The Age of EnlightenmentThe Age of Enlightenment

• The eighteenth century’s own name for thThe eighteenth century’s own name for this movement was “the Enlightenment”—lis movement was “the Enlightenment”—les lumieres in French. The term suggested es lumieres in French. The term suggested the dawn of a new age of reason and knowlthe dawn of a new age of reason and knowledge after a long dark night of ignorance, sedge after a long dark night of ignorance, superstition, Intolerance, and despotism of uperstition, Intolerance, and despotism of kings and priests kings and priests

• Philosophes—the thinkers who aspired to ePhilosophes—the thinkers who aspired to examine and reform human institutions—wxamine and reform human institutions—were found most commonly in the major Eurere found most commonly in the major European cities;opean cities;

• The philosophes expressed confidence in sThe philosophes expressed confidence in science and reason, espoused humanitarianicience and reason, espoused humanitarianism, and struggled for religious liberty and fsm, and struggled for religious liberty and freedom of thought and person. Combining reedom of thought and person. Combining these values with a secular orientation and these values with a secular orientation and a belief in future progress, the philosophes a belief in future progress, the philosophes helped shape, if not define, the modern outhelped shape, if not define, the modern outlook.look.

1:The Enlightenment Faith1:The Enlightenment Faith

To the thinkers of the Enlightenment, reason was the To the thinkers of the Enlightenment, reason was the alternative to superstition and prejudice. It was the alternative to superstition and prejudice. It was the only sure guide to the principles that governed humonly sure guide to the principles that governed humanity and nature.anity and nature.

Nature was a second favorite word of the EnlightenmNature was a second favorite word of the Enlightenment. The precise meaning the ent. The precise meaning the Philosophes Philosophes attached attached to “nature” was not always clear, but to nearly all to “nature” was not always clear, but to nearly all of them “nature” or the “natural” was the propeof them “nature” or the “natural” was the proper standard for measuring God an humanity.r standard for measuring God an humanity.

• Liberty, indeed, was yet another favorite wLiberty, indeed, was yet another favorite word of the ord of the philosophesphilosophes. They were acutely a. They were acutely aware of prevalence in France of arbitrary arware of prevalence in France of arbitrary arrest and restrictions on speech, religion, trrest and restrictions on speech, religion, trade, and employment. Liberty, for the ade, and employment. Liberty, for the philphilosophesosophes, was inseparable from reason. Rea, was inseparable from reason. Reason would soon reveal the true natural laws son would soon reveal the true natural laws governing all things, from trade, to governgoverning all things, from trade, to government, to religion.ment, to religion.

2, Leading Enlightenment Thinker2, Leading Enlightenment Thinkers in Frances in France• Paris, the center of the intellectual life of continentParis, the center of the intellectual life of continent

al Europe . There the greatest intellectual figures of al Europe . There the greatest intellectual figures of the age met and conversed in the salons or weekly the age met and conversed in the salons or weekly gatherings that intellectual women of the aristocracgatherings that intellectual women of the aristocracy had begun to organize. The inhabitants of this woy had begun to organize. The inhabitants of this world of ideas, whether commoner or noble, shared a rld of ideas, whether commoner or noble, shared a common feeling that they were leading a revolution common feeling that they were leading a revolution of ideas without precedent in European history, a cof ideas without precedent in European history, a crusade to end the Absurdities and barbarities of the rusade to end the Absurdities and barbarities of the old order.old order.

• François-Marie ArouFrançois-Marie Arouetet (21 November 1694 (21 November 1694 – 30 May 1778), better – 30 May 1778), better known by the pen naknown by the pen name me VoltaireVoltaire, was a Fr, was a French Enlightenment ench Enlightenment writer, essayist, and pwriter, essayist, and philosopher known for hilosopher known for his wit, philosophical his wit, philosophical sport, and defense of sport, and defense of civil liberties, includicivil liberties, including freedom of religiong freedom of religion and free trade. n and free trade.

