Subject Title: Asian Paradigm in Hospitality Management (HTM6005)

Group Assignment

Professor: Dean Kaye Chon

Topic: Examining Genuine Smiles in Asian Hospitality:

The Case of Bangkok and Hong Kong

Student: Jiwon Ava Seo (13096919g)

Christina Lam (13041104g)

Galihkusumah Ahmad Hudaiby (13106831g)

Date of Submission: September 4, 2014

CONTENTS

Abstract ······························································································································ 1

Introduction ························································································································· 2

Literature Review················································································································ 3

Cultures ························································································································ 3

Asian Culture ··············································································································· 4

Hong Kong ···················································································································· 4

Thailand ························································································································ 5

Asian Hospitality ········································································································· 6

Smile as Social Behavior ····························································································· 7

Commodification of Smile ··························································································· 8

Methodology ······················································································································ 9

Findings ······························································································································ 10

Findings from Survey in Bangkok ················································································ 10

Findings from Interviews in Bangkok ········································································· 11

Findings from Interviews in Hong Kong ····································································· 12

Conclusion ························································································································· 13

Limitation ··························································································································· 14

Recommendation ··············································································································· 14

References ·························································································································· 15

Appendix

Abstract

Despite a growing interest in Asian hospitality, the effect of culture on Asian hospitality

in academic literatures is relatively unexplored. The goal of this study is to shed some light on

the topic by exploring Asian propensity to present sincere smiles as a component of

“tangiblizing” the intangible. To elaborate the study, a series of interviews and surveys were

conducted at three hotels in Hong Kong and Bangkok (Hotel ICON Hong Kong, Dusit Thani

Bangkok, and Mandarin Oriental Bangkok).

The findings show that smiles in Thailand are not always as genuine as people think. It

might have been overrated since it sometimes appears to be perceived as customary or even false

smile. It suggests that as collectivist society, Thai people are more likely to perform smiles

because they were trained through a “mental programs” since early childhood in their society.

However, the smiles do not always come from the heart. On the other hand, the findings

demonstrate that Hong Kong does not have a welcoming smile as much as Thailand does. It is

because of long period of culture assimilation with European culture under British colony that

the society rather preferred quality and efficiency than welcoming smile. Therefore, due to the

influence of the British culture, the service in Hong Kong is known for its efficiency although

smile does not always come with a flourish of welcome. This can explain the impact of culture on

hospitality which cannot be looked into without consideration of its own culture.

Keywords: Asian hospitality, Bangkok, Culture, Hong Kong, Smile.

1

Introduction

The paper aims to explore the influence of culture on Asian hospitality by exploring

Asian likelihood to present genuine smile when they are servicing guests. Asians are identified

by their ability to provide genuine and heartfelt Asian hospitality (Ahn, Ho, Chen, & Chon,

2013), reputation for offering excellent service (Wan & Chon, 2010), and have a sense of

“kindness and giving” (Sucher, Pusiran, Dhevabanchachai, & Chon, 2013). It is greatly

influenced by strong Asian historical and cultural background values (Wan & Chon, 2010)

irrespective of one’s nationality and became an Asian intangible heritage.

Asian hospitality was created because of the characteristics of Asian culture such as high

power distances, high-context communication and its collectivist nature (Ahn, Ho, Chen, &

Chon, 2013). In Asian culture, the settings of the conversation and facial expression highly

influence the meaning of what being said (Seo, 2012:10). Hofstede’s (2001) study shows that

Western countries are more likely to be individualist societies while Eastern countries are more

collectivist societies. Wiseman and Pan’s (2004) work suggests that a higher level of

collectivism was associated with a greater likelihood to smile. They argue that smiling is not

only to express internal emotional states but also to present appropriate and competent social

behavior by the expresser. They elaborate that “appropriate social behavior is governed by

cultural display rules that inform the expresser how much, to whom, when, and where to express

one's internal emotional state” (Wiseman & Pan, 2004:1). Thus, when Asian people express

their sincerity and rectitude, they often show it with their smile as an appropriate social behavior.

In Asian society, smile as social behavior is acquired from the day they are born. This mental

programming that is called culture continues throughout their life in a particular society

(Hofstede & Bond, 1988).

