de-scribing the accounting policy for the valuation of assets. Table 5 lists typicalsolutions offered by the trainees.

Source text Trainees translations

Materielle anlgsaktiverGrunde og bygninger,tekniske anlg og mask-iner samt andre anlg,driftsmateriel og inventarmles til kostpris medfradrag afakkumuleredeaf- og nedskrivninger.

[Tangible fixed assetsLandand buildings, plantand machinery, otherplant and equipment aremeasured at cost with de-duction of accumulateddepreciation and impair-ment losses.]

Inmovilizado materialTerrenos,construcciones, instalaciones tcnicas ymaquinaria as como otras instalaciones, utillaje ymobiliario se valoran por suprecio de coste con unadeduccin delas amortizaciones y deterioros.[Tangible fixed assetsLand and buildings are measured at (their) costwith a deduction of theaccumulated depreciation

and impairment losses.]

Terrenos y construcciones, instalaciones tcnicas ymaquinaria, as como otras instalaciones, equipos ymobiliario, se valoran al coste,deduciendola amor-tizacin y correccin valorativa acumuladas.[Landand buildings, plant and machinery, as wellas other plant and equipment are measured at (the)cost deducting the accumulated depreciation and

impairment losses.]

Table 5. Sequences of trainees first translation of note on valuation and

depreciation

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We used the concordancer to demonstrate the following two aspects:

The omission of the definite article before the subject of the sentence(Terrenos y) is an instance of SL interference. This pattern is normalin Danish syntax (like English but unlike Spanish) for front-positionsubjects. The correct Spanish solution is Losterrenosy.... We foundample evidence of this feature in the Spanish corpus (see Table 6).

The literal Spanish equivalent of the Danish prepositional phrase medfradrag af (lit. with (a) deduction of), i.e. con (una) deduccin de,did not have any matches in the Spanish corpus, nor did the Spanishgerund deduciendo(deducting), which intuitively could be an accept-able solution. Instead, we searched for functional solutions to the aboveproblem by using search words such as terrenos(land), instalaciones

(plants) andinmovilizado material (tangible assets)to generate contextsof the accounting-specific treatment of this type of assets. By means ofthe concordance lines generated and the file view of each concordance,we found evidence of functional equivalents such as menos and netosde. Table 6 shows instances of the findings related to the two aspects.

Losterrenos y edificios adquiridos para el uso en la produccin oel suministro de bienes o servicios, o con fines administrativos, sepresentan en el balance de situacin a coste de adquisicin o coste

de produccin menos su amortizacin acumulada.[Theland and buildings acquired for the use of the production orthe supply of goods and services or for administrative purposes arepresented in the balancesheet at acquisition cost or production costminustheir accumulated depreciation.]

Loselementos de inmovilizado material se reconocen por su costemenos la amortizacin y prdidas por deterioro acumuladas cor-respondientes, excepto en el caso de los terrenos, que se presentannetos delas prdidas por deterioro.[Theelements of tangible assets are recognized at (their) cost minustheir accumulated depreciation , except in the case of land whichis presented net ofthe impairment losses.]

Como criterio general, loselementos comprendidos en el inmovi-lizado material se reconocen por su coste menosla amortizacin ylas prdidas por deterioro acumuladascorrespondientes, excepto enel caso de los terrenos, que se presentan netos dedichas prdidaspor deterioro.

[As a general criterion, theelements included in the tangible assetsare recognized at (their) cost minusthe corresponding accumulateddepreciation and impairment losses, except in the case ofthe landwhich is presented net of the impairment losses mentioned.]

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Las instalaciones y los equipos se registran a su precio de costemenosla amortizacin acumulada y cualquier prdida por deteriorode valor reconocida.

[Theplants and theequipment are registered at (their) cost minusthe depreciation ]

Table 6. Language-specific and domain/genre-specific examples of article

use and prepositions in Spanish notes

Apart from these points, we found instances of improper use of the futuretense in trainees draft translations as indicated in Table 7.

Terrenos y construcciones, instalaciones tcnicas y mqui-nas as como otras instalaciones, herramientas y mobiliario sevalorarn por su precio de coste con deduccin de las amortiza-ciones y deterioros acumulados. Los terrenos no se amortizarn.[Land and buildings, plant and machinery, as well as other plant andequipment shall bemeasured at (their) cost with deduction of theaccumulated depreciation and impairment losses. The land shall notbedepreciated.]

