The Age of The Age of Reason & Reason &

EnlightenmEnlightenmentent

The Age of The Age of Reason & Reason &

EnlightenmEnlightenmentent

An Overview of the 18th Century► Political History Political History >>> >>> Reform

► Intellectual History Intellectual History Newtonian

Physics Reason

► Cultural History Cultural History Individualism

► Social History Social History Increased Literacy Age of Aristocracy

► Economic History Economic History > > Mercantilism to Capitalism

18th Century Politics► BRITAIN – Constitutional – Constitutional MonarchyMonarchy

► FRANCE Royal Absolutism Royal Absolutism (cultural and religious (cultural and religious unity)unity)

► PRUSSIA, HABSBURG EMPIRE, RUSSIA “Enlightened “Enlightened Despotism”Despotism”

► OTTOMAN EMPIRE – – traditional traditional empire empire

The Origins of Enlightenment?

► SCIENTIFICSCIENTIFIC::

Newton’s system was Newton’s system was synonymoussynonymouswith the empirical and the with the empirical and the practical.practical.

Scientific laws could be Scientific laws could be expressed as universal expressed as universal mathematical formulas.mathematical formulas.

Science allowed alternatives Science allowed alternatives to beto beimagined in everything from imagined in everything from politicspoliticsto religion.to religion.

Enlightenment

• Bringing the light of knowledge to their ignorant fellow creatures.

• What is the meaning of life, God, human nature, good and evil, and cause and effect

William Blake’s Newton, 1795

The Royal Academy of Sciences, Paris

Zoology & Biology

A dissection at the Royal A dissection at the Royal Academy, London.Academy, London.

Chemistry Labs & Botany Gardens

Natural History Collections

► Cocoa plant Cocoa plant drawing.drawing.

► Sir Hans Sir Hans SloaneSloane(1660-1753).(1660-1753).

► Collected from Collected from Jamaica.Jamaica.

Natural History Collections

James Petiver’s BeetlesJames Petiver’s Beetles(London apothecary)(London apothecary)

Private Collections

The Origins of Modern The Origins of Modern Museums.Museums.

Women & Science

The German The German astronomer astronomer Hevelius & Hevelius &

his wife his wife examine examine

the the heavens.heavens.

Paths to the Enlightenment

►Popularization of Science- Popularization of Science- Popularized by Bernard de Popularized by Bernard de FontenelleFontenelle

►New Skepticism- Pierre New Skepticism- Pierre BayleBayle

► Impact of travel literature- Impact of travel literature- different cultures, ideas, different cultures, ideas, religions etcreligions etc

Secular movement

The Origins of Enlightenment?► RELIGIOUSRELIGIOUS::

support of a “rational” religion, free support of a “rational” religion, free from mysteries, miracles, and from mysteries, miracles, and superstitions.superstitions.

DeismDeism

V The belief in the existence of a God The belief in the existence of a God or supreme being but a denial of or supreme being but a denial of revealed religion, basing one’s revealed religion, basing one’s belief on the belief on the lightlight of nature and of nature and reasonreason..

V Deists saw no point in any Deists saw no point in any particularparticularreligion; they recognized only a religion; they recognized only a distant, God uninvolved in the daily distant, God uninvolved in the daily life of man.life of man.

The Origins of Enlightenment?► RELIGIOUSRELIGIOUS::

Gradually, highly educated Gradually, highly educated Protestants & Catholics Protestants & Catholics thought more about thought more about God’s God’s work as revealed through work as revealed through sciencescience, than through the , than through the Scriptures.Scriptures.

Pantheism- Baruch Pantheism- Baruch SpinozaSpinoza

V The belief that God andThe belief that God andnature are one and the nature are one and the same.same.

Centers of the Enlightenment

The Characteristics of the Enlightenment

1.1. Rationalism Rationalism reason is the arbiter reason is the arbiter of allof all things. things.

2.2. Cosmology Cosmology a new concept of man, a new concept of man, hishis existence on earth, & the existence on earth, & the place of the earth in the place of the earth in the universe. universe.

3.3. Secularism Secularism application of the application of the methods ofmethods of science to religion & science to religion & philosophy.philosophy.

The Characteristics of the Enlightenment

4.4. Scientific MethodScientific Method

Mathematical analysisMathematical analysis

ExperimentationExperimentation

Inductive reasoning.Inductive reasoning.