2

Culture has been highly ignored when it comes to its influence on Asian hospitality in

academic literatures. Only few studies have identified how Asian culture influenced Asian

hospitality. Thus, it is necessary to investigate it in order to showcase the uniqueness of Asian

hospitality, particularly in the shifting period from Europe and American Paradigm to Asian

Paradigm. In this exploratory study, this paper will investigate Asian smile as a hospitality

behavior which was influenced by Asian culture where smiles act as social behavior.

Hong Kong and Bangkok, Thailand were chosen as the locations for this study. Hong

Kong known as an Asia’s world city, the melting pot of East-meets-West, reflects the blend

between Occident and Orient. On the other hand, Thailand, also known as “The Land of Smiles”,

represents the sincerity, kindness, and exoticness of Asia.

Literature review

Cultures

There is no doubt that cultures are in contact with one another through human interaction,

communication and experience; these human behaviors can differ between groups, generally as a

result of the unique experiences that disparate groups have had (Foster, 2000). These experiences

are usually a combination of history, geography, economic, religion, demographic, education and

other factors, which vary from group to group. Therefore, it is important to understand, manage

and also appreciate the differences in national culture. The forces of globalization carry

information that both informs and misinforms one culture about the other.

Culture can be either ethically or epically defined. Form an ethic approach culture is

defined by Hofstede and Hofstede (1997) as “the collective programming of the mind which

distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another”. If the mind is the

hardware, then culture is the software, meaning that we are all hardwired pretty much the same,

3

but the programs that we run on can be quite dissimilar. Culture is human software, and the

challenge is to make the program compatible. Hofstede and Hofstede (1997) suggested that

culture influences behavior through four manifestations: values, heroes, rituals, and symbols.

Hofstede (1991) portrayed the differences in national culture with five distinct culture elements.

There are power distance, individualism versus collectivism, masculinity versus femininity,

uncertainty avoidance, and long-term orientation.

It is critically important to understand the belief systems and fundamental values that are

at the heart of culture. Every country includes a brief discussion of “fundamental cultural

orientations”. These orientations, of course, change country by country, but the categories

themselves remain the same. Culture encompasses elements as shared values, beliefs, and norms,

which collect and distinguish particular groups of people from one another (Pizam, Jansen-

Verbeke, & Steel, 1997).

Asian Culture

Asia is a vast area, the largest continent in the world, with most of the earth’s human

population. The cultures, for the most part, are far older than in other parts of the world. The

Chinese culture goes back approximately five thousand years; the Indian, three thousand years;

the Japanese and Korean, thirty-five hundred years. Each culture is sharing certain similarities

with its Asian neighbors, nevertheless developed in different ways, resulting in the variety of

people and customs found in Asian countries today (Foster, 2000).

Hong Kong

Hong Kong’s population is nearly 7.3 million and Hong Kong is a part of China and it

shares the same cultural traditions as mainland China. Hong Kong is a well-known and famous

4

city in the world; it is recognized as a busy, modern, fast-paced and cosmopolitan city. Before

China took over Hong Kong in 1997, Hong Kong was a colony of United Kingdom and it

adopted many western customs and habits, however, their feet rooted deeply in Chinese cultural

ways. Therefore, Hong Kong offers a cosmopolitan culture that reflects the native Chinese

culture and the British colonial influence; this busy metropolis combines the hustle of New York

with the charm of Southeast Asia (Foster, 2000). Although Western and Eastern traditions blend

well, it does not always result in harmony and peace.

Many Chinese cultures operate more or less in harmony with each other. Education has

always been an essential Confucian ideal. Confucianism is based on the teachings of Confucius,

a Chinese sage who lived around 500 BC, has had a powerful impact on Chinese thought. It

established a philosophy of life that attempted to prescribe the correct and proper way for

individuals to relate to one another in order to achieve a well ordered, functioning society (Foster,

2000).