Table 7. Shining through of legal language (use of the future tense)

This example demonstrates an instance of the spill-over effect of theunderlying legal discourse (se valorarn and se amortizarn).This is agenre-specific feature of, for instance, the Spanish version of internationalaccounting standards (IAS), but not of annual report notes, which describethe companys general accounting policy and where consequently the

present tense is used. This can convincingly be attested by making a query

for central verbs such as amortiza* (deprec*) in the Spanish note corpus,which retrieves numerous hits for the present tense and none for the futuretense (Figure 1).

Another goal which we pursued in connection with the use of compar-able corpora was to urge trainees to use the corpora and concordancer to freethemselves from more subtle aspects of SL stylistic interference. Here wefocused on a sequence from the commissioned task describing the straight-line (or linear) depreciation method highlighting the stringDer foretageslinere afskrivninger(There are being made linear depreciations). Again,the trainees solutions were very close to the source text, with almost all ofthem opting for the translation shown in Table 8.

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Source text Trainees translationDer foretages linere afskrivninger ...[There are madelinear depreciations...]

Se realizan amortizaciones lineales

[Linear depreciations are made...]

Table 8. Close to literal translation of source-text formulation

We could once again demonstrate that there were no matches in the Span-ish corpus for the solution suggested by the trainees. In turn, the corporareflected convincingly one of the characteristic contrastive features of Span-

ish and Danish stylistics, i.e. the Spanish use of lexical variation versus thepreference for lexical repetition in Danish. The examples generated by theconcordancer based on a search for afskriv* and amortiza* (deprec*)showthat only two alternatives are used in the Danish corpus for the description

Figure 1. Genre-specific feature: Use of the present tense in the notes on

companies accounting policy

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of the methodstraight-line depreciation, while the Spanish paragraphs ondepreciation are characterized by noticeable syntactic and lexical variation,as can be seen in Table 9.

Danish patterns

Materielle aktiver afskrives linert(50 occurrences)[Tangible assets are depreciated linearly]

Der foretages linere afskrivninger[There are madelinear depreciations] (3 occurrences)

Spanish patterns

La amortizacin se hace, con carcter general, de forma lineal

(6 occurrences)[The depreciationis made.. in a linear way]

El activo intangible se amortiza de manera lineal(6 occurrences)[The intangible assets are depreciated in a linear way]

Los elementos del inmovilizado material, se amortizan siguiendoel mtodo lineal (5 occurrences)[The elements of the tangible assets are depreciated following thelinear method]

La amortizacin en otros activos se calcula usando el mtodolineal(2 occurrences)[The depreciation. is calculatedusing the linear method]

La amortizacinse calcula, aplicando el mtodo lineal(3 occurrences)[The depreciationis calculatedapplying the linear method]

Todos los activos intangibles se amortizan conforme al mtodolineal(2 occurrences)

[All intangible assets are depreciated according to the linearmethod]

El Grupo amortizasu inmovilizado materiallinealmente(9 occurrences)[The group depreciatesits material assets linearly]

La amortizacines lineal, durante los aos de vida de la concesin(2 occurrences)[The depreciation is linearduring the life of the concession]

Table 9. Danish lexical constancy vs. Spanish lexical variation in the

description of straight-line depreciation

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Examples from the note corpora served to highlight specific contrastivepatterns and features and hence helped to create awareness and encouragetrainees to move away from unidiomatic literal translation in favour of more

natural choices.

SELF-REVISION

A second version of the task referred to earlier was handed in by trainees aspart of the semester evaluation. In relation to the problems outlined above,the grammatical errors illustrated in Tables 5 and 7 were almost eliminatedat this stage (cf. Table 10).

Grammar Correct Partly correct Not correct

Article use 10 1 0

Verbal tense 11 0 0

Table 10. Accuracy of grammar in second version of task for semester

evaluation

In terms of the lexical features listed in Tables 5 and 8, the trainees

converted the literal translations into genre-specific TL expressions in thesecond versions. In the case of the prepositional phrase med fradrag af ...(with (a) deduction of), the first versions con (una/la) deduccin de ...(with (a/the) deduction of) and the gerund construction deduciendo(de-ducting) were replaced by menos (minus)or neto de (net of). As shown inTable 11, most choices in the second versions matched equivalent stringsin the Spanish corpus, though the literal translation was maintained in threeinstances. In the case of the stringDer foretages linereafskrivninger...

