Textbook Study GuideMCO 418 – History of Mass CommunicationStay Tuned: A History of American Broadcasting by Christopher H. Sterlingand John Michael Kittross___________________________________________Why Study History?! Our purpose: to understand how what HAS happened in the past impacts what is

happening today... or the past informs the present and futurewe need to understand the past to fully comprehend presentwhat decisions or choices have been made and why?

! Because what we know today could have developed very differently:We could have had a system of government control and license fees (as in Europe)Public radio and television might have developed BEFORE the commercial system(again, as in Europe)Telephone industry might have dominated broadcastingTelevision could have developed in such a way as to make cable unnecessary

! Issues we think and hear about today are often not newAre there too many ads on the air (1920s)?Does broadcast violence cause same in listeners (1930s)?Is the news biased (1930s)?Do too few people control too many stations (1940s)?

! What features of today’s electronic media do we owe to the past? (Virtually all of them!)Some examples…Up to 1920: Basic radio technology used today

Concept of private station ownership1920s: Basic concept of a broadcasting station.

Advertising revenues to support broadcasting.National networks and “Prime Time.”Federal regulatory role and “PICON” concept.

1940s: First competitors: FM and televisionBroadcast journalism

1950s: Current television systemColor TV

1970s: Competitive systems (chiefly cable)VCRs and audience control of viewingDeregulation trend begun

1980s: Cable networks (satellite delivery)1990s: Web competition and digitalization

Thinking about some meanings of “history”! History is made up of selected and processed data, facts that are organized and related to

one another … and interpreted. It may also provide some indication of future trends anddevelopments. Put into a single word, history is about the context of the past.

! One needs to consider the situation (context) at the historical time to really understandwhat is happening at a given moment, not necessarily as we see the event now, inretrospect.

! Chronology is useful and important (helps to arrange historical events) but taken alone itis not history

! Nor are specific individual events. Think about a list of the, say, 20 mostimportant events in the development of electronic media as that begins to developcontext

! Seeking “firsts” is always dangerous and usually suffers constant revision!! History is also more than “names and dates” but rather the ideas or importance behind the

people, organizations and trends! To create history later requires some sense of record-keeping now. Yet how much is lost

in an electronic era? E-mail? Changed modes of recording?! Historians compare and contrast across multiple data sources to try and find “the truth.”

Rarely if ever can you rely on a single point of view to know what happened. But …people or institutions have biases.

! History is usually written by the winners—militarily or in technology (for example,winners have better PR!) ... thus biasing history. (Fascination with the “lone” inventor)

! History is not about current event, as some argue you need at least a generation ofdistance about the events being discussed to even begin to have a solid sense of theirimportance and how they fit into the larger picture

Prehistory of Broadcasting! Our concern today—the wired forebears AND early wireless

telegraphtelephoneformation of the electrical manufacturing industryearly wireless

! TelegraphWere there telegraphs before Morse? How did they differ and why were they built?How was the government involved in the first telegraph—and why?In what ways does the telegraph industry presage elements of broadcasting?

Monopoly control (Western Union)Elimination of earlier means of communicating (Pony Express)Crucial role in world news communication (news agency formation)Government control in most nations; private interests hereInternational agreements: ITU formation in 1865

! TelephoneWhy did the telephone initially have a harder time being accepted?

Created no permanent record as did the telegraphSeemed not to add much to what telegraph offered (no faster)Shorter range (problem of amplification of voice signals)Initial confusion about industry structure

And how did the telephone presage broadcasting?As with telegraph, importance of exercising patent controlCentralized control—growth of AT&T (long-distance)

! Pioneering WirelessWho “invented” wireless radio utilizing radiation?

Clerk Maxwell: espousing the crucial theory (1860s)Hertz: proving the theory in laboratory (1880s)Marconi: innovated practical wireless system (1890s) (p. 29)

By putting many of the pieces together (not all his—he was more aninnovator than an inventor)Financial backing by key figures in Britain and later U.S.Good sense of PR and working with the pressRelied upon excellent managers and researchersClose ties with British Empire interests

How was wireless first utilized?Maritime: naval and merchant marine (role of disasters!)International: in competition with telegraph cables

Who were the important American wireless pioneers?(Most had substantial trouble with financial backers and fought long patentbattles)De Forest and the “Audion”Alexanderson and “his” GE alternator device (p. 35)Armstrong with invention of key receiver circuits: feedback (1914) circuit andlater “superhet” (1918)

How and why did US. government regulation first appear,?What were the key pioneering U.S. hams (p. 42)?Who were the important early experimental broadcasters

Fessenden and first broadcast (p. 31)Herrold with radio school and first lasting station (p. 46) role of “hams”

What role did radio play in wartime (World War I)Primarily the navyfirst patent pool

Early Programs and Audience! Program

What makes a “Program?”Usually a set broadcast time and lengthProbably an established opening and closingFormat or set content, story line, approachOften one or more continuing characters

HOW (and what) should stations program?Radio coming into home (formality in studio)Evening hours programmed first, daytime only laterWhat would hold listener interest?Specialize in one type of content (Chicago’s KYW and opera)How to attract people to be on the radio (little means to pay)?How to distinguish one station from another?Should local stations go silent for one night to allow Dxing? (Yes, at first)

What kinds of programs were heard?Vaudeville routines, music halls: “song-and-patter” teamsPopular or classical music—75% of radio content in 1920sTalks and opinion from almost any source—even professors!“Special” events—often political talks, election nightsReligion—a Sunday staple (Catholic and Protestant establishment)Agriculture and farm shows—more rural listeners

... and NOT heard (through mid-1920s)?Regular (daily, let alone hourly) newscastsdrama (how to do that which you could not see?)Sports play-by-play (very little)

! Audience and ResearchWho were the first listeners?

Mainly hams, experimenters, guys and boys (few women)Sets handmade and hard to tune

Why were early radios hard to use?Crude circuits complicated grounds, aerialsbattery powered (until late 1920s) and thus complex and expensive!