Thailand

Thailand’s population is nearly 65 million; about 13 per cent are of Chinese decent

(Howard, 2008). Formerly known as Siam, this kingdom is an anomaly in Southeast Asia in

several ways, most significantly, it is the only country in the region never to have been colonized

by an outside power or captured by one of its neighbors (Foster, 2000). This is a powerful

example of the Thai value and it made Thai people very proud of their country. Thai people do

have a remarkably iconoclastic sense of independence and individualism, relative to the rest of

the region. The word Thai means “free people”. However, today Thailand is a complete mixture

of the original culture and Western influences, education has always been an essential Confucian

ideal (Foster, 2000). Although most Thai people (over 90 percent) are Buddhists, the elements

5

and teaching of Confucianism is influencing their value, behaviors and beliefs of the society as a

whole. Confucianism has had a powerful impact on Asian Culture. Like many Asian cultures,

Thailand is a nonteaching culture; the handshake is a Western invention, and not native to

Thailand. The traditional Thai greeting is called the “Wai”, by putting the hands together in a

prayer position and holds them in front of one’s chest so that when people bend their head down

enough for their eyes to see the floor over the tips of their fingers just barely touch their forehead

(Foster, 2000).

Asian Hospitality

Asian hospitality relies heavily on the cultures and values resulting from the religious and

historical aspects of the Asian people. The combinations of these aspects embrace the

characteristics of Asian hospitality. It is characterized by the nature of Asian people. Sucher et al

(2013) propose 12 characteristics that embodied in Asian people such as warmth, empathy,

humility, morals, courtesy, helpfulness, modesty, respect, kindness, sincerity, loyalty and

friendliness. All these intangible characteristics embedded in the “soul” of mostly Asian people

and form the best ingredients to establish the highest quality standard of hospitality services

(Sucher, Pusiran, Dhevabanchachai, & Chon, 2013). Asian society “tangiblizes” the

aforementioned characteristics into one common facial expression, which is smile. This facial

expression became a symbol of those characteristics.

The symbol is learned through “mental programs” which are developed in the family in their

early childhood and reinforced in schools and social environment in which one grew up and

collected one’s life experiences (Hofstede, 2001). He argues this “mental programs” were

equipped to humans by their social environment as a preparation to encounter his journey of life

6

(Hofstede, 2001). Thus, people became very good at things that were considered important in

their community (Ember, 1977) because they were accustomed with it since their early childhood.

Smile as Social Behavior in Asian culture

Sucher et al (2013) argue that the modesty and courteousness of the Asian people itself

with a smiling face and demonstrating polite behavior in both verbal and non-verbal cues.

Smiling is a symbol of warm-heartedness and kindness in Asian society’s social behavior.

However, like many other social behavior, smile can be learned through intensive mental

programming in one’s society. Eventually, individuals will be accustomed to present an

appropriate smile as social behavior when they communicate in the society.

On the other hand, Ekman et al (2005) argue that even ‘highly trained’ people will find

difficulties to perform a genuine and sincere smile in every situations. They measured more

subtle aspects of facial expression and distinguishing different type of smiling. The first type of

smiling is a smile as a conversational signal. For instance, the listener response smile is one of

the most frequent of these conversational facial signals. It has the same meaning with ‘mm-

hmm’, ‘good’, and head nod it often accompanies (Ekman, Friesen & O’Sullivan, 2005). The

others types of smile are differentiate between felt and false smiles. Felt happy smile is “include

all smiles in which the person actually experiences and presumably would report, a positive

emotion” (Ekman & Friesen, 1982:242 as cited by Ekman, Friesen & O’Sullivan, 2005:201). The

elements in the facial expression of such positive experiences are the action of two muscles; the

muscle that pulling the lip corners upwards towards the cheekbone and the muscle which raises

the cheek and gathers the skin inwards from around the eye socket (Ekman, Friesen &

O’Sullivan, 2005). In contrast, false smile is deliberately made to convince another person that

positive emotion is felt when it is not in fact. There are two types of false smiles, which are

7

phony smile and masking smile. The former shows nothing much is felt but an attempt is made

to appear as if a positive feeling is felt, while in the latter, strong negative emotion is felt but an

attempt is made to hide those feelings by appearing to feel positive (Ekman, Friesen &

O’Sullivan, 2005). They believe that masking smile can be detected because of the felt emotions’

signs that the masking smile is intended to hide and provide evidence that it is false smile

(Ekman, Friesen & O’Sullivan, 2005). Furthermore, a masking smile combines the smiling

action as part of the felt smile, with some traces of the muscle movements from the negative

emotions. This is occurred more often when someone is pretending to be enjoying themselves

although they were having negative feelings.