(There are made linear depreciations), most choices in the second versionwere inspired by examples from the authentic texts in the Spanish corpusdeviating from the formal ST structure in terms of number and part ofspeech, e.g. laamortizacin se realiza de forma lineal/segn el mtodolineal(the depreciation is made in a linear way, according to the linearmethod), with a literal transfer featuring in 3 instances (Table 11).

It should be noted that in this particular case of annual report notes, thereadily accessible parallel corpora of IAS standards and EU directives canindeed generate some correct equivalents on the terminological side, but

as legal frameworks they belong to another genre with a slightly differentregister and do not offer details about accounting policies as such. There-fore, it seems meaningful to use comparable corpora as a benchmark.

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REVISIONEXERCISE

As a link to the quality assessment session in the general introductory course,current trainees were asked to undertake a revision of translations produced

by other trainees from the class of 2007 within the same genre but with adifferent content, this time a note on the companys consolidation practice.

The 2009 trainees based the revision on their experience with the corporaas a means of identifying erroneous or non-idiomatic choices made by the2007 trainees. In their individual comments, they pointed to two types oferror. First, they commented on article use as a recurrent problem in thetranslations assessed. For instance, the string *Empresas adquiridas en elejercicio se incluyen a partir de la fecha de adquisicin(Newly acquiredcompanies are included as from the date of acquisition)was replaced with

Las empresas adquiridas .(Thenewly acquired companies ). Second,they found literal translations which had no or few matches in the Spanish

corpus. In these cases, the 2007 trainees had chosen lexical units from theirbasic everyday vocabularyorsimply made a calque of the Danish string. Inone case, they had opted for an outdated parallel text equivalent from EUlegislation. The trainee revisers made the following changes:

Genre-specific

variations (ST)

Functional translations Literal translations

med fradrag af

[with (a) deductionof]

menos(la

amortizacin)menos(el valorresidual)menos(el coste deventa)neto d(el coste deventa)

6

9

3

2

con una deduccin

de ..[with (a) deductionof]

3

Der foretages linereafskrivninger ...

[There are madelinear depreciations]

La amortizacinse realiza de forma

linealLa amortizacin linealse efecta ..La amortizacinsigueel mtodo linealLa amortizacinse realiza segn elmtodo lineal

5

1

1

1

Se realizan

amortizaciones

lineales [There are madelinear depreciations]

3

Table 11. Use of genre-specific lexis in second version of task forsemester evaluation

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bestemmende indflydelse (decisive influence) *influenciadeterminante

betydelig indflydelse (significant influence) *influenciaconsiderable

(Terms involved in the distinction between subsidiaries and associates;translations constructed from basic everyday vocabulary no matches inthe Spanish corpus) mle(measure) *medir(Verb of measurement; term from basic everyday vocabulary no matchesin the Spanish corpus) goodwill *goodwill

(Direct transfer ofDanishborrowingof English term no matches in theSpanish corpus)

koncernregnskab(group accounts) cuentas consolidadas(consoli-dated accounts)

(Calque only few matches in the Spanish corpus) kostprisprecio de coste(cost price)(Calque only few matches in Spanish corpus) immaterielle anlgsaktiver inmovilizaciones inmateriales(intang-

ible assets)(Outdated parallel textequivalent from 4thDirective only few matchesin the Spanish corpus)

The comments made by the trainee revisers on this exercise suggestthat they had developed an understanding of the potential of the concord-ance tool by this stage, which allowed them to search for collocates, takefrequency into account and use truncation to cover possible verbal forms.They also demonstrated their emerging text-external understanding of thegenre by being able to identify relevant equivalents, by selecting relevantsearch words, and by being able to identify relevant counterparts (significantinfluenceversus control) in the file view and the co-text. Table 12 shows

the findings, corresponding corrections and the search strategies used bythe trainee revisers.