5. Utilitarianism 5. Utilitarianism the greatest good the greatest good for for the greatest the greatest number.number.

6. Tolerance 6. Tolerance No opinion is worth No opinion is worth burning your neighbor burning your neighbor for.for.

The Characteristics of the Enlightenment

7.7. Optimism & Self-ConfidenceOptimism & Self-Confidence

The belief that man is The belief that man is intrinsically good.intrinsically good.

The belief in social The belief in social progress.progress.

8. Freedom8. Freedom

Of thought and expression.Of thought and expression.

Bring liberty to all men (modern Bring liberty to all men (modern battle against absolutism).battle against absolutism).

9. Education of the Masses9. Education of the Masses

The Characteristics of the Enlightenment

10.10.Legal ReformsLegal Reforms

Justice, kindness, and charity Justice, kindness, and charity no torture or indiscriminant no torture or indiscriminant incarceration.incarceration.

Due process of law. Due process of law.

11. Constitutionalism11. Constitutionalism

Written constitutions Written constitutions listing listing citizens, rights.citizens, rights.

12.12.Social science- Social science- Belief that the Belief that the scientific method could be applied scientific method could be applied to man and society- to man and society-

The “Enlightened” Individual The Philosophe

► Not really original thinkers as a whole, but Not really original thinkers as a whole, but were great publicists of the new thinking were great publicists of the new thinking CHANGE & PROGRESS!CHANGE & PROGRESS!

► They were students of society who They were students of society who analyzed its evils and advanced reforms.analyzed its evils and advanced reforms.

The “Great Debate”

Reason& LogicReason& Logic

Traditionsand

Superstitions

Traditionsand

Superstitions

rationalismrationalism empiricismempiricism tolerancetolerance skepticismskepticism DeismDeism

nostalgia nostalgia for the pastfor the past

organized organized religionsreligions

irrationalisirrationalismm

emotionalisemotionalismm

John Locke (1632-1704)

► Letter on Letter on TolerationToleration, , 1689 1689

► Two Treatises Two Treatises ofofGovernmentGovernment, , 16901690

► Some ThoughtsSome ThoughtsConcerningConcerningEducationEducation, , 16931693

► The The ReasonablenessReasonablenessof Christianityof Christianity, , 16951695

John Locke’s Philosophy (I)

► The individual must become a The individual must become a “rational creature.”“rational creature.”

► Virtue can be learned and Virtue can be learned and practiced.practiced.

► Human beings possess free will.Human beings possess free will. they should be prepared for freedom.they should be prepared for freedom. obedience should be out of obedience should be out of

conviction,conviction,not out of fear.not out of fear.

► Legislators owe their power to Legislators owe their power to a a contractcontract with the peoplewith the people..

► Neither kings nor wealth are Neither kings nor wealth are divinely ordained.divinely ordained.

John Locke’s Philosophy (II)

► There are certain natural There are certain natural rights that are endowed by rights that are endowed by God to all human beings.God to all human beings.

life, liberty, property!life, liberty, property!

► The doctrine of the Divine The doctrine of the Divine Right of Kings was Right of Kings was nonsense.nonsense.

► He favored a republic as the He favored a republic as the best form of government.best form of government.

Voltaire (1712-1778)

► AKA AKA Francois Francois Marie Arouet.Marie Arouet.

► Essay on the Essay on the CustomsCustomsand Spirit of and Spirit of NationsNations, , 17561756

► CandideCandide, 1759, 1759

► Philosophical Philosophical DictionaryDictionary, 1764, 1764

Voltaire’s “Wisdom” (I)

► Every man is guilty of all the Every man is guilty of all the good he good he didn’t do. didn’t do.► God is a comedian playing to an God is a comedian playing to an audience too afraid to laugh.audience too afraid to laugh.► If God did not exist, it would be If God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent him.necessary to invent him.► It is dangerous to be right It is dangerous to be right when the when the government is wrong. government is wrong.► Love truth and pardon error.Love truth and pardon error.

Voltaire’s “Wisdom” (II)

► Judge of a man by his questions Judge of a man by his questions rather than by his answers.rather than by his answers.► Men are equal; it is not birth, but Men are equal; it is not birth, but virtuevirtue that makes the difference. that makes the difference.► Prejudice is opinion without Prejudice is opinion without judgment.judgment.► The way to become boring is to The way to become boring is to say say everything. everything.► I may not agree with what you I may not agree with what you have to say, but I will defend to the have to say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it.death your right to say it.

The Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755)

► Persian Persian LettersLetters, , 1721 1721

► On the Spirit On the Spirit of of LawsLaws, 1748, 1748

Montesquieu’s Philosophy

► Three types of government:Three types of government: Monarchy.Monarchy. Republic.Republic. Despotism.Despotism.