Felt and false smiles are common social behavior either in Asian or European and

American societies. They use smile and other facial expressions as one form to communicate

with others. However, as collectivist society, Asian society has a greater likelihood to smile in

their social behavior in comparison to its western counterpart (Wiseman & Pan, 2004). Thus,

Asian people are more likely to get used to performing false smile because they learned it

through a “mental programs” since early childhood in their society. In addition, although one

cannot articulate the differences well, the distinctions felt and false smile may be recognized by

those persons who are well experienced by observing one’s facial expression, body gesture and

situational context.

Commodification of Smile

Asian society is characterized by their sincere and warm-hearted attitude and

“tangiblized” it with symbols such as smile, welcoming gestures and cordial facial expressions.

A number of countries in Asia are aware of these symbols and make use of it as their national

identity by putting the models’ portrait on their front page of advertising campaign with their

8

genuine and sincere smiles. The symbols were exploited in a number of Asian countries in their

marketing campaign as an allurement of the destination.

Furthermore, at the tourism and hospitality business level, a number of Asian based

hotels, resorts and airlines standardized the service procedures including staff’s appearance,

grooming and service behavior such as greeting and smile. Smile as a social behavior in Asian

society now has converted to a commodity in response to perceived demands of the tourists

market. Weaver and Lawton (2006) argue this kind of phenomena can be considered as a

commodification of the tourism to the extent that this confers a tangible monetary value on

sincere smile and warm greeting that already exist in the society. They argue that the problem

can occur when the meaning and inherent qualities of the natural and genuine performances

become less important than the goal of earning monetary value or other motivation such as

employee’s job promotion or bonuses.

Methodology

The main objective for this study was to explore the influential impact on Asian

hospitality and also to explore the Asian likelihood to present genuine smiles when servicing

guests. Hong Kong and Thailand have been selected for this study as they represent well the

uniqueness of Asian hospitality.

A mixed method has been used for this study. Authors have conducted the survey by

using ZWOOR application to collect the primary data from the guests at Dusit Thani Bangkok.

There were 17 respondents who participated and all respondents were asked to rate their

impression in 14 pictures that were taken from the Dusit Thani Bangkok, while the staff were

serving the guests. The participants ranked the staff’s sincerity of smile from 1 to 5 scales, 1 is

not genuine at all, 3 is neutral and 5 is very genuine.

9

There were 10 semi-structured interviews have been conducted and each interviews

lasted about 20 minutes. Semi-structured interview were carried out as some authors suggested,

offering enough flexibility for discussion and exploration while keeping the interview in the right

direction and within interview’s time constraints (Patton, 2002; Robson, 2002). The respondents

are at the age between 35-55 years old. They are the hotel executives or practitioners with an in-

depth knowledge in hospitality industry and the hotel guests are the frequent travelers. The

questions of the interviews are as follows:

1) Is Thai people’s smile “genuine” or not?

2) How would you justify the meaning of “genuine smile”?

3) All smiles are positive, some smiles are more positive. Is Thai or Hong Kong people’s smile

more positive than others?

4) Additional comments

Findings

Findings from survey in Bangkok

The first question from the survey was a simple question asking whether Thai smiles are

genuine or not. The result showed that 80% of respondents believed that Thai smiles are genuine.

The further question was to break down the level of genuine smiles from the respondents’ point

of view using the Likert scale from one to five; 1 as not genuine at all, 2 as not very genuine, 3 as

neutral, 4 as genuine, and 5 as very genuine. The findings revealed that 85% of respondents

scored 3 above while 53% of people marked 4 above. Although 80% of respondents answered

that Thai smiles are genuine, when it got narrowed down, the result surprisingly indicated that

32% of people scored that Thai smiles are neutral instead of genuine or very genuine. As a result,

the average score of genuine smile was 3.6 out of 5.0.

10

Findings from Interviews in Bangkok

For the description of genuine smile, the interviewees contended that genuine smiles

should reach eyes. Without smile with eyes, they agreed that it appears to look like fake smiles.

Besides, they would be able to recognize genuine smiles through sincere facial expression which

can appeal to people’s feeling by touching their hearts. It was also mentioned that it comes with

body gesture as well.

