the 1789–1815 french revolution erich lessing/art resource

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The French Revolutionand Napoleon

1789–1815

.The Big Ideas,SECTION 1: The French Revolution Begins

Throughout history people have struggled for rights. Social inequality and economicproblems contributed to the French Revolution, a struggle for rights that has shaped the modern world.

SECTION 2: Radical Revolution and ReactionThroughout history people have struggled for rights. Radical groups controlled the revolution, which many people in France and abroad opposed.

SECTION 3: The Age of NapoleonThe quest for national self-determination is universal. After the French Revolution,Napoleon built and lost an empire, and also spread ideas about nationalism.

World History—Modern Times Video The Chapter 3 video,“Napoleon,” chronicles the rise and fall of Napoleon Bonaparte.

206

1790 1792 1794 1796 1798 1800

1799Napoleon participatesin coup d’état thattopples Frenchgovernment

1789FrenchRevolutionbegins

1791Olympe deGouges writesdeclaration of rights for women

1792NationalConventionestablishesFrench Republic

1793King Louis XVIis executed

1795The Directoryis formed

Olympe de Gouges

Louis XVI

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1802 1804 1806 1808 1810 1812

1804Napoleon is crownedemperor

1815Duke of Wellingtonand his army defeat Napoleon at Waterloo

Duke of Wellington

1801Napoleon reachesagreement with the pope

1802Napoleon madeconsul for life

1805British defeatFrench and Spanishat Trafalgar

1812NapoleoninvadesRussia

Napoleon

Napoleon Crossing the Great St. Bernard by Jacques-Louis David David was the leading artist of the French Revolution.

HISTORY

Chapter OverviewVisit the Glencoe WorldHistory—Modern Times Web site at

and click on Chapter 3–Chapter Overview topreview chapter information.

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Authors structure texts in order to present information logically. Theyoften do this by providing a number of causes, called complex

causation, leading to a particular effect. This shows that a number ofevents or developments are interrelated. Together these things have acumulative effect—they add up to a result that is highly significant.

You can understand complex causation through two steps: First, noticethat the author presents multiple reasons for a specific outcome. Second,when you are finished reading the passage with this structure, ask yourselfa focus question that will help identify the various events that led to thefinal result.

Read the following excerpt from this chapter and use the focus ques-tion to find the causes that contributed to Napoleon’s downfall.

A useful focus question for theexcerpt could include: What eventsweakened Napoleon’s power? Listfour causes based on the excerpt.Once you’ve read the chapter, goback to this question and think abouthow the causes are interconnected.

208 CHAPTER 3 The French Revolution and Napoleon

So long as Britain ruled the waves, it wasalmost invulnerable. Napoleon gathered togetherships, hoping to invade, but the British navydefeated the combined French-Spanish fleet atTrafalgar in 1805. . . . His next move was to make hisallies cut off trade with Britain. . . . The ContinentalSystem failed. . . . One of the most important factorsin Napoleon’s defeat was nationalism. . . . Thebeginning of Napoleon’s downfall can be dated to1812 when he made the fateful decision to invadeRussia. . . . Now that the French army was crippled,other European states joined in for the attack.

IDENTIFYING COMPLEX

CAUSATIONNotice the signaling phrase,One of the most important factors. If you didn’t notice thisat first, it gives you a cue to

reread to see if the author isdescribing a chain of

causes and effects.

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429CHAPTER 3 The French Revolution and Napoleon

Historical Research, Evidence, and Point of View: Standard HR 2Students identify bias and prejudice in historical interpretations.

Do you believe everything you read and hear? Can you recall reading an e-mailor hearing someone interviewed about an event and thinking to yourself, “I

don’t think that could have happened like that”?

Historians are trained to recognize bias in firsthand accounts and to think aboutwhy an account might be biased. Learning to identify bias is vital for the study ofhistory. Read this account of the execution of King Louis XVI of France. Thewriter, Henry de Firmont, was present at the events he describes:

“The path leading to the scaffold was extremely rough and difficult to pass; the King was obliged to lean on my arm, and from the slowness with which he proceeded, I feared for a moment that his courage might fail; but what was my astonishment, when arrived at the last step, he suddenly let go of my arm, and I saw him cross with a firm foot the breadth of the whole scaffold; and in a loud voice, I heard him pronounce distinctly these words: ‘I die innocent of all the crimes laid to my charge; I pardon those who had occasioned my death; and I pray to God that the blood you are going to shed may never be visited on France.”

Is the writer for or against the king? Discuss your position with a classmate, explaining how you came to your conclusion. Identify words and phrases in the quote that led to your decision.

As you read firsthand accounts in yourtextbook, remember that all of themhave some bias or point of view. Prac-tice looking for words and phrases thatsignal the author’s bias.

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Fall of the Bastillen the morning of July 14, 1789, a Parisian mob of someeight thousand men and women in search of weapons

streamed toward the Bastille, a royal armory filled with armsand ammunition. The Bastille was also a state prison.Although it contained only seven prisoners at the time, in theeyes of those angry Parisians it was a glaring symbol of thegovernment’s harsh policies. The armory was defended bythe marquis de Launay and a small garrison of 114 men.

The assault began at one o’clock in the afternoon when agroup of attackers managed to lower two drawbridges over themoat surrounding the fortress. The mob was joined by mem-bers of the French Guard, who began to bombard the fortresswith cannonballs. After four hours of fighting, 98 attackers laydead or dying. Only one defender had been killed.

As more attackers arrived, de Launay realized that he andhis troops could not hold out much longer and surrendered.Angered by the loss of its members, the victorious mob beatde Launay to death, cut off his head, and carried it aloft in tri-umph through the streets of Paris.

When King Louis XVI returned to his palace at Versaillesafter a day of hunting, he was told about the fall of theBastille by the duc de La Rochefoucauld-Liancourt. Louisexclaimed, “Why, this is a revolt.” “No, Sire,” replied theduke, “It is a revolution.”

O

The storming of the Bastille

Why It MattersThe French Revolution began a newage in European political life. Theold political order in France wasdestroyed. The new order wasbased on individual rights, represen-tative institutions, and loyalty to thenation rather than the monarch. Therevolutionary upheaval of the era,especially in France, created newpolitical ideals, summarized in theFrench slogan, “Liberty, Equality,and Fraternity.” These ideals trans-formed France, then spread to otherEuropean countries and the rest ofthe world.

History and You Using print orInternet sources, familiarize yourselfwith the lyrics to The Marseillaise,God Save the Queen, and The Star-Spangled Banner. How do they varyin subject matter, tone, theme, andstyle, and how are they similar? Create a chart listing your findings.

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The French Revolution Begins

Preview of Events

Guide to Reading

Section PreviewSocial inequality and economic problemscontributed to the French Revolution, astruggle for rights that has shaped themodern world.

• The Third Estate, which made up thevast majority of the French people, wereheavily taxed and discontented. (p. 212)

• By meeting as a separate assembly, theThird Estate claimed the right to havetheir votes count as much as those ofthe clergy and nobles. (p. 214)

• The National Assembly affirmed the“rights of man” and set up a limitedmonarchy in the Constitution of 1791. (p. 215)

Content Vocabularyestate, taille, bourgeoisie, sans-culottes

Academic Vocabularyconsumer, exclusion

People and Events to IdentifyLouis XVI, Tennis Court Oath, Declarationof the Rights of Man and the Citizen,Olympe de Gouges

Places to LocateVersailles, Paris, Austria, Prussia

Reading Objectives1. Describe how the population of France

was divided into three estates.2. Explain how the fall of the Bastille

saved the National Assembly.

Reading StrategyCause and Effect As you read this section, use a web diagram like the onebelow to list factors that contributed tothe French Revolution.

California Standards in This Section

Reading this section will help you master these California History–Social Science standards.

10.2.4: Explain how the ideology of the French Revolution led France to develop from constitutional monarchy to democratic despotism to the Napoleonic empire.

FrenchRevolution

1787Bad harvestleads to foodshortages

1788Bad harvest inten-sifies economicproblems in France

1789National Assemblyadopts Declaration ofthe Rights of Man

✦1785 ✦1790 ✦1795

1791National Assemblycompletes new constitution

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Background to the Revolution

The Third Estate, which made up the vastmajority of the French people, were heavily taxed and discontented.

Reading Connection What if you performed all thechores at your house, but had only bread to eat and no say-soin family concerns? Read to learn about the oppression ofFrance’s Third Estate.

The year 1789 witnessed two far-reaching events:the beginning of a new United States of America andthe beginning of the French Revolution. Comparedwith the American Revolution, the French Revolu-tion was more complex, more violent, and far moreradical. From the start, it was clear that somethingextraordinary was occurring in world history.

The French Revolution tried to create not only anew political order, but a new social order, too. Thiswas different from the American Revolution, whichcreated a new political system but did not change theexisting social system. There was no huge resentmentagainst a certain class. The American colonies hadwealthy people and clergy, but neither group wasgiven special status as they were in France.

The French Revolution was also more violentbecause the French had to decide what to do aboutthe king. His ancestors had ruled France for cen-turies, and his royal cousins and neighbors threat-

ened them with powerful armies. In the Americancolonies, there was no king whose dynasty had ruledfor centuries. And the only king that had to be gottenrid of lived far across the Atlantic Ocean.

The French Revolution was a major turning pointin world history. During the decade it occurred,many different forms of government were tried andmany new social ideas were put forth. One of themost powerful ideas of the French Revolution wasthat the people were the nation. This idea continuesto influence world politics in the twenty-first century.

Some causes of the French Revolution lay deep inthe past, while others were attributed to more imme-diate problems. The long-range causes were found inthe great inequality of French society. Since medievaltimes, each person belonged by law to one of threestatus groups, or estates.

The Three Estates The First Estate were the clergy,the Second Estate the nobles, and the Third Estateeveryone else. Thus the Third Estate included anyonefrom the lowliest peasant to the wealthiest merchant.

The First Estate, or clergy, numbered about 130,000out of a total population of 27 million and owned about10 percent of the land. These owners were not poorparish priests, but cardinals, bishops, and the heads ofmonasteries. Usually, well-to-do clergy were from thenoble families and shared their outlook and interests.

The Second Estate, or nobility, numbered about350,000 and owned about 25 to 30 percent of the land.They played a crucial role in society in the 1700s. Theyheld leading positions in the government, in the mili-tary, in the law courts, and in the Roman CatholicChurch. Despite the fact that they controlled most ofthe wealth of the kingdom, neither the clergy nor thenobles had to pay the taille (TAH•yuh), the chief tax.


A London Times correspondent sent a report to hiseditor on July 20, 1789. He may not have realized thefull significance of the events he reported, but theFrench Revolution had begun:

“The number of armed men in Paris is sup-posed to amount to 300,000 men, and they calledthemselves the Militia. The way by which so manypeople have procured arms is, that all the publicstorehouses where weapons were lodged, havebeen broken open, as well as several privatehouses plundered, which they thought containedthem. The Archbishop of Paris is among the num-ber of those who have been sacrificed to the peo-ple’s rage. He was assassinated at Versailles onTuesday night. The city of Paris is entirely sur-rounded with a guard, and not a soul suffered togo out who has an appearance of wealth.”