It should be noted that the 2007 trainees seem to have ignored two poten-tial parallel text equivalents which can be found in the 4thDirective (goodwillfondo de comercio) and the IAS standards (betydelig indflydelse influ-encia significativa), and which could have led them to the right choice. Asfor the equivalents of controland measure, however, neither the two sets of

parallel texts nor the parallel texts and the genre-specific corpora coincide.The term control equals bestemmende indflydelse (decisive influence) in

EU legislation and Danish annual reports and kontrolin the IAS standards,while the Spanish terminology sticks to control in all types of texts. The termmeasure equals mle(measure) in both parallel texts and annual reports inDanish but varies between Spanish medir(measure) in the IAS standards

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2007 class translation of

company note to be revised

by 2009 class trainees -

Source text unit and targettext solution

Revised

term from

Spanish

corpus

Trainees strategies

ST: betydelig indflydelseTT: *influencia considerable[considerable influence]No matches in TL corpus

influencia

significativa

Searching for adjectivescollocating with influenciainco-text related to associatedcompanies

ST: bestemmendeindflydelseTT: *influenciadeterminante

[decisive influence]No matches in TL corpus

control

Searching for counterpart of in-fluencia significativa in co-textrelated to company structure

ST: mleTT*medir[measure]No matches in TL corpus

valorar orreconocer

(1) Searching for verbscollocating with items like valorrazonable[fair value](2) Truncating resulting verbs[se valora* /se reconoce*]medir: 0 hitsvalorar: 172 hits

reconocer: 420 hitsST: goodwillTT: * goodwill/fondo decomercio

fondo de

comercio

Comparing two alternativessuggested by 2007 traineesgoodwill: 0 hitsfondo de comercio: 331 hits

ST: koncernregnskabTT: cuentas consolidadas[group accounts]Only few matches in TL corpus

cuentas

anuales

consolidadas

Observing contrast in frequencybetween suggested short term andfull termcuentas consolidadas: 5

cuentas anuales consolidadas: 749ST: kostprisTT: precio de coste[cost price]Only few matches In TL corpus

coste

Comparing two alternativessuggested by 2007 traineesprecio de coste: 6 hitscoste: 30 hits

ST: immaterialleanlgsaktiverTT: inmovilizacionesinmateriales

[intangible assets]Only few matches in TL corpus

inmovilizado

intangible

Comparing two alternatives sug-gested by 2007 traineesinmovilizaciones inmatriales: 3hits

inmovilizado intangible: 38 hits

Table 12. Revision of 2007 class trainees translation of company note on

consolidation practice

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and valorar(valuate) in Spanish annual reports. As mentioned, the Spanishterm inmovilizaciones inmateriales is an outdated equivalent from the 4thDirective, which has now been changed according to the IAS standards. Therelationship between the terminology of parallel texts and the genre-specificcorpora of annual reports compiled for the training is therefore not consist-ent, and therefore, again, it seems reasonable to use comparable corpora as a

benchmark. As shown above, the trainee revisers focused mostly on obviousflaws, specifically terminological mismatches, without taking into considera-tion possible syntactic or textual refinements. This, in general, is a matterof the degree of revision required in a given situation (Mossop 2007:144),which the trainer had not been specific about in this exercise. In this case, itmight also be a matter of the trainees getting acquainted with this new tooland its potential in translation and/or revision contexts.

EVIDENCEFORCURRENTTRANSLATIONSTRATEGIES

Apart from the use of corpora as a benchmark in different revision contexts(trainers corrections or self- or other-revision of translations), corpus evi-dence of contrastive features offers valuable support in connection with ourcurrent inventory of translation strategies, which have until now been basedon Vinay and Darbelnet (1958/1995) and on our own lecture notes. In thissection we focus on a number of specific contrastive features between Danish

and Spanish attested in the corpus, in terms of linguistic realization withinthis particular genre of accounting.

One of the marked stylistic differences between Danish and Spanishconcerns the use of cohesive elements. Spanish, for instance, favours lexicalvariation in anaphoric reference, and Lopez Ciruela (2003) considers this to

be a problem for TM translations. According to Alcaraz Var and Hughes,such stylistic differences should prompt strategic shifts in the drafting phaseof a translation. They comment on the need to make strategic choices on the

basis of a fragment of an English law text containing the term insider trading

five times within the scope of three sentences (2002:194):

No ambiguity here, but what other language would put up with thisamount of lexical repetition. Translators of this text into other lan-guages would have to balance between the stylistic undesirability ofham-fisted reiteration against the overall need for clarity, probablyby resorting to devices such as approximate or partial synonyms ordemonstrativeor deictic summaries(said conduct, activities of thiskind/ of the type mentioned).