“All smiles are positive but some smiles are more positive than others”. A question

followed by the aforementioned statement was if Thai smiles are more positive than others. The

answers to this question were differed from three different groups of respondents. First of all,

locals had divergent opinions. Half of local people thought that Thai smiles were definitely

positive while the other half appraised that there was no difference. All of the local interviewees

were very proud of their own culture and highly valued the uniqueness of their culture. However,

the reason why the latter respondents answered that there was not a positive factor in Thai smile

could be analogized that they were born and raised with the culture which their happiness is

extremely important, thus, they have been taught to smile since their childhood. In this way, they

might not be able to realize that Thai smile is special or positive. However, there was an obvious

contrast between the answers from tourists and foreign residents living in Thailand. From the

tourists’ point of view, Thai smile was definitely positive, whilst foreign residents did not agree

with the idea. Since tourists were supposed to visit Thailand for a short period of time, they

might not have been able to see what people living in Thailand encountered. From the

perspective of tourists, Thailand was certainly “the land of smiles” as they were frequently heard.

However, the foreign residents’ opinion was different. They all pointed out that Thai smiles were

customary. In reality, the foreign interviewees living in Thailand all agreed with one point that

11

Thai people smile a lot more than any other people. However, foreign residents also claimed that

when Thai people face with something which does not please them, they change their face

instantly. Therefore, according to the perspective of foreign residents, Thai smiles were not

entirely positive.

In addition, the respondents indicated that false and inappropriate smiles create negative

feelings. As stated in traditional Thai culture, Thai people have been programmed to smile even

when things go wrong or in the case they do not know what to say and what to do, needless to

say, when they are embarrassed. In such cases, it may be able to generate frustration from guests’

standpoint.

Furthermore, the respondents reached a consensus on the fact that over-do would be able

to project uncomfortable feelings depending on the people with different cultural background.

For instance, a German respondent commented that German people could feel uneasiness with

over-do due to the reserved German culture. To sum up, it is assumed that famous Thai smiles

have been commodified to a certain extent and its original significance may have been gradually

faded.

Findings from Interviews in Hong Kong

For the description of genuine smile, the interviewees had an identical opinion with the

ones in Bangkok. They all mentioned that genuine smiles should be cheek raising and reaching

eyes along with heartfelt feelings and body gesture.

In respect to the positiveness about smile in Hong Kong, they all corresponded with the

fact that Hong Kong smiles are not able to compare to Thai smile and people in hospitality

industry in Hong Kong are not likely to smile as much as Thai people do. They commented that

the lifestyle in Hong Kong differs from the one in Thailand. Unlike Thai lifestyle which is

12

laidback and tends to have fun, people in Hong Kong have to adapt to the way of fast-paced life.

Since livelihood itself is very different in Hong Kong compared to Thailand, the service in

hospitality industry is accordingly dissimilar as well. Service in Hong Kong is known for its

efficiency although smile does not come with a flourish of welcome. Although Hong Kong is

located in Asia, it has different aspects from Thailand in terms of cultural background. Since

Hong Kong was a colony of United Kingdom, it absorbed a western culture and mixed with its

own Asian culture. As a result, it demonstrates differences with respect to customs and manners.

This fact has been reflected in hospitality industry.

Conclusion

According to the findings of this research, it seems that smile in Thailand is not always as

genuine as people think. The majority of the respondents appreciates Thai smile as genuine but it

might have been overrated since it sometimes appears to be perceived as customary smile. On

the contrary, the findings demonstrate that Hong Kong does not have a welcoming smile as a

selling point unlike Thailand. Thailand and Hong Kong cannot be exactly compared with regard

to solely welcoming smile and it should be seen in the context of its historical and cultural

background. Due to the difference of socio-culture and history, two places have its own strength

in accordance with hospitality. For instance, while Thailand is called to be a “The Land of

Smiles” offering warm and heartfelt smile to tourists, no matter whether their smiles are

commodified or not, Hong Kong has a strong aspect in hospitality industry providing efficient

and effective services. Due to the British colony, Hong Kong has been greatly influenced by

British culture where the society rather focuses on quality and efficiency than welcoming smile.

This can explain the huge impact of culture on hospitality which cannot be looked into without

consideration of its own culture.

13

Limitation

However, these findings cannot be generalized due to its small sample size and limited

data. For instance, the pictures used for survey in Thailand would not have been the best moment

to have been captured. The limitation of the very moment would have had an impact on the

decisions of respondents. Therefore, it is suggested that the further study should be conducted in

a larger scale with a greater deal of data. Furthermore, since this study is a case study of Thailand

and Hong Kong, it would not be able to represent the entire Asian countries. Considering each

country’s different cultural background, it would be interesting to find out similarities and

differences in the same context when additional researches were extended to deal with other

countries in Asia.