What were some indicators of radio’s popularity?How-to books and magazinesradio novels aimed at kidsnewspaper columns

What was known of the radio audience—and how was it known?Very little!Cards, mail responses, signal coverage mapsLittle demand for such data before advertising

What were some o f radio’s initial impacts on other businesses?Death knell for vaudeville (movies helped this trend)Nearly killed record industry (poor acoustics)

How was radio developing elsewhere?Initial stations in Canada (CFCF), Netherlands, Britain in 1919–20British Broadcasting Company (1922–26) and JCW ReithSlower growth outside of Europe, Japan (1925)Role of government and “public service” radio as opposed to the private basis inU.S.

Coming of Regulation! Basics

On what is the regulation of radio based?Commerce Clause (1:8,1789) and First Amendment (1791)Developing regulation of railways ICC, and telegraph/telephoneDecision AGAINST government ownership (1919)

! Initial ChaosWhy was the Radio Act of 1912 inadequate for broadcasting?

Not designed to cover broadcast problems and issuesDid not foresee spectrum shortage; need to discern among applicants forfrequencies

Why were there so few frequencies for broadcasting (p. 95)?Who headed up radio regulation in early 1920s?

White, Hoover and Dill. What were there roles?What were the National Radio Conferences?

How many of them?Who called them?What did they try and do—and actually accomplish?

What prompted initial industry?Self-regulation?Local market time-sharing (few frequencies)Considerable ad hoc censorship of fringe points of view and avoiding controversyASCAP music royalty demands led to formation of NAB in 1923 some public criticism of radio’s programs and role

Why did regulation under the 1912 Act finally collapse?Series of court cases against Department of Commerce attemptsFound 1912 law granted no regulatory discretionHad to license any and all who appliedAfter April 1926 decisions on WJAZ, Hoover withdrew from radiochaos resulted ... huge rise in public complaints

! Radio Act of 1927How come the long delay in getting this law passed?

In part, the radio-telephone group fightWhy is this law so important?

PICON basis (for licensing and regulation) first espousedPublic owned spectrum, not licenseesBroadcaster responsible for his acts

much of it is still in force, Title III of 1934 law provided the needed regulatorydiscretion 1912 law did not

Why did Congress establish a regulatory commission (FRC)?What powers did Congress give to the FRC—License stations

Classifying them: prescribing nature of service (i.e., broadcasting)Assigning frequencies, power, transmitter locationCreating regulations to avoid interferenceRegulating chain (network) radio is needed

What control did FRC have over programming?Very little—no right to censor

What was the FRC’s primary and firs t task?Reducing interference, the chaos on-the air

How did it accomplish this?

Taking many stations off the air entirelyDeveloping (1928, p. 144 box, also pp. 772–3) classification scheme

How did FRC “improve” radio’s content despite the First Amendment?Brinkley (KFKB, Kansas), Baker (KTNT, Iowa), Schaeffer KVEP, Portland,OR), and Schuler (KGEF Los Angeles) cases

All late 1920s, early 1930s:All involved use of stations; for their own purpose, not Broader publicconcerns ... lack of any balanceAll FRC actions lifting licenses upheld by federal courts as not impingingon First Amendment rights of licensees

NAB sets up its first radio code. in 1929FRC lasted but seven years—did it have a lasting impact?

Innovating Television(Be sure to see pp. 811–812 in Glossary for further information)! The Process of Invention and Innovation

What’s the difference between the two?Why is the difference important?

What’s the difference between primary and applied research?How has invention been central to development to telecoms and (more recently) toelectronic media?Looking at the present dot com or telecom industry status, what happens to innovationwhen investment dries up?What is the danger in being an early adopter of a new technology?What are the risks and benefits to a company with a break-through invention orinnovation?Who should set technical standards—business, or government, or “the marketplace?”Does it matter where (what country) a new technology develops?

* Early TelevisionTelevision’s early history was largely “mechanical.” Why, when, and where?

Given technological knowledge and capability of the times:Germany, 1880s, Paul Nipkow and his spinning discBritain, 1920s–1930s: John Logie BairdUSA, 1920s: Bell Labs, C. Francis Jenkins (right in DC), and GE’s Alexanderson,among others

What were some of the differences among these experiments?A period when an individual could still make a difference even without corporatebacking

How widely seen and heard were they?Why did attempts to introduce mechanical TV commercially fail?

Poor quality (compared to films)Hard to get frequenciesLittle sound synchronization with pictures (if sound at all) No real programmingLittle audience—hard to get receivers (and pricey)No real advertiser interestDepression eventually dried up investmentIndustry disagreement on technical standards and operationsBy 1935, became obvious that all-electronic approaches far better

Establishing Radio’s Structure! Why is this short period (the late 1920s and early 1930s) so important in explaining

today’s broadcast business?because most of the current industry structure was set then ...Industry/public/regulatory acceptance of advertising support (see list on p. 124)Establishment of national networksDevelopment of the earliest reliable audience research Regulatory stability (FRCactivity)Better transmitters and less interference Better and cheaper receivers

! NetworksWhat was the first radio network designed as such (not merely experimental) and whendid it begin?

NBC, November 1926owned by RCAIn January 1927 expanded to actual operationBlue (WJZ based-old radio group network) as well as Red (WEAF-centeredAT&T network) networksShift to Rockefeller Center in 1933

How did the Red and Blue networks differ?Red was commercial powerhouse; Blue always weaker

Where did NBCs competition come from?Attempt to market programs to NBCUnited Independent Broadcasters .... Arthur JudsonColumbia Phonograph Co. (because RCA took over Victor)Paley family takeover of struggling CPBS in late1928

And why was Paley so successful so quickly?change in how network reimbursed affiliate stations (and how stations paidnetwork for sustaining programs)Pursued an overtly commercial/entertainment agenda quickly popular withlisteners, advertisers

Why did networks so quickly come to dominate the industry?Most important stations became affiliates (or O&Os), especially clear channelstationsDeveloped nationally popular programs that came to define what radio was tomost peopleThey developed effective means: of selling radio ad time nationallyspent the money to make radio popular and attract advertisersmade the programming job so much easier for small stations

! Decline of Alternative/Educational RadioWhat was happening with educational radio around 1930 and thereafter?