Conquerors of the Bastille

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Ever since French kings had gained absolute power,the nobles had been trying to regain some of theirrights. Another goal of the nobles was to continue tobe appointed to most important posts in the military,government, or Church. These positions were a sourceof the wealth every noble needed for his heirs.

Unlike the First and Second Estates, the ThirdEstate were divided by vast differences in occupation,level of education, and wealth. Peasants made upfrom 75 to 80 percent of the Third Estate and ownedabout 35 to 40 percent of the land; middle-class mem-bers of the Third Estate owned the rest. At least half ofthe peasants had little or no land to live on.

All peasants owed certain duties to the nobles.These duties were a holdover from medieval timeswhen serfdom was widespread. For example, a peas-ant had to pay a fee to grind his flour or press hisgrapes because the local lord controlled the flour milland wine press. When the busy harvest time came,the peasant had to work a certain number of daysharvesting the noble’s crop. French peasants fiercelyresented these duties.

Another part of the Third Estate consisted of urbancraftspeople, shopkeepers, and workers. These peopletoo were struggling to survive. In the 1700s, the price ofconsumer goods rose much faster than wages. Duringthe revolution, this group played an important role.

The bourgeoisie (BURZH•WAH•ZEE), or middleclass, was another group in the Third Estate. Theywere merchants, bankers, manufacturers, and profes-sional people—lawyers, public officials, doctors, andjournalists. They made up about 8 percent of the pop-ulation and owned about 20 percent of the land.

The middle class was unhappy with the privilegesheld by nobles. They did not want to abolish thenobility, however, but to better their own position.Some bourgeoisie had managed to become nobles bybeing appointed to public offices which conferred

noble status. About 6,500 new nobles had been cre-ated by appointment during the 1700s.

The bourgeoisie also shared certain ideas with thenobles. Both were drawn to the Enlightenment anddisliked the rigid social system. Ultimately, the dis-satisfaction of these elite groups led them to opposethe absolute monarchy of Louis XVI.

Financial Crisis The immediate cause of the revolu-tion was the near collapse of the French budget.Although the economy had been expanding for fiftyyears, there were periodic crises. Bad harvests in 1787and 1788 and a slowdown in manufacturing led tofood shortages, rising prices for food, and unem-ployment. On the eve of the revolution, the numberof poor—estimated at almost one-third of the popu-lation—reached crisis proportions.

One English traveler commented on the misery ofFrench peasants: “All the country girls and womenare without shoes or stockings; and the plowmen attheir work have neither shoes nor stockings to theirfeet. This is a poverty that strikes at the root ofnational prosperity.”

Despite these problems, the French king and hisministers continued to spend enormous sums on warsand court luxuries. When the government decided tospend huge sums to help American colonists againstBritain, the budget went into total crisis.

With France on the verge of financial collapse,Louis XVI was forced to call a meeting of representa-tives of the Estates-General, or all three Estates meet-ing together, to raise new taxes. Before French kingshad become so powerful, the Estates-General hadbeen consulted more often. In 1789, however, thisbody had not met since 1614.

Identifying What groups were partof the Third Estate?

Reading Check


The Three Estates in Pre-Revolutionary France

98%

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65%

10%

25% 100%

First Estate: Clergy Second Estate: Nobility Third Estate: Commoners

TaxationLand ownershipPopulation

The peasants of the ThirdEstate owned about 40 per-cent of the land, while thebourgeoisie owned about 25percent.

1. Identifying What groupowned 10 percent of theland in France?

2. Drawing InferencesFrom studying the circlegraphs, what inferencescan you draw about thecauses of the revolution?

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From Estates-General to NationalAssembly

By meeting as a separate assembly, the ThirdEstate claimed the right to have their votes count as muchas those of the clergy and nobles.

Reading Connection Have you heard about a riot andthought about what made people take to the streets? Read tolearn why Parisian workers rioted in the summer of 1789.

In the Estates-General, the First and SecondEstates each had about 300 representatives. TheThird Estate had almost 600 representatives, many ofthem lawyers from French towns and cities. To solvethe financial crisis, most of the Third Estate wantedto set up a constitutional government that wouldmake the clergy and nobility pay taxes.

The meeting of the Estates-General opened atVersailles on May 5, 1789. From the start, there werearguments about voting. Traditionally, each estatehad one vote. That meant that the First and SecondEstates could outvote the Third Estate two to one.

The Third Estate demanded that instead eachdeputy have one vote. With the help of a few noblesand clerics, that would give the Third Estate a majority.The king, however, stated that he favored the currentsystem.

Les Halles, the market area of Paris, is pictured with theGrand Chatelet in the background. Would this markethave been quieter or busier twenty years beforethe revolution? Why?

History

The Third Estate reacted quickly. On June 17, 1789,it boldly declared that it was the National Assemblyand would draft a constitution. Three days later, onJune 20, its deputies arrived at their meeting place,only to find the doors had been locked. They thenmoved to a nearby indoor tennis court and sworethat they would continue meeting until they had anew constitution. The oath they swore is known asthe Tennis Court Oath.

Louis XVI prepared to use force against the ThirdEstate. The actions of Parisians, however, saved thesituation. On July 14, Parisian workers stormed theBastille (ba•STEEL), an armory and prison in Paris,and dismantled it, brick by brick. Paris was aban-doned to the rebels.

Louis XVI was soon informed that he could nolonger trust royal troops to shoot at the mob. Theking’s authority had collapsed in Paris. Meanwhile,all over France, there were revolts in the towns andthe countryside. Popular hatred of the entire land-holding system, with its fees and obligations, hadfinally spilled over into action.

In the countryside, peasant rebellions became partof the vast panic known as the Great Fear. The peas-ants feared that the work of the National Assemblywould be stopped by foreign armies. Rumors spreadfrom village to village that foreign troops were on theway to put down the revolution. The peasantsreacted by breaking into the great houses of the lordsto destroy the records of their obligations.

Examining Why did the Third Estatebelieve voting in the Estates-General was unfair?

Reading Check

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History through Art

The Tennis Court Oath by Jacques-LouisDavid Members of the National Assembly sworethat they would produce a French constitution.What caused members to fear that the NationalAssembly would be dissolved by force?

The Destruction of the Old Regime

The National Assembly affirmed the “rights ofman” and set up a limited monarchy in the Constitution of 1791.

Reading Connection Remember how the English kingreacted to the American Declaration of Independence. Read tosee how Louis XVI reacted to the Declaration of the Rights ofMan and the Citizen.

The National Assembly reacted to news of peasantrebellions and rumors of a possible foreign invasion.On August 4, 1789, the National Assembly decided toabolish all legal privileges of the nobles and clergy.

Declaration of the Rights of Man On August 26,the National Assembly adopted the Declaration of theRights of Man and the Citizen. Inspired by the Eng-lish Bill of Rights of 1689 and by the American Decla-ration of Independence and Constitution, this charterof basic liberties began with a ringing affirmation of“the natural and imprescriptible rights of man” to “lib-erty, property, security, and resistance to oppression.”

The declaration proclaimed that all men were freeand equal before the law, that appointment to public

office should be based on talent, and that no groupshould be exempt from taxation. All citizens had theright to make laws. Freedom of speech and the presswere affirmed.

The declaration raised an important issue. Shouldits ideal of equal rights include women? Manydeputies insisted that it did, provided that, as oneman said, “women do not hope to exercise politicalrights and functions.”

One woman writer, Olympe de Gouges, refusedto accept this exclusion of women from politicalrights. Echoing the words of the official declaration,she wrote a Declaration of the Rights of Woman andthe Female Citizen.

“Believing that ignorance, omission, or scorn forthe rights of woman are the only causes of publicmisfortunes and of the corruption of governments,the women have resolved to set forth in a solemndeclaration the natural, inalienable, and sacred rightsof woman in order that this declaration, constantlyexposed before all the members of the society, willceaselessly remind them of their rights and duties.”

The National Assembly ignored her completely. ;(See page 773 to read an excerpt from de Gouge’s Declara-tion of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen inthe Primary Sources Library.)

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AvignonNîmes

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Spread of theGreat Fear, 1789

Area of peasant revolt (early 1789)Main currents of the Great Fear (summer 1789)

Parisian women march on Versailles.

Louis XVI is arrested at Varennes.

Louis XVI remained at Versailles during the great panicthat swept through France in the summer of 1789. OnOctober 5, 1789, thousands of women marched to Versailles and persuaded Louis to return to Paris with hisfamily. Louis later tried to escape from France in 1791 butwas captured at Varennes and returned to Paris. Whathappened to the royal family after their capture?

History

The King Concedes In the meantime, Louis XVIhad remained at Versailles. Used to the absolutistsystem, he stubbornly refused to accept the NationalAssembly’s decrees. On October 5, however, thou-sands of Parisian women—described by an eyewit-ness as “detachments of women coming up fromevery direction, armed with broomsticks, lances,pitchforks, swords, pistols and muskets”—marchedto Versailles. Some of the women then met with theking. They told him that their children were starvingbecause there was no bread. These hostile womenforced Louis to accept the new decrees.

Now the crowd insisted that the king and his fam-ily return to Paris to show support for the National

Assembly. If the king was not under their closewatch, they feared he would rouse the kings andprinces from other countries to oppose reform.

On October 6, the king and his family did return toParis. As a goodwill gesture, they brought wag-onloads of flour from the palace stores. Along theirroute, they were escorted by women armed withlong, sharp pikes who chanted: “We are bringingback the baker and the baker’s wife.” The king andhis family became virtual prisoners in Paris.

Church Reforms Under the old regime, theCatholic Church had been an important pillar of thesocial and political system. The revolutionaries felt

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A National HolidayThe French Revolution gave rise to the concept of the

modern nation-state. With the development of themodern state came the celebration of one day a year asa national holiday—usually called Independence Day.The national holiday is a day that has special signifi-cance in the history of the nation-state.

In France, the fall of the Bastille on July 14, 1789, hasbeen celebrated ever since as the beginning of theFrench nation-state. Independence Day in the UnitedStates is celebrated on July 4. On July 4, 1776, the Sec-ond Continental Congress approved the Declaration ofIndependence.

In Norway, people celebrate Constitution Day as anational holiday on May 17. On that day in 1814, Nor-way received a constitution, although it did not gain itsindependence from Sweden until 1905.

Most Latin American countries became independentof Spain or Portugal in the early nineteenth century.Mexico, for example, celebrates its Independence Dayon September 16 with a colorful festival. On September16, 1810, a crowd of local people attacked Spanishauthorities in a small village near Mexico City. They

were crushed, but their actioneventually led to Mexico’s inde-pendence from Spanish controlin 1821.

Most nations in Africa andAsia gained their independencefrom Western colonial powersafter World War II. India cele-brates Independence Day onAugust 15. On that day in 1947,India won its independencefrom the British Empire.