A separation of political A separation of political powers ensured freedom powers ensured freedom and liberty.and liberty.

Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

► A Discourse A Discourse on the on the Sciences and Sciences and ArtsArts, 1750, 1750

► Emile, 1762.Emile, 1762.

► The Social The Social Contract, Contract, 1762.1762.

Rousseau’s Philosophy (I)

Virtue exists in the ”state of Virtue exists in the ”state of nature,” but lost in “society.”nature,” but lost in “society.”

Government must preserve Government must preserve “virtue” and ”liberty.”“virtue” and ”liberty.”

Man is born free, yet Man is born free, yet everywhere he is in chains.everywhere he is in chains.

The concept of the The concept of the ”Noble ”Noble Savage.”Savage.”

Liberty, Equality, Fraternity.Liberty, Equality, Fraternity. Civil liberty Civil liberty invest ALL invest ALL

rights and liberties into a rights and liberties into a society.society.

Rousseau’s Philosophy (II)

► QuestionQuestion Does progress in Does progress in the arts and sciences the arts and sciences correspond with progress in correspond with progress in morality? morality?

As civilizations progress, they As civilizations progress, they move away from morality.move away from morality.

Civilization itself leads away Civilization itself leads away from true fundamentals.from true fundamentals.

Technology and art create false Technology and art create false desires.desires.

NO!NO!

Rousseau’s Philosophy (III)

► Concept of the Concept of the “General “General Will.”Will.”

Not democracy! Few Not democracy! Few educated elite make the laws educated elite make the laws for the ignorant massesfor the ignorant masses

Virtuous citizens will agree, Virtuous citizens will agree, become one.become one.V Not merely a consensus or Not merely a consensus or

the majority.the majority. A discussion among the A discussion among the

virtuous will yield unity.virtuous will yield unity.V Dissenters are “forced to be Dissenters are “forced to be

free.”free.”V General WillGeneral Will = = law law ++

freedom!freedom!

Denis Diderot (1713-1784)

Diderot’s Encyclopédie

The Encyclopédie

► Complete cycle of Complete cycle of knowledge…………...…knowledge…………...…change the general way of change the general way of thinking.thinking.

► 28 volumes.28 volumes.

► Alphabetical, cross-Alphabetical, cross-referenced,referenced,illustrated.illustrated.

► First published in 1751.First published in 1751.

► 1500 1500 livreslivres a set. a set.

Subscriptions to Diderot’s Encyclopedie

Pages from Diderot’s Encyclopedie

Pages from Diderot’s Encyclopedie

Pages from Diderot’s Encyclopedie

Marquis de Condorcet (1743-1794)

► Progress of the Progress of the Human MindHuman Mind, 1794, 1794

An expectation of An expectation of universal happiness.universal happiness.

Every individual Every individual guided by reason guided by reason could enjoy true could enjoy true independence.independence.

He advocated a free He advocated a free and equal and equal education, education, constitutionalism, constitutionalism, and equal rights for and equal rights for women.women.

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

► Critique of Pure Critique of Pure ReasonReason, 1781, 1781

► ““What is What is Enlightenment?”Enlightenment?”, 1784, 1784

► Metaphysical Metaphysical Foundations ofFoundations ofNatural Science, Natural Science, 17861786

Kant’s Philosophy

► Dare to Know!Dare to Know!► He introduced the concept of He introduced the concept of

transcendentalismtranscendentalism some things are some things are known by methods other than known by methods other than empirically.empirically.

The belief in the existence of a The belief in the existence of a non-rational way to understand non-rational way to understand things.things.

Science and morality into separate Science and morality into separate branchesbranches

Science could describe nature but Science could describe nature but not provide a guide for moralitynot provide a guide for morality

Thomas Paine (1737-1809)

► Common Common SenseSense, 1776, 1776

► The Rights The Rights of Manof Man, , 17911791

The American “Philosophes”

John AdamsJohn Adams(1745-(1745-1826)1826)

Ben FranklinBen Franklin(1706-1790)(1706-1790)

ThomasThomasJeffersonJefferson(1743-(1743-1826)1826)

……...…life, liberty, and the pursuit of ...…life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness…………...happiness…………...