Stations leaving the air for lack of fundsLots of pressure from commercial stations Confusion about radio’s educationalroleIronically, more study and organizations and lobbying just as number of stationswas declining

Why was educational radio in such trouble?Funding, primarily but also educational institution prioritiesoften selling out to commercial stationsCommercial station or network promises of time (that dwindled over the years)

Why was there more advertiser interest in radio by the late 1920s?

More agency interest/participation in/knowledge about radio (including moresuccess stories (with radio ads)Initial station rep firms—creating a better means of access to stations across thecountryUseful technology: use of ETs, jingles, musicNetworks were proviing popular national shows and stability (and prestige fornetwork advertisers)First books on radio advertising appeared in late 1920s (how to do it, and successstories)

Was advertising widespread in radio?No—most station (and a lot of network) time was sustaining prime-time music,drama, comedy were mainly sponsored

Did everybody simply accept the commercial approach?By and large, yes ... but some critics even early on

Programs and Audiences to 1934! Developing Program Diversity

Remember that…This early (to about 1934), programs for most stations meant whatever could bedeveloped locally ...Networks were a relatively minor deal (in the hours per day they provided to mostoutlets).Most programs were “sustaining” not sponsoredEverything was still relative ly new and there were few models o n which to buildDistinct though slow trend f rom public service/culture emphasis to morecommercial fare/entertainmentConsiderable focus on radio as both new, and after inception of the Depression,free

! MusicHow much of a typical station schedule was music?

Note 1930 schedules of two New York stations (p. 131) and overall table (p. 133)Why were these among the first sponsored programs?Why was there so much concert/classical music on at first?Were these programs live-and if so, why?

! VarietyWhat is it?

Note relation to vaudevilleWhat types were broadcast?

Musical, country, comedyWhy was variety so popular with broadcasters?

Flexible, cheap, popular with listeners brama! Drama

Why so slow to develop?How to write for/appeal to an unseen audienceAlmost no models on which to go

What were the initial types of drama on the air?Light and comedy

Discuss Amos ’n Andy—why was it so hugely popular?What does the program say about its HMO?What was “thriller-drama”—and why did it appeal?How was The March of Time so different from other fare?

! NewsWhat came first—news or commentary—and why?Did newspapers welcome, or fear, radio journalism?What was the press-radio “war” all about?Does this suggest older media can hold back newer services?

! Others.Why did the networks provide educational and cultural programs?What kind of religion was heard on early radio?

! Measuring AudiencesWhy were radios easier to use by 1928?

Plug-in, easier tuning, improved circuitsReminder—what’s a rating?What was the prime impetus for serious radio audience research—who “demanded” the“numbers?”

Advertisers and agencies as radio was a new mediumNBC and Daniel Starch (1928, 1930)

Who provided the first ratings and when?CAB (Crossley) in 1929—would last for 16 years

How was audience rating information collected?Recall telephone over past 24 hrs (expensive)

Who paid for the ratings?Advertisers (and later the broadcasters themselves)

Who introduced competition into the ratings business?C.E. Hooper in 1934

And the method used?Coincidental telephone … the “Nielsens” of their day

What did the ratings tell?Who was listening and when, to what kinds of programsEarly ratings largely on network entertainment shows

Why were ratings so important, even in the 1930s?Gave advertisers the information needed to tailor ads to audience really becamethe “glue” that tied broadcasters and advertisers

Innovating FM and Television(As you read FM radio and TV today, be thinking about the current transition toward digitaltelevision formats...! FM Radio

What prime concerns were radio engineers seeking in the late 1920s? How to limit oreliminate static interference

How to improve the overall sound of radioWho developed—and how did he arrive at—FM radio?

How come it took so long?Some had theorized that FM lacked any value Armstrong was working essentiallyalone

As demonstrated to Sarnoff in 1935, what did FM achieveAnd what was Sarnoff’s reaction?Why did Armstrong decide he had to go it alone to promote FM?Who built the first experimental FM station?What role did the FCC play in early FM?Why did the FCC finally approve commercial FM operation?Where was FM located on the spectrum—how many channels?

40, at 42–50 MHzWhat provision was made for educational stations?

! Innovating Electronic TelevisionWhy did inventors focus increasingly on all-electronic approaches rather than themechanical notion of television?

Mechanical had pushed as for as it could while electronic systems were just gettingstarted

What problems did the electronic-television innovators face?Picture quality (began at mechanical levels)Synchronization with soundNeed to persuade FCC to give it spectrum for experimentationDeveloping industry agreement on technical standards

Who were the key figures in its development?CRT developed by several people in 1870sFerdinand Braun—perfected CR oscilloscope in 1897Zworykin at Westinghouse, later RCA

Radio’s Golden Age, (1934–41)! Solidifying Radio’s Structure

Stations ...How did the FRC work to reduce interference?

Daytime only proportion increasedLower power at night for many of the remainderDirectional antennasAdding (in 1939) secondary Class II stations on clear channels

What was “superpower” debate all about?Who used it, when, and with what impact?What was the status of educational radio in the late 1930s?Where did regular scheduled television broadcasting begin—and when?What held things up in the USA?

Industry disagreements on standards“False dawn” attempt by RCA to push 440–line televisionindustry conflict over color TV (CBS v. RCA) and “compatibility”

How was the decision to go ahead finally reached?Industry committee (NTSC) and agreement18 VHF channels1 July 1941 (not, as it turned out, a very auspicious time)

Networks ...What new network began in this era? How was it different?How were network O&Os important?

Major revenue producers—with networks, took 60% of total radio revenuesIn what ways did networks in the 1930s dominate their affiliates?

Option timeone-way affiliation contractsexclusivity

! Ad Agencies Take OverWhy did ad agencies become dominant providers of network shows?

To develop program/advertising compatibilityRole of ETs in syndication

What was a time broker?And a station rep? Which was the first one—and when? How were they paid?

Edward Petry in 1932! Golden Age of Programming

What was the most important radio dramatic format to develop in this period—and why?daytime serials

What does the War of the Worlds broadcast tell us about radio’s role?How did news develop in the late 1930s?