Bastille Day parade �

Every nation celebrates its Independence Day withdifferent kinds of festivities. For example, in theUnited States, many people have barbecues andwatch fireworks displays. Choose two othernations and research how each nation and itspeople celebrate their Independence Day. Createan illustrated poster or chart showing your results.

they had to reform it too. The new revolutionary gov-ernment was also motivated by the need for money.By seizing and selling off Church lands, the NationalAssembly was able to increase the state’s revenues.

Finally, the Church was brought under the controlof the state formally. A law was passed called theCivil Constitution of the Clergy. It said that bishopsand priests were to be elected by the people, notappointed by the pope and the church hierarchy. Thestate would also pay the salaries of the bishops andpriests.

This legislation affecting the Church upset manyCatholics in France. They felt that state control waswrong. Many of them became permanent enemies ofthe revolution, and of all radical ideas in politics.

A New Constitution and New Fears The newConstitution of 1791 set up a limited monarchy. Therewas still a king, but the Legislative Assembly wouldmake the laws. The new body was designed to beconservative. First, only men over 25 who paid a cer-tain amount of taxes could vote. Second, the method

217

of choosing its 745 representatives meant that onlyrelatively wealthy people would serve.

By 1791, the old order had been destroyed, but thenew government did not have enough support. Onone hand were political radicals and economicallydisadvantaged people who wanted greater reform.On the other hand were the king and his court whoresisted the new government. In June 1791, the kingattempted to flee France. He almost succeeded butwas captured and brought back to Paris. In this unset-tled situation, the new Legislative Assembly met forthe first time in October 1791. Soon, France’s rockyrelations with the rest of Europe led to the downfallof the king.

War with Austria A number of European leadersworried that revolution would spread to their lands.Austria and Prussia even threatened to use force torestore Louis XVI to full power. The LegislativeAssembly decided it would act first and declared waron Austria in early 1792.

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At first, the French fared badly in the war. A fran-tic search for scapegoats began. One observer noted,“Everywhere you hear the cry that the king is betray-ing us, the generals are betraying us, that nobody isto be trusted; . . . that Paris will be taken in six weeksby the Austrians . . . we are on a volcano ready tospout flames.”

Rise of the Paris Commune In the spring of 1792,angry citizens demonstrated to protest food short-ages and defeats in the war. In August, Paris radicalsagain decided the fate of the revolution. Theydeclared themselves a commune—a popularly runcity council—and organized a mob attack on theroyal palace and Legislative Assembly.

Members of the new Paris Commune took the kingcaptive. They forced the Legislative Assembly to sus-pend the monarchy and to call for a National Conven-tion. This time they wanted a more radical change: Allmale citizens would vote for the representatives whowould decide the nation’s future.

The French Revolution was entering a more radicaland violent stage. Many members of the Paris Com-mune proudly called themselves the sans-culottes,ordinary patriots without fine clothes. They worelong trousers, not the knee-length breeches of thenobles. (In French, sans-culottes means “withoutbreeches.”) Often, sans-culottes are depicted as poorworkers, but many were merchants or artisans—theelite of their neighborhoods.

Evaluating What was the significanceof the Constitution of 1791?

Reading Check


A woman of the Third Estate painted by Jacques-Louis David

Checking for Understanding1. Vocabulary Define: estate, taille, con-

sumer, bourgeoisie, exclusion, sans-culottes.

2. People and Events Identify: Louis XVI,Tennis Court Oath, Declaration of theRights of Man and the Citizen, Olympede Gouges.

3. Places Locate: Versailles, Paris, Austria,Prussia.

Reviewing Big Ideas4. Explain why the Catholic Church was

targeted for reform.

Critical Thinking5. Summarize What were the main affir-

mations of the Declaration of the Rightsof Man and the Citizen?

6. Organizing Information Equality wasone of the slogans of the French Revo-lution. In a web diagram, identify fiveoccasions when different groupsexpressed concern for equality duringthe revolution.

Analyzing Visuals7. Examine the painting of the Tennis

Court Oath shown on page 215. Howdoes David’s painting reflect the idealsof the French Revolution?

8. Persuasive Writing Olympe deGouges wrote that “ignorance, omis-sion, or scorn for the rights ofwoman are the only causes of publicmisfortunes and of the corruption ofgovernments.” Do you agree or dis-agree? Write a paragraph supportingyour point of view. CA 10WA2.4a,c

Expressions of Equality

For help with the concepts in this section of Glencoe WorldHistory—Modern Times, go to andclick on Study Central.

wh.mt.glencoe.com

Study CentralHISTORY


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Radical Revolution and Reaction

Preview of Events

Guide to Reading

Section PreviewRadical groups controlled the revolution,which many people in France and abroadopposed.

• Some European countries opposed therevolution and threatened to invadeFrance to keep the king in power. (p. 220)

• While the Committee of Public Safetywas in power, thousands who opposedthe government were executed. (p. 221)

• The revolutionary government raised ahuge army that successfully defendedFrance against invasion. (p. 223)

• The Constitution of 1795 set up a newgovernment, but it was not able toinspire trust or solve the government’seconomic problems. (p. 224)

Content Vocabularyfaction, elector, coup d’état

Academic Vocabularydomestic, external

People and Events to IdentifyGeorges Danton, Jean-Paul Marat,Jacobins, Committee of Public Safety,Maximilien Robespierre, Reign of Terror,the Directory

Places to LocateLyon, Nantes, Austrian Netherlands

Reading Objectives1. Identify the reasons why a European

coalition fought together againstFrance.

2. Explain why the Reign of Terroroccurred.

Reading StrategySummarizing Information As you readthe section, use a table like the onebelow to list the actions of the NationalConvention.



10.2.4: Explain how the ideology of the French Revolution led France todevelop from constitutional monarchy to democratic despotism tothe Napoleonic empire.

Actions taken by the National Convention1.2.3.4.

1792National Convention splits into factions

1793King Louis XVIis executed

1794Reign of Terrorends

✦1792 ✦1793 ✦1794 ✦1795

1795New constitutionis created


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The Move to Radicalism

Some European nations opposed the revolutionand threatened to invade France to keep the king in power.

Reading Connection What issues today might be usedto justify sending American troops into another country? Readto find out what drove some European nations to considerinvading France in 1793.

The Paris Commune had forced the LegislativeAssembly to call a National Convention. Before theConvention met, the Paris Commune dominated thepolitical scene. Led by the newly appointed ministerof justice, Georges Danton, the sans-culottes soughtrevenge on those who had aided the king and re-sisted the popular will. Soon the life of the king him-self was at risk.

The buildup to the king’s execution began aboutthe time elections were called for a new NationalConvention. Thousands were arrested and then mas-sacred. New leaders of the people emerged, includ-ing Jean-Paul Marat, who published a radical journalcalled Friend of the People.

In September 1792, the newly elected NationalConvention began meeting. It had been called todraft a new constitution, but it also served as the rul-ing body of France. The Convention was dominatedby lawyers, professionals, and property owners.

Two-thirds of its deputieswere under the age of 45,but most had gottensome political experi-ence as a result of therevolution. Almost alldistrusted the king. Itwas therefore no sur-prise that the NationalConvention’s firstmajor step on Septem-ber 21 was to abolish themonarchy and establish arepublic, the French Republic.

The convention soonsplit into factions, or dis-senting groups, however,over the fate of the king. The two main factions werethe Girondins (juh•RAHN•duhns) and the Mountain.Both belonged to the Jacobins (JA•kuh•buhns), a net-work of national political clubs. The Girondins tendedto represent areas outside Paris and favored keepingthe king alive. The Mountain represented the interestsof radicals in Paris. They felt the king needed to beexecuted to ensure he was not a rallying point foropponents of the republic.

In early 1793, the Mountain convinced the Con-vention to condemn Louis XVI to death. On January21, he was beheaded on the guillotine. This machinewas favored because it killed quickly and, the revo-lutionaries felt, humanely. The king’s execution cre-ated new enemies for the revolution, both at homeand abroad. A new crisis was at hand.

Disputes between the Girondins and the Mountainwere only one reason France went through a domesticcrisis in 1792 and 1793. In Paris, the Commune wasconstantly pressuring the National Convention toadopt more radical measures. In the country at large,there was serious resistance to the Convention in west-ern France and in several important cities.

A crisis in foreign affairs was looming, too. WhenLouis XVI was executed, the crowned heads ofEurope were outraged. Austria and Prussia werealready threatening to invade in the summer of 1792.Now, with the king’s execution, an informal coalitionof Austria, Prussia, Spain, Portugal, Britain, and theDutch Republic took up arms against France. TheFrench armies began to fall back.

By late spring of 1793, the coalition was poised toinvade. It seemed possible that the revolutionarieswould be destroyed, and the old regime reestab-lished. The moment was decisive.


The execution of King Louis XVI in 1793 pushedthe French Revolution into a new radical stage.Henry de Firmont reported on this dramatic event ofJanuary 21, 1793:

“The path leading to the scaffold was extremelyrough and difficult to pass; the King was obliged tolean on my arm, and from the slowness withwhich he proceeded, I feared for a moment thathis courage might fail; but what was my astonish-ment, when arrived at the last step, he suddenlylet go of my arm, and I saw him cross with a firmfoot the breadth of the whole scaffold; and in aloud voice, I heard him pronounce distinctly thesewords: ‘I die innocent of all the crimes laid to mycharge; I pardon those who had occasioned mydeath; and I pray to God that the blood you aregoing to shed may never be visited on France.”

King Louis XVI

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In order to meet the domestic and foreign crises,the National Convention gave broad powers to aspecial committee of 12, the Committee of PublicSafety. It was dominated at first by Georges Danton,then by Maximilien Robespierre.

Examining What were the differ-ences between the Girondins and the Mountain?

The Reign of Terror

While the Committee of Public Safety was inpower, thousands who opposed the government were executed.

Reading Connection Can you think of a modern-daygovernment that has executed its critics? Read to learn how thethreat of execution affected French people in the 1790s.

For roughly a year during 1793 and 1794, the Com-mittee of Public Safety was in control of the govern-ment. It acted to defend France from external anddomestic threats. To meet these threats, it adoptedpolicies that created what came to be known as theReign of Terror.

Reading Check

Revolutionary courts were set up and almost40,000 people were killed. Of those, 16,000 people,including Marie Antoinette and Olympe de Gouges,died by the guillotine. Most executions occurred intowns and cities that had openly rebelled against theNational Convention.

Crushing Rebellion Revolutionary armies were setup to bring rebellious cities back under the control ofthe National Convention. The Committee of PublicSafety decided to make an example of Lyon. Some1,880 citizens of that city were executed. When guil-lotining proved too slow, grapeshot (a cluster ofsmall iron balls) was used to shoot the condemnedinto open graves. A German observer wrote:

“Whole ranges of houses, always the most hand-some, burnt. The churches, convents, and all thedwellings of the former patricians were in ruins.When I came to the guillotine, the blood of thosewho had been executed a few hours beforehand wasstill running in the street. . . . I said to a group ofsans-culottes that it would be decent to clear away allthis human blood. Why should it be cleared? one ofthem said to me. It’s the blood of aristocrats andrebels. The dogs should lick it up.”