Like English, and unlike Spanish, Danish texts show the same preference

for a high level of lexical repetition, and consequently this aspect is a salientelement in our current discussion of translation strategies between Danishand Spanish. It is important for trainees to be aware of this stylistic feature

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when translating into Spanish, and to avoid lexical variation when translatinginto Danish. The concordance lines of the note corpora have proved to beof great help in this respect, for instance by allowing us to contrast the useof anaphoric devices in the two text corpora. Table 13 shows an example ofthis contrastive feature.

Andre immaterielle aktiver

Andre immaterielle aktiver omfatterkunderelationer overtaget ved kb afvirksomheder og aktiviteter[Other intangible assetsOther intangible assetsinclude]

Otros activos intangibles

En este epgrafe se recogen lasconcesiones administrativas, las apli-caciones informticas, los gastos dedesarrollo [Other intangible assetsUnder this headlineare included]

Table 13. Comparable stretches in note corpora: Danish lexical repetition

vs. Spanish lexical variation

The extracts from the note corpora shown in Table 14 support the observationmade by Alcaraz Var and Hughes with respect to Spanish cohesive devicesconsisting of a combination of demonstratives and lexical variation. We havechosen as seeds the singular form of this and said, which in Spanishare este/esta and dicho/dichaand, for the sake of comparison, in Danish

denne/detteand (fr)nvnte(without gender marking). Table 14 shows the5 most frequent combinations, as a maximum with a minimum limit of 2occurrences in each language.

este epgrafe (200)[headline]este concepto(56)[concept]este sentido (33)[sense]

este tipo (de) (30)[type (of)]este importe (20)[amount]

esta modificacin (77)[change]esta interpretacin (48)[interpretation]esta norma (36)[standard]

esta categora(29)[category]esta nota (31)[note]

denne risiko (6)[risk]denne rsrapport (4)[annual report]denne vrdi (4)[value]

denne vurdering (4)[evaluation]denne personkreds (3)[group of people]

dette tidspunkt (2)[moment]dette skib (2)[ship]

dicho epgrafe (29)[headline]dicho period (14)[period]dicho importe (22)[amount]

dicho valor (17)[value]dicho prstamo (16)[loan]

dicha fecha (36)[date]dicha sociedad (28)[company]dicha participacin (8)[share]

dicha deuda (7)[debt]dicha actividad (7)[activity]

frnvnte personkreds (5)[group of people]nvnte tilflde (3)[case]

Table 14. Lexical items combined with demonstratives in note corpora

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suppress or transpose this element in their translations in accordance withTL conventions.

4. Conclusion

It is generally accepted that software skills are essential for the professionaltranslator and, consequently, as an element of the translation studies curricu-lum. The extent and the format in which electronic tools should be includedin translator training are a matter of resources both in terms of hours andattitude to the use of software in the teaching context. They are also a mat-ter of balance between software skills and translation skills. At the moment,translation memory is the ultimate professional tool. However, TMs are

complex and do not develop translation skills as such. Parallel corpora can bean efficient tool but may not reveal the contrastive features specific to sourceand target languages and which must be taken into consideration to producea functional translation. Comparable corpora accompanied by a concord-ance tool, on the other hand, can be used not only as a means of introducingstudents to the use of software and of developing linguistic awareness, butalso to improve awareness of contrastive features within specific language

pairs both in general and in terms of genre-specific contrasts. We have testeda set of small, comparable, genre-specific corpora in the classroom in thecontext of training in specialized translation between Danish and Spanish.These comparable corpora have proved to be a valuable tool in activitiessuch as the correction of draft translations and revision tasks and to someextent as a source of evidence for contrastive features between languagesand within the genre of annual accounts. The experience gained from thiscourse has shown us that if this tool is used regularly in teaching transla-tion, trainees will begin to find it useful on a daily basis as a supplementto dictionaries, the Internet and parallel texts and as a general reference

point. Ultimately, the combination of powerful software and genre-specificcorpora can only enhance the classroom experience and allow us to delivermore efficient translator training.

Universidad Politcnica de Madrid, Department of Applied Linguistics to

Science and Technology, E.T.S. Ingenieros Industriales, Jos Gutirrez Abas-

cal 2, Madrid 28006, Spain. [email protected]

ANNE LISE LAURSENAarhus University, Business and Social Sciences, Department of Business

Communication, Fuglesangs All 4, Denmark 8210 Aarhus V, Denmark.

[email protected]

ISMAEL ARINAS PELLN

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