• Throughout his life, Voltaire was a fierce suThroughout his life, Voltaire was a fierce supporter of the enlightenment and a bitter cpporter of the enlightenment and a bitter critic of churches and the Inquisition. ritic of churches and the Inquisition.

•Voltaire was a practical reformer who camVoltaire was a practical reformer who campaigned for the rule of law, a freer press, repaigned for the rule of law, a freer press, religious toleration, humane treatment of criligious toleration, humane treatment of criminals, and a more effective system of goveminals, and a more effective system of government administration. rnment administration.

• Charles-Louis de SecoCharles-Louis de Secondat, baron de La Brèndat, baron de La Brède et de Montesquieude et de Montesquieu ( January 18, 1689 in B( January 18, 1689 in Bordeaux – February 10, ordeaux – February 10, 1755), was a French so1755), was a French social commentator and cial commentator and political thinker who lipolitical thinker who lived during the Era of tved during the Era of the Enlightenment. He he Enlightenment. He is famous for his articuis famous for his articulation of the theory of slation of the theory of separation of powers, taeparation of powers, taken for granted in modken for granted in modern discussions of goveern discussions of government and implemenrnment and implemented in many constitutioted in many constitutions throughout the worlns throughout the world. He was largely respod. He was largely responsible for the popularinsible for the popularization of the terms feuzation of the terms feudalism and Byzantine dalism and Byzantine Empire.Empire.

• To safeguard liberty from despotism, MontTo safeguard liberty from despotism, Montesquieu advocated the principle of separatiesquieu advocated the principle of separation of powers. In every government, he said,on of powers. In every government, he said, there are three sorts of powers: legislative, there are three sorts of powers: legislative, executive, and judiciary. When one person executive, and judiciary. When one person or body exercises all three powers—if the sor body exercises all three powers—if the same body both prosecutes and judges, for eame body both prosecutes and judges, for example—liberty is lost. In a good governmexample—liberty is lost. In a good government, one power balances and checks another nt, one power balances and checks another power, an argument that impressed the frapower, an argument that impressed the framers of the United States Constitution.mers of the United States Constitution.

• Denis DiderotDenis Diderot (Octo (October 5, 1713 – July 31, ber 5, 1713 – July 31, 1784) was a French 1784) was a French philosopher and wriphilosopher and writer. He was a promiter. He was a prominent figure during tnent figure during the Enlightenment, he Enlightenment, his major contributihis major contribution to the Enlightenon to the Enlightenment being the ment being the EncEncyclopédieyclopédie

• The most important work of the French EnlThe most important work of the French Enlightenment was the multivolume ightenment was the multivolume EncyclopEncyclopediaedia, edited by Denis Diderot (1713-1784), w, edited by Denis Diderot (1713-1784), who had spent six months in jail for his writiho had spent six months in jail for his writings. Published in 1751 and in succeeding yengs. Published in 1751 and in succeeding years and editions, the ars and editions, the Encyclopedia Encyclopedia initiated initiated a new stage in the history of Enlightenment a new stage in the history of Enlightenment publishing.publishing.

• Jean Jacques RousseauJean Jacques Rousseau (Geneva, 28 June 1712 – (Geneva, 28 June 1712 – Ermenonville, 2 July 177Ermenonville, 2 July 1778) was a major Swiss phil8) was a major Swiss philosopher, writer, and comosopher, writer, and composer of the Enlightenmeposer of the Enlightenment, whose political philosnt, whose political philosophy influenced the Frenophy influenced the French Revolution and the dech Revolution and the development of liberal, convelopment of liberal, conservative, and socialist thservative, and socialist theory. With his eory. With his ConfessionConfessionss, , Reveries of a Solitary WReveries of a Solitary Walkeralker, and other writings, , and other writings, he invented modern autohe invented modern autobiography and encouragebiography and encouraged a new focus on the build a new focus on the building of subjectivity that bding of subjectivity that bore fruit in the work of thore fruit in the work of thinkers as diverse as Hegel inkers as diverse as Hegel and Freud. and Freud.