Jean-Paul Marat1743–1793French revolutionary

Jean-Paul Marat was a popularrevolutionary leader in Paris atthe beginning of the radicalstage of the French Revolution.Born in Switzerland, he practicedmedicine in London before returning to France in 1777.Marat was an intense man, always in a hurry: “I allotonly two of the twenty-four hours to sleep. I have nothad fifteen minutes play in over three years.” He oftenworked in the bathtub because the water soothed thepain of a severe skin disorder.

In his journal, Friend of the People, Marat expressedhis ideas, which were radical for his time. He called formob violence and the right of the poor to take by forcewhatever they needed from the rich. He helped make theJacobins more radical, especially by condemning theGirondins. This also led to his death: Charlotte Corday, aGirondin, stabbed him to death in his bathtub.

Maximilien Robespierre1758–1794French revolutionary

Robespierre was one of the mostimportant French revolutionaryleaders. He received a law degreeand later became a member of theNational Convention, where he preacheddemocracy and advocated suffrage (the rightto vote) for all adult males. He lived simply and wasknown to be extremely honest. In fact, he was oftenknown as “The Incorruptible.” A believer in Rousseau’ssocial contract idea, Robespierre thought that anyoneopposed to being governed by the general will, as heinterpreted it, should be executed.

One observer said of Robespierre, “That man will gofar; he believes all that he says.” Robespierre himselfsaid, “How can one reproach a man who has truth on hisside?” His eagerness and passion in pursuing the Reignof Terror, however, frightened many people. Eventually,he was arrested and guillotined.

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In the west of France, too, revolutionary armieswere brutal in defeating rebels. The commander ofthe revolutionary army ordered that no mercy begiven: “The road is strewn with corpses. Women,priests, monks, children, all have been put to death. Ihave spared nobody.” Perhaps the most notoriousviolence occurred in Nantes, where victims were exe-cuted by being sunk in barges in the Loire River.

People from all classes were killed during the Ter-ror. Clergy and nobles made up about 15 percent of thevictims, while the rest were from the bourgeoisie andpeasant classes. The Committee of Public Safety heldthat all this bloodletting was only temporary. Once thewar and domestic crisis were over, the true “Republicof Virtue” would follow, and the Declaration of theRights of Man and the Citizen would be fully realized.

The Republic of Virtue The Committee of PublicSafety took other steps to shape a new kind of Frenchsociety. Robespierre called this the Republic of Virtue—a democratic republic composed of good citizens. Asoutward signs of support for the republic, the titles

“citizen” and “citizeness” were to replace “mister” and“madame.” Women wore long dresses inspired by theclothing of the ancient Roman Republic.

Good citizens would be formed by good educa-tion. A law aimed at primary education for all waspassed but not widely implemented. Another lawabolished slavery in French colonies.

Because people were alarmed about high inflation,the committee tried to control the prices of essentialgoods like food, fuel, and clothing. The controls didnot work well, however, because the governmenthad no way to enforce them.

During this radical stage of the revolution, womenremained very active. They observed sessions of theNational Convention and were not shy about makingtheir demands known. In 1793, two women foundedthe Society for Revolutionary Republican Women inParis. Most members were working-class womenwho asserted that they were ready to defend therepublic. Men usually felt, however, that womenshould not be participating in politics or volunteer-ing to fight.


When Can Society Rightfully Break the Social Contract?In a famous debate, two Englishmen,Edmund Burke and Thomas Paine,answered this question very differ-ently. Burke, horrified by revolution-ary violence, emphasized thatpeople should be very cautiousbefore breaking with tradition.Paine, a fervent supporter of theAmerican Revolution, arguedfor great freedom in estab-lishing a new government.

“Society is indeed a contract. Subordinate con-tracts for objects of mere occasional interest may bedissolved at pleasure—but the state ought not to beconsidered as nothing better than a partnershipagreement in a trade of pepper and coffee . . . takenup for a little temporary interest, and to be dis-solved by the fancy of the parties. . . . . As the endsof such a partnership cannot be obtained in manygenerations, it becomes a partnership not onlybetween those who are living, but between thosewho are to be born. Each contract of each particularstate is but a clause in the great primaeval contractof eternal society, linking the lower with the highernatures, connecting the visible and the invisibleworld, according to a fixed compact. . . . .”

—Edmund Burke, Reflections on the French Revolution (1789)

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Robespierre came to realize, however, that mostFrench people would not accept these efforts at de-Christianization. France was still overwhelminglyCatholic.

Analyzing How did the Committeeof Public Safety identify enemies of the state?

A Nation in Arms

The revolutionary government raised a hugearmy that successfully defended France against invasion.

Reading Connection How would you feel if every youngman in your town or city had to join the army? Read to findout French reaction to a national draft in 1793.

As foreign troops gathered on its borders, the rev-olution seemed to be in danger. To save the republic,the Committee of Public Safety issued a decree foruniversal mobilization on August 23, 1793:

“Young men will fight, young men are called toconquer. Married men will forge arms, transport mili-tary baggage and guns and will prepare food supplies.Women, who at long last are to take their rightfulplace in the revolution and follow their true destiny,will forget their futile tasks: their delicate hands willwork at making clothes for soldiers; they will maketents and they will extend their tender care to shelterswhere the defenders of the Patrie [homeland] willreceive the help that their wounds require. Childrenwill make lint of old cloth. It is for them that we arefighting: children, those beings destined to gather allthe fruits of the revolution, will raise their pure handstoward the skies. And old men, performing their mis-sions again, as of yore, will be guided to the publicsquares of the cities where they will kindle the courageof young warriors and preach the doctrines of hate forkings and the unity of the Republic.”

In less than a year, the French revolutionary gov-ernment had raised a huge army—by September1794, it was over a million. It was the largest armythat had ever been seen in Europe, and it pushed theallied invaders back across the Rhine. It even con-quered the Austrian Netherlands.

The French revolutionary army was very impor-tant in creating modern nationalism. In earlier times,wars were more the business of ruling dynasties whofought rivals with relatively small armies of paid pro-fessionals. This army was created by a people’s gov-ernment. Its wars were people’s wars.

Reading Check


“Every age and generation must be as free toact for itself in all cases as the age and genera-tions which preceded it. The vanity and presump-tion of governing beyond the grave is the mostridiculous and insolent of all tyrannies. Man hasno property in man; neither has any generation aproperty in the generations which are to follow.Every generation is, and must be, competent toall the purposes which its occasions require. It isthe living, and not the dead, that are to beaccommodated.”

—Thomas Paine,The Rights of Man (1792)

1. Based on these excerpts, how would Burkeidentify the people who make a social contract fora government? How would Paine do so?

2. With which of these arguments do you think mostAmericans would agree? Why do you think so?

The Convention also pushed a policy of de-Christianization. Its members believed that theCatholic Church encouraged superstition, ratherthan the use of reason. The word saint was removedfrom street names, churches were pillaged and closedby revolutionary armies, and priests were encour-aged to marry. In Paris, the cathedral of Notre Damewas designated a “temple of reason.” In November1793, a public ceremony dedicated to the worship ofreason was held in the former cathedral. Patrioticmaidens in white dresses paraded before a temple ofreason where the high altar had once stood.

Another example of de-Christianization was theadoption of a new calendar. Years would no longer benumbered from the birth of Christ but from September22, 1792—the first day of the French Republic. The calen-dar contained 12 months. Each month consisted of three10-day weeks, with the tenth day of each week a day ofrest. This eliminated Sundays and Sunday worship serv-ices, as well as church holidays. Even the months weregiven new names. The new names often referred to agri-culture or the climate. Vendémiaire, which was roughlythe month of October, meant “vintage time.”

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End of the Terror By mid-1794, most of France’senemies had been defeated. There was less need forthe tight control of the Reign of Terror, but still it con-tinued. The powerful Robespierre was obsessed withridding France of every enemy and all corruption.Only then could the Republic of Virtue follow.

Now many deputies in the Convention decided toact against Robespierre: if they did not, he might exe-cute them next. The deputies won enough votes tocondemn Robespierre, and he himself went to theguillotine on July 28, 1794.

After the death of Robespierre, revolutionary fer-vor cooled. Gradually the Jacobins lost power andmoderate leaders took control. The Reign of Terrorcame to a halt.

Evaluating How did the French revo-lutionary army help to create modern nationalism?

Reading Check

The Directory

The Constitution of 1795 set up a new govern-ment, but it was not able to inspire trust or solve thegovernment’s economic problems.

Reading Connection What kind of government didAmericans set up after the Revolutionary War? Read to learnabout the French government set up after the Reign of Terror.

With the terror over, the National Conventionmoved in a more conservative direction. First, itrestricted the power of the Committee of PublicSafety. Next, churches were allowed to reopen.Finally, a brand-new constitution was created.

To keep any one political group from gaining con-trol, the Constitution of 1795 set up a legislative branchof two houses. A lower house, known as the Council of


During the Reign of Terror, thousands of people,including aristocrats and the queen of France, werekilled by the guillotine. Why did the revolutionariesdecide to use the guillotine to execute people?

History

Marie Antoinettegoes to her execution.

Model of a guillotine

Reign of Terror execution list

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500, drafted laws. An upper house of 250, the Councilof Elders, accepted or rejected proposed laws.

The method for election shows that the new gov-ernment was much more conservative than the gov-ernment of Robespierre. Members of both houseswere chosen by electors, or qualified voters. Onlythose who owned or rented property worth a certainamount could be electors—only 30,000 people in thewhole nation qualified.

Under the new constitution, the executive was acommittee of five termed the Directory. The upperhouse chose the Directors from a list presented by thelower house.

The Directory, which lasted from 1795 to 1799,became known mainly for corruption. Governmentofficials and legislators often made fortunes throughgovernment contracts or by loaning the governmentmoney at very high interest rates.

The Directory faced massive challenges. First, likeearlier governments, it had political enemies. Somepeople wanted to bring back the monarchy, while oth-ers plotted to create a more radical regime like Robes-pierre’s. Second, economic problems continued withno solution in sight. Finally, France was still conduct-ing an expensive war against foreign enemies.

To stay in power, the Directory began to rely onthe military, but one military leader turned on thegovernment. In 1799, General Napoleon Bonapartetoppled the Directory in a coup d’état (KOO DAY•TAH), a sudden overthrow of the government.

Describing Describe the governmentthat replaced the National Convention.

Reading Check


History through Art

The Eighteenth of Brumaire by François BouchotThis painting depicts Napoleon’s coup d’état, November 10,1799. What factors helped Napoleon (shown center)overthrow the Directory?

Checking for Understanding1. Vocabulary Define: faction, domestic,

external, elector, coup d’état.

2. People and Events Identify: GeorgesDanton, Jean-Paul Marat, Jacobins,Committee of Public Safety, MaximilienRobespierre, Reign of Terror, the Directory.