Decline of press restrictions on use of newsLindbergh baby kidnaping and trial newsMorrison at 1937 Hindenburg disasterGrowing use of short-wave for foreign news1938 Munich crisis coverage as model for what would come

How was FDR’s use of radio unique and important?What other program types grew in popularity?

Man-in-street and call-in interviews (local)Quiz and audience-participation shows (cheap!)

Golden Age Radio Policy and Impact! Rise of the FCC

Why was the FCC created?How was the FCC different from the FRC, and in what ways the same?What were some of its initial concerns?

Program clean-up (how different from today!) (See list of non-PICON programs, p.209)Monopoly: (why this particular focus?)

—Network investigation (first of what would be three)—Report and resultant Supreme Ct. case—Newspaper ownership (owned a third of AMs by 1941 and a quarter of FMCPs)—Overall ownership rules (FM and TV led), duoply, by 1941(Note parallel telephone investigation)

How did the industry seek to regulate itself?NAB’s radio code

How did music licensing impact radio in this period?Formation of BMI and ban on ASCAP music (1941)

! Radio’s Growing ImpactWhat were some measures of growing impact?

Growing proportion of houses and cars with radiosexpansion of radio trade publicationsgrowing number of radio books—critical and otherwisescholarly studies of radio research and impactPrinceton (Columbia) Office of Radio Researchfuror over War of the Worlds broadcast impactFDR’s use of radioFCC concern about program impact on kids and society

Was radio universally available?No—many rural areas had no day-time (16%) or night (one-third) coverageThus strong support for clear channel continuance

Radio Goes to WarHow did the war impact domestic broadcasting stations?

No government take-over (as 1934 act allowed for)Freeze on building of new stationsStopped FM and TV development for durationTechnical personnel hived off to military

In what ways did the war figure in network programming?Patriotism theme and documentaries (“This Is War!”)shows from military baseswar bond fund-raising drivesdramatic increase in amount of news (table, p. 237)

How much censorship existed—and by whom?Office of Censorship “Code of Wartime Practices”Radio was largely self-policedBan on weather forecasts, interviews, request programsLimits on foreign-language programs

Who was Edward R. Murrow—and what was his impact?Building a teamBecame the voice of London in the blitz for Americansput radio journalism on a high plain

Why did the FCC revise both FM and television allocations?Wartime freeze allowed a second-lookMilitary research into higher frequenciesContinuing fight between FM and TV interestsIncrease in military/government spectrum needs

And what was the result of these studies?1945 changes in television allocation (see p. 251 chart) (Debates on UHF, color, etc.)Shift in FM allocation to present 88–108 MHz

! Three Days of War...7 December 1941 (Pearl Harbor Attack

Early Sunday afternoon on East Coast-news broke into programsEarly broadcasts filled with bravado and wishful thinking as little real information. . . much time to fill and comment often went well beyond realitysome stations got 24-hour permission from FCC while many on West Coast silencedfor several days due to invasion scareamateurs ordered off by 9pm that evening for duration

6 June 1944 (D-Day in Europe)Networks had planned ahead—everybody knew it was coming soonnews broke first from German news agency, confirmed by War Dept. and thenLondon (by 3:30pm EWT)Many stations stayed on the air into late evening; heavy use of pool reporters;George Hicks (Blue) from ship off beaches

12 April 1945 (FDR’s death)5:47pm Thursday announcement—kids heard news first as their program broken intowith news announcerNetwork plans for VE day helped them here—comment from worldcoverage of funeral (Arthur Godfrey in DC) often emotional

Describe the status of broadcasting and the end of WWII (1945)?Huge pent-up demand for receiversFeeling by many that FM would replace AM

Some experimentation with regional networkingPotential of radio for education revived by FM optionsFascination with television:

Public had heard about it for years Few had seen a setAdvertisers concerned with high costsHollywood, sports teams both concerned and boredMany felt TV would remain small and elite-serving for years

Planning for TelevisionFarnsworthZworykinWorld War II Television manufacturing?What was the color standards battle? Who one?

Postwar Radio-Television (1945–52)Why is this period so important overall?

Explosive growth in number of stationsTrue introduction of both FM and television—thus modern industryBeginning of transition from radio to TVEven the beginnings of cable industry

! StationsWhy did AM grow so quickly—and where was most of the growth?Why did FM grow and then decline in postwar years?

Service had to begin over again on new frequencies in face of AM and televisiongrowth and excitementduplicated programming with AM stations (which owned 80% of FM outlets)Only scattered FM network attemptsLittle advertiser interest, so little revenueAudiences small-sets expensive

What happened to FM inventor Edwin Armstrong?Why was initial television growth (1945–48) slow?

Expense of the new mediumSome confusion over allocations and interference issues

What was the debate overpay about?Why was this an exciting period for educational broadcasting?

Had FM with which to expand—and a fight for TV channelsFCC allowed 10-watt mini-stations to help cut costs

! NetworksWhat new national radio networks appeared?

ABC from old NBC-BlueLiberty (Gordon McClendon), 1948–51

Which radio network stayed out of television—and why?And what new entity established a television network?What factor limited national TV network expansion?

Interconnection by coaxial cable or microwave linksWhen did true coast-to-coast television networking begin?How did television network development differ from that of radio two decades before?

TV grew quickly based on radio’s model-industry structure, advertising programvarietyVirtually all stations were affiliatesTV networks had to await AT&T building connections

How did the networks differ in their development?ABC pushed for stations quickly—then had to merge into UPT for adequatefunding—long a weak linkCBS held out for its own color system so delayed station purchases—and had to buyin later (see p. 289)NBC (being owned by RCA) pushed quickly to develop networkDuMont had no radio network on which to build—only two O&Os and usuallysqueezed out by other networks

! AdvertisingWhat happened to radio advertising expenditures after the war?

Drop in network, rise in “spot” and localRadio became an increasing local ad mediumSo many stations that many were losing money

Virtually nothing for FM outlets which were given with AM timeHow did television advertising develop?