3:3:Famous Thinkers in Great BriFamous Thinkers in Great Britaintain• England, had already fought its battles for rEngland, had already fought its battles for r

eligious toleration and political freedom. It eligious toleration and political freedom. It had established after 1688 a freedom of thohad established after 1688 a freedom of thought and publication unprecedented elsewught and publication unprecedented elsewhere, even in the Dutch Netherlands. It had here, even in the Dutch Netherlands. It had already had an Enlightenment, or “pre-Enalready had an Enlightenment, or “pre-Enlightenment,” through Hobbes, Locke, anlightenment,” through Hobbes, Locke, and many others. d many others.

• Thomas HobbesThomas Hobbes (5 April 15 (5 April 1588 – 4 December 1679) was a88 – 4 December 1679) was an English philosopher, whon English philosopher, whose famous 1651 book se famous 1651 book LeviatLeviathanhan established the foundat established the foundation for most of Western poliion for most of Western political philosophy from the ptical philosophy from the perspective of social contract erspective of social contract theory. theory.

•Hobbes’ masterpiece Hobbes’ masterpiece LeviathanLeviathan (1651) set (1651) set out his ideas with great clarity. He argued tout his ideas with great clarity. He argued that people want to live in in peace and secuhat people want to live in in peace and security and to attain this they must organize thrity and to attain this they must organize themselves into communities for protection. emselves into communities for protection. Although the power of the sovereign deriveAlthough the power of the sovereign derived originally from the people, Hobbes said cd originally from the people, Hobbes said challenging the doctrine of the divine right ohallenging the doctrine of the divine right of kings and of the sovereign is absolute. f kings and of the sovereign is absolute.

• John LockeJohn Locke (29 August 16 (29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704) was 32 – 28 October 1704) was an English philosopher. Lan English philosopher. Locke is considered the firocke is considered the first of the British Empiricisst of the British Empiricists, but is equally importats, but is equally important to social contract theornt to social contract theory. His ideas had enormouy. His ideas had enormous influence on the develos influence on the development of epistemology apment of epistemology and political philosophy, and political philosophy, and he is widely regarded nd he is widely regarded as one of the most influenas one of the most influential Enlightenment thinketial Enlightenment thinkers, classical republicans, rs, classical republicans, and contributors to liberaand contributors to liberal theory. His writings infll theory. His writings influenced Voltaire and Rousuenced Voltaire and Rousseau, many Scottish Enligseau, many Scottish Enlightenment thinkers, as wehtenment thinkers, as well as the American revolutll as the American revolutionaries. This influence is ionaries. This influence is reflected in the American reflected in the American Declaration of IndependeDeclaration of Independence.nce.

• Locke’s theory, in its broad outlines, stated thLocke’s theory, in its broad outlines, stated that the right to govern deprived from the consent at the right to govern deprived from the consent of the governed and was a form of contract. Whof the governed and was a form of contract. When people gave their consent to a government, ten people gave their consent to a government, they expected it to govern justly, to protect their hey expected it to govern justly, to protect their liberty and property. If a government attempteliberty and property. If a government attempted to rule absolutely and arbitrarily—if it violated to rule absolutely and arbitrarily—if it violated the natural rights of the individual—it reneged the natural rights of the individual—it reneged on its contract had forfeited the loyalty of its sd on its contract had forfeited the loyalty of its subjects.ubjects.

• David HumeDavid Hume (26 Apr (26 April 1711 – 25 August 17il 1711 – 25 August 1776) was a Scottish ph76) was a Scottish philosopher, economist,ilosopher, economist, historian and an im historian and an important figure in Weportant figure in Western philosophy and stern philosophy and the Scottish Enlightethe Scottish Enlightenment. Together witnment. Together with John Locke, Georgh John Locke, George Berkeley, and a hae Berkeley, and a handful of others, Humndful of others, Hume is one of the princie is one of the principal early philosophepal early philosophers of empiricism.rs of empiricism.