3. Places Locate: Lyon, Nantes, AustrianNetherlands.

Reviewing Big Ideas4. Explain both the similarities and the

differences between the Girondins andthe Mountain.

Critical Thinking5. Understanding

Chronology Did the French Republiclive up to the revolution’s ideals of Lib-erty, Equality, and Fraternity? Write aparagraph to support your opinion.

6. Contrasting Information Use a table like the one below to contrastgovernment policy during and afterRobespierre.

Analyzing Visuals7. Examine the painting shown on page

224. Explain whether or not you thinkthis is a realistic depiction of MarieAntoinette before her execution, orwhether the artist is promoting a partic-ular version of events.CA CS 1

8. Expository Writing Propaganda isthe spreading of information to helpor hurt a cause. How does thedecree of universal mobilizationquoted on page 223 fit the definitionof propaganda? Support your argu-ment in an essay. CA 10WA2.3

During After


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Revolutionary France

In 1794, deputies in the National Con-vention proposed a new military school

to train young boys aged 16 and 17 in thearts of war and the love of country. A fewmonths later, the École de Mars, or Schoolof Mars (the Roman god of war), openedon the outskirts of Paris.

The 3,400 recruits were expected tomaintain high moral standards andbecome enthusiastic patriots, but manyignored the rules and expressed a wish togo home. After the death of Robespierre,the school shut down. The plan to trainyoung people in a few weeks to be dedi-cated patriots had failed.

At the same time, many of these youthsnow became part of the reaction againstthe Reign of Terror. They formed whatwere called “golden youth,” gangs ofyoung men who attacked Jacobins anddestroyed public statues of revolutionaryfigures, such as Jean-Paul Marat.

For many young people who had sharedin the revolutionary enthusiasm, however,

the reaction against the Reign of Terrorwas a disaster. One good example is Marc-Antoine Jullien. At 18, he had been anassistant to Robespierre. After the execu-tion of Robespierre, he was hunted downand put in prison for two years.

In prison, Jullien wrote a diary on thehardships of a young revolutionary whohad grown old before his time: “I was bornin a volcano, I lived in the midst of itseruption. I will be buried in its lava.” Heexpressed his pain: “My life is a dark andterrible story, but one that is touching andeducational for inexperienced youth.”

When Jullien was released from prison,he wrote, “I am leaving, I never wish tosee Paris again, I want cows and milk. I amtwenty-one years old, may the dawn of mylife no longer be clouded by dark images.”

Disillusioned by his troubles, Julliencame to long for a savior who wouldrestore the freedom of the republic. WhenNapoleon came along, he believed that hehad found his savior.


In this image, youngmen are going off topractice using thecannon. During theeighteenth century,and even later, thecannon was the mainartillery weapon inwarfare. Cannon shotballs that could beblasted at targets asfar away as a mile.

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CONNECTING TO THE PAST

1. Examine Why did the National Conventionchoose to open a school dedicated to train-ing patriots? Are there comparable schoolsin the United States today?

2. Writing about History Marc-Antoine Jullien lived during troubled times. In theworld today, many young people areundergoing similar experiences. Researchan area of political unrest. Write a one-pagepaper describing the effect of that unrest ona person your age.


In the last years before the revolution broke out, French families couldparticipate in entertainments like this fair in August that celebratedthe feast of St. Lawrence. If you look closely, you can spot youngpeople acting up during a theatrical performance.

➤

This image depicts a fiercesans-culotte, the name for theParisian lower classes whotook part in the revolution.Notice his red cap of libertyand the pike he carries. It wasnatural for sans-culottes toinfluence young boys to followtheir lead.

➤

Closing of the Salle des Jacobins inParis, symbolizing the end of theReign of Terror

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The Age ofNapoleon

Preview of Events

Guide to Reading

Section PreviewAfter the French Revolution, Napoleonbuilt and lost an empire, and also spreadideas about nationalism.

• Napoleon, a popular general, overthrewthe Directory, helped set up a new gov-ernment, and eventually held completepower. (p. 229)

• Napoleon brought stability to Franceand established a single law code thatrecognized the equality of all citizensbefore the law. (p. 230)

• By conquering much of Europe,Napoleon established an empire. (p. 231)

• A feeling of nationalism spread byFrance to other countries led to theopposition to French rule in these countries. (p. 233)

• After major losses in Russia and Austria,Napoleon met his final defeat at Water-loo and was exiled. (p. 234)

Content Vocabularyconsulate, nationalism

Academic Vocabularycapable, liberal

People and Events to IdentifyNapoleon Bonaparte, Civil Code, Anne-Louise-Germaine de Staël, Duke ofWellington

Places to LocateCorsica, Moscow, Elba, Waterloo

Reading Objectives1. Explain why Napoleon wanted to stop

British goods from reaching Europe.2. Identify two reasons for the collapse

of Napoleon’s empire.

Reading StrategySummarizing Information In a table like the one below, list Napoleon’sachievements.



10.2.4: Explain how the ideology of the French Revolution led France to develop fromconstitutional monarchy to democratic despotism to the Napoleonic empire.

10.2.5: Discuss how nationalism spread across Europe with Napoleon but wasrepressed for a generation under the Congress of Vienna and Concert of Europeuntil the Revolutions of 1848.

Achievementsof Napoleon’sRule

✦1790 ✦1800 ✦1810 ✦1820

1805French are defeatedat Trafalgar

1815Napoleon is defeatedat Waterloo

1799Napoleon takespart in coup d’état

1804Napoleon iscrowned emperor


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The Rise of Napoleon

Napoleon, a popular general, overthrew theDirectory, helped set up a new government, and eventu-ally held complete power.

Reading Connection What qualities do you look for in agovernment leader? Read to find out what qualities made peo-ple accept Napoleon as a powerful leader in the early 1800s.

Napoleon Bonaparte dominated French andEuropean history from 1799 to 1815. His great mili-tary exploits, rapid rise to fame, and tragic end havemade him a legend. Not the least of his qualities washis supreme self-confidence.

Napoleon’s role in the French Revolution is com-plex. In one sense, he brought it to an end when hecame to power in 1799. Yet he was a child of the rev-olution, too. Without it, he would never have risen topower, and he himself never failed to remind theFrench that he had preserved the best parts of therevolution during his reign as emperor.

Early Life Napoleon was born in 1769 in Corsica, anisland in the Mediterranean, only a few months afterFrance annexed the island. His father came fromminor nobility in Italy, but the family was far fromrich. Napoleon was talented, however, and won ascholarship to a famous military school.

When he completed his studies, Napoleon wascommissioned as a lieutenant in the French army.Although he turned out to be one of the world’sgreatest generals and a man beloved by his soldiers,there were few signs of his future success at thisstage. He was short, spoke with an Italian accent, andwas not popular with his fellow officers.

Napoleon devoted himself to his goals. He readwhat French philosophes had to say about reason,and he studied famous military campaigns. Whenrevolution and war with Europe came about, therewere many opportunities for Napoleon to use hisknowledge and skills.

Military Successes Napoleon rose quickly throughthe ranks. In 1792, he became a captain. Two years later,at the age of 24, he was made a brigadier general by theCommittee of Public Safety. In 1796, he was made com-mander of the French armies in Italy. There Napoleonwon a series of battles with qualities he became famousfor—speed, surprise, and decisive action.

During the Italian campaigns, Napoleon’s energyand initiative earned him the devotion of his troops.His keen intelligence, ease with words, and supremeself-confidence allowed him to win the support ofeveryone around him.

In 1797, he returned to France as a hero. He wasgiven command of an army in training to invadeBritain, but he knew the French could not carry outthat invasion. Instead, he suggested striking indirectlyat Britain by taking Egypt. Egypt lay on the route toIndia, one of Britain’s most important colonies.

Napoleon’s goal of taking Egypt was never met,however. The British were a great sea power and con-trolled the Mediterranean. By 1799, the British cut offNapoleon’s army in Egypt. With defeat certain,Napoleon abandoned his army and returned to Paris.

Napoleon possessed an overwhelming sense of hisown importance. He was convinced that he was theman of destiny who would save the French people.Napoleon once wrote:

“But let that impatiently awaited savior give asudden sign of his existence, and the people’sinstinct will divine him and call upon him. Theobstacles are smoothed before his steps, and awhole great nation, flying to see him pass, willseem to be saying: ‘Here is the man.’. . . A con-secutive series of great actions never is the resultof chance and luck; it always is the product ofplanning and genius. Great men are rarely knownto fail in their most perilous enterprises. . . . Is itbecause they are lucky that they become great?No, but being great, they have been able tomaster luck.”


Napoleon Bonaparte

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could Napoleon make this boast? This is an impor-tant question. As we look at Napoleon’s domesticpolicies, it will be possible to judge whether theemperor’s claims had any merit.

Peace with the Church One of Napoleon’s mostimportant domestic policies was his policy towardthe Catholic Church. Very soon after the consulatewas established, Napoleon set out to establish peacewith the Church, the oldest enemy of the revolution.In matters of religion, Napoleon himself was a manof the Enlightenment. He believed in reason and feltthat religion was at most a social convenience. Sincemost of France was Catholic, Napoleon felt it wasgood policy to mend relations with the Church.

In 1801, Napoleon came to an agreement with thepope. Catholicism would be recognized as the reli-gion of the majority of the people. In return, the popewould not ask for the return of the church landsseized in the revolution.

With this agreement, the Catholic Church was nolonger a formal enemy of the French government. Italso meant that people who had acquired churchland in the revolution became avid supporters ofNapoleon.


In this painting, Napoleon is shown crowninghis wife Josephine empress. During his owncoronation, Napoleon seized the crown fromPope Pius VII and placed it on his own head.How had Napoleon earlier made peacewith the Catholic Church?

History

Consul and Emperor In Paris, Napoleon took partin the coup d’état of 1799 that overthrew the Direc-tory and set up a new government, the consulate. Intheory, it was a republic, but in fact Napoleon heldabsolute power. Napoleon was called first consul, atitle borrowed from ancient Rome. He appointed offi-cials, controlled the army, conducted foreign affairs,and influenced the legislature. In 1802, Napoleonwas made consul for life. Two years later, he crownedhimself Emperor Napoleon I.

Describing What personal qualitiesdid Napoleon possess that gained him popular support?

Napoleon’s Domestic Policies

Napoleon brought stability to France andestablished a single law code that recognized the equalityof all citizens before the law.

Reading Connection How would you feel if a govern-ment official checked all your mail before you read it? Read tolearn how many of Napoleon’s policies reduced freedom.

Napoleon once claimed that he had preserved thegains of the revolution. Since he destroyed the repub-lican form of government when he took power, how

Reading Check

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Codification of the Laws Napoleon’s most famousdomestic achievement was to codify the law. Beforethe revolution, France had almost 300 different legalsystems. During the revolution, efforts were made toorganize them and make them consistent, but thework was not completed until Napoleon’s reign.

Seven law codes were created, but the most impor-tant was the Civil Code, or Napoleonic Code. Itreflected many of the principles that the revolutionar-ies had fought for: equality of all citizens before thelaw; the right of the individual to choose a profession;religious toleration; and the abolition of serfdom andall feudal obligations.