Slowly! Both cost and how to best-use were concernsFar higher than radio-f or initially smaller audiencesTypically 60-second adsNetwork emphasis and dominance of advertising time sales

Post-War Programs and Audiences! Programming—Radio

Seems odd there were no really new program types developed in this period—why was that?What were the “talent raids”—and who did what to whom?How did they impact the coming of television?Why did radio networks focus more on music and quiz shows in prime time?What star helped to break the radio network ban on recorded programs—and why?What was “pay radio” all about?What was “simulcasted” programming?What did radio stations do as network programming dried up?What was on most FM stations in this period? Independent FMs?

! Programming—TelevisionHow did network TV program patterns closely follow those of radio?

“Instant” multiple formats thanks to radio’s modelParticularly took to half hour sit-coms and crime-detective shows; also quiz showsBegan in evenings, then expanded to weekends and daytime hoursOne hugely popular early program helped to sell the mediumEmphasis on variety shows, talent programs; use of short music programs as “fillers”Early showing of “high-culture” programs due to high SES of initial TVaudiences—e.g., prestige anthology drama series (16 by 1951)

And how did television differ- from radio’s experience?Music and variety never dominated on television as on radioLess use of classical musicEarly emphasis on sporting events: boxing, wrestlingNews from the start—but 15 minutes and really newsreels

Why was the use of feature motion pictures-seemingly a TV natural—limited at firstWhat two famous NBC shows began in 1952—and remain on the airWhat most characterized early television journalism?

Specials (crime and Army-McCarthy hearings) and documentaries1921 “campaign” (including Eisenhower spot ads, “Checkers” speech)

! AudiencesHow did early television receivers help to define the medium’s audience?What role did bars play in television watching—as they had with radio?Did television receiver ownership grow slower, as fast as, or much faster than radio—andwhy?How did A. C. Nielsen initially develop?Where did the Nielsen “meter” come from?What happened to the dominance of the Hooper ratings firm?Did watching television help or hurt family communication?The impact of TV on what audience group garnered early attention?

Television’s “Freeze” (1948–52)Defining industry and FCC decisions oil structure of television—and the “cause” for cable todevelop! Initiating the Freeze

What problems led to the cessation of licensing new TV stations?Interference as more stations took to the air (50 by fall 1948) ( Adjacent and co-channel types)Industry arguments about VHS and UHF potentialContinuing debate over color TV

Whatever happened to TV channel 1?May 1948 converted for land mobile

What was the initial color system approved by the FCC, when, and why?CBS (Peter Goldmark) in 1950better color and cheaper than competing systems—seemed ready

What led to its demise?Korean War needs, and thus limited expansiongrowing electronics industry indifference and concern about its incompatible withexisting black-and-white sets

Why did the Freeze last so long (4 years)?Complexity of technical issues dealt with—where to find needed channels (one band,two, move it all “upstairs?”)Industry disagreements on almost everythingQuest for educational TV reservations (Frieda Hennock)A national system with choices, or emphasis on local outlets?Concerns of the 108 pre-Freeze on-air stations(Remember, no computers to help!)

! Resolution in 6th Report and Order (April 1952)What were the priorities that guided the FCC decision?

One service over all parts of the countryNext, one local channel in as many places as possible

Then, two services over the countryAnd two local and competing channels, etc.

Worked around existing stations (none would have to switch to UHF assignment)How were the additional channels found?

Defined channel spacing—table of allotments as had been used for FM (but neverAM)Addition of 70 channels on UHF to supplement 12 VHFDecision to intermix Vs and Us, despite engineering advice

Why did commercial interests fight the education allocation?Educational reservation (252) across Vs and Uskept channels from potential commercial users

What happened to color standard?Color to be decided separately and later (Dec 1953)

! What Happened to the FCC Plan?What were the key problems?

Intermixture: UHF simply could not compete with VHFOnly 20% of markets actually intermixed (but most of larger cities—onlyway to get enough TV channelsStation coverage area smallerNetworks avoided Us

too few sets—and inadequate at thatSmall audiences—and little advertising revenueinadequate service to smaller communities

What were some o f the options considered in the 1950s to “fix television?”How might our system today be different had they been adopted?

! Other regulatory concerns (1946–60)What was the so-called “Blue Book “controversy all about?

Too much advertisingNeed for sustaining programsPromise v. performance in license renewals

What happened concerning the ability of stations to editorialize—and why?Why did the FCC investigate the television networks in 1955–57?What was the result of the study?

! ScandalsWhat scandals truck the FCC in the la te 1950s?What was the payola scandal all about?And how did the quiz show scandal arise—and what happened?What was blacklisting?How did Red Channels figure in the blacklisting story?What finally helped to end blacklisting?

John Henry Faulk caseThe Age of Television! Radio

What factors made FM radio “turn around” and begin to grow?Why was FM stereo so important?How did that decision differ from the way technical standards seem to be adoptedtoday?

What was happening to radio networks?Mutual ownership scandals and declineNBC Monitor in 1955

! Television’s TechnologyWhy was the fight over pay TV so prolonged and bitter?

Conflicting systems and means of payment; programmingsubstantial industry split on value/danger of PTV

(UHF folks desperately wanted it!)limited market experimentsdebate held off inception of PTV service—for 20 years! (How might things havebeen different?)

In what ways was the introduction of the VTR so revolutionary?How did technology contribute to demise of duMont network?

Too few markets with four or more TV outlets! Age of Television

How fast did television grow after 6th Report and Order?108 pre-freeze to 530 stations by 1960decline of single-station marketsmore even distribution of TV across the countrybut continuing UHF crisis

In what ways were UHF and FM both “second services?”—and with what impact?Successful and older “first” service

... which controlled most of the new outlets

lack of audience (receivers, interest).... and thus advertiser interest

How did the networks rank overall in the 1950s?CBS (prime time first), NBC (heavy on color), very weak ABC and disappearingDuMont

What problems did the first educational TV stations face?Funding, funding, fundingneed to produce most of what they showed—no networking (Developed “bicyclenetwork” in mid-decade)by 1961–51 stations, but half the states (and NYC) had none

! AdvertisersDid radio’s overall revenue decline in the 1950s in the face of TV?What proportion of all advertising expenditure was taken up by TV the beginning and endof this period?