•David Hume, who along with Adam Smith wDavid Hume, who along with Adam Smith was one of the greatest figures of the Scottish as one of the greatest figures of the Scottish Enlightenment, started from a close study of Enlightenment, started from a close study of the great French skeptic Bayle. Hume ended the great French skeptic Bayle. Hume ended by denying the possibility of certainty. Only tby denying the possibility of certainty. Only the experience of the senses, unverifiable by he experience of the senses, unverifiable by any independent means, kept the mind inforany independent means, kept the mind informed about external reality. And for Hume, smed about external reality. And for Hume, sense-experience was a sequence of disjointeense-experience was a sequence of disjointed impressions, upon which the mind-and thd impressions, upon which the mind-and the mind alone-imposed regularities, patterns, e mind alone-imposed regularities, patterns, connections.connections.

• Adam SmithAdam Smith (baptised 16 Jun (baptised 16 June 1723 – 17 July 1790 [OS: 5 Jue 1723 – 17 July 1790 [OS: 5 June 1723 – 17 July 1790]) was a ne 1723 – 17 July 1790]) was a Scottish moral philosopher aScottish moral philosopher and a pioneer of political econnd a pioneer of political economy. One of the key figures oomy. One of the key figures of the Scottish Enlightenment, f the Scottish Enlightenment, Smith is the author of Smith is the author of The ThThe Theory of Moral Sentiments eory of Moral Sentiments anand d An Inquiry into the Nature An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of and Causes of the Wealth of NationsNations. The latter, usually a. The latter, usually abbreviated as bbreviated as The Wealth of The Wealth of NationsNations, is considered his ma, is considered his magnum opus and the first modgnum opus and the first modern work of economics. Adaern work of economics. Adam Smith is widely cited as the m Smith is widely cited as the father of modern economics.father of modern economics.

4:4:The Enlightenment and the ModThe Enlightenment and the Modern Worldern World • Enlightenment thought was the culmination Enlightenment thought was the culmination

of a trend begun by Renaissance artists and of a trend begun by Renaissance artists and humanists, who attacked medieval otherworhumanists, who attacked medieval otherworldliness and gave value to individual achieveldliness and gave value to individual achievement and the worldly life. It was a direct outment and the worldly life. It was a direct outgrowth of the Scientific Revolution, which prgrowth of the Scientific Revolution, which provided a new method of inquiry and verificatovided a new method of inquiry and verification and demonstrated the power and self-sufion and demonstrated the power and self-sufficiency of the human intellect. ficiency of the human intellect.

• The philosophes sought to analyze nature, governmeThe philosophes sought to analyze nature, government, religion, law, economics, and education through rnt, religion, law, economics, and education through reason alone, without any reference to Christian teachieason alone, without any reference to Christian teachings, and they rejected completely the claims of clerics ngs, and they rejected completely the claims of clerics to a special wisdom. to a special wisdom.

• The idea of secular progress, another key element of tThe idea of secular progress, another key element of the modern outlook, also grew out of the Enlightenmehe modern outlook, also grew out of the Enlightenment. Rejecting the idea of a static and immutable order nt. Rejecting the idea of a static and immutable order of society instituted by God, the philosophes had confof society instituted by God, the philosophes had confidence that human beings could improve the conditioidence that human beings could improve the conditions of their existence, and they pointed to advances in ns of their existence, and they pointed to advances in science and technology as evidence of progress. science and technology as evidence of progress.

• The philosophes wanted a freer, more humThe philosophes wanted a freer, more humane, and more rational society, but they feane, and more rational society, but they feared the people and their potential for revoared the people and their potential for revolutionary action. lutionary action.

•Yet the Enlightenment established a vision Yet the Enlightenment established a vision of humanity so independent of Christianity of humanity so independent of Christianity and so sensitive to the needs and abuses of and so sensitive to the needs and abuses of present society that no established institutipresent society that no established institution, once grown corrupt and ineffectual, coon, once grown corrupt and ineffectual, could long withstand its penetrating critique. uld long withstand its penetrating critique.