For women and children, the Civil Code was a stepback. During the radical stage of the revolution, newlaws had made divorce easier and allowed children,even daughters, to inherit property on an equal basis.The Civil Code undid these laws. It became more dif-ficult for a woman to get a divorce. Women were “lessequal than men” in other ways, too. When they mar-ried, they lost control over any property they had.They could not testify in court. In general, the codetreated women something like children, beings whoneeded protection and who did not have a public role.

A New Bureaucracy Napoleon is also well knownbecause he created a strong, centralized administra-tion. He focused on developing a bureaucracy ofcapable officials. Early on, the regime showed that itdid not care about rank or birth. Public officials andmilitary officers alike were promoted based on theirability. Opening careers to men of talent was a reformthat the middle class had clamored for before therevolution.

Napoleon also created a new kind of aristocracy,one based on meritorious service to the nation.Between 1808 and 1814, Napoleon created about3,200 nobles. Nearly 60 percent were military officers,while the rest were civil service or state and local offi-cials. Only 22 percent of this new aristocracy were

from noble families of theold regime; about 60 per-cent were middle class.

Preserver of the Revo-lution? In his domesticpolicies, then, Napoleondid keep some majorreforms of the French Rev-olution. Under the CivilCode, all citizens were

equal before the law. The concept of opening govern-ment careers to more people was another gain of therevolution that he retained.

On the other hand, Napoleon destroyed someideals of the revolution. He restricted liberty, forexample, when he censored the free press. Despiteprotests from prominent writers like Anne-Louise-Germaine de Staël, he shut down 60 of France’s 73newspapers. Even government-approved newspa-pers had to have all their manuscripts examinedbefore they were published. The government policekept busy censoring private mail as well.

Evaluating What was the overalleffect of Napoleon’s Civil Code?

Napoleon’s Empire

By conquering much of Europe, Napoleonestablished an empire.

Reading Connection Can you remember how theempire of Charlemagne was built in Europe? Read to discoverhow Napoleon was able to build an empire.

Napoleon is known best not as a domesticreformer, but as a talented general who conqueredmuch of Europe. His conquests began soon after herose to power.

Reading Check


French marriage ceremony, nineteenth century

HISTORY

Web Activity Visit theGlencoe World History—Modern Times Web site at and click on Chapter 3–Student Web Activity tolearn more aboutNapoleon Bonaparte.

wh.mt.glencoe.com

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Building the Empire When Napoleon became con-sul in 1799, France was at war with a European coali-tion of Russia, Great Britain, and Austria. Napoleonrealized the need for a pause in the war. “The FrenchRevolution is not finished, “ he said, “so long as thescourge of war lasts. . . . I want peace, as much to set-tle the present French government, as to save theworld from chaos.”

In 1802, a treaty was signed, but the peace did notlast long. War with Britain broke out again in 1803.Gradually, Britain was joined by Austria, Russia,Sweden, and Prussia. In a series of battles at Ulm,Austerlitz, Jena, and Eylau from 1805 to 1807,Napoleon’s Grand Army defeated the Austrian,Prussian, and Russian armies.

With all these victories behind him, Napoleon wasable to create a new European order. From 1807 to1812, Napoleon was the master of a Grand Empire ofthree main parts: the French Empire, the dependentstates, and allied states. The French Empire was thecore. It included an enlarged France extending to theRhine River on its eastern boundary and the westernhalf of Italy north of Rome.

The dependent states were kingdoms ruled by rel-atives of Napoleon. Eventually these included Spain,Holland, the kingdom of Italy, the Swiss Republic,the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, and the Confederationof the Rhine—an alliance of all the German statesexcept Austria and Prussia.

The allied states were states Napoleon haddefeated and then forced to join his struggle againstBritain. These states included Prussia, Austria, Rus-sia, and Sweden.

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Anne-Louise-Germaine de Staël1766–1817—French writer

Anne-Louise-Germaine de Staël was a prominent writer of the revolutionary andNapoleonic eras in France. She established a salon for the powerful that lasted from1790 until 1804. It was said of her that she was “so spoiled by admiration for her witthat it [would] be hard to make her realize her shortcomings.” During the Reign of Ter-ror, she helped friends escape France. She also left France but returned in 1795.

Although she at first supported Napoleon, she clashed repeatedly with him. Sheonce asked him, “Who was the greatest woman of history?” Napoleon responded,“The one who had the most children.” Eventually, she denounced Napoleon’s rule astyrannical. Napoleon banned her books in France and exiled her to the German states,where she continued to write.

Spreading the Principles of the RevolutionWithin his empire, Napoleon sought to spread someof the principles of the French Revolution, includinglegal equality, religious toleration, and economicfreedom. He explained to his brother Jerome after hehad made Jerome king of Westphalia:

“What the peoples of Germany desire most impa-tiently is that talented commoners should have thesame right to your esteem and to public employmentsas the nobles, that any trace of serfdom and of anintermediate hierarchy between the sovereign and thelowest class of the people should be completely abol-ished. The benefits of the Code Napoleon, the public-ity of judicial procedure, the creation of juries must beso many distinguishing marks of your monarchy. . . .The peoples of Germany, the peoples of France, ofItaly, of Spain all desire equality and liberal ideas. . . .[T]he buzzing of the privileged classes is contrary tothe general opinion. Be a constitutional king.”

Napoleon brought many revolutionary principlesand practices to Europe. In the inner core anddependent states of his Grand Empire, Napoleontried to destroy the old order. The nobility and theclergy everywhere in these states lost their privileges.All people were declared equal before the law, officeswere to be open equally to talent, and a policy of reli-gious toleration was announced. These revolutionaryprinciples were important in developing liberal tradi-tions in these countries.

Identifying What were the threeparts of Napoleon’s Grand Empire?

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France, 1799French Empire, 1812Dependent states, 1812States allied with Napoleon, 1812States allied against Napoleon, 1812French victoryFrench defeatNapoleon's invasion of Russia,June–December 1812

From 1807 to 1812, Napoleon controlled a vast empire inEurope.

1. Interpreting Maps Which of the dependent states inNapoleon’s empire lies farthest east?

2. Applying Geography Skills Examine the locations ofthe states that were allied against Napoleon in 1812.What geographic factors would have helped thesestates to remain independent from Napoleon’s control?

The European Response

A feeling of nationalism spread by France toother countries led to the opposition to French rule inthese countries.

Reading Connection How would Americans today reactto a foreign country’s dictating trade policy to their govern-ment? Read to learn about the reaction Napoleon called forthwhen he tried to bar trade with Britain.

Like Hitler 130 years later, Napoleon hoped that hisGrand Empire would last for centuries. Yet like Hitler’sempire, the empire of Napoleon collapsed almost asrapidly as it was formed. Two major reasons explainthis collapse: Britain’s ability to resist Napoleon, andthe rise of nationalism.

British Resistance Napoleon was never able toconquer Great Britain. To a great extent, this wasbecause Britain was a sea power. So long as Britainruled the waves, it was almost invulnerable.Napoleon gathered together ships, hoping to invade,but the British navy defeated the combined French-Spanish fleet at Trafalgar in 1805. Napoleon gave upon the idea of actually landing forces on Britishshores.

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His next move was to make his allies cut off tradewith Britain. He believed that if no British goodswere sold to any of the European nations in theGrand Alliance, the British would be too poor towage war. Napoleon called this the Continental Sys-tem. The Continental System failed because the alliedstates resented it. Some began to cheat and tradedsecretly. The British also found new markets in theMiddle East and in Latin America—so much so thatby 1810, British overseas exports were at near-recordhighs.

Nationalism One of the most important factors inNapoleon’s defeat was nationalism. Nationalism isthe sense of unique identity of a people. That feelinghas its foundations in a common language, commonreligion, and national symbols.

Nationalism would prove to be one of the mostimportant forces of the nineteenth century, and itbegan with the French Revolution. A new era in his-tory was born when the French people decided thatthey were the nation, not the king.

As Napoleon marched his armies through the Ger-manies, Spain, Italy, and Poland, the peoples in thesecountries learned about the revolutionary ideas ofequality and liberty. Napoleon also roused new ideasof nationalism. This happened in two ways. First, theconquered peoples became united in their hatred ofthe invaders. Second, the conquered peoples wereable to see the power and strength of national feeling.It was a lesson not lost on them or their rulers.

Explaining Why did being a seapower help Britain to survive an attack by the French?

Reading Check

The Crossing of the Beresina by January Suchodolsky showsNapoleon’s Grand Army in full retreat from Russia.

The Fall of Napoleon

After major losses in Russia and Austria,Napoleon met his final defeat at Waterloo and was exiled.

Reading Connection Today there are some rulers whogo into exile to avoid prosecution in their homelands. Read tosee why in 1815 the French government felt safe only withNapoleon in exile.

The beginning of Napoleon’s downfall can be datedto 1812 when he made the fateful decision to invadeRussia. Within a few years, his fall was complete.

Disaster in Russia The Russians had refused toremain in the Continental System, leaving Napoleonwith little choice but to invade. He knew the risks ininvading vast Russia, but he also knew that if he didnot punish the Russians for ignoring the ContinentalSystem, other nations would follow suit.

In June 1812, a Grand Army of more than 600,000men crossed into Russia. Napoleon’s hopes dependedon a quick victory over the Russians. The Russianforces, however, refused to give battle. Instead theyretreated for hundreds of miles. As they retreated,they burnt their own villages and countryside to keepNapoleon’s army from finding food. When the Rus-sians did stop to fight at Borodino, Napoleon’s forceswon an indecisive and costly victory.

When the Grand Army finally reached Moscow,they found that the city had been set on fire. Lackingfood or supplies, Napoleon was forced to abandon theRussian capital in October. As the winter snows andstorms began, Napoleon led the “Great Retreat” west

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Restless in exile, he left the island of Elba and slippedback into France.

The new king sent troops to capture Napoleon, buthe boldly addressed them: “Soldiers of the 5th regi-ment, I am your Emperor. . . . If there is a man amongyou [who] would kill his Emperor, here I am!”

No one fired a shot. Instead, they shouted “Vivel’Empereur! Vive l’Empereur!”—”Long live theEmperor! Long live the Emperor!”—and went overto his side. On March 20, 1815, Napoleon enteredParis in triumph.

Russia, Great Britain, Austria, and Prussia wereworried. They pledged to defeat again the man theycalled the “Enemy and Disturber of the Tranquility ofthe World.” Meanwhile, Napoleon raised anotherFrench army as devoted veterans rallied from allover France. He then readied an attack on the alliesacross the border in Belgium.

At Waterloo in Belgium, Napoleon met a com-bined British and Prussian army under the Duke ofWellington on June 18, 1815. Napoleon suffered abloody defeat, and this time the consensus of the vic-torious allies was to exile him to St. Helena, a smallisland in the south Atlantic. Napoleon remained inexile until his death in 1821, but his memory hauntedFrench political life for many decades.

Examining Why did Napoleoninvade Russia?