Rise from 6 to 13%, 1952–60What is a “sponsor” and do we have them today?What led to decline of sponsorship?

High cost of programs and rising network ratesQuiz show scandal and networks taking back control

What replaced sponsorship?“Participating” spot ads

TV Golden Age Programs and Impact! Radio in a World of Television

What factors led to the end of popular network radio?What attempts were made to extend network radio?

Simulcasting some popular showsSome serials continued until 1960Liberty Broadcasting SystemNew drama: science fiction etc. (most sustaining)NBC’s Monitor

Why did the radio–to–TV change take place faster than most expected?What was the chief problem facing network affiliates by early 1950s?

Loss of hours network feedLoss of network advertising income as well

And what was the “solution?”Rock music and top-40 formattight formats, massive promotion, DJ-centricPresley

Who developed the top-40 format, where, when, and how?Primarily G. McClendon and T. Storz, mid-1950s

What was on most FMs?Simulcasting or wallpaper musiclittle advertising

! TV Network ProgramsWhy was the mid-1950s “shift” in program origination from New York and Chicago to LosAngeles important?Why does television seem to program in cycles?

Invention-imitation decline: adult westerns (late 50s)6 in 55–56 to 30 in 59–60Gunsmoke (radio to TV)

also sitcoms, serials, crime-detectiveanthology drama (major writers, original stuff—why in this period?)

What other trends typified commercial television networks?live to recorded format (film, then video)“Spectaculars” (Peter Pan, et al.)—promoting colorrise in syndicated materiallengthening of programs (end of 15–20 minutes and standardized use of 30, 60, 90minutes)Little use of feature films—why?Popularity of variety shows—Ed Sullivan (more than two decades)Late night: Tonight Show

In what ways was TV journalism becoming more important?Why was this an era of impressive TV documentaries?

See It NowHow did television assist or hurt in campaigns?

“Great Debates”And network programming for kids:

Captain KangarooMickey Mouse ClubHowdy Doody

What patterns were evident in local programming?

afternoon “women’s” program and kids’ cowboy featureCrusader Rabbit

! Measuring ImpactHow does the Disney-ABC connection demonstrate television’s impact?

Coon-skin caps crazeDisneyland (program and place)—and how it helped ABC

What led to the studies about television and children?Impact of violence: imitation or catharsis?Amount of time spent—“ narcotizing dysfunction”Impact on school progress and standing

And their findings?Some children, some of the time…What child brought to the TV, not the other way around…

Radio-TV in the 1960s and 1970s! Technology

Why did transistors replace tubes in consumer electronics?Smaller size, lack of heat generation, stability, cost

What two technical events make 1975 such a watershed?Betamax VCR, and announcement of HBO domsat use

! StationsWhere did radio grow the most during this period?What factors pushed FM even as AM expanded?

As before: over-crowded AM, stereoProgram nonduplication rule-making

*NetworksWhat was PTAR and how did it work?What was ABC’s innovation in radio?What happened to several attempts a t forming a 4th television network?

! Educational to Public BroadcastingWhat was the Carnegie Commission?What were some of its recommendations in early 1967?What happened to them?

Most adopted, but not funding ideaHow were the national organizations formed?

CPB, NPR, PBSAnd what tensions became apparent?

Local stations v. central authoritylong-range Funding concerns

! AdvertisingHow did cigarette advertising come to be banned from the airwaves?What was “counter-advertising all about?

Programs and Audiences, 1960s and 1970s! Network Program Trends

How did the modern trend to using motion pictures on television begin? And why had ittaken so long?

NBC Saturday Night at the Movies in 1961 … by end of the decade at least one anight“Made for television” films also began on NBC, in 1966sometimes served as series pilots

In what ways was All in the Family a breaker of TV taboos? (1971)And Rowan and Martin’s Laugh-in? (1968)Why did Gunsmoke and Bonanza last so long (20 and 14 years)?Discuss Star Trek and what it says about televison

began in 1966, sparked movies and a 1987 revival with new castHow do the following shed light on television stereotypes?

UntouchablesI Spy, Julia

Why were (and are) game shows so popular with programmers?How did television journalism expand its influence?

CBS and NBC in 1963Civil Rights movementspace race and early manned missionsKennedy assassination

Vietnam war1968 campaign—King and Kennedy assassinationsdecline of network documentaries—why? moon landing

! AudiencesWhy did Congress investigate the ratings business?

Concern about how representative they were, possible fraudAny impact?

Nielsen pulled out of radio ratings; adjusted measuresWhy did Congress fund research into the impact of television (the Surgeon Generalscommittee in 1971–72)?

Concern about industry influence on findingscitizen group concerns

Last of Old-Style Regulation! Regulatory Period

Why is this a watershed period in electronic-media regulation?—more competing services raised the stakes—old issues seemed more “dug in”—the beginnings of Deregulation—added regulators

How was the Court of Appeals for the DC Circuit playing a stronger role?! Fairness

What was the Fairness Doctrine and where did it come from?What did it call for—what were its two parts?How was the Red Lion case so controversial and important?Did any station lose its license for fairness doctrine violations?

! CableWhy did the FCC take so long to arrive at conclusions about cable?Why was cable policy so contentious?

So many players—broad casters, cable, cities, movie businessgrowing awareness that cable could control “last mile” connection (see chart p. 468)

What were the central features of the “definitive” cable rules?! Other Issues/Players

In what ways did the Copyright Act of 1976 change the basic rules?Did the FCC attempt to control media ownership structurally have much impact?

newspaper ownershipHow did the industry become more sophisticated in its PR?

TIO and NAB self-regulationAction for Children’s Television

! ImpactHow did television impact movies and magazines, especially? And newspapers?

End of extras, decline of evening papersWhy was there a growing trend to media conglomerates?What was the chief television development abroad?