Recommendation

In the tourism and hospitality industry, smile will be enhanced when quality service is

delivered because smile alone would not mean anything without flawless service. It is also

important to convey genuine smile to guests that smiling should not be delimited to external

guests only but include internal guests as well. When guests observe that employees do not treat

their colleagues with respect, it would be hard to convince guests of their sincerity of smile. In

the case of Hong Kong, smiles would be counted as additional values on top of their efficient

services. Moreover, smile should be flashed at the right timing and also towards right guests. For

a desirable result, it is advised that service staff should be aware of cultural difference through

cross-cultural training.

14

References

Ahn, M., Ho, G., Chen, Y., & Chon, K. (2013). Creating a Framework for the Asian Paradigm

of Hospitality Management. In the 11th

APacCHRIE Conference 2013, 21-24 May

2013, Macau SAR, China. Conference Proocedings : ISBN 978-99965-1-047-2

Ekman, P., Friesen, W. V., & O'Sullivan, M. (2005). Smiles when lying. What the face reveals:

Basic and applied studies of spontaneous expression using the Facial Action Coding

System (FACS). Oxford University Press.

Ember, C. R. (1977). Cross-cultural cognitive studies. Annual Review of Anthropology, 33-56.

Foster, D. (2000). The Global Etiquette Guide to Asia: Everything You Need to Know. New

Jersey: John Wiley and Sons.

Hofstede, G., & Bond, M. H. (1988). The Confucius connection: From cultural roots to

economic growth. Organizational dynamics, 16(4), 5-21.

Hofstede, G. (1991). Organizations and cultures: Software of the mind. McGrawHill, New York.

Hofstede, G., & Hofstede, G. J. (1997). Software of the mind, intercultural cooperation and its

importance for survival.

Hofstede, G. H. (2001). Culture's consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions and

organizations across nations. Sage.

Howard, R. W. (2008). Western retirees in Thailand: motives, experiences, wellbeing,

assimilation and future needs. Ageing and Society, 28(02), 145-163.

Patton, M. Q. (1990). Qualitative evaluation and research methods . SAGE Publications, inc.

Pizam, A., Jansen-Verbeke, M., & Steel, L. (1997). Are all tourists alike, regardless of

nationality? The perceptions of Dutch tour-guides. Journal of International Hospitality,

Leisure & Tourism Management, 1(1), 19-38.

Robson, C. (1993). Real world research: A resource for social scientists and practitioners-

researchers. Massachusetts: Blackwell Pushers.

Seo, Y. (2012). Cultural impact on customer satisfaction and service quality evaluation in hotels.

Retrieved from http://digitalscholarship.unlv.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?

article=2371&context=thesesdissertations

Sucher, W., Pusiran, A.K., Dhevabanchachai, N., & Chon, K. (2013). The Influence of Asian

Cultural Values in the Asian Hospitality Services, in the 11th

APacCHRIE Conference

2013, 21-24 May 2013, Macau SAR, China. Conference Proceedings: ISBN 978-

99965-1-047-2

15

Wan, S., and Chon, K. (2010). “Asianess” – An Emerging Concept in Hospitality Management.

Proocedings of Asia Pacific CHRIE Conference, Phuket, Thailand, August 12-14,

2010,pp.

Weaver, D., & Lawton, L. (2006). Tourism Management. John Wiley and Sons.

Wiseman, R. L., & Pan, X. (2004). Smiling in the People's Republic of China and the United

States: Status and Situational Influences on the Social Appropriateness of Smiling.

Intercultural Communication Studies, 13, 1-18.

16

Appendix 1

Photos of 14 Dusit Thani Hotel Staffs

Appendix 2

Study Flow Chart

Taking photos of 14

Dusit Thani hotel

staffs

Survey Instrument

Preparation and

Setting-up Zwoor

Application

Data Collection (1)

Survey to 17

Respondents

Data Collection (2)

Semi-structured

Interview with 10

respondents.

Data Analysis &

Further Literature

Reviews

Paper Writing

Topic Brainstorming

Literature Reviews

Pre-Survey

Preparation &

Discussion