Reading Check


Napoleon had won at Waterloo?Napoleon dominated much of the world stage

until Waterloo, a close battle against the Duke ofWellington and the allied forces. Military strategistsspeculate that had Napoleon’s commanders beenbetter, Napoleon might have won.

Consider the Consequences ConsiderNapoleon’s impact on history had he defeatedWellington. Explain why this victory might havemarshaled enough support for Napoleon tohave resumed his rule as emperor.

Checking for Understanding1. Vocabulary Define: consulate, capable,

liberal, nationalism.

2. People and Events Identify: NapoleonBonaparte, Civil Code, Anne-Louise-Germaine de Staël, Duke of Wellington.

3. Places Locate: Corsica, Moscow, Elba,Waterloo.

Reviewing Big Ideas4. List the powers Napoleon exercised as

first consul.

Critical Thinking5. Connecting

Events How did the principles of theFrench Revolution spread throughoutEurope?

6. Sequencing Information Using a dia-gram like this one, identify the reasonsfor the rise and fall of Napoleon.

Analyzing Visuals7. Examine the portrait on page 207.

Napoleon commissioned it in 1800.How does David portray Napoleon, andwhy do you think Napoleon wantedartists to produce portraits like this one?

CA HI 1

8. Persuasive Writing Was Napoleonan enlightened ruler or a tyrant?Write a paper supporting your view.Be sure to include pertinent informa-tion about Napoleon’s Civil Code.

CA 10WA2.4a,c

across Russia. Thousands of soldiers starved and frozealong the way. Only 40,000 of the original 600,000managed to make it to Poland in January 1813.

Now that the French army was crippled, otherEuropean states joined in for the attack. In March1814, Paris itself was captured. Napoleon was sentinto exile on the island of Elba, off the northwestcoast of Italy. The victorious powers restored monar-chy to France. The brother of the executed king wasinstalled as Louis XVIII.

The Final Defeat The new king had little support—the French people were not ready to surrender theglory of empire. Nor was Napoleon ready to give up.

Rise Fall

Napoleon’s Rise and Fall


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During a revolution, who makes the laws, and are they the same for everyone? Read how different peo-ple addressed these issues during the French Revolution.

SOURCE 1: Preliminary to the FrenchConstitution August 1789Abbé Sieyès (1748–1836), an influential writer,described the difference between active and passive citi-zens in the Preliminary to the French Constitution.

After having set forth the natural and civil rights ofthe citizen, the plan that we are following leads us torecognize their political rights.

The difference between these two kinds of rightsconsists in the natural and civil rights being those forwhich the maintenance and development of society isconstituted and the political rights being those bywhich society is constitutes and maintains itself. Itwould be better for the clarity of language to call thefirst passive rights and the second active rights.

All the inhabitants of a country should enjoy therights of a passive citizen: all have the right to protec-

tion of their person, their property, their liberty, etc.;but all do not have the right to take an active part inthe formation of the public authorities: all are notactive citizens. Women, at least in the present state,children, foreigners, those who contribute nothing tomaintaining the public establishment, should have noactive influence on public affairs. All can enjoy theadvantages of society; but those alone who contributeto the public establishment are like the true share-holders in the great social enterprise. They alone arethe true active citizens, the true members of the association.

SOURCE 2: Robespierre DenouncingRestrictions on CitizenshipIn this speech, Maximilien Robespierre (1758–1794)opposed the National Assembly’s categories of active andpassive citizens.

All citizens, whoever they are, have the right toaspire to all levels of officeholding. Nothingis more in line with your declaration ofrights, according to which all privileges, alldistinctions, all exception must disappear.The Constitution establishes that sover-eignty1 resides in the people, in all the indi-viduals of the people. Each individualtherefore has the right to participate in mak-ing the law which governs him and theadministration of the public good which ishis own. If not, it is not true that all men areequal in rights, that every man is a citizen. Ifhe who only pays a tax equivalent to a dayof work has fewer rights than he who paysthe equivalent to three days of work, and hewho pays at the level of ten days has morerights than he whose tax only equals thatvalue of three, then he who enjoys 100,000livres [French pounds] of revenue has 100

CHAPTER 3 The French Revolution and Napoleon236

1sovereignty: power; authority ➤

Cartoon of 1789 showing king, noble, and priest ridingcomfortably on a road which is the Third Estate

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times as many rights as he who only has 1,000 livresof revenue. It follows from all your decrees2 that everycitizen has the right to participate in making the lawand consequently that of being an elector or eligiblefor office without the distinction of wealth.

SOURCE 3: Women’s RightsEtta Palm d’Aelders was a woman actively involved withthe reformers known as the Cercle Social (Social Circle).She expressed frustration over women’s position in herDiscourse on the Injustice of the Laws in Favor of Men,written in 1790.

Do not be just by halves, Gentlemen; . . . justicemust be the first virtue of free men, and justicedemands that the laws be the same for all beings, likethe air and the sun. And yet everywhere, the lawsfavor men at the expense of women, because every-where power is in your hands. What! Will free men, anenlightened people living in a century of enlighten-ment and philosophy, will they consecrate3 what hasbeen the abuse of power in a century of ignorance? . . .

The prejudices with which our sex has been sur-rounded—supported by unjust laws which only accordus a secondary existence in society and which oftenforces us into the humiliating necessity of winningover the cantankerous4 and ferocious character of aman, who, by the greed of those close to us hasbecome our master—those prejudices have changedwhat was for us the sweetest and most saintly ofduties, those of wife and mother, into a painful andterrible slavery. . . .

Well! What could be more unjust! Our life, our lib-erty, our fortune are no longer ours; leaving childhood,turned over to a despot whom often the heart findsrepulsive, the most beautiful days of our life slip awayin moans and tears, while our fortune becomes preyto fraud and debauchery. . . .

Oh! Gentlemen, if you wish us to be enthusiasticabout the happy constitution that gives back men theirrights, then begin by being just toward us. From nowon we should be your voluntary companions and not

your slaves. Let us merit your attachment! Do youbelieve that the desire for success is less becoming to us, that a good name is less dear to us than to you? And if devotion to study, if patriotic zeal, if virtueitself . . . is as natural to us as to you, why do we notreceive the same education and the same means toacquire them?

I will not speak, Gentlemen, of those iniquitous5 menwho pretend that nothing can exempt us from an eter-nal subordination. Is this not an absurdity just like thosetold to the French on 15 July 1789: “Leave there yourjust demands; you are born for slavery; nothing canexempt you from eternally obeying an arbitrary will.”

Source 1: According to Sieyès, what is the differencebetween the rights of a passive citizen and an activecitizen? Why does he explain that women, children,and foreigners should be excluded from possessingactive rights?

Source 2: How does Robespierre use the Declarationof the Rights of Man and the Citizen and the Frenchconstitution to denounce the practice of giving morerights to citizens in France who pay more taxes?

Source 3: What does Etta Palm D’Aelders mean whenshe says “Will free men . . . consecrate what has beenthe abuse of power in a century of ignorance”?

Comparing and Contrasting Sources1. Even though Robespierre was not a defender of

women’s equality in France, how are his and EttaPalm d’Aelders’s arguments similar?

2. When might Sieyès claim that women would be eligi-ble for the equal rights that Etta Palm d’Aelders statesthat they rightfully deserve?


2decrees: authoritative decisions; declarations3consecrate: make sacred4cantankerous: bad disposition; quarrelsome

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5iniquitous: wicked➤

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The French Revolution was one of the great turning points in history. The years from 1789 to 1815 in France were chaotic, and change came in unexpected ways. The chart below will help you understand and remember some of the major events of this time and the changes they caused.

1. estate2. taille3. bourgeoisie

4. sans-culottes5. faction6. elector

7. coup d’etat8. consulate9. nationalism

10. consumer11. exclusion

12. domestic13. external

14. capable 15. liberal

Reviewing Content VocabularyOn a sheet of paper, use each of these terms in a sentence.

Reviewing the Main IdeasSection 116. What event started the French Revolution?

17. What reforms did the National Assembly make between1789 and 1791?

Section 218. How did Robespierre and the Committee of Public Safety

deal with opponents of the government? What was the effectof their policies?

19. List the members of the informal coalition that took up armsagainst France. What was the result of this conflict?

Section 320. How did Napoleon assume power in France and become

emperor?

21. Why was the French invasion of Russia a failure?

Critical Thinking22. Making Comparisons Examine the different systems of

government in France from 1789 to 1812. Which was themost democratic? Which form of government was the mosteffective and why?

23. Evaluating Evaluate which Enlightenment ideals affectedthe French Revolution.

24. Analyzing Explain why the National Convention decided toexecute Robespierre. Can you think of another solution thatwould have addressed their concerns?

25. Summarizing During the radical phase of the French Revolution, there were a number of social customs that signaled the political change. Name some of these new customs.

Reviewing Academic VocabularyOn a sheet of paper, use each of these terms in a sentence thatreflects the term’s meaning in the chapter.

Cause Effect

The French Revolution

Meeting of theEstates-General

Creation of theNational Assembly

Declarationof Rights

Spread ofliberal beliefs

GreatFear

Adoption of importantreforms by nobility in the

National Assembly

Marchon Versailles

Return of Louis XVIto Paris

Napoleon’scoup d’état

Creation ofthe French Empire

Reignof Terror

Fall of Robespierreand establishment

of the Directory

Battle ofTrafalgar

Safety of Great Britainand birth of the

Continental System

Invasionof Russia

Deaths of hundredsof thousands and

downfall of Napoleon


Standards 10.2.4, 10.2.5

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Self-Check QuizVisit the Glencoe World History—Modern Times Website at and click on Chapter 3–Self-Check Quiz to prepare for the Chapter Test.

wh.mt.glencoe.com

HISTORY

Directions: Choose the best answer to thefollowing question.

The rule of Robespierre was a time when the FrenchRevolution

A was controlled by royalists who supported King LouisXIV.

B established a long-lasting constitutional monarchy.

C became a centralized force under Napoleon.

D grew more violent as extremists took control.

CA Standard 10.2.4 Explain how the ideology of the FrenchRevolution led France to develop from constitutional monar-chy to democratic despotism to the Napoleonic empire.

36.

Standards Practice

Analyzing Maps and ChartsStudy the map above to answer the following questions.

33. What cities served as centers of execution?

34. Approximately how far from Paris were centers of executionestablished?

35. Research one of the towns on the map and write a briefessay that describes the impact of the Reign of Terror on thepeople who lived there.

26. Identifying Complex CausationHow did the French Revolution first lead to war with otherEuropean nations?

27. Drawing Conclusions Was Napoleon’s Continental Systemeffective or not?

Writing About History28. Interpreting History Write out

this sentence, excerpted from a London Times correspon-dent’s report at the beginning of the French Revolution.Highlight all the words that indicate a bias and explain why:“The Archbishop of Paris is among the number of those whohave been sacrificed to the people’s rage.”