Arrival of color (about a decade after the U.S.)Spread of transistor radios into Third World countries and more focus on their rolein developmental process

Rising Competition in the 1980sWhat were some of the ways the early 1980s marked the end of broadcasting “only”competition?

Cable deregulated and cable networks (CNN, etc.) expandedDomsats to distribute signals—broadcast OR cableBreak-up of AT&T (1984) opened doors to new competitorsIntroduction of the CD (1983-84)

What were some of the chief changes in broadcasting in the 1980s?FM overcame AM after 1979Cable helped equalize VHF and UHF television stationsAll the networks changed hands (mid-1980s)... and more competition from “new” media

! TechnologyHow were consumers taking more charge of their viewing?

Expansion of VCRs and acceptance of VHS format—and more timeremote devices with “mute” buttons“Walkman” and related mobile technologies

What technologies did NOT succeed, demonstrating risks involved?Teletext/videotex

And what seemed to show promise?HDTV (the analog era)… Note 1981 FCC demonstration…Increasingly central role of computers and growing digitalization

How was the FCCs role in setting technical standards changing—and with what effect?! Stations, Systems, Networks

How and why did FM finally pull ahead of AM?Sound quality and stereo serviceMusic migrated to FM and took audiences with itseparate programming24/7 ability to program (unlike many AMs)Better receivers and less expensiveFailure of AM stereo push

In what ways did television change in the 1980?UHF began to reach a kind of parity thanks to cable and universality of all-channelreceiversInception of LPTV (and use of lotteries)MMDS—what was it and why?Rise and quick fall of STV (table, p. 514)—why did it fail?

Why did the FCC investigate networks for a third time?Concern as to why no fourth broadcast networkand usual worry about network concentration

And the impact of the inquiry?Strong support for deregulation, unlike first twolittle impact as technology (cable, satellites) providing the means for that fourthnetwork

Why did the old networks all change hands so quickly?ABC—retirement of GoldensonNBC—RCA running out of steamCBS—Paley not letting go and stock battle, leading to Tisch

What new networks appeared?

Murdoch’s Fox as first successful networkTurner and CNN ... and many other cable networks

Why did Carnegie sponsor a second PTV report—and what impact did it have?Funding concernBattle for control of CPB direction

What was the “long-range” funding battle about?How did the Reagan administration treat CPB funds?

Programs and Impact in the 1980s! Programs

How would you characterize program trends in this period?more of the same … or variations on existing themesless willingness to take risks amidst greater competitionreinforced as audiences generally stayed with tried and true patterns

What happened with radio programming?continued splintering of formats; and audiencesnostalgia (oldies)

Why was syndication increasingly important for TV producers?Difference between profit and loss(Network payments no longer met production costs)

What were examples of outstanding programs/trends on TV?M*A*S*H (Korea) and China Beach (Vietnam)“Evening soaps” (such as Dallas and Dynasty)Cheers based on a Boston bar and its clientsLove Boat vehicle for three intertwined storieslittle or no variety programs

How did television journalism become both more and less?Addition of cable news (CNN and CNN Headline, etc.)Late-nite news: Nightline (from Iran program in 1979)Prime-time anchors: 1981–82 all changed—and all still at it two decades laterdecline of network documentaries (a third of the level of two decades earlier)—why?Steady success of news magazine, 60 MinutesGrowth of local station news in metro markets to hour or moreGreater application of technology: ENG, SNG

How did television expand its political role?C-SPAN in 1979 with House coverage; Senate by 1985debates became a regular feature of presidential racesnetworks began to cut back on political convention coverage (ironic, as televisionhad made them predictable)

! AudienceWhat led to the people meter?

Existing methods (passive meter, diary) reflected program selection, but not actualviewingAdvertiser demand for info who was watching so could better determine advertisingplacement, impact

And the early impact of their use?Declining broadcast ratings for cable gains

What were the chief challenges for audience researchers?How to measure cable (as choices increased)How to measure time-shifting (VCR usage)

What were the Ronnie Zamora and Born Innocent cases about?Did television “cause” viewers to take specific actions

Deregulation in the. 1980s! The Big Shift

Remember that “re-” or “un-” or “de-” regulation had begun in the mid-1970s with fairlysmall moves ... pace picked up sharply in 1980sWhy the overall change to declining regulation?

—ideology: government shouldn’t do it all—(PICON liberals vs market-place conservatives)

—politics: (always) and result of effective lobbying(Confusion in “rewrite” attempts)

—economics: government couldn’t do it all and cost-benefit test! Content Controls

How was the radio deregulation proceeding important?What was involved?Why was it so controversial?What compromise was reached in the end?

How and why did the Fairness Doctrine come to an end? (pp. 568–9)Again, changing ideology on role of governmentBroadening technology options

Why is it so hard to sue a station (or newspaper) for libel? What had happened in the famousWestmoreland case, for example?

In what ways is the 1978 Pacifica case still important today?! New Services

How did the FCC change its approach to setting technical standards?AM stereo caseHow did “marketplace” get defined?What was the antitrust rub to all of this?

How did the FCC encourage DBS—and why didn’t the service thrive?FCC allocated but applicants quickly faded away

What was “must carry” all about?What was the gist of rationale for ownership limitation rules?Why did the FCC slowly increase the number of stations one entity could own?Why was the 1976 Copyright Act so important?The 1984 “Betamax” (actually Sony) case determined what? And what did it NOTdetermine?

The 1990s Marketplace! Technologies

Why so many new technical options? Don’t they overlap?What made DBS work the “second time” around?

more channels of servicedropping costs of TVROsdispleasure with cable serviceIn what ways has cable fought this competition?

Why is HDTV taking so long?Where did the concept first appear?Why was the shift to digital from analog so important?Why are sets selling so slowly?How could stations/networks help?How could cable industry help?What can/should the FCC do?And Congress?

What historical precedents could have foretold this delay?US color introduction

And why is digital radio (terrestrial that is) taking even longer?What are some of the pros and cons of Internet broadcasting?

! StationsThe radio medium appears increasingly in trouble—why?

What changes would you recommend?What is the appeal of the new satellite services?