PopularizinPopularizingg

thethe

EnlightenmEnlightenmentent

PopularizinPopularizingg

thethe

EnlightenmEnlightenmentent

A Parisian Salon

Madame Geoffrin’s Salon

The Salonnieres

Madame Madame GeoffrinGeoffrin

(1699-1777)(1699-1777)MademoiselleMademoiselle

Julie de Julie de LespinasseLespinasse

(1732*-1776)(1732*-1776)

MadameMadameSuzanne Suzanne NeckerNecker

(1739-1794)(1739-1794)

The “Republic of Letters”

►URBAN – – gathering of elites gathering of elites in cities. in cities. (salons)(salons)

►URBANE – – cosmopolitancosmopolitan, , worldlyworldly

music, art, literature, politicsmusic, art, literature, politics

read newspapers & the latest read newspapers & the latest books.books.

► POLITENESS – – proper proper behavior behavior [ [self-self-governedgoverned]]

Reading During the Enlightenment

►Literacy: 80% for men; 60% women.80% for men; 60% women.

►Books were expensive (one Books were expensive (one day’s wages).day’s wages).

►Many readers for each book Many readers for each book (20 : 1)(20 : 1)

novels, plays & other literature.novels, plays & other literature.

journals, memoirs, “private lives.”journals, memoirs, “private lives.”

philosophy, history, theology.philosophy, history, theology.

newspapers, political pamphlets.newspapers, political pamphlets.

An Increase in Reading

An Increase in Reading

“Must Read” Books of the Time

““EnlightenEnlighteneded

DespotismDespotism””

““EnlightenEnlighteneded

DespotismDespotism””

Frederick the Great of Prussia (r. 1740-1786)

► 1712 -– 1786.1712 -– 1786.

► Succeeded his Succeeded his father, Frederick father, Frederick William IWilliam I (the “Soldier (the “Soldier King”).King”).

► He saw himselfHe saw himself as the as the “First “First Servant of the Servant of the State.”State.”

Catherine the Great (r. 1762-1796)

► German German Princess Sophie Princess Sophie Friederike Friederike Auguste of Auguste of Anhalt-Zerbst. Anhalt-Zerbst.

► 1729 -– 1796.1729 -– 1796.

1767: Catherine summons the 1767: Catherine summons the Legislative CommissionLegislative Commission..

1768-1774: 1768-1774: Russo-Turkish WarRusso-Turkish War..

1771-1775: 1771-1775: Pugachev RebellionPugachev Rebellion is is suppressed.suppressed.

1772: First partition of 1772: First partition of Poland.Poland.

1785: 1785: Charter of NobilityCharter of Nobility..

1793: Second partition of 1793: Second partition of Poland.Poland.

1795: Third partition of 1795: Third partition of Poland.Poland.

Reformer? OR Despot?

Reformer? OR Despot?

The Partitions of Poland

- - 17721772

- - 17931793

- - 17951795

Russian Expansionism in the Late 18c

Joseph II of Austria (r. 1765-1790)

► 1741 -– 1741 -– 1790.1790.

► His mother His mother waswas Maria Maria Theresa.Theresa.

Habsburg Family Crest

Joseph II of Austria

The Legacy of the Enlightenment?

1.1.The democratic revolutions The democratic revolutions begun in America in 1776 and begun in America in 1776 and continued in Amsterdam, continued in Amsterdam, Brussels, and especially in Brussels, and especially in Paris in the late 1780s, put Paris in the late 1780s, put every Western government on every Western government on the defensive.the defensive.2.2.Reform, democracy, and Reform, democracy, and

republicanism had been republicanism had been

placed irrevocably on the placed irrevocably on the

Western agenda.Western agenda.

The Legacy of the Enlightenment?

3.3.New forms of civil society New forms of civil society arose –-- clubs, salons, arose –-- clubs, salons, fraternals, private academies, fraternals, private academies, lending libraries, and lending libraries, and professional/scientific professional/scientific organizations.organizations.4.4.19c conservatives blamed it 19c conservatives blamed it for the modern “egalitarian for the modern “egalitarian disease” (once reformers disease” (once reformers began to criticize established began to criticize established institutions, they didn’t know institutions, they didn’t know where and when to stop!)where and when to stop!)

The Legacy of the Enlightenment?

5.5. It established a materialistic It established a materialistic tradition based on an ethical tradition based on an ethical system derived solely from a system derived solely from a naturalistic account of the naturalistic account of the human condition (the human condition (the “Religion of Nature”“Religion of Nature”).).

6.6.Theoretically endowed with full Theoretically endowed with full civil and legal rights, the civil and legal rights, the individualindividual had come into had come into existence as a political and existence as a political and social force to be reckoned social force to be reckoned with.with.