29. Look ahead to Section 3 in Chapter 8. Compareand contrast the American, French, and Russian Revolutions.Consider their causes and effects, and summarize the princi-ples of each revolution regarding ideas such as democracy,liberty, separation of powers, equality, popular sovereignty,human rights, constitutionalism, and nationalism.

Analyzing Sources Read the following quotation by Napoleon.Then answer the questions below.

“What the peoples of Germany desire most impa-tiently is that talented commoners should have thesame right to your esteem and to public employmentsas the nobles, that any trace of serfdom and of an inter-mediate hierarchy between the sovereign and the low-est class of the people should be completely abolished.The benefits of the Code Napoleon, the publicity ofjudicial procedure, the creation of juries must be somany distinguishing marks of your monarchy.”

30. What does Napoleon say that the people of Germany wantand do not want?

31. What were Napoleon’s views about how civil and militaryworkers should be hired and promoted? Where in this quotedoes Napoleon refer to these views?

32. In the quotation, Napoleon addresses “the peoples of Ger-many.” How would the nobles of various German states belikely to respond to what he is telling German peoples andwhy?

CA 10WA2.3

CA HR 2

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Center of execution

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from Candideby Voltaire

Voltaire was born François-Marie Arouet onNovember 21, 1694. He assumed the penname “Voltaire” in 1718. Voltaire was a criti-cal and satiric writer who used his wit toattack both church and state. Candide is oneof Voltaire’s most brilliant and most well-known works.

Read to DiscoverCandide has been taught that “everything isfor the best.” However, his adventures usu-ally prove the opposite. Here, he has justbeen cast out of a castle. The “men in blue”he meets are army recruiters for Frederickthe Great, king of Prussia, who was at warwith the French when Voltaire wrote Can-dide. How can you tell that Voltaire is makingfun of the Prussian king and his army?

Reader’s Dictionarybulwark: strong support or protectionsummarily: done without delay or formalityconcatenated: linked together in a series orchain

C andide . . . dragged himself into the neighboringvillage, which was called Waldberghofftrarbkdik-

dorff; he was penniless, famished, and exhausted. Atthe door of a tavern he paused forlornly. Two mendressed in blue [Prussian soldiers] took note of him:

—Look, chum, said one of them, there’s a likelyyoung fellow of just about the right size.

They approached Candide and invited him verypolitely to dine with them.

—Gentlemen, Candide replied with charmingmodesty, I’m honored by your invitation, but I reallydon’t have enough money to pay my share.

—My dear sir, said one of the blues, people of yourappearance and your merit don’t have to pay; aren’tyou five feet five inches tall?

—Yes, gentlemen, that is indeed my stature, said he,making a bow.

—Then, sire, you must be seated at once; not onlywill we pay your bill this time, we will never allow aman like you to be short of money; for menwere made only to render one anothermutual aid.

—You are quite right, saidCandide; it is just as Dr. Pan-gloss always told me, and Isee clearly that everything isfor the best.

They beg him to accept acouple of crowns, he takesthem, and offers an I.O.U.;they won’t hear of it, and allsit down at table together.

—Don’t you love dearly . . . ?

—I do indeed, says he, Idearly love Miss Cunégonde.

� Prussian soldiers

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—No, no, says one of the gentlemen, we are ask-ing if you don’t love dearly the King of the Bul-gars [Frederick the Great].

—Not in the least, says he, I never laideyes on him.

—What’s that you say? He’s themost charming of kings, and we mustdrink his health.

—Oh, gladly, gentlemen; and hedrinks.

—That will do, they tell him; you arenow the bulwark, the support, thedefender, the hero of the Bulgars; yourfortune is made and your future assured.

Promptly they slip irons on his legs andlead him to the regiment. There they cause him toright face, left face, present arms, order arms, aim,fire, doubletime, and they give him thirty strokes ofthe rod. Next day he does the drill a little less awk-wardly and gets only twenty strokes; the third day,they give him only ten, and he is regarded by hiscomrades as a prodigy.

Candide, quite thunderstruck, did not yetunderstand very clearly how he was a hero. Onefine spring morning he took it into his head to gofor a walk, stepping straight out as if it were a privi-lege of the human race, as of animals in general, touse his legs as he chose. He had scarcely coveredtwo leagues when four other heroes [Prussian sol-diers], each six feet tall, overtook him, bound him,and threw him into a dungeon. At the court-martial they asked which he preferred, to be floggedthirty-six times by the entire regiment or to receivesummarily a dozen bullets in the brain. In vain didhe argue that the human will is free and insist thathe preferred neither alternative; he had to choose;by virtue of the divine gift called “liberty” hedecided to run the gauntlet thirty-six times, andactually endured two floggings. The regiment wascomposed of two thousand men. That made fourthousand strokes. As they were preparing for thethird beating, Candide, who could endure no more,begged as a special favor that they would have the

goodness to smash his head. His plea was granted;they bandaged his eyes and made him kneel

down. The King of the Bulgars [Frederickthe Great], passing by at this moment,

was told of the culprit’s crime; and asthis king had a rare genius, he under-stood, from everything they told himof Candide, that this was a youngmetaphysician, extremely ignorant ofthe ways of the world, so he granted his

royal pardon, with a generosity whichwill be praised in every newspaper inevery age. A worthy surgeon cured Can-dide in three weeks with the ointmentsdescribed by Dioscorides. He already had

a bit of skin back and was able to walk when theKing of the Bulgars went to war with the King ofthe Abares.

Nothing could have been so fine, so brisk, sobrilliant, so well-drilled as the two armies. Thetrumpets, the fifes, the oboes, the drums, and thecannon produced such a harmony as was neverheard in hell. First the cannons battered downabout six thousand men on each side; then volleysof musket fire removed from the best of worldsabout nine or ten thousand rascals who were clut-tering up its surface. . . .

Candide made all the haste he could to [a] vil-lage, which belonged to the Bulgarians, and therehe found the heroic Abares had enacted the sametragedy. Thence continuing to walk over palpitatinglimbs, or through ruined buildings, at length hearrived beyond the theater of war, with a little pro-vision in his budget, and Miss Cunégonde’s imagein his heart. When he arrived in Holland his provi-sion failed him; but having heard that the inhabi-tants of that country were all rich and Christians,he made himself sure of being treated by them inthe same manner as the Baron’s castle, before hehad been driven thence through the power of MissCunégonde’s bright eyes.

He asked charity of several grave-looking people,who one and all answered him, that if he continued

� Frederick the Great,king of Prussia

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1. Why do the men choose Candide to kidnap into the army?

2. Explain the irony of the soldiers’ statement, “yourfortune is made and your future assured.”

3. Why is Candide punished? How does this relate tothe philosophy of the Enlightenment?

4. CRITICAL THINKING What is Voltaire’s attitudetoward the “King of the Bulgars”?

Applications ActivityWrite a satirical piece criticizing something about atelevision show or movie. Remember that a satire doesnot directly attack but criticizes by showing how ridicu-lous something is.

“Thou deservest not to eat or to drink,” repliedthe orator, “wretch, monster, that thou art! hence!avoid my sight, nor ever come near me again whilethou livest.”

The orator’s wife happened to put her head outof the window at that instant, when, seeing a manwho doubted whether the Pope was Antichrist, shedischarged upon his head a utensil full of water.Good heavens, to what excess does religious zealtransport womankind!

A man who had never been christened, an hon-est Anabaptist named James, was witness to thecruel and ignominious treatment showed to one ofhis brethren, to a rational, two-footed, unfledgedbeing. Moved with pity he carried him to his ownhouse, caused him to be cleaned, gave him meatand drink, and made him a present of two florins,at the same time proposing to instruct him in hisown trade of weaving Persian silks, which are fabri-cated in Holland.

Candide, penetrated with so much goodness,threw himself at his feet, crying, “Now I am con-vinced that my Master Pangloss told me truth whenhe said that everything was for the best in thisworld; for I am infinitely more affected with yourextraordinary generosity than with the inhumanityof that gentleman in the black cloak and his wife.”

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to follow this trade they would have him sent to thehouse of correction, where he should be taught toget his bread.

He next addressed himself to a person who hadjust come from haranguing a numerous assemblyfor a whole hour on the subject of charity. The ora-tor, squinting at him under his broadbrimmed hat,asked him sternly, what brought him thither andwhether he was for the good old cause?

“Sir,” said Candide, in a submissive manner, “Iconceive there can be no effect without a cause;everything is necessarily concatenated and arrangedfor the best. It was necessary that I should be ban-ished from the presence of Miss Cunégonde; that Ishould afterwards run the gauntlet; and it is neces-sary I should beg my bread, till I am able to get it.All this could not have been otherwise.”

“Hark ye, friend,” said the orator, “do you holdthe Pope to be Antichrist?”

“Truly, I never heard anything about it,” saidCandide, “but whether he is or not, I am in wantof something to eat.”

� A scene from Leonard Bernstein’s musical Candide, basedon Voltaire’s satire of French life before the revolution

Robbie Jack/CORBIS

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Here are several books you may want to read on your own.These authors have explored some of the topics covered in this unit.

Utopia (Fiction)

More, Thomas (1477?–1535) More was a great lawyer and admired for his humanity.A contemporary described him as “a man of an angel’s wit and singular learning . . . ofmarvelous mirth and pastimes, and sometimes of as sad gravity. . . . A man for all sea-sons.” In 1529, he was appointed Lord Chancellor. His firm opposition to King Henry VIII’sdivorce and claim to be “Supreme Head” of the Church led to his execution. More’sUtopia, published in 1516, rivals other famous works about an ideal society and govern-ment. It held up a picture of a society of equals where everyone shares in the work, butalso in prayer and contemplation.

The Return of Martin Guerre (Fiction)

Davis, Natalie Zemon (1928–) This noted historian has told the compelling story of theFrench peasant named Arnaud who successfully poses as another peasant, Martin Guerre.When the real Martin Guerre turns up to claim his wife and property, the local court andcommunity all become involved. Based on a true event, Davis raises interesting questionsabout how people deceive themselves and others. She also faithfully reconstructs how ordi-nary French people lived in the sixteenth century.

Robinson Crusoe (Fiction)

Defoe, Daniel (1660–1731) The son of a London tradesman and staunch Puritan, Defoewas active in politics. Dissatisfied with King James II, he ultimately supported William ofOrange during the Glorious Revolution of 1688. Although Defoe wrote political journalism,he earned permanent fame with this 1719 novel about a shipwrecked sailor. The novelrecounts the years the hero spends on an uninhabited island in the Pacific. A theme worthyof the philosopher Rousseau can be traced in its pages—how people are torn between civi-lization and nature, or the need for society and the need for solitude.

A Tale of Two Cities (Fiction)

Dickens, Charles (1812–1870) One of the century’s most beloved authors, Dickens pro-duced this stirring novel of the French Revolution late in his career. First published in 1859, thestory is set in both London and Paris. In many of his novels, Dickens was sympathetic to theoppressed, but his image of the Parisian revolutionaries is that they are a mob gone wild. Yethe has accurately captured the spirit and drama of one of history’s most famous events.

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the 1789–1815 french revolution erich lessing/art resource

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