! NetworksDescribe how the television networks have changed over the past decade or so—and whyHow have these changes helped or harmed service to viewers?Why has the expansion in number of cable networks slowed down?Is there such a thing as too MUCH choice of network services?How has the Internet changed the concept of “network?”

! Public BroadcastingAnything really new in the 1990s on this front?Why is the lack of funding a perennial problem?Do we even NEED public radio anymore? Public television?

! AdvertisingWhy is the broadcast advertising of “hard” liquor such a contentious issue?How does it compare to the legal status of cigarette advertising?

1990s Programs and Policies! Entertainment Trends

Is the struggle for commercial survival driving both radio and televison to a new bottomline?

Obscenity “shock jock” concerns on radio“Reality” programs on televisionWhat is (are) the appeal(s) of such programs

What is the appeal (to audiences, to broadcasters) of “all-talk all-the-time” on radio andtelevision?Why has HBO become a major programmer of original shows? In what ways are the limitson the pay network different than the traditional broadcast networks?Have any really new program types appeared in recent years? Or is everything a spin-off ofsomething earlier?How has television (especially) affected professional and college sports? Do many teamsexist because of the media coverage?Some reports indicate sports audiences are in decline—why might that be true?

! Broadcast NewsHow did television hasten the end of the Soviet system?What is the medium’s role in portraying war (1991 Gulf War, informer Yugoslavia in late1990s, or the war with Iraq now)?Provide some examples of television’s “agenda-setting” functionWhat is the appeal of the “news magazine” program-and why are there so many?Who watches local news? Why is there more of it? Network news?Whatever happened to the television documentary?Why have the television networks withdrawn from total coverage of the quadrennial politicalconventions?Why are we fascinated with real-life legal coverage such as the O.J. Simpson fiasco—is thisall merely another means of status-conferral? What might the impacts of such coverage be?Has the Internet taken away some of the news role of radio and television? What are somedrawbacks of Internet “news?”

! AudiencesWhat impact does the increasing splintering of radio and TV audiences have on the twomedia? On society?How did coverage of 9-11 compare with earlier crises/disasters, such as Pearl Harbor (1941)or the JFK (1963) or other assassinations? Is there a unique role for electronic media in suchcases?

! Policy ChangesHow did the 1996 Telecoms Act impact electronic media?

License renewalslength of license radio ownershipprogram content ratings system (does the code make much sense or have muchimpact, p. 671)?

Do stations take fines on their shock jocks as merely another “cost of doing business?”How does NTIA differ from the FCC? Do we NEED either—or both?Does the public generally care about deregulation?

! Around the WorldWhy are electronic media abroad looking more and more like the commercial U.S. system?

Assessing Key Trends! Overall

Interest in how the past informs the futureHow over the decades have we shifted from broadcasting to narrowcasting?How have we developed more outlets, but with a declining number of voices?Are the big media entities always going to get more so?

to some degree this is at question(And some past examples of failure—RCA, AOL-Time Warner)

! TechnologyWhat are some examples of successful invention but failed innovation?

JenkinsDe Forestteletext

How has patent control impacted the development of radio-television?How do existing technologies (AM, UHF, analog) create inertia?How can electronic media technology pioneering be risky?

some satellite systems, CBS color, teletext, Betamax, VCRDoes the life span of electronic media-technologies seem to begetting shorter?At the same time, are products being diffused more rapidly?How may limited frequencies and seemingly endless fiber capacity impact future services?How has the corporate lob (and its bid for control of families of patents) overcomeindividual inventing and innovating?Has there been a decline in American jobs—and if so, why?

decline in American R&D, education, and manufacturing—increasing reliance onthe Far East (and PRC , especially)

What roles does government play in electronic-media technology?Purchases, support for innovation, policy/regulation

Who should set technical standards?marketplace or government standard-setting?

Will we see a continuation of separate television and Internet services?And why does technical change usually come more slowly than predicted? (HDTV)

! Local and National DistributionIs there a difference between “national”and “local” any more?What has happened to the policy of localism over the years?

Localism policy vs. national/global economicsDiscuss and give examples of the “have and have-not”phenomenon.haves: have-nots:Clear channel AM stations Small market stationsVHF UHFAffiliates IndependentsMajority populations Minority/ethnic groupsBut … some have reversed in past two decades:AM (to 1980) FMTV networks (up to 1990) CableMight future industry divisions be along content production and distribution lines rather thana false local-national division?Are there too many stations—given how they duplicate one another?What are some of the impacts of a network-driven system?

Bland programming appealing to masses(“lowest common denominator”)

Great caution amidst program cyclesCatering to cautious advertisers (blacklisting)Generally … acting to keep others (networks, etc.) out

! The Public AlternativeWhat is the single most important problem or issue in public radio and television?Why does the system play such a small role here vis-a- vis abroad?Why use public funds to support a system appealing largely to a well-off elite minority withother options?Again, do we need so many individual (public) stations?

! AdvertisingWhat is the likely future between advertiser-supported and direct-payment electronic media?Or, horrors, might we end up with both?Any likelihood that we will develop some other means of support?

! ContentWhy are electronic media generally risk-aversive?Is anything likely to change the pattern of program invention-imitation-decline?Is there a “Greshem’s law” of programming—that the cheap and awful drive out the qualityand great programs?Why have broadcast documentaries largely disappeared?Will new media lead to a wider variety of program availability?Will news increasingly shift to the Internet? Why or why not?

! AudienceAs the audience gains in control of what it watches and when, will it play a stronger role indetermining content?

! PolicyHow has the meaning of PICON changed over time?How has the FCC’s role toward broadcasting changed?Does “localism “ mean anything anymore?How are lotteries and auctions (in place of traditional licensing) changing the meaning ofmedia?

! Overall ImpactIn what ways has broadcasting accelerated social movements?

Civil RightsFall of Communism in Eastern Europe(or negatively, crime sprees)

Why are many foreign broadcast systems adopting key aspects of the American system?How might life be different if there were NO broadcasting?Has television simply become, in reality, what FCC Chair Mark Fowler called it a decadeago—“a toaster with pictures?”